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Volume 237

Pim de Voogt Editor

 Reviews of
Environmental Contamination
and Toxicology
VOLUME 237

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/398

 Reviews of
Environmental Contamination
and Toxicology

Editor
Pim de Voogt

Editorial Board
María Fernanda Cavieres, Valparaiso, Chile
James B. Knaak, Getzville, New York, USA
Annemarie P. van Wezel, Nieuwegein/Utrecht, The Netherlands
Ronald S. Tjeerdema, Davis, California, USA
David M. Whitacre†, Summerfield, N Carolina, USA

Founding Editor
Francis A. Gunther

VOLUME 237
 Coordinating Board of Editors
DR. PIM DE VOOGT, Editor
Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology

University of Amsterdam
Amsterdam, The Netherlands
E-mail: [email protected]

DR. ERIN R. BENNETT, Editor

Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology

Great Lakes Institute for Environmental Research

University of Windsor
Windsor, Ontario, Canada
E-mail: [email protected]

PETER S. ROSS, Editor

Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology

Vancouver Aquarium Marine Science Center

Vancouver, BC, Canada
E-mail: [email protected]

ISSN 0179-5953 ISSN 2197-6554 (electronic)

Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology
ISBN 978-3-319-23572-1 ISBN 978-3-319-23573-8 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-23573-8

Springer Cham Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016
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Foreword

International concern in scientific, industrial, and governmental communities over

traces of xenobiotics in foods and in both abiotic and biotic environments has justi-
fied the present triumvirate of specialized publications in this field: comprehensive
reviews, rapidly published research papers and progress reports, and archival docu-
mentations. These three international publications are integrated and scheduled to
provide the coherency essential for nonduplicative and current progress in a field as
dynamic and complex as environmental contamination and toxicology. This series
is reserved exclusively for the diversified literature on “toxic” chemicals in our
food, our feeds, our homes, recreational and working surroundings, our domestic
animals, our wildlife, and ourselves. Tremendous efforts worldwide have been
mobilized to evaluate the nature, presence, magnitude, fate, and toxicology of the
chemicals loosed upon the Earth. Among the sequelae of this broad new emphasis
is an undeniable need for an articulated set of authoritative publications, where one
can find the latest important world literature produced by these emerging areas of
science together with documentation of pertinent ancillary legislation.
Research directors and legislative or administrative advisers do not have the time
to scan the escalating number of technical publications that may contain articles
important to current responsibility. Rather, these individuals need the background
provided by detailed reviews and the assurance that the latest information is made
available to them, all with minimal literature searching. Similarly, the scientist
assigned or attracted to a new problem is required to glean all literature pertinent to
the task, to publish new developments or important new experimental details
quickly, to inform others of findings that might alter their own efforts, and eventu-
ally to publish all his/her supporting data and conclusions for archival purposes.
In the fields of environmental contamination and toxicology, the sum of these
concerns and responsibilities is decisively addressed by the uniform, encompassing,
and timely publication format of the Springer triumvirate:
Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology [Vol. 1 through 97
(1962–1986) as Residue Reviews] for detailed review articles concerned with

v
vi Foreword

any aspects of chemical contaminants, including pesticides, in the total environ-

ment with toxicological considerations and consequences.
Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology (Vol. 1 in 1966) for
rapid publication of short reports of significant advances and discoveries in the
fields of air, soil, water, and food contamination and pollution as well as method-
ology and other disciplines concerned with the introduction, presence, and
effects of toxicants in the total environment.
Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology (Vol. 1 in 1973) for
important complete articles emphasizing and describing original experimental or
theoretical research work pertaining to the scientific aspects of chemical con-
taminants in the environment.
The individual editors of these three publications comprise the joint Coordinating
Board of Editors with referral within the board of manuscripts submitted to one pub-
lication but deemed by major emphasis or length more suitable for one of the others.

Coordinating Board of Editors

Preface

The role of Reviews is to publish detailed scientific review articles on all aspects of
environmental contamination and associated (eco)toxicological consequences.
Such articles facilitate the often complex task of accessing and interpreting cogent
scientific data within the confines of one or more closely related research fields.
In the 50+ years since Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology
(formerly Residue Reviews) was first published, the number, scope, and complexity
of environmental pollution incidents have grown unabated. During this entire
period, the emphasis has been on publishing articles that address the presence and
toxicity of environmental contaminants. New research is published each year on a
myriad of environmental pollution issues facing people worldwide. This fact, and
the routine discovery and reporting of emerging contaminants and new environmen-
tal contamination cases, creates an increasingly important function for Reviews. The
staggering volume of scientific literature demands remedy by which data can be
synthesized and made available to readers in an abridged form. Reviews addresses
this need and provides detailed reviews worldwide to key scientists and science or
policy administrators, whether employed by government, universities, nongovern-
mental organizations, or the private sector.
There is a panoply of environmental issues and concerns on which many scien-
tists have focused their research in past years. The scope of this list is quite broad,
encompassing environmental events globally that affect marine and terrestrial eco-
systems; biotic and abiotic environments; impacts on plants, humans, and wildlife;
and pollutants, both chemical and radioactive; as well as the ravages of environmen-
tal disease in virtually all environmental media (soil, water, air). New or enhanced
safety and environmental concerns have emerged in the last decade to be added to
incidents covered by the media, studied by scientists, and addressed by governmen-
tal and private institutions. Among these are events so striking that they are creating
a paradigm shift. Two in particular are at the center of ever increasing media as well
as scientific attention: bioterrorism and global warming. Unfortunately, these very
worrisome issues are now superimposed on the already extensive list of ongoing
environmental challenges.

vii
viii Preface

The ultimate role of publishing scientific environmental research is to enhance

understanding of the environment in ways that allow the public to be better informed
or, in other words, to enable the public to have access to sufficient information.
Because the public gets most of its information on science and technology from
internet, TV news, and reports, the role for scientists as interpreters and brokers of
scientific information to the public will grow rather than diminish. Environmentalism
is an important global political force, resulting in the emergence of multinational
consortia to control pollution and the evolution of the environmental ethic. Will the
new politics of the twenty-first century involve a consortium of technologists and
environmentalists, or a progressive confrontation? These matters are of genuine
concern to governmental agencies and legislative bodies around the world.
For those who make the decisions about how our planet is managed, there is an
ongoing need for continual surveillance and intelligent controls to avoid endanger-
ing the environment, public health, and wildlife. Ensuring safety-in-use of the many
chemicals involved in our highly industrialized culture is a dynamic challenge,
because the old, established materials are continually being displaced by newly
developed molecules more acceptable to federal and state regulatory agencies, pub-
lic health officials, and environmentalists. New legislation that will deal in an appro-
priate manner with this challenge is currently in the making or has been implemented
recently, such as the REACH legislation in Europe. These regulations demand sci-
entifically sound and documented dossiers on new chemicals.
Reviews publishes synoptic articles designed to treat the presence, fate, and, if
possible, the safety of xenobiotics in any segment of the environment. These reviews
can be either general or specific, but properly lie in the domains of analytical chem-
istry and its methodology, biochemistry, human and animal medicine, legislation,
pharmacology, physiology, (eco)toxicology, and regulation. Certain affairs in food
technology concerned specifically with pesticide and other food-additive problems
may also be appropriate.
Because manuscripts are published in the order in which they are received in
final form, it may seem that some important aspects have been neglected at times.
However, these apparent omissions are recognized, and pertinent manuscripts are
likely in preparation or planned. The field is so very large and the interests in it are
so varied that the editor and the editorial board earnestly solicit authors and sugges-
tions of underrepresented topics to make this international book series yet more
useful and worthwhile.
Justification for the preparation of any review for this book series is that it deals
with some aspect of the many real problems arising from the presence of anthropo-
genic chemicals in our surroundings. Thus, manuscripts may encompass case stud-
ies from any country. Additionally, chemical contamination in any manner of air,
water, soil, or plant or animal life is within these objectives and their scope.
Manuscripts are often contributed by invitation. However, nominations for new
topics or topics in areas that are rapidly advancing are welcome. Preliminary com-
munication with the Editor-in-Chief is recommended before volunteered review
manuscripts are submitted. Reviews is registered in WebofScience™. Inclusion in the
Preface ix

Science Citation Index serves to encourage scientists in academia to contribute to the

series. The impact factor in recent years has increased from 2.5 in 2009 to almost 4 in
2013. The Editor-in-Chief and the Editorial Board strive for a further increase of the
journal impact factor by actively inviting authors to submit manuscripts.

Amsterdam, The Netherlands Pim de Voogt

January 2015
Contents

Caenorhabditis elegans, a Biological Model for Research

in Toxicology .................................................................................................... 1
Lesly Tejeda-Benitez and Jesus Olivero-Verbel
Pore Water Collection, Analysis and Evolution: The Need
for Standardization ......................................................................................... 37
Jacob G. Gruzalski, James T. Markwiese, Neil E. Carriker,
William J. Rogers, Rock J. Vitale, and David I. Thal
Environmental Fate and Toxicology of Dimethoate ..................................... 53
April Van Scoy, Ashley Pennell, and Xuyang Zhang
Exposure to Crystal Violet, Its Toxic, Genotoxic and Carcinogenic
Effects on Environment and Its Degradation and Detoxification
for Environmental Safety ............................................................................... 71
Sujata Mani and Ram Naresh Bharagava
Metabolic Pathways for Degradation of Aromatic Hydrocarbons
by Bacteria ....................................................................................................... 105
Guillermo Ladino-Orjuela, Eleni Gomes, Roberto da Silva,
Christopher Salt, and John R. Parsons
A Review and Assessment of Spent Lead Ammunition
and Its Exposure and Effects to Scavenging Birds in the United States ..... 123
Nancy H. Golden, Sarah E. Warner, and Michael J. Coffey

Index................................................................................................................... 193

xi
Caenorhabditis elegans, a Biological Model
for Research in Toxicology

Lesly Tejeda-Benitez and Jesus Olivero-Verbel

Contents
1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 2
2 Biological Features of C. elegans ....................................................................................... 2
3 Advantages of Using C. elegans as a Biological Model ..................................................... 3
4 Applications in Medicine .................................................................................................... 4
5 Toxicity Endpoints .............................................................................................................. 4
5.1 Lethality ................................................................................................................... 5
5.2 Growth ..................................................................................................................... 6
5.3 Reproduction ............................................................................................................ 6
5.4 Fertility..................................................................................................................... 7
5.5 Lifespan.................................................................................................................... 7
5.6 Intestinal Autofluorescence ...................................................................................... 7
5.7 Locomotion .............................................................................................................. 8
5.8 Metabolism .............................................................................................................. 8
5.9 Development ............................................................................................................ 8
5.10 Feeding Behavior ..................................................................................................... 9
5.11 Oxidative Stress ....................................................................................................... 9
5.12 Patterns of Gene Expression .................................................................................... 9
5.13 Protein Expression ................................................................................................... 10
5.14 DNA Damage ........................................................................................................... 10
5.15 GFP Reporters.......................................................................................................... 10
5.16 RNA Interference (RNAi) ........................................................................................ 11
5.17 Cell Apoptosis.......................................................................................................... 11
5.18 Cell Cycle Arrest...................................................................................................... 12
5.19 Transgenerational Effects......................................................................................... 12

L. Tejeda-Benitez • J. Olivero-Verbel (*)

Environmental and Computational Chemistry Group, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences,
Zaragocilla Campus, University of Cartagena, Cartagena 130014, Colombia
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 1

P. de Voogt (ed.), Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology
Volume 237, Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 237,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-23573-8_1
2 L. Tejeda-Benitez and J. Olivero-Verbel

6 Toxicity Assessments .......................................................................................................... 12

6.1 Environmental Samples ............................................................................................. 12
6.2 Pesticides.................................................................................................................... 13
6.3 Metals......................................................................................................................... 17
6.4 Nanoparticles ............................................................................................................. 17
6.5 Drugs .......................................................................................................................... 23
6.6 Toxins ......................................................................................................................... 25
6.7 Other Chemicals......................................................................................................... 25
7 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 28
8 Summary ............................................................................................................................. 28
References ................................................................................................................................. 29

1 Introduction

Caenorhabditis elegans is a non-parasitic nematode which, due to its many conve-

nient features has become an important model in biology research; for example, it
was the first animal whose genome was completely sequenced. This nematode was
proposed as a model organism by Sydney Brenner in 1965 (Garcia-Sancho 2012).
Since then, it has been used in cell biological, genetic and neurobiological studies of
higher eukaryotes. Between 1970 and 1980, the complete cell lineage of this worm,
from the fertilized egg to adult, was characterized by laser ablation and microscopy
(Sulston et al. 1983). Electron microscopy and serial sectioning allowed for the
reconstruction of the entire nervous system (White et al. 1986), together with the
genetic and genomic data generated in the 1990s (Coulson et al. 1991). This organ-
ism has become a powerful tool for the discovery and functional characterization of
eukaryotic genes (Dimitriadi and Hart 2010). Many aspects of C. elegans as a toxi-
cological model have been reviewed in an excellent paper by Leung et al. (2008). In
this state-of-the-art review, the authors present an update on that report, focusing on
toxicity end points and assessments for many types of environmental pollutants.

2 Biological Features of C. elegans

The body of an adult C. elegans is approximately 1 mm long. Its transparency

allows viewing of cell types in all stages of development. It has a simple nervous
system of 302 neurons as an adult, where each neuron has a unique position
(Dimitriadi and Hart 2010; Giles and Rankin 2009). Most organisms are hermaph-
rodites, with two ovaries, oviducts, a cavity for storing sperm called the sperma-
theca, and uterus (L’Hernault 2009). Hermaphrodites produce sperm as L4 larvae
and oocytes during early adulthood; they reproduce by self-fertilization and there-
fore cannot fertilize other hermaphrodites. The males, which appear spontaneously
with a frequency of less than 0.3 %, are able to fertilize hermaphrodites. The repro-
ductive cycle of C. elegans lasts 2.5–4 days at room temperature, and with a usual
lifespan of 12–20 days (Giles and Rankin 2009).
Caenorhabditis elegans, a Biological Model for Research in Toxicology 3

Eggs

50 mm L1
Adult

100 mm
50 mm

L2
L4

100 mm 100 mm

50 mm L3

Fig. 1 Life cycle of C. elegans. Images were acquired using a dissection microscope Nikon smz
745T with 4× magnification

Embryonic development culminates in the generation of an L1 larva of 550 cells,

after 113 cells have died by apoptosis. After four larval stages, the hermaphrodite
worm becomes an adult organism with 959 cell nuclei (some syncytial), 302 of
which are neurons. Males have 1031 cell nuclei. The mature adult is fertile for 4
days, and it can live between 10 and 15 additional days. Each adult hermaphrodite
lays between 200 and 300 eggs, at intervals of about 20 min. Furthermore, the cycle
time depends upon the temperature of incubation (Garcia-Sancho 2012). When
environmental conditions are adverse, for example, during food shortages, high
temperatures, or high population densities, successful reproduction is unlikely.
Under such conditions, C. elegans can halt its development passing into an alterna-
tive L3 stage called dauer, which can survive for months. During this stage, the
nematode does not feed and its cuticle is tougher. Nematodes can re-enter the repro-
ductive life cycle at L4 when conditions are more favorable (Wang et al. 2010b).
Figure 1 shows the complete cycle of C. elegans.

3 Advantages of Using C. elegans as a Biological Model

C. elegans is used as a model in genetic research because of its convenient features.

First, its transparency allows for transgenic proteins fused to fluorescent markers to
be visible in living animals in in vivo experiments (Giles and Rankin 2009). Its
generation time is short (4 days) and it occurs by self-fertilization, ensuring rapid
4 L. Tejeda-Benitez and J. Olivero-Verbel

reproduction in the laboratory (Zhuang et al. 2014) since each adult hermaphrodite
produces 200–300 progeny (Megalou and Tavernarakis 2009).
Its excellent performance as a model in genetics has led to the development of
many tools and resources, including thousands of characterized mutants and RNA
interference libraries, useful for silencing gene expression (Giles and Rankin 2009;
Megalou and Tavernarakis 2009). RNA interference (RNAi) with this organism is
relatively simple, and therefore gene silencing is often used to dissect signaling
pathways (Adam 2009).
C. elegans has been used in toxicological research, from the whole animal level
to the level of individual cells (Zhuang et al. 2014). It is cultured in the laboratory
in a nematode growth medium (NGM), which contains NaCl, agar, peptone, choles-
terol, K3PO4, KH2PO4, K2HPO4 and MgSO4. Another suitable culture medium is K
agar, which also contains KCl (Meyer et al. 2010). The worms are maintained in an
incubator at 20 °C and the bacteria Escherichia coli OP50 is utilized as a food
source (Giles and Rankin 2009). The K medium prepared with KCl and NaCl is the
liquid used to transfer worms to fresh dishes and to carry out bioassays (Williams
and Dusenbery 1990).

4 Applications in Medicine

C. elegans is a model organism that has been important in the studies carried out to
identify and understand the functioning of the machinery in nuclear transportation
(Adam 2009). It has helped to elucidate biochemical pathways involved in diseases,
such as obesity (Finley et al. 2013; MacNeil et al. 2013), diabetes (Estevez et al. 2014;
Shi et al. 2012), and Alzheimer’s disease (Diomede et al. 2014; Lublin and Link 2013).
C. elegans is an excellent model to investigate aging because of its short lifespan, its
susceptibility to oxidative stress and the similarities with the human aging process
(Chatterjee et al. 2013; Pang and Curran 2014). This nematode has also been employed
to identify biochemical pathways and mechanisms of action of new drugs, especially
antihelmintics (Kumarasingha et al. 2014; Lublin and Link 2013; Wu et al. 2012b).

5 Toxicity Endpoints

Bioassays to assess the effects of a toxicant on C. elegans can be carried out through
different endpoints. The normal procedure for acute exposure consists of the incuba-
tion of young adults in the K medium containing the toxicant at several concentra-
tions, usually without food. In long term exposure assays, worms in the L1 stage are
used; in this case E. coli OP50 is added as food (Zhuang et al. 2014). When worm
reproduction is not required during an experiment, since brood size may affect the
results, 5-fluorodesoxiuridine is used to inhibit DNA synthesis (Wu et al. 2012a).
Endpoints can be grouped according to their effects on biological parameters, for
Caenorhabditis elegans, a Biological Model for Research in Toxicology 5

Fig. 2 End points toxicity on C. elegans. Toxicity studies with C. elegans could be carry out through
two kinds of endpoints, those evaluate effects in nematode biology and those use molecular markers

instance, lethality, growth, locomotion, and reproduction. It is also possible to use

molecular markers to determine oxidative stress, changes in gene or protein expres-
sion, DNA damage, or green fluorescence protein (GFP) expression. A classification
of endpoints, commonly utilized in toxicity research using C. elegans as model is
shown in Fig. 2.
Some of the frequently used endpoints related to toxicity assessment using
C. elegans are presented below. These assays are usually performed employing
concentration-response curves.

5.1 Lethality

This assay is performed to determine the death rate derived from acute toxicity in a
concentration-response curve basis. 10 ± 1 young adults are transferred in micro-
plates which contain different concentrations of the toxicant and a negative control.
The exposure is carried out at 20 °C during 24 h in the absence of food. Then, the
number of live and dead worms is counted through visual inspection using a dissect-
ing microscope (Williams and Dusenbery 1990; Ellegaard et al. 2012; Helmcke and
Aschner 2010; Kim et al. 2012; Wu et al. 2012a; Zhuang et al. 2014). Death is
assumed when there is no movement during an observation period of 30 s (Rui et al.
2013; Shen et al. 2009; Wang et al. 2009a; Wu et al. 2013).
6 L. Tejeda-Benitez and J. Olivero-Verbel

5.2 Growth

The effect of a toxicant in the development of the nematode can be evaluated by

measuring the body length of synchronous worms before and after exposure, then
comparing them to a vehicle-control. The bodies of the worms are observed employ-
ing a light microscope with 10X magnification and with image analysis software,
such as Image-Pro® Express, ImageJ, or Fiji (Boyd et al. 2010; Cha et al. 2012; Höss
et al. 2009b; Meyer et al. 2010; Roh and Choi 2011; Shen et al. 2009; Wang et al.
2010a; Yu et al. 2013a, b). Some authors have reported the warming of the worms
to 50 °C in order to make them straight and ease the process of measuring their
length (Wang et al. 2009a). The immobilization of the worms can also be achieved
by using sodium azide (Turner et al. 2013). Growth can also be evaluated by regis-
tering the length of a curve, drawn from the tip of the head to the tip of the tail along
the dorsal-ventral half of the animal intestine, using the reference line. Width mea-
surements are taken in the vulva, drawing a line on the ventral side of the animal
between the front edge and the posterior periphery of the vulva (Rudel et al. 2013).
Other authors have proposed measuring the surface area for the flat worm (Rui et al.
2013; Wu et al. 2013; Zhuang et al. 2014). Currently, some laboratories have high-
tech equipment, such as COPAS Biosort, which measures the optical density of the
worm as an endpoint of growth (Hunt et al. 2012, 2013). The advantage is that the
COPAS Biosort can analyze hundreds of nematodes per minute, and it can also
evaluate mortality and fluorescence statistics (Hunt et al. 2012; Sprando et al. 2009).
For growth assays, some authors perform 24 h exposure periods with E. coli OP50
as food (Boyd et al. 2010; Cha et al. 2012; Roh et al. 2009), whereas in other stud-
ies, E. coli uvrA, previously killed by UVA radiation is used; in this case, the expo-
sure is carried out for 72 h and feeding is re-dosed every 24 h (Turner et al. 2013).

5.3 Reproduction

Brood size is the end point used to evaluate whether a toxic environment affects
reproduction of the nematodes, placing exposed adult or L4 worms onto fresh plates.
The number of offspring at all stages is counted and compared with a control group
(Cha et al. 2012; Gomez et al. 2009; Höss et al. 2009b; Höss et al. 2013; Kim et al.
2012; Leelaja and Rajini 2013; Menzel et al. 2009; Li et al. 2012b; Roh et al. 2009;
Rui et al. 2013; Smith et al. 2013; Wang et al. 2009a, 2010a, b). Counting is facili-
tated by heating the worms to 50 °C and staining them with Bengal red (Höss et al.
2013). In several studies the fertility rate is calculated by counting the total number
of larvae at the end of the test and dividing by the total progeny recovered to the total
parents (Rudel et al. 2013). This assay may also be carried out using the COPAS
Biosort by measuring optical density (Boyd et al. 2010). Moreover, the gonad size,
obtained by image analysis under a microscope, has been utilized to evaluate the
effects on reproductive organs (Wu et al. 2011). Toxic effects may also be seen as
Caenorhabditis elegans, a Biological Model for Research in Toxicology 7

changes in the egg-laying pattern and the number of eggs or larvae at different time
intervals (Gomez et al. 2009; Smith et al. 2013). Finally, the rate of egg laying can be
estimated by placing adult worms exposed to fresh plates and counting the number
of eggs laid in 1 h (Jadhav and Rajini 2009; Shashikumar and Rajini 2010).

5.4 Fertility

Reproductive toxicity can also be assessed by calculating the percentage of L4 larvae

that develop fertilized eggs after exposure. Gravid hermaphrodites are considered to
have at least one egg inside their bodies (Höss et al. 2009a, b; Roh and Choi 2011;
Wang et al. 2009a). To count the number of eggs in the uterus, nematodes can be trans-
ferred to a bleach solution, which dissolves the body of the worm, directly exposing
the eggs and allowing them to be counted under a light microscope (Wu et al. 2011).

5.5 Lifespan

Healthy worms at the L4 larval stage are exposed to a toxic agent, for example 24 h
and then placing them on NGM plates with E. coli OP50. To prevent the production
of offspring, 5-fluorodeoxyuridine is added. Worms are transferred to new plates
every 3 days. The number of survivors is recorded daily until all animals die. The
survival rate is calculated by dividing the number of live nematodes by the total
number of nematodes, including both live and dead worms. The lifespan is defined
as the time period between the L4 larval stage and death (Cha et al. 2012; Li et al.
2009, 2012b; Shen et al. 2009; Wang et al. 2010a; Zhuang et al. 2014).

5.6 Intestinal Autofluorescence

The intestinal lysosomal lipofuscin deposits that accumulate over time in the nema-
todes generate autofluorescence, feature used as a marker of aging. Treated nema-
todes are placed on an agar pad on a glass slide, then the fluorescent signals are
captured by a fluorescence microscope. A band filter of 525 nm is employed to detect
the endogenous intestinal fluorescence, and images are analyzed using software such
as Magnafire®. Lipofuscin levels can be measured using the software ImageJ, by
determining the mean pixel intensity in the intestine of each animal. Adults need to be
photographed on the same day to avoid the light variation related to the intensity of the
fluorescence source (Boyd et al. 2010; Helmcke and Aschner 2010; Rui et al. 2013;
Shen et al. 2009; Wang et al. 2010a; Wu et al. 2012a, c, 2013; Zhuang et al. 2014).
8 L. Tejeda-Benitez and J. Olivero-Verbel

5.7 Locomotion

Effects on the locomotion of nematodes have been linked to a deterioration of the

neural network which can be evaluated based on several criteria, such as head
thrash, body bend frequency, and basic movements (Yu et al. 2013a). Each exposed
nematode is transferred to a plate containing 60 μL of K medium on the top of the
agar. After a recovery period of 1 min, the number of head trashes is counted for
1 min. A head trash is defined as a change in the direction of bending in the body.
To test the body bend frequency, nematodes are collected in a second plate, and then
the number of times that the body bends in a period of 20 s is recorded. The bend of
the body is observed as a change in direction of the upper pharynx along the Y axis,
assuming that the nematodes are moved along the X axis. To test the basic move-
ments, the number of sinusoidal forward movements is counted at an interval of
20 s. Locomotion behavior of control and treated nematodes should be analyzed
simultaneously to avoid possible influences of the light-darkness cycle (Giles and
Rankin 2009; Li et al. 2009, 2012a, b; Matsuura et al. 2013; Roh and Choi 2011;
Rui et al. 2013; Wu et al. 2012a, 2013; Xing et al. 2009a; Yu et al. 2013a, b; Zhuang
et al. 2014). Alternatively, immobility is determined by counting the number of
immobile worms, usually registering a response when touched by platinum wire
(Jadhav and Rajini 2009; Leelaja and Rajini 2013; Roh and Choi 2011).

5.8 Metabolism

To assess the state of metabolism, the pharyngeal pumping speed and the average
cycle length of defecation can be evaluated. For testing the pumping rate, the nema-
todes are placed on NGM agar plates with food. After a few minutes, the pumping
movement of the pharynx is counted for a minute under a microscope (Jadhav and
Rajini 2009). To test the average cycle length of defecation, every nematode is
observed individually for a fixed number of cycles. A cycle is defined as the interval
between initiation of two successive steps of muscle contraction (Liu et al. 2013;
Wu et al. 2012a; Zhao et al. 2014a, b).

5.9 Development

The effects of toxicants on the development of nematodes can be investigated by

counting the number of individuals in each stage of their life cycle: egg, L1, L2, L3,
L4 and adults, at regular time intervals up to 96 h after treatment (Roh and Choi
2011). The development through the larval stages can be estimated using the fol-
lowing criteria: L1 if they have four or fewer gonadal cells; L2 if they possess over
four gonadal cells which have begun to spread along the length of the animal; L3 if
there is a further extension of the gonad, and vulval morphogenesis has started; L4
if there is a dorsal rotation of the gonad; and adults if they have observable eggs
(Helmcke et al. 2009). Entrance into the dauer state can be used to analyze toxicity,
Caenorhabditis elegans, a Biological Model for Research in Toxicology 9

since dauer formation is induced by causing starvation in nematodes. Usually,

treated nematodes in state of gravidity are placed on agar plates until laying eggs at
20 °C. This progeny is changed to 27 °C, and 72 h later. The organisms in the dauer
stage are counted (Wang et al. 2010b).

5.10 Feeding Behavior

Some toxics can affect the feeding and foraging behavior in C. elegans. Jones and
Candido (1999) described a procedure to assess feeding behavior by monitoring the
decline in the density of the bacterial food in liquid cultures of nematodes by mea-
suring absorbance at 550 nm. Another method consists of the use of agar with round
holes located equidistant from the center of the dish. Each hole is filled with bacte-
rial suspension in K medium. Toxic solutions are placed in different holes, and
nematodes are inoculated in the center of the plate. The number of nematodes in the
interior of each hole is counted at various intervals of time. This test shows whether
the test nematodes try to avoid contaminated food (Monteiro et al. 2014).

5.11 Oxidative Stress

Several markers of oxidative stress can be determined in worms after exposure to the
examined agent, both within the organism and the supernatant (Helmcke and
Aschner 2010; Leelaja and Rajini 2012; Shashikumar and Rajini 2010). The produc-
tion of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and oxidative damage may be determined by
fluorescence measurements, usually labeling the nematodes with 5-(y-6)-
chloromethyl-2′,7′-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate (Eom et al. 2013; Leelaja
and Rajini 2013; Li et al. 2012a; Rui et al. 2013; Wu et al. 2012a, 2013; Zhuang et al.
2014), and reading with a laser scanning confocal microscope (Eom et al. 2013;
Helmcke and Aschner 2010; Rudgalvyte et al. 2013; Liu et al. 2012; Wang et al.
2010a; Wu et al. 2012a). Oxidative damage on macromolecules has been analyzed
by detecting carbonylated proteins (Wang et al. 2010a, b; Wu et al. 2011). Moreover,
oxidative stress can be evaluated by quantifying changes in gene expression of oxi-
dative stress-related genes by Real Time PCR or GFP reporters, such as sod-1, sod-
2, sod-3, sod-4, sod-5, gst-4, gst-5, gst-8, gst-24 and gst-42 (Rui et al. 2013).

5.12 Patterns of Gene Expression

One method used to investigate the change in expression of genes in C. elegans

exposed to environmental pollutants is the use of DNA microarrays or Real Time
PCR (Eom et al. 2013; Menzel et al. 2009; Li et al. 2012a; Roh et al. 2009; Roh and
Choi 2011; Rudgalvyte et al. 2013). As reference genes, act-1 (Zhuang et al. 2014;
Wang et al. 2014a) and ubq-1 (Wu et al. 2011) are commonly used. This method
has been applied to evaluate the effect on C. elegans gene expression for various
10 L. Tejeda-Benitez and J. Olivero-Verbel

environmental toxicants, such as river sediments (Menzel et al. 2009), veterinary

drugs (Zhuang et al. 2014), sodium fluoride (Li et al. 2012b), nanoparticles
(Eom et al. 2013), and metals (Roh et al. 2009; Wang et al. 2014b; Rudgalvyte et al.
2013) among others.

5.13 Protein Expression

Induction of proteins by exposure to pollutants can be evaluated by traditional tech-

niques such as ELISA and Western Blot. The ELISA technique was used to deter-
mine HSP90 protein expression in wild type C. elegans exposure to zinc at different
temperatures (Wang and Ezemaduka 2014). Western blots were used to evaluate the
effect of lead on HSP90 expression (Wang et al. 2014b).

5.14 DNA Damage

C. elegans has been used to evaluate DNA damage through various techniques. One
approach is the use of the qPCR technique to detect damage and DNA repair. This
test works on the principle that DNA damage inhibits the progression of the poly-
merase used in qPCR (Roh et al. 2009; Li et al. 2012b). The amount of long PCR
product provides a measure of the frequency of the injury (Leung et al. 2010).
Another alternative is the comet assay, which was used to evaluate the genotoxic
profile of river sediment (Menzel et al. 2009). More recently, the pathway of base
excision repair has been proposed as a mechanism to assess the damage to DNA by
specific qPCR (Hunter et al. 2012). Transgenic strains can also be used to assess
DNA damage. The strain xpa-1 is deficient in the mechanism of nucleotide excision
repair, and its growth is significantly affected when there is damage to DNA.
Therefore, the growth assay on this strain is an indicator of genotoxicity (Leung
et al. 2010). The transgenic strain hus-1::GFP is utilized to assess DNA damage.
HUS-1::GFP foci represents DNA double-strand breaks, allowing quantification by
counting the number of bright foci per 20 pachytene gonadal germ cells (Hofmann
et al. 2002) which can be observed and counted under a fluorescence microscope
(Wang et al. 2014a).

5.15 GFP Reporters

Transgenic nematodes carrying the GFP gene fused to various stress-inducible gene
promoters have been developed for the study of various biochemical pathways. GFP
strains are placed in wells containing the sample solutions and suitable controls. The
plates are incubated at 20 °C, performing fluorescence readings within 4–6, 8–20,
Caenorhabditis elegans, a Biological Model for Research in Toxicology 11

and 24–40 h for short, moderate and long exposures, respectively. GFP expression is
quantified using a fluorometer with a wavelength of 485 nm excitation and 525 nm
emission (Anbalagan et al. 2012; Anbalagan et al. 2013; De Pomerai et al. 2010;
Roh et al. 2010; Roh and Choi 2011). Alternatively, the observation of fluorescence
can be achieved under a light microscope, capturing images that are then analyzed
by specialized software (Li et al. 2009; Shen et al. 2009; Wang et al. 2010a; Polak
et al. 2014). The COPAS Biosort system has also been employed to measure fluores-
cence (Hunt et al. 2012; Turner et al. 2013). The transgenic strain F25B3.3::GFP
with fluorescence expression in neurons has been utilized to study heavy metal
(Du and Wang 2009; Helmcke et al. 2009) and pesticide toxicity (Negga et al. 2011).

5.16 RNA Interference (RNAi)

This technology has been widely used to study gene function. Bacterial RNAi is
introduced for 48 h at room temperature for the expression of dsRNA. Double
stranded (ds) RNA expression is induced in HT115 bacteria containing the gene-
sequence of interest inserted in the L4440 vector, or else the empty vector as control
(Kamath and Ahringer 2003). Approximately ten nematodes in stages L1–L3 are
placed on the plate seeded with induced RNAi or vector-control bacteria and incu-
bated at 20 °C. After 36–40 h, the worms are transferred to another plate seeded
with the same bacteria and grown to adulthood, at which point cultures are synchro-
nised by egg isolation, and the eggs transferred onto new plates with RNAi bacteria.
To evaluate the efficiency of dsRNA feeding over 1000 worms are evaluated by
using semiquantitative PCR (Cheng et al. 2014; Kumar et al. 2010; Roh and Choi
2011). RNAi can be used to evaluate genetic pathways involved in toxicant
responses. For instance, RNAi has been involved in the transcription of the DAF-16
factor in an unpredicted upregulation of the cyp-34A9 reporter gene by exposure to
high levels of cadmium (De Pomerai et al. 2008). In another case, gene knockdown
by RNAi was used to determine the effects on reproduction due to PCB52 exposure;
several genes were identified as having a crucial role, being the most remarkable the
cytochrome P450s group (Menzel et al. 2007).

5.17 Cell Apoptosis

To assess apoptosis in the cells of the nematode, acridine orange is used. After expo-
sure to the toxicant for 24 h, the nematodes are immersed in mixed medium with
acridine orange at 20 °C for 2 h. Then they are placed on top of agar allowing them to
recover for 10 min. Finally, they are examined under an inverted fluorescence
microscope with an excitation wavelength of 515 and 488 nm absorption. Apoptotic
cells appear yellow or yellow-orange showing increased DNA fragmentation,
whereas intact cells are uniformly green (Li et al. 2012b; Wang et al. 2009b, 2014a, c).
12 L. Tejeda-Benitez and J. Olivero-Verbel

Another technique involves staining with SYTO 12 for 4 h at room temperature,

followed by seeding with food for 30 min, washing with M9 buffer, and final observa-
tion under a fluorescence microscope with a red filter (Cha et al. 2012). Alternatively,
the transgenic strain ced-1::GFP is used for visualization of apoptotic bodies in a
fluorescence microscope (Cheng et al. 2014; Kumar et al. 2010).

5.18 Cell Cycle Arrest

To investigate whether the exposure to a toxicant causes cell cycle arrest in the
germline, the number of cores of mitotic cells is determined by staining with
4′,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole. The number of mitotic nuclei present at the distal
end of the germline is counted under a fluorescence microscope (Cheng et al. 2014;
Kumar et al. 2010; Wang et al. 2014a).

5.19 Transgenerational Effects

Sublethal endpoints such as locomotion and growth can be evaluated in the off-
spring of exposed parents. Wild-type N2 nematodes at the L3 larval stage are
exposed during the time when sperm, ova and eggs begin to form, providing a win-
dow of prenatal exposure (Yu et al. 2013b). Exposed worms are placed on several
plates. Some of them are used for measuring the parents after 24 h of exposure, and
the others, for obtaining the generations. This assay has been used to assess the
effects of antibiotics (Yu et al. 2011) and heavy metals on the growth and locomo-
tion of exposed parents and their first generation (Yu et al. 2013b).

6 Toxicity Assessments

Most currently known toxicants can be assessed using C. elegans as a model. The
following are some research studies related to toxicity of environmental matrices,
metals, pesticides, nanoparticles, and other chemicals.

6.1 Environmental Samples

C. elegans has been used as a model to assess the toxicity of environmental samples
such as soils, sludges, and river sediment. The sediment of the Danube, the Rhine
and the Elbe Rivers in Germany were studied by analyzing the changes in gene
Caenorhabditis elegans, a Biological Model for Research in Toxicology 13

expression profiling using DNA microarrays of the entire genome. At the same
time, the reproduction and DNA damage were evaluated using the comet assay
technique (Menzel et al. 2009). In a study of the toxicity of contaminated soils from
Germany, fertility, growth, and reproduction were evaluated using the wild type
Bristol N2 strain (Höss et al. 2009b). Organic extracts of contaminated soil from
Spain were evaluated using transgenic strains of C. elegans carrying GFP reporter
genes driven by promoters sequences from five stress-related genes, hsp-16.2, gpx-
6, hsp-6, gst-1, and cyp34A9; allowing the identification of different mechanisms of
toxicity (Anbalagan et al. 2012). Aqueous extracts of the same soils were evaluated
using 24 similar GFP transgenic reporter strains, correlating this data with the con-
centrations of metals present in the soil (Anbalagan et al. 2013). A summary of the
results generated from these investigations is shown in Table 1.

6.2 Pesticides

In the environment, C. elegans as a free-living nematode, is exposed to various pes-

ticides used in agriculture as well as to persistent organic waste that can contaminate
soil for long periods of time (Anbalagan et al. 2013). Some of the most recent stud-
ies relating to the toxicity of pesticides in C. elegans are summarized in Table 2. As
many pesticides are neurotoxic, the well-defined nervous system of C. elegans is a
suitable tool to assess the neurotoxicity induced by these chemicals (Gomez et al.
2009; Leelaja and Rajini 2012, 2013; Lewis et al. 2013; Negga et al. 2011; Roh and
Choi 2008, 2011; Shashikumar and Rajini 2010; Meyer and Williams 2014).
Fluorescence expression by GFP reporter genes has been employed to study the
toxicity of pesticides such as Glyphosate, Paraquat, 2,4-days, Endosulfan,
Cypermethrin, Carbendazim, Chlorpyrifos, Diuron, Rotenone, DDT, Deltamethrin,
and Dichlorvos (Anbalagan et al. 2013). In another report, Chlorpyrifos was studied,
and although it did not cause severe DNA damage, it inhibited growth of xpa-1 defi-
cient strain, whose mechanism of nucleotide excision repair is deficient (Leung et al.
2010). The herbicide Glyphosate and the fungicide dithiocarbamate have been stud-
ied to assess mortality and neurological damage in C. elegans. Neuronal damage by
exposure to these pesticides was verified by using the transgenic strain F25B3.3::GFP
(Negga et al. 2011). The effect of Paraquat, Diquat, and Parathion on brood size was
evaluated with COPAS Biosort, with Paraquat showing the highest toxicity (Boyd
et al. 2010). Acetylcholinesterase activity of pesticides has also been assessed in
nematodes exposed to Fenitrothion and Monocrotophos (Leelaja and Rajini 2013;
Roh and Choi 2011). Studies with tributyltin reported that this biocide caused cell
apoptosis in C. elegans via DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) (Wang et al. 2014a).
Furthermore, tributyltin chloride caused increased sterility and embryonic lethality
by DSBs and checkpoint activation in the germline (Cheng et al. 2014). Insecticidal
proteins such as Cry, used in transgenic corn, were studied and showed dose-depen-
dent inhibitory effects on C. elegans reproduction (Höss et al. 2013).
Table 1 Evaluation of environmental samples using C. elegans as a model
Environmental sample Strain End point Result Reference
Sediments from three N2 Reproduction, DNA damage, Disaccharide and glycogen Menzel
rivers in Germany: changes in gene expression metabolism and functional pathways et al. (2009)
Danube, Rhine and Elbe were affected
Water and sediment basins N2, gpdh-1, gpdh-2, mtl-2, mtl-2::GFP, pcs-1, smf-2, sod-3 Growth and GFP expression Inhibition of growth. Turner
affected by coal mining in et al. (2013)
Virginia (United States)
Contaminated soils N2 Fertility, growth and reproduction Toxicity was correlated with Höss et al.
from Germany the organic fraction (2009a)
Organic extracts of hsp-16.2::GFP, gpx-6::GFP, hsp-6::GFP, gst-1::GFP, GFP expression Induction of expression Anbalagan
contaminated soils in cyp34A9::GFP of transgenes et al. (2013)
Southeast Spain
Aqueous extracts of soil hsp-16.1::GFP:lacZ, cep-1::GFP, hsp-16.2::GFP, GFP expression Correlation between metals Anbalagan
sod-3::GFP, cyp-35a2::GFP, daf-16::GFP, gpx-6::GFP, and expressed transgenes et al. (2012)
hsp-6::GFP, gpx-4::GFP, cyp34A9::GFP, hsp-3::GFP,
mtl-1::GFP, elt-2::GFP, gst-1::GFP, skn-1::GFP, gst-4::GFP,
sod-4::GFP, cyp-29A2::GFP, ctl-2::GFP, hsf-1::GFP,
mtl-2::GFP, hsp-60::GFP, hsp-70::GFP y sod-1::GFP
Wastewater from N2, daf-2 Life span, dauer formation Life span decreased Wang et al.
recycled paper plant (2010b)
Particulate matter N2, unc-47::GFP Lethality, lifespan, growth, Effects on lifespan, reproduction, Zhao et al.
reproduction, locomotion, intestinal locomotion behavior, and intestinal (2014a,b)
autofluorescence, oxidative stress, development exposed and their
defecation behavior, gene expression progeny
Surface water containing N2 Locomotion, pharyngeal pumping, The surface water was Ju et al.
brominated organic defecation, mechanical sensory neurostimulatory (2014)
compounds stimulus, chemotaxis, thermotaxis
Dispersed oil crude N2, (bcIs39 [(lim-7)ced-1p::GFP + lin-15(+)]), Cell apoptosis, gene expression Increasing of germ cell apoptosis Polli et al.
and TJ1(cep-1(gk138) I) following a CEP-1-dependent pathway (2014)
Soil-derived Fe oxide N2, sod-2(ok1030) Uptake of Fe, growth, reproduction The toxicity of ferrihydrite, goethite Höss et al.
colloids and akaganeite depends on aggregate (2015)
size and specific surface area
Table 2 Evaluation of pesticide toxicity
Pesticide Strain End point Result Reference
Phosphine N2 Oxidative stress Delayed development and oxidative stress Leelaja and
Rajini (2012)
Fenitrothion N2, cyp35a2 Paralysis, growth, fertility, Cyp35a2 involved in toxicity Roh and Choi
development, AC activity (2011)
Monocrotophos N2 Fertility, oxidative stress, Decreased oxidative stress, paralysis and brood Leelaja and
AC activity, paralysis size. AC inhibition Rajini (2013)
Cypermethrin N2 Expression of hsp-16, rate Brood size, egg laying and life span decrease in Shashikumar
of egg laying, life span, a dose-dependent fashion and Rajini
brood size, oxidative stress Increased ROS and carbonylated proteins (2010)
Dithiocarbamate and N2, F25B3.3::GFP Lethality and neuronal Neurotoxicity was verified by fluorescent Negga et al.
glyphosate damage expression at neuronal level (2011)
Cry proteins N2, bre-5 Reproduction, gene Reproduction inhibition Höss et al.
expression MAPK pathway upregulated (2013)
Gliphosate, Paraquat, 2,4-D, hsp-16.1::GFP:lacZ, cep-1, GFP expression Dichlorvos and Rotenone induced several stress Anbalagan
Endosulfan, Cypermethrin, hsp-16.2, sod-3, cyp-35a2, daf-16, response genes in a dose- dependent manner et al. (2013)
Carbendazim, Chlorpyrifos, gpx-6, hsp-6, gpx-4::GFP, cyp34A9, Endosulfan, DDT, Carbendazim, Deltamethrin,
Diuron, Rotenone, DDT, hsp-3, mtl-1, elt-2, gst-1, skn-1, Cypermethrin, 2,4-D and Chlorpyrifos induced
Deltamethrin, Dichlorvos gst-4, sod-4, cyp-29A2, ctl-2, hsf-1, few genes
mtl-2, hsp-60, hsp-70, and sod-1
Chlorpyrifos N2, emb-8, glp-1, xpa-1 Growth and DNA damage No DNA damage was detected, but the xpa-1 Leung et al.
Caenorhabditis elegans, a Biological Model for Research in Toxicology

mutant was more sensitive than the wild type (2010)

(continued)
15
 16

Table 2 (continued)
Pesticide Strain End point Result Reference
Chlorpyrifos N2 Gene expression, changes The free concentration of chlorpyrifos quickly Roh et al.
of free concentration of diminished and the expression of cyp genes (2014)
chlorpyrifos in the medium varied with the volume of exposure medium
and the test duration
Diquat, Paraquat, Parathion N2, myo-2::GFP Body length, optical Parathion > Diquat > Paraquat Boyd et al.
density, GFP expression, (2010)
reproduction
Tributyltin N2, ced-3, ced-4, egl-1, ced-9, cep-1, Cell apoptosis, Cell cycle Induction of apoptosis in germline via DNA Wang et al.
cep-1, clk-2, hus-1, lin-45,mek-2, arrest, gene expression, damage (2014a)
ksr-1, mpk-1, nsy-1, mek-1, jkk-1, DNA damage
mkk-4, jnk-1, sek-1, pmk-1
Imidacloprid and Tiacloprid N2 Reproduction Synergistic effect after exposure to the mixture Gomez et al.
(2009)
Dichlorvos N2 Pharynx pumping, Correlation between the biochemical effects Jadhav and
contraction of the nose, and behavior parameters Rajini (2009)
paralysis, egg laying rate
Monocrotophos N2 Locomotion, lifespan, egg Decreased locomotion, lifespan, egg laying, and Salim and
laying, growth, AC activity brood size Rajini (2014)
L. Tejeda-Benitez and J. Olivero-Verbel
Caenorhabditis elegans, a Biological Model for Research in Toxicology 17

6.3 Metals

Metals, in particular those named as heavy metals, constitute one of the most impor-
tant groups of environmental toxicants, and reach the ecosystems from sources such
as oil refineries, mining, and industrial effluents, causing severe toxic effects on
living systems. This group has been one of the most studied using C. elegans as a
biological model. Several of the reports related to the effects of heavy metals on C.
elegans are presented in Table 3. The effects of different metals such as Ag, As, Cr,
Cd, Cu, Hg, Mn, Pb, Ni and Zn have been studied for several end points such as
lethality (Williams and Dusenbery 1990), lifespan, fertility, growth, intestinal auto-
fluorescence, GFP expression, morphology changes (Shen et al. 2009; Rudel et al.
2013; Hunt et al. 2012), neuronal damage, neurodegeneration, neuronal loss, and
axonal degradation (Du and Wang 2009; Xing et al. 2009a, b). On the other hand,
exposure to Zn, Cd, Hg, Cu, Fe, Cr, and As has also been monitored using GFP
transgenic reporter strains (De Pomerai et al. 2010).

6.4 Nanoparticles

The toxicological potential of nanoparticles (NPs) is receiving increased attention

because of their massive release into the environment. Although a number of manu-
factured NPs are employed for medical and clinical purposes, the interaction
between nanomaterials and biological systems remains unknown. For this reason,
the NPs have joined the group of Emerging Contaminants and every year more stud-
ies on the subject are performed with C. elegans (Table 4). It has been considered
that the main mechanism of nanotoxicity is oxidative stress (Zhao et al. 2014a).
Toxicity of hydroxylated fullerene nanoparticles was studied using C. elegans, and
it was demonstrated that water-soluble fullerol NPs have a potential for inducing
apoptotic cell death (Cha et al. 2012). The study of TiO2 NPs was carried out by
analyzing different toxicity endpoints such as lethality, reproduction, growth, loco-
motion, intestinal autofluorescence, and oxidative stress. TiO2 NPs caused severe
deficits in gut development, defecation behavior, and changes in gene expression
(Rui et al. 2013; Zhao et al. 2014a). The toxicity of TiO2, ZnO, and SiO2 NPs has
been compared using endpoints including lethality, locomotion, growth, reproduc-
tion, and production of ROS. The order of toxicity was ZnO > TiO2 > SiO2 (Wu et al.
2013). In a study of the intake of silver NPs by image analysis, there was absorption
of silver NPs in the body, transgenerational transfer, and inhibition of growth (Meyer
et al. 2010). The lethal effects of AgNPs on C. elegans are increased if the exposure
is through E. coli OP50 (Ellegaard et al. 2012). In other research, reduction was
observed in survival and reproduction and there was interaction of Ag NPs with
biological surfaces of C. elegans, causing severe edema (Kim et al. 2012).
 18

Table 3 Evaluation of metals and their derivatives

Metal Strain End point Result Reference
Zn, Cd, Hg, Cu, mtl-1::GFP, mtl-2::GFP, hsp-16.1::GFP, GFP expression Pattern of gene expression induced by De Pomerai
Fe, Cr, As hsp-16.2::GFP, hsp-3::GFP, hsp- heavy metals et al. (2010)
6::GFP, hsp-60::GFP, hsp-70::GFP,
hsf-1::GFP, elt-2::GFP, sod-1::GFP,
sod-3::GFP, sod-4::GFP, ctl-2::GFP,
skn-1::GFP, gst-1::GFP, gst-4::GFP,
cyp-35a2::GFP, cyp34A9::GFP,
cyp-29A2::GFP, daf-16::GFP,
gpx-6::GFP, gpx-4::GFP, cep-1::GFP
Cd N2, age-1,mtl-2, sod-3, daf-21, cyp35a2, LC50, growth, reproduction mtl-2 gene expression upregulated Roh et al.
skn-1, daf-12, hsp-16.2, daf-18, ctl-2, (2009)
sod-1, daf-16, cep-1, cdr-2
Ag, Cr, Cd, Cu, N2, hsp-16::2-GFP Lethality, life span, intestinal Ag, Cr, Pb, Cu, Hg and Cd induced a Shen et al.
Hg, Mn, Pb, Zn autofluorescence, GFP expression stress response in the intestine; Pb, Hg, (2009)
Cr, Zn and Mn in the neurons of the head
Cd, Cr, Hg, Pb N2 Brood size, generation time Brood size was significantly correlated Guo et al.
with the concentrations of the Metals. Hg (2009)
produced severe reproductive toxicity
Cd N2, myo-2::GFP Body length, optical density, GFP Brood size decreased in a concentration- Boyd et al.
expression, reproduction dependent manner (2010)
Cr (VI) N2 Lethality, growth, gene expression Alterations in growth and modified gene Saikia et al.
expression were observed (2014)
Cr (VI) N2 Lethality, locomotion, metabolism, Lethality, locomotion, metabolism, Wu et al.
intestinal autofluorescence, intestinal autofluorescence and ROS (2012a)
oxidative stress production were severely altered
Ca, Cd N2, mev-1, daf-16, daf-2, daf-16, Life span, autofluorescence, GFP The combined exposure to Cd and Ca Wang et al.
hsp-16.2::GFP expression, oxidative stress, brood increased hsp-16.2::GFP expression and (2010a, b)
size, body length oxidative damage
L. Tejeda-Benitez and J. Olivero-Verbel
Metal Strain End point Result Reference
H3C-Hg(+) N2, F25B3.3∷GFP, unc-17∷GFP, Lethality, life span, growth, Induction of developmental delay and Helmcke et al.
unc-25∷GFP, unc-47∷GFP, cat-1∷GFP, reproduction, development, reduced pharynx pumping (2009)
tph-1∷GFP, eat-4∷GFP, dat-1∷GFP, pharynx pumping, GFP expression
F49H12.4∷GFP
H3C-Hg(+) N2, gst-4::GFP, hsp-4::GFP, mtl-1:: Lethality, intestinal The methyl mercury induced hormesis. Helmcke and
GFP, mtl-2::GFP, gst-4, mtl-2, mtl-1 autofluorescence, GFP expression, Aschner
oxidative stress (2010)
Cd, Pb, Cu, Zn N2 Locomotion, growth, generational Inhibition of growth and locomotion was Yu et al.
effects more severe in the offspring than in (2013b)
exposed parents
Pb, Zn, Ni N2 Reproduction, growth, feeding In reproduction Pb > Ni > Zn. In growth Monteiro et al.
behavior Ni > Pb > Zn (2014)
Mn N2, hsp12.2::GFP Life span, growth, reproduction, Defects in life span, development and Xiao et al.
GFP expression, oxidative stress reproduction. Increase in GFP expression (2009)
and genes responsive to oxidative stress
Ni N2, JK574 Growth, life span, fertility Decreased larval survival and adult Rudel et al.
longevity depending upon concentration. (2013)
Aqueous Ni inhibits fertility
NiCl2 N2, MD701, KX84, DJR1 DNA damage, gene expression, Apoptosis is a result of exposure at high Huffnagle
fluorescence microscopy, concentrations et al. (2014)
apoptosis
Cd, Cu, Hg, K, N2 Lethality, fluorescence using Changes in the morphology of the vulva Hunt et al.
As COPAS Biosort and gonad, the thickness and internal (2012)
Caenorhabditis elegans, a Biological Model for Research in Toxicology

intestinal integrity and retained eggs

CdCl2, CrCl2, N2 Locomotion Younger larvae showed more severe Xing et al.
HgCl2, Pb(NO3)2 deficits in neurobehavioral phenotypes (2009a)
CrCl2, CuSO4, N2, lin-15, gcy-8::GFP Thermotaxis, GFP expression, Severe deficits in thermotaxis Xing et al.
HgCl2, AgNO3 gene expression (2009b)
(continued)
19
Table 3 (continued)
20

Metal Strain End point Result Reference

Zn N2, daf-21 Lethality, protein expression High temperatures increase the toxicity Wang and
of zinc. daf-21 was more sensitive. Ezemaduka
2014
Hg N2, hsp-16.2::GFP Reproduction, fertility, gonad size, Altered expression patterns of genes Wu et al. 2011
GFP expression regulating oxidative stress causing
deficiencies in the reproduction
Pb, Hg, Cu, Cd N2, unc-47::GFP Neuronal loss and neuronal Axonal degeneration and loss of neurons Du and Wang
degradation by fluorescence (2009)
Cu N2, ced-3, ced-4, egl-1, ced-9, cep-1, Cell apoptosis Caspases and Apaf-1 are required for the Wang et al.
clk-2, hus-1, abl-1, lin-45, mek-2, apoptosis germline (2009b)
mpk-1, nsy-1, mek-1, jkk-1, mkk-4, jnk-1,
sek-1, pmk-1, pmk-3
Cu N2, unc-2 Changes in cuticle, chemotaxis, Body surface from vulva to tail was Song et al.
reproduction, development, and wrinkled and folded. Vulva size (2014)
development decreased. Development was delayed,
egg-laying was reduced
Pb N2, daf-2 Lethality, HSP 90 expression, Temperatures affected lead toxicity Wang et al.
pharyngeal pumping, (2014b)
reproduction, longevity
L. Tejeda-Benitez and J. Olivero-Verbel
Table 4 Assessment of nanotoxicity
Nanoparticle Strain End point Result Reference
AgNPs N2, nth-1, sod-2, xpa-1, mtl-2, mev-1 Growth, intake of silver NPs by image There was absorption of silver NPs in the body, Meyer et al.
analysis transgenerational transfer and inhibition of growth (2010)
AgNPs N2, pmk-1, hif-1, egl-9, vhl-1, fmo-2, cyp35a2 Oxidative stress and gene expression Toxicity depends on size of NPs and ions in Eom et al.
solution (2013)
AgNPs N2 Lethality and reproduction. Reduction in survival and reproduction. Kim et al.
Interaction of Ag NPs with biological surfaces (2012)
AgNPs pha-1 Lethality Lethality is increased if the exposure Ellegaard
is through food et al. (2012)
AgNPs N2, cep-1 Lethality, oxidative stress, DNA damage, Induction of oxidative stress-related Ahn et al.
mitochondrial membrane potential mitochondrial DNA damage (2014)
AgNPs N2 Lethality, hiperspectral image analysis The presence of natural organic matter decreased Yang et al.
toxicity and intestinal matter (2014)
AgNPs N2, pmk-1, ndx-4, nth-1. RNAi, gene expression, DNA damage, p38 MAPK/PMK-1 plays an important protective Chatterjee
survival role in AgNP-induced oxidative DNA et al. (2014a)
damage-repair
AgNPs N2 Growth, locomotion, gene expression, uptake Results with C. elegans correlated with outcomes Hunt et al.
of AgNPs in rodents for AgNP size vs. uptake and toxicity (2014)
AgNPs N2 Lethality, growth, reproduction Sulfidation of AgNPs decreased toxicity. Starnes et al.
Reproduction was the most sensitive endpoint (2015)
Al2O3 and N2 Growth, survival, reproduction In NPs-treated soils no acute toxic effects were Fajardo et al.
AgNPs found (2014)
Al2O3NPs N2, sod-3, sod-2, hsp-16.2::GFP Locomotion, gene expression, oxidative Effects on locomotion by induction Li et al.
stress, oxidative damage of ROS production (2012a)
CeO2 and N2 Lethality, Growth, fertility, gene expression, Induction of cyp35a2 gene expression, reduction Roh et al.
TiO2NPs RNAi of fertility and life span (2010)
TiO2NPs N2, mtl-1, mtl-2, sod-1, sod-2, sod-3, sod-4, Lethality, growth, reproduction, locomotion, sod-2, sod-3, mtl-2, and hsp-16.48 genes were Rui et al.
sod-5, mev-1, aak-2, xpa-1, pcm-1, hsp-16.48, intestinal autofluorescence, oxidative stress, susceptible to exposure. (2013)
hsp-16.2, gst-4, gst-8, gst-24, gst-5, gst-42, isp-1 gene expression
TiO2NPs N2 Lethality, growth, locomotion, Toxicity in oversized NPs was detected in the range Wu et al.
autofluorescence intestinal, oxidative stress of mg L−1 and small sizes were in the range of ng L−1 (2012c)
(continued)
Table 4 (continued)
Nanoparticle Strain End point Result Reference
TiO2 NPs mtl-1, mtl-2, sod-1, sod-2, sod-3, sod-4, sod-5, Lethality, reproduction, locomotion, lifespan, sod-2, sod-3, mtl-2, and hsp-16.48 were Wu et al.
mev-1, aak-2, xpa-1, pcm-1, hsp-16.48, hsp-16.2, development, growth, oxidative stress, susceptible strains for reproduction and (2014b)
gst-4, gst-8, gst-24, gst-5, gst-42, isp-1 intestinal autofluorescence, pharyngeal locomotion, sod-2, sod-3 and mtl-2 for survival
pumping and defecation and mtl-2 for development
TiO2NPs N2 Intestinal autofluorescence, oxidative stress, Severe deficits in gut development and defecation Zhao et al.
defecation cycle behavior (2014a)
ZnONPs N2 Lethality Fototoxicity of NPs was correlated with ROS Ma et al.
generation (2011)
ZnO, Al2O3 N2 Lethality, fertility, growth and reproduction Inhibition of growth and reproduction Wang et al.
and TiO2NPs (2009a)
TiO2, ZnO N2 Lethality, locomotion, growth, reproduction ZnO > TiO2 > SiO2 Wu et al.
and SiO2NPs and oxidative stress (2013)
CeNPs N2 Lethality, synchrotron X-ray analysis The positively charged CeO2-NPs were more Collin et al.
toxic. The addition of humic acid decreased the (2014)
toxicity
Carbon N2 Reproduction, growth, life span, gene Retarded growth, lower life span and defective Chen et al.
nanotubes expression embryogenesis (2013)
Graphene N2, mir-231,mir-235,mir-244, mir-73, mir- Lifespan, oxidative stress, intestinal 23 up-regulated and eight down-regulated Wu et al.
oxide 74,mir-247, mir-797,mir-246, autofluorescence, locomotion, miRNA miRNAs, and correlation with lifespan (2014a)
mir-81-82,mir-360,mir-259 expression
Nanosized N2 Growth, survival and reproduction There were toxic effects at 5 and 10 mg mL−1 Sacca et al.
zero-valent iron (2014)
Hydroxylated N2, ced-3, ced-4, elt-2::GFP Life span, reproduction, body length, cell Induction of death by cell apoptosis Cha et al.
fullerene apoptosis (2012)
CdTe quantum N2, oxIs12[Is(Punc-47::GFP)], Foraging behavior, defecation behavior, Neurotoxicity in the range of μg/L via oxidative Zhao et al.
dots Ex(Punc-25-unc-30), Ex(Punc-25-sod-2), and reproduction, fluorescence stress and cell identity (2015)
Ex(Punc-25-sod-3)
Caenorhabditis elegans, a Biological Model for Research in Toxicology 23

6.5 Drugs

Drugs and their metabolites have been classified within the group of emerging con-
taminants because of increased concentrations in the environment. The impact of
several drugs on organisms has been evaluated using C. elegans as a model (Table 5).

Table 5 Evaluation of the toxicity of drugs

Drug Strain End point Result Reference
Sulphamethoxazol N2 Generational effects Defects Yu et al.
on locomotion and in locomotion of (2011)
growth exposed parents
and first
generation were
dose dependent
Sulphamethoxazol N2 Reproduction, Reduction in Liu et al.
growth, life span, reproduction (2013)
pharynx pumping,
lipid peroxidation
and gene expression
Sulfonamides N2 Lethality, life span, Concentration- Yu et al.
growth, behavior dependent toxicity (2015)
inhibition interactions
Ethyl N2, Mutagenesis, gene Elevated mutation Hartman
methanesulfonate unc-58(e665) expression, DNA frequencies et al. (2014)
damage because
embryonic cell
cycles are rapid
and DNA damage
checkpoints are
muted in embryos
Clenbuterol and N2, daf-2, Lethality, Toxicity by Zhuang
Ractopamin daf-15, daf-16, reproduction, different et al. (2014)
sgk-1, skn-1, growth, locomotion, mechanisms
aak-1, age-1, intestinal
sod-2, pdk-1, autofluorescence,
rict-1, act-1 oxidative stress, life
span, gene
expression
Caffeine and N2, Growth, optical Alteration in Boyd et al.
methadone myo-2::GFP density, fluorescence reproduction (2010)
and reproduction
Nicotine N2 MicroRNA There was Taki et al.
expression alteration of (2014)
microRNA
expression
profiles during
post-embryonic
stages
(continued)
24 L. Tejeda-Benitez and J. Olivero-Verbel

Table 5 (continued)
Drug Strain End point Result Reference
Nicotine N2 Reproduction and Loss of response Smith et al.
gene expression to stimuli, early (2013)
egg laying and
alterations in
genes related to
reproduction and
neuronal
development
Nicotine N2, lev-1, Nicotine preference, Nicotine Matsuura
unc-29, bas-1, taste plasticity, preference et al. (2013)
cat-2, tph-1 locomotion increased and
taste plasticity
inhibited
Nicotine N2 Locomotion Reduction in Sobkowiak
velocity of basic et al. (2011)
movements and
paralysis
5-Fluorouracil N2, rrf-3 Cell cycle Induction of cell Kumar et al.
arrest, apoptosis, cycle arrest and (2010)
RNAi, growth, germline
development, apoptosis.
gene expression Alteration in
vulva
development and
egg laying
Genkwa Flos N2, daf-16, Lethality, growth, Toxicity effects on Qiao et al.
(traditional skn-1, mdt-15, reproduction, lifespan, (2014)
Chinese medicine) oxIs12 locomotion, development,
oxidative stress, reproduction, and
defecation, gene locomotion. There
expression was formation of
abnormal vulva
Acrylamide gst- GFP and RFP GSTs and other Leung et al.
4::GFP::NLS, expression phase II enzymes (2011)
dop-3::RFP were down
regulated by
XREP-1

For instance, the effects of nicotine in plasticity and locomotion (Matsuura et al.
2013; Sobkowiak et al. 2011), changes in gene expression (Smith et al. 2013), and
changes in microRNA expression (Taki et al. 2014); other studies show the effects
of caffeine and methadone on reproduction (Boyd et al. 2010); and the effects of
sulphamethoxazol on locomotion and growth of offspring of exposed parents (Yu
et al. 2011), and on reproduction, growth, lifespan, pharynx pumping, lipid peroxi-
dation, and gene expression (Liu et al. 2013); and the effect of 5-fluorouracil on
reproduction and development (Kumar et al. 2010) among others.
Caenorhabditis elegans, a Biological Model for Research in Toxicology 25

6.6 Toxins

Natural toxins have also been studied using C. elegans as a biological model
(Table 6). Microcystin, a toxin produced by toxic blooms of cyanobacteria on eutro-
phic waters, produced changes in the behavior of locomotion and GFP expression
in C. elegans (Moore et al. 2014; Li et al. 2009; Saul et al. 2014). Aflatoxin β1,
generated by Aspergillus fungi, inhibited growth and formed adducts with DNA by
activation of the Cytochrome P system (Leung et al. 2010).

6.7 Other Chemicals

In addition to the above groups, C. elegans has been reported as a biological model
for assessing the toxicity induced by other chemicals (Table 7) such as sodium fluo-
ride (Li et al. 2012b), vinyl chloride (Nam and An 2010), benzo pyrene [a] and
β-naphthoflavone (Leung et al. 2010), ethyl methanesulfonate and DMSO (Boyd
et al. 2010), NaAsO2, NaF, Na2B4O7, valproic acid, caffeine and DMSO (Sprando
et al. 2009); and acrylamide which has been shown to induce a gst-4::GFP trans-
gene (Leung et al. 2011).

Table 6 Evaluation of toxicity of toxins

Toxin Strain End point Result Reference
Microcystin N2, Life span, Life span reduced, Li et al.
hsp-16- development, development retarded, (2009)
2::GFP generation time, generation time lengthened,
brood size, brood size decreased,
locomotion and locomotion inhibited
gene expression
Microcystin N2 Chemotaxis Alteration of chemotactic Moore
behavior et al.
(2014)
Microcystin N2 Life span, Deficiencies in lifespan, Saul et al.
reproduction, reproduction and growth. (2014)
growth, gene Changes in gene expression
expression were dominated by
neuromodulation
Aflatoxin β1 N2, emb-8, DNA damage DNA damage, DNA adducts Leung et al.
glp-1, xpa-1 and growth by CYP activation (2010)
Bioactive N2 Survival V. coralliilyticus S2052 Neu et al.
and probiotic caused decreased survival (2014)
marine bacteria after 72 h
 26

Table 7 Evaluation of the toxicity of other chemicals

Compound Strain End point Result Reference
Vinyl chloride N2 Lethality, cyp35s expression. Alterations in reproduction and gene expression Nam and An (2010)
NaF N2 Growth, life span, locomotion, Growth and locomotion inhibited, life span Li et al. (2012b)
cell apoptosis oxidative stress, decreased, ROS production increased in a
gene expression dose-dependent relationship
NaAsO2, NaF, Na2B4O7, N2 Growth and development NaAsO2 > NaF > Na2B4O7 > valproic Sprando et al. (2009)
valproic acid, caffeine acid > caffeine > DMSO
and DMSO
PCB 52 N2, cyp-14A2, cyp-14A5, RNAi, gene expression CYP-14A and CYP-34A6 contribute to the Schäfer et al. (2009)
cyp-23A1, cyp-34A9 metabolism of PCB52
Benzo[a]piren and N2, emb-8, glp-1, xpa-1 DNA damage and growth There was no DNA damage, but there was Leung et al. (2010)
β-naftoflavona inhibited growth
Ethyl methanesulfonate N2, myo-2::GFP Body length, optical density, DMSO inhibited brood size in a concentration- Boyd et al. (2010)
and DMSO GFP expression, reproduction dependent manner
Dibromoacetic acid and N2 Locomotion, pharyngeal TBBP-A had an impact on locomotion Ju et al. (2014)
tetrabromobisphenol-A pumping, defecation, DBAA led to neurostimulation
mechanical sensory stimulus,
chemotaxis, thermotaxis
NaAsO2 N2, daf-16, daf-2, age-1, Cell apoptosis, oxidative stress DAF-2, AGE-1 and AKT-1 negatively regulate Wang et al. (2014c)
sqt-1, dpy-10, unc-52, arsenite-induced apoptosis
akt-1, pdk-1, akt-2, sgk-1
L. Tejeda-Benitez and J. Olivero-Verbel
Se N2 Growth, lifespan, Survival decreased significantly at all stages. Li et al. (2014)
reproduction, and hatching rate Growth in the L1 stage declined
Se N2 Gene expression Increase in ROS and stress responses, visible Boehler et al. (2014)
by amplified expression of oxidoreductases and
reduced expression of cuticle-associated genes
7-Ketocholesterol N2 Lethality, growth, lifespan, Reduction in reproduction, decrease in lifespan Zong et al. (2014)
thermotolerance, reproduction, in a concentration-dependent manner,
oxidative stress, germline impairment in thermotolerance, induction of
apoptosis germline apoptosis and increase in ROS
Na2SiF6, H2SiF6 and NaF N2 Growth, feeding behavior, Silicofluorides showed similar toxicity to NaF Rice et al. (2014)
reproduction
4-(Methylnitrosamino)- N2, PE255 Growth, mitochondrial and Reduced oxygen consumption. Damage to Bodhicharla et al. (2014)
1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone nuclear DNA damage, ATP nuclear and mitochondrial genomes
level, O2 consumption
Bio oils from biomass N2, pmk-1, daf-16, Survival Dose-dependent decrease in survival Chatterjee et al. (2014b)
pyrolysis sir-2.1, hif-1, ctl-2,
cyp35a2, mtl-2, sod-3,
hsp16.2, ced-3, cep-1
Caenorhabditis elegans, a Biological Model for Research in Toxicology
27
28 L. Tejeda-Benitez and J. Olivero-Verbel

7 Conclusion

C. elegans is a powerful, suitable and robust model for toxicological studies due to
the transparency of its body, its short life cycle, easy fertilization, economical main-
tenance in the laboratory, large numbers of offspring and easy genetic manipulation.
The use of this nematode has enabled the understanding of many biochemical path-
ways activated by environmental toxicants, allowing the study of multiple endpoints
including lethality, growth, reproduction, fertility, and locomotion among others.
Additionally, the ease of obtaining transgenic nematodes allows the possibility of
studying direct changes in gene expression induced by toxicants or mixtures.
Finally, this model may be used in the assessment of toxicity of several pollutants
such as environmental samples, metals, pesticides, nanoparticles, drugs, and toxins,
among others.

8 Summary

Caenorhabditis elegans is a nematode of microscopic size which, due to its biologi-

cal characteristics, has been used since the 1970s as a model for research in molecu-
lar biology, medicine, pharmacology, and toxicology. It was the first animal whose
genome was completely sequenced and has played a key role in the understanding
of apoptosis and RNA interference. The transparency of its body, short lifespan,
ability to self-fertilize and ease of culture are advantages that make it ideal as a
model in toxicology. Due to the fact that some of its biochemical pathways are simi-
lar to those of humans, it has been employed in research in several fields.
C. elegans’ use as a biological model in environmental toxicological assessments
allows the determination of multiple endpoints. Some of these utilize the effects on
the biological functions of the nematode and others use molecular markers.
Endpoints such as lethality, growth, reproduction, and locomotion are the most stud-
ied, and usually employ the wild type Bristol N2 strain. Other endpoints use reporter
genes, such as green fluorescence protein, driven by regulatory sequences from
other genes related to different mechanisms of toxicity, such as heat shock, oxidative
stress, CYP system, and metallothioneins among others, allowing the study of gene
expression in a manner both rapid and easy. These transgenic strains of C. elegans
represent a powerful tool to assess toxicity pathways for mixtures and environmen-
tal samples, and their numbers are growing in diversity and selectivity. However,
other molecular biology techniques, including DNA microarrays and MicroRNAs
have been explored to assess the effects of different toxicants and samples.
C. elegans has allowed the assessment of neurotoxic effects for heavy metals and
pesticides, among those more frequently studied, as the nematode has a very well
defined nervous system. More recently, nanoparticles are emergent pollutants whose
toxicity can be explored using this nematode. Overall, almost every type of known
toxicant has been tested with this animal model. In the near future, the available
knowledge on the life cycle of C. elegans should allow more studies on reproduction
Caenorhabditis elegans, a Biological Model for Research in Toxicology 29

and transgenerational toxicity for newly developed chemicals and materials, facili-
tating their introduction in the market. The great diversity of endpoints and possi-
bilities of this animal makes it an easy first-choice for rapid toxicity screening or to
detail signaling pathways involved in mechanisms of toxicity.

Acknowledgements The authors thank the Vice-Rectory for Research of the University of
Cartagena for its financial aid and to Carson Ward, visitor student from Purdue University, for his
technical support.

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Pore Water Collection, Analysis
and Evolution: The Need for Standardization

Jacob G. Gruzalski, James T. Markwiese, Neil E. Carriker, William J. Rogers,

Rock J. Vitale, and David I. Thal

Contents
1 Introductionw .................................................................................................................... 38
2 Uses of Pore Water Data ................................................................................................... 39
3 Pore Water Collection Considerations and Methods......................................................... 39
3.1 In Situ Pore Water Sampling Methods...................................................................... 41
3.2 Ex Situ Pore Water Sampling.................................................................................... 42
4 Exposure and Toxicity Benchmarks .................................................................................. 43
5 Pore Water Benchmarks: Pros and Cons ........................................................................... 45
6 Conclusions and Recommendations.................................................................................. 47
7 Summary ........................................................................................................................... 48
References ............................................................................................................................... 48

J.G. Gruzalski (*) • D.I. Thal

Environmental Standards, Inc, 8331 E. Walker Springs Lane, Suite 402, Knoxville,
TN 37923, USA
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]
J.T. Markwiese
United States Environmental Protection Agency, 200 SW 35th Street, Corvallis, OR 97333, USA
e-mail: [email protected]
N.E. Carriker
Tennessee Valley Authority, 1134 Swan Pond Road, Harriman, TN 37448, USA
e-mail: [email protected]
W.J. Rogers
Restoration Services, Inc, 136 Mitchell Road, Oak Ridge, TN 37830, USA
e-mail: [email protected]
R.J. Vitale
Environmental Standards, Inc, 1140 Valley Forge Rd, Valley Forge, PA 19482, USA
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 37

P. de Voogt (ed.), Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology
Volume 237, Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 237,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-23573-8_2
38 J.G. Gruzalski et al.

Abbreviations

AVS Acid volatile sulfide

BLM Biotic ligand model
COPEC Contaminants of potential ecological concern
DGT Diffusive gradient thin-film
IWBU Interstitial water benchmark units
IWTU Interstitial water toxic units
MCL Maximum contaminant level
NRWQC National recommended water quality criteria
SEM Simultaneously-extracted metal
SEP Sequential extraction procedure
TVA Tennessee Valley Authority
USEPA United States Environmental Protection Agency

1 Introduction

The United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) estimates that approx-
imately 10 % of the sediment underlying waters in the United States are contaminated
to the point of posing a risk to human health or ecological receptors (US EPA 1998).
Investigating potential human health and ecological risks of contaminated sediment
requires integrating information from multiple lines of evidence. Concentration and
speciation data on chemicals in interstitial water can be important lines of evidence
for assessing risks of contaminated sediment in aquatic ecosystems. In many deposi-
tional sediments, interstitial waters are relatively static (Adams et al. 2000) and many
investigators assume that contaminants in the particulate phase of sediment and the
pore water are in equilibrium (e.g., Di Toro et al. 1991). Although not the only expo-
sure medium in a sediment environment, pore water is a key route of exposure for
aquatic organisms (Chapman et al. 2002). Measuring contaminant levels in interstitial
waters is useful for estimating aquatic toxicity (Ankley et al. 1996).
Appropriately sampled pore water can provide useful information on contami-
nant movement and toxicity in the aquatic environment (Chapman et al. 2002).
Unfortunately, many collection techniques inadequately consider chemical trans-
formations of contaminants of potential ecological concern (COPECs) during sedi-
ment sampling and subsequent pore water extraction.
Relevant ecological risk-based benchmarks against which to evaluate pore water
chemistry results are lacking and there are no relevant regulatory limits for constitu-
ents in pore water, and reported pore water data analyses for risk assessments vary
considerably. Sediment pore water does not meet the definition of surface waters
(Fish 2011) and it cannot reasonably be considered as groundwater. The lack of
recognized criteria often leads to comparisons to established, but inappropriate,
sediment, groundwater, surface water and drinking water benchmarks. This topic is
evaluated in greater detail in Sect. 5 below.
Pore Water Collection, Analysis and Evolution… 39

This review paper is meant to present the important considerations necessary to

properly collect pore water samples and appropriately evaluate the analytical data in
a concise and useable format. The author’s intent is that the information presented
herein will be used, in conjunction with other published research and project spe-
cific objectives, to design comprehensive, quality driven, scientific pore water stud-
ies. Additionally, the authors hope that by highlighting the inconsistencies in data
usage researchers will intensify efforts towards establishing specific benchmarks
for pore water.

2 Uses of Pore Water Data

Pore water data collection has been part of scientific and remedial investigations
since at least the 1930s (e.g., Reid 1930, 1932). Since then, the practice of pore water
collection has advanced significantly beyond digging holes to collect seep water, but
the wide variation in current pore water collection methods illustrates a need for
further understanding. No single collection method is suitable for all situations and
project objectives, but fundamentally pore water extraction should preserve the integ-
rity of the sample by maintaining samples as close to in-situ conditions as possible.
Among other uses, pore water data have been employed to estimate exposures
from contaminated groundwater in discharge zones (Fish 2011), to evaluate and
assess impacts of contaminated sediments (Besser et al. 2009a; Ruhl et al. 2012),
and as a line of evidence for benthic organism exposure in ecological risk assess-
ments (Besser et al. 2009b; Chapman et al. 2002). Chemical concentration profiles
in sediment pore water are used in studies of biogeochemical processes and investi-
gations into contaminant exposure, fate and transport (Di Toro, et al. 1991).
Understanding the interrelationships among pore water, groundwater, sediment, and
overlying surface waters is important in order to accurately:
• Characterize benthic aquatic environments toxicologically.
• Identify contaminant sources and sinks.
• Evaluate contaminant fluxes across the sediment/surface water interface.

3 Pore Water Collection Considerations and Methods

Pore water data are informative only to the extent that they have been properly col-
lected, analyzed and validated. The US EPA (2001) cited major issues of concern
for sample integrity and the ability of the sampling device to maintain natural phys-
iochemical conditions of the pore water and investigators subsequently maintaining
samples in an anoxic environment. More recent EPA guidance for pore water sam-
pling recognizes atmospheric oxidation as a potential sampling artifact: “Because
pore water is typically collected from an anaerobic environment, it is preferable…to
maintain the integrity of the sample by minimizing exposure to air” (US EPA 2013).
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GENERAL INDEX
GENERAL INDEX
Abel, Anne H., monograph on Indian consolidation, 4, 541 n.

Adair, John, and Burr Conspiracy, 3, 291, 292, 314;

career, 292 n., 336 n.;
Wilkinson's letter to, 314, 336;
arrested by Wilkinson, 335, 336, 337 n.;
suit against Wilkinson, 336 n.;
brought to Baltimore, released, 344;
statement, 488 n.;
and Green vs. Biddle, 4, 381.

Adams, Abijah, trial, 3, 44-46.

Adams, Henry, on M. in Jonathan Robins case, 2, 458;

on Pickering impeachment, 3, 143;
on isolation of Burr, 280;
on Burr and Merry, 289;
on American law of treason, 401 n.;
on impressment, 4, 8 n.;
on causes of War of 1812, 29 n.

Adams, John, on drinking, 1, 23 n.;

library, 25;
on Philadelphia campaign, 102;
belittles Washington (1778), 123 n.;
story of expected kingship, 291;
on American and French revolutions, 2, 2 n.;
and title for President, 36;
on Hamilton's financial genius, 61 n.;
and policy of neutrality, 92;
M. on, 214;
on M., 218;
address to Congress on French affairs (1797), French demand of
withdrawal of it, 225, 226, 316;
appointment of X. Y. Z. Mission, 226-29;
and X. Y. Z. dispatches, 336, 338;
offers M. Associate Justiceship, 347, 378, 379;
Federalist toast to, 349 n.;
statement of French policy (1798), 351;
and M.'s journal of mission, 366;
M. on foreign policy, 403;
and prosecutions under Sedition Law, 421;
reopening of French negotiations, political result, 422-28;
pardons Fries insurrectionists, political effect, 429-31, 3, 36;
absence from Capital, 2, 431, 493;
address to Congress (1799), 433;
M.'s reply of House, 433-36;
Jonathan Robins case, 458-75;
disruption of Cabinet, 485-88;
temperament contrasted with Washington's, 486, 488;
appointment of M. as Secretary of State, 486, 489-93;
Republican comment on reorganized Cabinet, 491, 494;
pardon of Williams, 495;
and Bowles in Florida, 497;
and British debts dispute, 503, 505;
and possible failure of new French negotiations, 522;
M. writes address to Congress (1800), 530, 531;
eulogy by Washington Federalist, 532 n.;
and enlargement of Federal Judiciary, 547;
and Chief Justiceship, appointment of M., 552-54, 558;
continues M. as Secretary of State, 558;
midnight appointments, 559-62, 3, 57, 110;
magnanimous appointment of Wolcott, 2, 559, 560;
Jefferson and midnight appointments, 3, 21;
Republican seditious utterances, 30, 33, 37, 42 n.;
and subpœna, 33, 86;
and partisan appointments, 81;
on Bayard's Judiciary speech (1802), 82;
on John Randolph, 171;
and Chase, 211 n.;
and M's biography of Washington, 257;
 on his situation as President, 258 n.;
biography of Washington on, 263 n.;
on Embargo controversy, 4, 15;
on banking mania, 176, 178;
in Massachusetts Constitutional Convention (1820), 471.
See also Elections (1800).

Adams, John Q., Publicola papers, 2, 15-19;

on vandalism of French Revolution, 32 n.;
on American support of French Revolution, 39;
on economic division on policy of neutrality, 97 n.;
on dangers of war with England (1795), 110 n., 112 n.;
on necessity of neutrality, 119 n.;
Minister to Prussia, 229 n.;
on France and American politics, 279 n.;
on Washington streets (1818), 3, 5;
on Federalist defeat, 12;
on impeachment plans (1804), 157-60, 173;
on impeachment of Pickering, 166, 167;
on articles of impeachment against Chase, 172;
on Chase trial, 190 n., 191 n.;
on Randolph's speech at trial, 216 n.;
votes to acquit Chase, 218;
on Burr's farewell address, 274 n.;
on Wilkinson, 341 n.;
on Eaton's story on Burr, 345;
on Swartwout and Bollmann trial, 346;
report on Burr conspiracy and trial, 541-44;
report and courtship of administration, 541 n.;
later support of M., 542 n.;
on Giles's speech on report, 544;
and Yazoo claims, attorney in Fletcher vs. Peck, 582, 585, 586;
and Justiceship, 4, 110;
on crisis of 1819, 205;
M. and election of 1828, 462-65;
on Georgia-Cherokee controversy, 543.
Adams, Mrs. John Q., drawing room, 4, 461.

Adams, Samuel, and Ratification, 1, 348.

Adams, Thomas, sedition, 3, 44.

Addison, Alexander, charge on Sedition Act, 2, 385 n.;

and British precedents, 3, 28 n.;
as judge, denounces Republicans, 46;
on the stump, 47;
on declaring acts void, 117;
impeachment, 164.

Admiralty, M. on unfairness of British courts, 2, 511, 512;

Story as authority, 4, 119;
jurisdiction in Territories, 142-44.
See also International law; Prize.

Adventure and Her Cargo case, 4, 119.

Agriculture, M. on French (1797), 2, 267;

M.'s interest, 4, 63.

Albany Plan, 1, 9 n.

Alexander, James, and Burr conspiracy, arrested, 3, 334;

freed, 343.

Alexandria, Va., tribute to M., 4, 592.

Alexandria Advertiser, campaign virulence (1800), 2, 529 n.

Alien and Sedition Acts, fatality, 2, 361;

provisions, 381;
Hamilton on danger in, 382;
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