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Economic Adjustment and Political Transformation in
Small States First Edition Erik Jones Digital Instant
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Author(s): Erik Jones
ISBN(s): 9780199208333, 0191549037
Edition: First Edition
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Year: 2008
Language: english
Economic Adjustment and Political Transformation
in Small States
This page intentionally left blank
Economic Adjustment and
Political Transformation
in Small States

Erik Jones

1
3
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford ox2 6DP
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide in
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Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press
in the UK and in certain other countries
Published in the United States
by Oxford University Press Inc., New York
© Erik Jones 2008
The moral rights of the author have been asserted
Database right Oxford University Press (maker)
First published 2008
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press,
or as expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriate
reprographics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction
outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department,
Oxford University Press, at the address above
You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover
and you must impose the same condition on any acquirer
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Data available
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Data available
Typeset by SPI Publisher Services, Pondicherry, India
Printed in Great Britain
on acid-free paper by
Biddles Ltd., King’s Lynn, Norfolk

ISBN 978–0–19–920833–3

1 3 5 7 9 10 8 6 4 2
For Una, Isak, Jakob, and Sara
This page intentionally left blank
 Contents

List of Figures viii

List of Tables ix
List of Abbreviations x
Preface xiii
Acknowledgments xvi

Introduction 1

1. The Politics of Economic Adjustment 27

2. Consensual Adjustment in Consociational Democracy 81

3. The Implications of Change 139

4. “Consensual” Adjustment in Post-Consociational

Democracy 165

Conclusion 207

Notes 225
References 250
Index 273

vii
 List of Figures

4.1. Primary fiscal balances 177

4.2. Adjusted wage share in manufacturing 178
4.3. Belgian real Deutschemark exchange rates 179
4.4. Dutch real Deutschemark exchange rates 180
4.5. Belgian real guilder exchange rates 182
4.6. Satisfaction with democracy 200
C.1. Relative real unit labor costs versus EU 15 212
C.2. Net exports 213
C.3. Gross public debt 214
C.4. Primary fiscal balances 215
C.5. Long-term interest rate differentials with Germany 217

viii
 List of Tables

2.1. The regional structure of Belgium (1947–9) 116

3.1. Various indicators of fiscal stance 151
4.1. Average annual productivity growth (percent) 183
4.2. Medium-term exchange rate variability (1961–89) 192
4.3. Inflation performance (1972–89) 194
4.4. Deutschemark exchange rate variability (1975–93) 195
4.5. The regional structure of Belgium (1993–5) 203

ix
 List of Abbreviations

General

EC European Community
ECOFIN Council of Economics and Finance Ministers
ECSC European Coal and Steel Community
ECU European Currency Unit
EDC European Defence Community
EEA European Economic Area
EEC European Economic Community
EFTA European Free Trade Association
EMS European Monetary System
EPC European Political Community
ERM Exchange Rate Mechanism
EU European Union
EU 15 fifteen member states of the European Union (post 1994)
GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GNP Gross National Product
IMF International Monetary Fund
NAFTA North American Free Trade Association
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
OUP Oxford University Press
UK United Kingdom
US United States

x
 List of Abbreviations

Belgium

ABVV Algemeen Belgisch Vakverbond

ACV Algemeen Christelijk Vakverbond
ACW Algemeen Christelijk Werknemersverbond
CCI Comité Central Industriel
CD&V Christen-Democratisch en Vlaams
CDH Centre Démocrate Humaniste
CRB Centrale Raad voor het Bedrijfsleven
CSC Confédération des Syndicates Chretiens
CVP Christelijke Volkspartij
FDF Front Démocratique des Bruxellois Francophones
FGTB Fédération Générale du Travail de Belgique
FIB Fédération des Industries de Belgique
JET Jeugd, Ekonomie, Toekomst
MOC Mouvement Ouvrier Chrétien
PLP Parti de la Liberté et du Progrès
PRL Parti Réformateur Libéral
PSC Parti Social-Chrétien
PVV Partij voor Vrijheid en Vooruitgang (Belgium)
RW Rassemblement Wallon
VB Vlaams Blok, later Vlaams Belang
VBN Verbond der Belgische Nijverheid
VLD Vlaams Liberalen en Democraten
VU Volksunie

Netherlands

ARP Anti-Revolutionaire Partij

CDA Christen Democratisch Appel
CHU Christelijke Historische Unie
CNV Christelijk Nationaal Vakverbond

xi
List of Abbreviations

CSWV Centraal Sociaal Werkgeversverbond

D66 Democraten ‘66
EVC Eenheidsvakcentrale
FNV Federatie Nederlandse Vakbeweging
KAB Katholieke Arbeidersbeweging
KVP Katholieke Volkspartij
NVV Nederlands Verbond van Vereniging
PvdA Partij van de Arbeid
PVV Partij voor de Vrijheid (Netherlands)
SP Socialistische Partij
VNO Verbond van Nederlandse Ondernemingen
VVD Volkspartij voor Vrijheid en Democratie
WAO Wet op de Arbeidsongeschiktheidsverzekering

xii
 Preface

When I first went to Belgium and the Netherlands in the late

1980s, what struck me most was how conservative both countries
were. Everyone I knew who had been there always described them
as liberal in the relaxed and tolerant sense. That was not what I
saw. The people were unbelievably charming, cultured, and polite.
But their tolerance was for foreigners and they never appeared too
relaxed among themselves. Of course it may be that I saw only
what I wanted to see. Having grown up in the American South
and Southwest—at a time when adults did not have first names
and when parents were known affectionately as Sir and Ma’am—
I was well tuned to look for social rules. Certainly, it was not
hard to find them. Along the way, I also began to note the subtle
distinctions between West and East, North and South, Catholic and
Protestant, oui (ooay) and oui (hwee), and hard “g” and soft. These
discoveries made the two countries much more attractive. They
were not blandly tolerant; they were complicated and diverse.
Almost as soon as I started to become familiar with the formal
complexity of the Belgian and Dutch societies, I began to see how
things were fraying at the edges as well. Older generations were
more tightly wedded to tradition while younger generations were
more open to change. There was nothing unique in this pattern
and it was not exactly uniform either. The generation gap was a
cliché that never fit anywhere well. Belgium and the Netherlands
were no exception. I knew young people in Flanders who grew
up speaking French and others who were passionately flamingante.
And I ran into plenty of Dutch people in the Randstad who were

xiii
Preface

eager to point out to me which of my friends—by surname—must

be Catholics from the South.
Even so, the process of value change from one generation to the
next seemed unusually disruptive. That was when I learned about
the literature on consociational democracy and depillarization. It
did not take me long to realize that I was witnessing the passage
from one system to another. The traces of the old consociational
framework remained while the forces for a new and more pluralist
order spread ever more widely.
Every school child in Belgium and the Netherlands learns about
the demise of consociational democracy. You can even find words
like verzuiling and ontzuiling—pillarization and depillarization—
printed in the daily newspaper. The implications are less well
understood. You can see them in relations between one generation
and another, but they are elsewhere as well. The changing structure
of society is weakening the bonds between politicians and voters,
it is changing attitudes toward trade unions and employers’ associ-
ations, it is diluting the “message” in the media, and it is fostering
more diversity in the schools. Moreover, the change in society
is both cause and effect. As traditional attitudes give way, the
pace of social change in Belgium and the Netherlands accelerates.
If he were alive today, the Nobel prize-winning economist and
sociologist Gunnar Myrdal would probably describe the process as
cumulatively causal. The point is not that the more things change,
the more they stay the same; it is that change begets change.
This book starts from just one of the possible implications.
My question is: How does the change in social organization in
Belgium and the Netherlands affect the possibilities for economic
policymaking? The question is important because both countries
are so small, so densely populated, and so open to world market
forces. When things go wrong and economic policymaking breaks
down, there is literally nowhere to run. So far the record for both
countries is mixed. They have done well, but they have also done
badly. Even when they did badly, however, they came out of it
pretty well. You can find some weak spots in the data and some

xiv
 Preface

dodgy neighborhoods in the big cities, but by and large they are
nice places to live.
It took me a short time to answer my question and a long time
to develop the argument. The answer is that the political trans-
formation of the two countries is constraining the possibilities for
economic adjustment. The Belgians and the Dutch could do things
in the past that they can no longer do today. Both countries are
more vulnerable economically as a result. The argument explains
why that should be the case. That is what the rest of this book is
about.
EJ

xv
 Acknowledgments

The research presented here was possible because of the generous

financial support of two organizations: the Tri-lateral Commis-
sion for Educational Exchange (Fulbright Commission) between
the United States, Belgium, and Luxembourg, and the Belgian-
American Educational Foundation. Institutional support was pro-
vided by the Centre for European Policy Studies, the University of
Nottingham, and the SAIS Bologna Center of the Johns Hopkins
University. At different times and in different ways, I benefited
greatly from the advice and guidance of David Calleo, Georges
Delcoigne, Daniel Gros, Paul Heywood, and Patrick McCarthy. My
research assistants over the years have been another source of
invaluable support. Particular thanks go to Kimberly De’Liguori
Carino for helping me to complete and copy-edit the initial
draft.
A number of colleagues read the manuscript in whole or
in part. They all deserve thanks and recognition. Some, how-
ever, went well beyond the call of community. In particu-
lar, I should thank Peter Katzenstein, Paulette Kurzer, Jonathon
Moses, Jurg Steiner, and Steven Wolinetz for their patience
and generosity over the years. I also thank Dominic Byatt and
the referees commissioned by Oxford University Press (OUP)
for their constructive and meticulous work. They urged me to
bring a greater coherence to the manuscript, and so if my
argument makes sense they deserve the lion’s share of the
credit.

xvi
 Acknowledgments

This book is dedicated to my wife Una and our children Isak,

Jakob, and Sara. As is so often the case, I could not have writ-
ten it without their support. But perhaps a better way of putting
it is that they will be happier than anyone to see it finally in
print.
EJ

xvii
This page intentionally left blank
 Introduction

National responses to economic change depend to a great extent

upon the characteristic features of national politics. For example,
Belgium and the Netherlands used to be described as consoci-
ational democracies. This means that while Belgian and Dutch
societies were deeply fragmented across ideological or religious
cleavages, political elites in both countries strove to form broad
consensual governments. As a result, Belgium and the Netherlands
typically responded to economic change through negotiated solu-
tions that share the burdens of adjustment (lost incomes, unem-
ployment, bankruptcy, and so on) across society. Two examples of
such consensual adjustment are the Dutch price–incomes policies
of the 1950s and the Belgian modernization program of the 1960s.
In these cases, broad coalition governments headed by confes-
sional and socialist elites had employers and unemployed workers
accept income losses in order to put the unemployed back to work
and, ultimately, to raise the purchasing power of labor income.1
As a more pluralist democracy, the United States has tended
toward a different pattern of adjustment. Americans are no less
diverse in their interests than the Belgians or the Dutch, but
American society does not possess the same deep cleavages found
in the Low Countries. Americans typically engage in a wide variety
of interest groups, which are generally without a fixed or compre-
hensive ideological framework. Political elites compete for follow-
ers and are challenged to find solutions suitable to a majority of the

1
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of Ducks and
Geese: Standard Breeds and Management
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
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you are located before using this eBook.

Title: Ducks and Geese: Standard Breeds and Management

Author: George E. Howard

Release date: July 17, 2020 [eBook #62685]

Most recently updated: October 18, 2024

Language: English

Credits: Produced by Tom Cosmas

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DUCKS AND

GEESE: STANDARD BREEDS AND MANAGEMENT ***
 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

FARMERS' BULLETIN No. 64.

DUCKS AND GEESE:

STANDARD BREEDS AND MANAGEMENT.
BY

GEORGE E. HOWARD,
Secretary of National Poultry and Pigeon Association.
 WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
1897.

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.
U. S. Department of Agriculture,
Bureau of Animal Industry,
Washington, D. C., September 24, 1897.
Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith, for publication as a
Farmers' Bulletin, an article on Ducks and Geese, prepared by Mr
George E. Howard, secretary of the National Poultry and Pigeon
Association. It comprises an enumeration of the standard breeds of
ducks and geese, and contains suggestions for their management.
The practical information contained in this bulletin will undoubtedly
prove of value to persons engaged in raising ducks and geese, and
its publication and widespread distribution are respectfully
recommended. The illustrations were drawn by the author from
original sketches and photographs, with the exception of three of the
cross-bred geese, which are after the illustrations published by the
Rhode Island Experiment Station, and the wild goose, which is after
the illustration in Wright's Book of Poultry. The author has received
generous assistance in treating of the practical details from James
Rankin, A. J. Hallock, George H. Pollard, and others who are largely
engaged an the raising of water fowls for market.
Respectfully,
D. E. Salmon, Chief of Bureau.
Hon. James Wilson, Secretary.
 CONTENTS.
DUCKS. Page.
Standard breeds of ducks 3
White Pekin ducks (illustrated) 4
White Aylesbury ducks (illustrated) 5
Colored Rouen ducks (illustrated) 8
Black Cayuga ducks (illustrated) 10
Colored and White Muscovy ducks (illustrated) 12
Gray and White Call ducks (illustrated) 14
Black East Indian ducks 15
Crested White ducks (illustrated) 17
Management of ducks 18
Starting a plant (illustrated) 19
Buildings for breeding ducks (illustrated) 20
Brooding houses (illustrated) 22
Supplying water (illustrated) 29
Feeding 30
Mixing feed 32
How much to feed 32
Oyster shells and grit 33
Killing and dressing for market (illustrated) 33
Development of the duckling in the egg 34
Natural incubation 36
Artificial incubation 36
Geese
Standard breeds of geese 38
Gray Toulouse geese (illustrated) 38
White Embden geese (illustrated) 39
Gray African geese (illustrated) 40
Brown and White Chinese geese (illustrated) 41
Gray Wild geese (illustrated) 43
Colored Egyptian geese (illustrated) 43
Management of geese 44
Mating and setting 45
Feeding and dressing for market 47
Cross breeding (illustrated) 48

DUCKS AND GEESE.

DUCKS.
 STANDARD BREEDS OF DUCKS.
Introduction.—There are ten standard breeds of ducks raised in
this country, as follows: The White Pekin, White Aylesbury, Colored
Rouen, Black Cayuga, Colored Muscovy, White Muscovy, Gray Call,
White Call, Black East Indian, and the Crested White. Of these
breeds, the first six are considered profitable to raise; the two
breeds of Calls and the Black East Indian are bantams, and are bred
more for the showroom; the Crested White may be considered as
almost purely ornamental.

Fig. 1.—White Pekin duck.

WHITE PEKIN DUCKS.

 History.—Of all ducks for farm and practical purposes none
stand higher in popular esteem than the White Pekin (fig. 1). It is
valuable for raising on a large scale, and is the most easily raised of
any. It is a very timid bird and must be handled quite carefully. It
was imported from China in the early seventies, and has steadily
grown in popularity since its introduction into this country.

Fig. 2.—Group of White Pekin ducks.

Description.—The Pekin duck has a distinct type of its own, and

differs from all others in the shape and carriage of its body. By some
it is credited with having a shape much like an Indian canoe, owing
to the full growth of feathers under the rump and the singular
turned-up carriage of the tail. The legs are set far back, which
causes the bird to walk in an upright position. In size these ducks
are very large, some reaching as high as 20 pounds to the pair. Their
flesh is very delicate and free from grossness, and they are
considered among the best of table fowls. They are excellent layers,
averaging from 100 to 130 eggs each in a season. They are
nonsetters, hardy, easily raised, and the earliest in maturing of any
ducks. The method given in this bulletin for raising ducks is based on
the Pekin as a standard, and the treatment, food, housing, etc., is
given as used by the largest and most successful raisers of Pekins.
Other ducks are judged for practical qualities by the Pekin. Fig. 2
shows a group of White Pekin ducks.
The standard-bred Pekin has a long finely formed head, a bill of
medium size, of a deep yellow color, that is perfectly free from any
mark or color other than yellow. The color of the bill is very
important for exhibition birds, and it is not infrequent that one of the
best ducks in a showroom is disqualified for having a faint tracing of
black in the bill. The eyes are of deep leaden-blue color. The neck of
a Pekin should be neatly curved; in the drake it should be large and
rather long, while that of the duck is of medium length. The back is
long and broad; breast is round, full, and very prominent. The body
is long and deep, and the standard gives for adult birds a body
approaching the outlines of a parallelogram. The wings are short,
carried closely and smoothly against the body. The birds can not
sustain flight, a 2-foot fencing being ample to restrain them in an
inclosure. The tail is erect, more so than in any other specimen. The
curled feathers in the tail of the drake are hard and stiff. The thighs
are short and large; shanks short and strong, and in color are a
reddish orange; toes straight, connected by a web, and reddish
orange in color. The plumage is downy, and of a faint creamy white
throughout. Recently it has been noticed that preference in the
showroom is being given to birds of whiter plumage. The breeders
are selecting as their show birds those that have the snow-white
plumage instead of the creamy white, as given in the standard.
 Weight.—The standard weight of the adult drake is 8 pounds;
adult duck, 7 pounds; young drake, 7 pounds, and young duck, 6
pounds.

WHITE AYLESBURY DUCKS.

History.—The White Aylesbury ducks (fig. 3.) are second to the
popular Pekins for market purposes, and are bred in large numbers
in England and Europe. In this country they are not so extensively
bred as the Pekin, neither have they been found so good as the
latter. These ducks receive their name from Aylesbury, the county
town of Buckinghamshire, England. They are of large size, pairs
occasionally reaching the weight of 18 pounds, the male birds
weighing 9 or 10 pounds, and the female 7 or 8. Birds weighing 15
to 16 pounds to the pair are the average.
Description.—The head of the Aylesbury duck is long and neatly
formed; the eyes of a deep leaden-blue color; the long, wide bill is
of a pale flesh color or pinkish hue, and should be free from dark
spots, bills marked with black being a disqualification; the neck is
slender, long, and gracefully curved; the body is long and oval; the
breast is full and round; the strong shanks are of brilliant light-
orange color; the wings are strong and nicely folded; the back is
both long and broad, and the tail formed of stiff, hard feathers.
 Fig. 3.—Group of White Aylesbury ducks.

The soft white plumage is one of the chief attractions of the

Aylesbury breed, and like most white plumage has a tendency to
assume a yellow hue if exposed to the sun. The beak will also lose
its delicate pink hue and become yellow if exposed to too much
sunlight in summer. The bill of the Pekin should be yellow, but the
bill of the Aylesbury should be a delicate pink or flesh color, and
birds intended for exhibition must possess this quality or they will
suffer at the hands of the judge. Birds raised for exhibition purposes
must be guarded against too much exposure to the sunlight in the
summer. Of course, these delicate points are of no consequence to
the market poulterer other than to show the true type of the breed.
 For farm purposes the Aylesbury is to be recommended, second
only to the Pekin; it possesses the many good qualities of the Pekin,
and can be bred with almost the same success. The advantages
claimed for Aylesbury are the ease with which it is acclimated,
thriving in every country and climate; its early maturity; its great
hardiness; its large size; its great prolificacy, and the real beauty
which it possesses. Raisers recommend for raising exhibition birds
one drake to two ducks, or two drakes to five ducks, all being
allowed to run together. Duck raisers who raise large numbers for
market breed them as they do Pekins, using from four to eight
females to one male, according to the season of the year. Fresh
blood is introduced every year to keep up the size, and breeding
stock is seldom kept longer than the second or third year.
The Aylesbury being an English duck, it will be of interest to note
the methods employed in their native place for raising them, as
given by an English writer in the following statements:
In and about the town of Aylesbury very many of the cottagers
maintain, each of them, a set of ducks, about 4 ducks to a drake.
These they keep in any outbuilding attached to their dwellings and,
failing such a place, in the cottage itself.
From them the "duckers" (dealers peculiar to the trade) collect
the eggs, and generally bargain with the owners for their whole
supply at a given rate for the season. They begin their collection in
October, and the contract is often made for the whole produce up to
June. The breeding stock of a "ducker" who does an average trade
consists of six drakes and twenty ducks; these all run together, and
the brooks and ponds are looked upon almost as common property.
They are separated at night, driven up to their respective homes,
well fed and warmly housed. The eggs which were laid during the
nighttime are set, as soon as possible, under large and attentive
hens, for which purpose good Dorkings and Cochins are considered
best. The ducks themselves are never allowed to sit, though they
may desire to do so, as the result would be almost certain failure.
 Thirteen eggs comprise a setting, and these are easily covered by
a large hen. Hens are set either in fish pads, small hampers, or, in
what we have found most serviceable, the round boxes in which
cheeses are packed. In the bottom of these is placed some lime or
wood ashes, and then a nest of hay or some soft straw; there the
hens must be kept as quiet as possible. Special care must be taken
to guard against the intrusion of rats or other vermin by which the
hen mother may be disturbed and, as is often the case, the whole
setting be destroyed thereby. The period of incubation is twenty-
eight days, and during the last week of that time care must be taken
to sprinkle the eggs daily with lukewarm water, which softens the
shells, so that when the time comes for the duckling to make its
appearance it has not much difficulty in breaking through its
covering. When the young are hatched they should be left with the
hen until well nestled, well dried, and strong enough to stand. Many
scores of ducklings are lost by inexperienced persons through their
impatience to remove them from the nest. The little duckling is at
first clad with soft, yellow down, which gradually disappears as the
feathers grow. After a few days, three or four broods are put
together with one hen, which is quite able to take care of them all.
For market purposes the treatment of the ducklings is as follows:
They are not allowed to go into any water, but are kept in hovels or
the rooms of cottages, each lot of thirty or forty separated by low
boards. It is no uncommon thing to see 2,000 or 3,000, all in one
establishment. They are kept very clean and dry on barley straw;
their food consists of hard-boiled eggs, chopped fine and mixed with
boiled rice and bullock's liver, cut Tip small. This is given to them
several times in the day for about a fortnight or more. When they
are capable of consuming more they are fed on barley meal and
tallow greaves (cracklings), mixed together with the water in which
the greaves previously have been boiled. Some poultrymen also use
horseflesh to mix with their other food. The above constitutes all
that is necessary to produce early ducklings for the table.
 In plumage the Aylesburys are a pure, spotless white, and
feathers of any other color will disqualify them. Drake and duck vary
only in the ordinary respect of the male bird, showing a very
handsome curled feather in the tail and being of a larger size than
his mate.
Weight.—The standard weight of the adult drake is 9 pounds;
adult duck, 8 pounds; young drake, 8 pounds, and young duck, 7
pounds.

COLORED ROUEN DUCKS.

History.—The Colored Rouen duck (fig. 4) is deservedly popular
throughout this country, and is considered one of the most profitable
breeds to keep. These ducks are said to have come originally from
the city of Rouen, in Normandy. It is known that large quantities of
poultry are raised in Normandy, and while there may be no positive
proof that these ducks came originally from that city, large numbers
of birds closely resembling them are to be found in the market
places there. Some writers contend that the name should be "Roan,"
owing to their color, but the color itself does not support this
contention. The correct name is Rouen, and "Roan" is undoubtedly a
corruption.
Description.—The Rouen duck is a fine market bird, but does
not mature as early as does the Pekin or the Aylesbury. The flesh is
considered very delicate, and the breed is acknowledged to be
superior for table purposes, being easily fattened. The Rouen will be
found a profitable bird to raise on the farm, being hardy, prolific,
quiet in disposition, and of beautiful plumage. Their eggs are not as
large as those of the Pekin, and are diverse in color.
The Rouen is undoubtedly closely related to the Mallard duck; its
plumage alone would make good this belief. But the shape of the
domestic Rouen duck has been greatly modified from that of the
wild Mallard; the body is grown longer and heavier, with a tendency
to drop down in the rear; the wings have lost the power of flight
which the wild ancestor possessed. The plumage, however, remains
almost the same.

Fig. 4.—Trio of Colored Rouen ducks.

The standard-bred Rouen drake has a long, finely-formed head,

with rich, lustrous green plumage; bill long and broad, wider at the
extremity, of greenish-yellow color, with a black bead at the tip; the
neck is long, slender, and neatly curved, covered with the same
lustrous green plumage as the head, which is interrupted by a
distinct white ring, not quite complete behind, on the lower part of
neck. The back is long, the upper part being ashy gray, mixed with
green, and running into a rich, lustrous green on the lower part and
rump; the shoulder coverts are gray, striped with fine, wavy lines of
brown. The breast is broad and deep and purplish brown or claret
color, perfectly free from gray feathers; the claret color should
extend down as far as possible toward the legs. The body is long,
deep, and broad, the under part and sides being a beautiful gray,
which grows lighter near the vent, ending in solid black just beneath
the tail. The wings are short and carried closely and smoothly
against the sides; in color the wings are of a brownish gray,
interspersed with green, and marked with a band of rich purple, with
metallic reflections of green and blue lights, and edged with distinct
white bands; the primary feathers are of a dark, dusky brown. The
tail feathers are hard and stiff, and of a dark ashy-brown color; the
outer edge in old birds is edged with white; the curled feathers are
well curled and hard. The thighs are short and stout and of ashy-
gray plumage; the shanks are short and strong, and in color orange
with brownish tinge; the toes and webs are of the same color as the
shanks.
The head of the Rouen duck, like that of the drake, is long and
finely formed, but with a deep-brown plumage and two stripes of
lighter brown extending from the beak to behind the eyes; bill, long,
broad, and somewhat flat, brownish orange in color, blotched with
darker shade upon the upper part and ending in a black beam at the
tip. The neck is neatly curved, long and slender, light brown in
plumage, penciled with a darker shade of the same color; unlike the
drake, there is no white ring on the neck. The back is long, of a
light-brown color richly marked with green; breast, full and round
and of dark-brown plumage, penciled with lighter brown; body, long,
deep, and broad, the under part and sides of plumage being grayish
brown, each feather penciled with rich dark brown to the point of
the tail. The wings are short for the size of the bird and are carried
closely against the sides; the color of the plumage is grayish brown,
intermingled with green, with bars of purple edged with white, the
colors being distinct; primaries are brown. The tail feathers are stiff
and of a light-brown color, distinctly marked with pencilings of dark
greenish brown; tail coverts are brown, penciled with the same dark
brown, or greenish brown, as the tail. The thighs are dark brown,
penciled; and shanks, toes, and webs are orange or orange brown.
Both the Rouen drake and duck, clothed in plumage attractive
and pleasing to the eye, are as much fanciers' fowls as any of the
varieties of chickens, yet they are of much value as market birds.
The only objection to them, aside from their slow maturing qualities,
is that of the dark pinfeathers. This should not stand against them
any more than it does against the many valuable varieties of
chickens that have dark plumage and dark pinfeathers. To the
farmer who intends raising ducks for market purposes they are to be
recommended.
Weight.—The standard weight of the adult drake is 9 pounds;
adult duck, 8 pounds; young drake, 8 pounds, and young duck, 7
pounds.

BLACK CAYUGA DUCKS.

History.—The black Cayuga (fig. 5) is distinctly an American
duck, having been bred so long in this country that all trace of its
origin is lost. It is said that it was first found in the central part of
New York, on Cayuga Lake. It was sometimes called the "Big Black
duck," and again the "Lake duck," but is now known only as the
Black Cayuga duck. By some it is supposed to have originally come
from the wild Black duck, and another story has it that it was first
found in Dutchess County, in the State of New York, where a miller
was raising a flock of thirty, which, he said, were bred from a pair he
had captured several years previous in a mill pond. They were kept
in the poultry yard, easily tamed, and built their nests on the edges
of the pond and raised large broods. For many years the Cayuga has
been raised in this country and has been considered by those who
have bred it to be a profitable duck to keep.
 Fig. 5.—Pair of Black Cayuga ducks.

Description.—By some raisers the Cayuga is considered to be

as good as the Pekin for early markets, and the claim is made that it
can be grown as cheaply. This assertion is not verified by any
practical demonstration, as these ducks are rarely, if ever, seen on
any farm where ducks are raised exclusively. Though raisers
generally speak of their merits as making them profitable, and place
them next to the Pekin for early markets, they prefer the latter for
exclusive duck raising where early maturity and plump carcasses are
wanted. Their black plumage is against them also, and many assign
this as the reason why they are not more extensively bred. The
farmer who desires a good, practical duck to raise on his farm in
conjunction with other poultry will find this a valuable bird to keep.
More time can be spent in dressing it for market than is generally
given to the dressing of the white-plumage birds, and the profits will
be proportionately as great. Duck raisers, like broiler raisers, are
partial to white feathers for market fowls, but those who do not look
with this partiality on the white varieties will find an excellent choice
in the Cayuga duck.
Cayugas are splendid birds for a restricted range and breed well
in confinement; they are quiet, docile, and form a strong attachment
for their home, evincing no inclination or desire to stray far away
from the place where they were bred. They are hardy and prolific,
producing from 80 to 90 eggs in the spring, and sometimes they also
lay again in the autumn. They are easily kept in good condition, but
if fed too liberally they will fatten too quickly and will become too
heavy behind. The ducklings are hardy and easy to raise, and attain
good size and weight at an early age.
The head of the Cayuga is small, with glossy black plumage; bill
rather short and broad, of dark color, black being preferred; the eyes
dark hazel. The neck is medium, gracefully curved, clad in black
feathers with a greenish luster; the back is broad, and the body
long, well rounded, and very plump, the feathers being of a glossy
black hue. The wings are long and are carried smoothly against the
body, and are black in color, excepting those of the duck, which are
sometimes of a dark brown. The coverts of the drake are a very
lustrous green black; the tail feathers are black, as are the thighs.
Black shanks, toes, and webs are preferred, though dark slate color
is permissible according to the standard requirements. The color of
the plumage must be lustrous black throughout, and feathers of any
other color will disqualify a bird in the showroom.
Weight.—The standard weight of the adult drake is 8 pounds;
adult duck, 7 pounds; young drake, 7 pounds, and young duck, 6
pounds.

COLORED AND WHITE MUSCOVY DUCKS.

History.—Muscovy ducks (fig. 6) form a distinct genus, having
several peculiarities or characteristics which make them different
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