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High Pressure Geochemistry and Mineral Physics Basics
for Planetology and Geo material Science 1st Edition
Sachinath Mitra (Eds.) Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Sachinath Mitra (Eds.)
ISBN(s): 9780444512666, 0444512667
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 10.43 MB
Year: 2004
Language: english
Developments in Geochemistry 9
High-Pressure Geochemistry
and Mineral Physics

Basics for Planetology

and Geo-material Science
Developments in Geochemistry
1. W.S. Fyfe, N.J. Price and A.B. Thompson
FLUIDS IN THE EARTH’S CRUST

2. P. Henderson (Editor)
RARE EARTH ELEMENT GEOCHEMISTRY

3. B.A. Mamyrin and I.N. Tolstikhin

HELIUM ISOTOPES IN NATURE

4. B.O. Mysen
STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF SILICATE MELTS

5. H.A. Das, A. Faanhof and H.A. van der Sloot

RADIOANALYSIS IN GEOCHEMISTRY

6. J. Berthelin
DIVERSITY OF ENVIRONMENTAL BIOGEOCHEMISTRY

7. L.W. Lake, S.L. Bryant and A.N. Araque-Martinez

GEOCHEMISTRY AND FLUID FLOW

8. N. Shikazono
GEOCHEMICAL AND TECTONIC EVOLUTION OF
ARC-BACKARC HYDROTHERMAL SYSTEMS
 Developments in Geochemistry 9
High-Pressure Geochemistry
and Mineral Physics

Basics for Planetology

and Geo-material Science
By

Sachinath Mitra

2004

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 vii

Preface

In the second half of twentieth century, the discipline of planetary science has
witnessed three major episodes, which have revolutionized its approach and content: (i)
the plate-tectonic theory, (ii) human landing and discoveries in planetary astronomy, and
(iii) the extraordinary technical advancement in high P – T studies, which have largely
been abetted by a vast improvement in computational methods. Using these new
computational methods, such as first principles including ab initio models, calculations
have been made for the electronic structure, bonding, thermal EOS, elasticity, melting,
thermal conductivity and diffusivity. Indeed, significant achievements have been made at
the cross-roads of physics and planetary science.
In this monograph, the boundaries of the definitions of a petrologist, geochemist,
geophysicist or a mineralogist have been wilfully eliminated to bring them all under the
spectrum of ‘high-pressure geochemistry’ when they deal with any material (quintessen-
tially a chemical assemblage) — terrestrial or extraterrestrial — under the conditions of
high-pressure and temperature. Thus, a petrologist using a spectrometer or any instrument
for high-pressure studies of a rock or a mineral, or a geochemist using them for chemical
synthesis and characterization, is better categorized as a ‘high-pressure geochemist’ rather
than any other kind of disciplinarian.
The contents of this monograph will display the purpose for bringing under one
cover apparently disparate disciplines like solid-Earth geophysics and geochemistry as
well as material science and condensed-matter physics. Indeed, such interdisciplinary
activities led to the discovery of new phenomena such as high P –T behaviour in metal
oxides (e.g., Mott transition), novel transitions such as amorphization, changes in order –
disorder in crystals and the anomalous properties of oxide melts.
This monograph thus tries to focus more on the theme rather than on the discipline
(e.g., mineralogy, geochemistry or geophysics or whatever). Even a simple and innocuous
word like ‘layering’ bears different connotations for different disciplines of geoscience. To
geochemists, it means the extent to which the mantle experienced degassing of primordial
noble gasses (e.g., 40Ar) or was deprived of its large-ion lithophile elements (now residing
in the continents). To mineral physicists, it pertains to seismic changes with depth of the
mantle’s elemental (and mineralogical) composition. To geophysicists, it means the
degree to which convection is prevented from being whole mantle, preventing formation
of internal boundary layers. The mineral physicists, in general, may accept mantle
homogeneity (e.g., pyrolite composition) while, for geochemists, the evidence is too
strong to stand against it. Geophysicists are prone to believe that the mantle being stirred
from bottom to top mainly operates through the process of subduction and plume
generation. It is generally believed by geochemists that much of the Earth’s heat originates
deep in the mantle and that it must get out by mass transport if the mantle convects from
viii Preface

top to bottom. The nature of such disagreement reflects very well the orthogonality of the
two major groups: the geochemists and the geophysicists. Nevertheless, the models may
converge in the frame of time.
Mineral physics and its relationships to seismological data, particularly for the
mantle, have been dealt with in this monograph, which attempts to provide a snapshot of
the rapidly evolving field of geochemistry under high P, T environments. An attempt has
been made to cull and collate all diverse ideas, theoretical models and experimental results
into a certain degree of coherence with perhaps some constrained (delimited) success.
Discussions about chemical systems — that is, what the planets are — are allowed
to waft through a collection of ideas which often stray far afield. Self-evidently, a graduate
student is not expected to be an expert in all the fields but one is asked to call upon a degree
of courage to know how and why to read the disciplines that have been allied into the
broad spectrum discipline called ‘geochemistry’. In this process, it can possibly be more to
be gained by collaborating with oneself rather than with a host of others. This effort in
lateral thinking helps to secure a certain degree of comfort from converging disciplines
and from the use of their language for an integrated and holistic appreciation. Indeed, this
is expected to be the prevalent mood in the approach to research in the global village of
geoscience in the early twenty-first century.
How a planet should evolve depends on a number of physical properties besides P
and T. Structural distortions, defect chemistry and impurity (dopants) may affect elastic
constants, thermal and electrical conductivity, rheology, diffusion rates and other physical
properties. In a sense, the basic question of deep-Earth geochemistry is a peculiar sort of
inverse problem in materials science.
For a better appreciation of the major problems in planetary science and
geochemistry today, the synthesis and characterization of materials at high pressures and
high temperatures come almost as the quintessential procedures. The ever-increasing
experimental abilities to manipulate, simulate and synthesize materials hold the key to this
endeavour. The activity falls well within the premise of what is broadly known as
condensed-matter physics. Under the rubric of condensed-matter geophysics comes the
diverse studies and syntheses of materials, liquid glasses and crystalline solids to shed light
on planetary interiors, volcanology and the transport properties of planetary materials at
high pressure and temperature prevalent within planets.
Advances in HP studies have occurred chiefly as a result of breakthroughs in
experimental techniques, developed by cross-fertilization of conceptual and technical
ideas across disciplines and amongst laboratories. Development of quantum mechanics
and modern solid-state theory and accelerating developments in static and dynamic
compression techniques have helped investigations to range from planetary interiors to
terapascal (10 million atmosphere pressure), the domains of stellar interiors and ultra-
dense plasmas. But nuclear processes effected by pressure are left out in the present scope
of this monograph, except for a glide over Mossbauer and NMR spectroscopy under
pressure.
Recently, it has been shown that pair potentials that accurately describe the X-ray
and sound-velocity measurements in solids can predict well for lower-mantle temperatures
along the Hugoniot.
Preface ix

Surprisingly, many high-pressure techniques have their origins in geoscience

laboratories and, in many respects and more often than not, necessities of geoscience have
mothered the inventions and development of high-pressure techniques which have fed
back usefully to physics, chemistry and materials science. Micro-analytical techniques,
such as micro-spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction, developed for high-pressure research,
are finding uses in other fields. Highly collimated, coherent, monochromatic laser beams
can be focussed quite conveniently through diamond windows of an HP cell to provide a
versatile microprobe with mm spatial resolution to multi-megabar pressures. The use of
these laser microprobes has opened new areas for research employing HP Raman,
luminescence and Brillouin spectroscopies.
With the arrival of the third-generation synchrotron source and the development of
in situ micro-analytical techniques, HP mineralogy is reaching its maturity. Under high
P –T conditions (through experimental and/or theoretical simulations), a host of important
chemical and physical properties of minerals have been investigated. The pressure-
induced transformations include crystallographic transformations (both reconstructive and
displacive), electronic changes (including band structure, bonding and insulator – metal
transition), magnetic transition and so on.
Some most exciting observations have been made on simple molecular
compounds at megabar pressures. To cite just two: the discovery of a new class of
excitations in orientationally ordered low-temperature phases of solid hydrogen and
deuterium and the experimental evidence obtained by the scientists of Geophysical
Laboratory (Washington) for the non-molecular high-pressure modification of ice with
symmetric hydrogen bonds. The transition pressure of H2O-ice from its normal
molecular form to its high-density non-molecular state can be pinpointed. This transition
is associated with unusual quantum mechanical phenomena. Currently, 3D tomographic
maps of seismic velocity anomalies and regional radial profiles are being prepared by
geophysicists.

Acknowledgements

The author is indebted to a number of eminent scientists who generously allowed

permission to use their materials in the preparation of this monograph, which is essentially
a wide-spectrum review work. The author expresses his gratitude for the copyright
permission obtained from the following publishers for their numerous source journals
from which tables and diagrams have been redrawn and reproduced.
American Association for the Advancement of Science; American Institute of
Physics; American Physical Society; Geochemical Society; IOP Publishing Ltd.;
Mineralogical Society of America; Nature; Royal Society, London; Societa Italiana di
Fisica; Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg; University of Chicago; Wiley-VCH; American
Geophysical Union.
Generous cooperation by way of the supply of research outputs was received from
the Carnegie Institute, Washington, for over a decade in the preparation of the
manuscript.
x Preface

In the preparation of the typed copy, spontaneous cooperation was rendered by my

students, Dr. M. Bidyananda, Dr. Susanta K. Samanta and Mr. Dibyendu Mal (Research
student). In the artwork, considerable help was available from Mr. Tarapada Bhattacharya,
the recently retired draftsman of our department.

Sachinath Mitra
Department of Geological Sciences
Jadavpur University
 xi

Table of Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix

Section A: Preamble and Preview

Section B: The Earth and Planetary System

Chapter 1. (A) Cosmochemistry and Properties of Light Element

Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.1.1. Range of pressure in the universe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.1.2. The proto-solar nebula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.2. Cosmochemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.2.1. Data source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.2.2. Chemical segregation in nebular condensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.2.3. The Solar System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.2.3.1. Meteorites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.2.3.2. Inner planets: major constituents and phases . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.3. Evolutionary history of the Solar System: terrestrial planetary formation . . . 31
1.3.1. Interplanetary flights of planetary materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.3.2. Primary chemical elements for life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.3.2.1. Microorganisms under pressure: clues to HP
genesis of life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
1.3.2.2. Biogenesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
1.3.3. Primitive atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
1.4. Charge density within planetary interiors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
1.4.1. Electrons under pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
1.5. Forces binding atoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
1.5.1. Van der Waals forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1.5.1.1. Van der Waals compounds: new materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1.5.2. Ionic compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
1.5.2.1. Simple ionic model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
1.5.2.2. Overlap- and self-energy: pair-potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
1.5.2.3. Ions in distorted lattice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
1.5.2.4. Multipoles and polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
1.5.3. Covalent and hydrogen bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
xii Table of Contents

1.5.3.1. Pressure rupturing of the binding forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

1.6. Helioseismology and Jovian structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
1.7. Planetary constituents under pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
1.7.1. Transition pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
1.8. Hydrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
1.8.1. Hydrogen molecular states . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
1.8.2. Vibrational properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
1.8.2.1. Vibrational excitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
1.8.2.2. Experiments (P .300 GPa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
1.8.2.3. Vibrons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
1.8.2.4. Phonons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
1.8.2.5. Rotons and librons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
1.8.2.6. Hydrogen bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
1.8.3. Quantum condensate, BEC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
1.8.3.1. Proton quantum tunnelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
1.8.4. Insulator –metal transition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
1.8.5. Solid hydrogen: frustrating metallic behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
1.8.5.1. Black hydrogen and metallization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
1.8.5.2. .300 GPa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
1.8.5.3. Effective charge: phase III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
1.8.5.4. Solid hydrogen: alkali metal(?) at 340 GPa . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
1.8.6. Ortho- and para-hydrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
1.8.6.1. Ortho –para conversion: quantum solid state . . . . . . . . . . . 64
1.8.6.2. Conversion energy channels: EQQ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
1.8.7. Hydrogen in Jupiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
1.8.8. H in terrestrial planets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
1.8.8.1. Hydrogen in the Earth’s minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
1.8.8.2. Water in the Earth: D/H ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
1.8.8.3. H/H2O in mantle phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
1.9. Water and ammonia in Uranus and Neptune . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
1.9.1. Electrical conductivity: “synthetic Uranus” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
1.9.2. Metallicity(?) of water and ammonia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
1.9.3. Water: structural order and anomalies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
1.9.3.1. Proton (and oxygen) diffusion in water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
1.9.4. Superionic solid state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
1.9.4.1. Ammonia: superionic state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
1.10. H2 mixtures and clathrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
1.10.1. H2 – O2 mixture: “Hard Spheres” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
1.10.2. CH4 – H2 and Ar –H2 systems: Laves phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
1.10.2.1. Laves phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
1.10.3. N2 – CH4: Titan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
1.11. H2O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
1.11.1. Bonding: covalency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
1.11.2. Hydrodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
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1.11.3. H2O –ice structure: “ice rules” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

1.11.3.1. Reflectance spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
1.11.4. Entropy of ice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
1.11.4.1. Ferroelectric alignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
1.11.4.2. Spin ice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
1.11.5. Ice Ih, III, IV, V and VI: phase diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
1.11.5.1. Ice VI in diamond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
1.11.5.2. Ice Ih: stability boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
1.11.5.3. Proton ordering/disordering: new phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
1.11.5.4. Higher isomorphs: ices VII, VIII and X . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
1.11.5.5. Ice VII: as pressure medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
1.11.6. Supercooled water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
1.11.6.1. Amorphous ice polymorphism: high-density
and low-density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
1.11.6.2. Diffraction study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
1.11.6.3. LDA ice, ice Ih and quenched water:
vibrational spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
1.11.6.4. VHDA ice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
1.12. Deuterium at high pressure: Saturn’s core . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
1.12.1. Deuterium in Mars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
1.12.2. D/H ratios in minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
1.12.2.1. D/H ratio in extraterrestrial and subsurface water . . . . . . . 95
1.13. Alkali metals: Li to Cs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
1.13.1. “Nearly-free electron” behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
1.13.2. Fermi pressure in lithium isotopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
1.14. CO2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
1.14.1. Stability of CO2 polymorphs: CO2-V quartz-like . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
1.14.2. H2O–CO2 mixture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
1.15. Carbon in space and in the Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
1.15.1. Fullerites and nano-crystallites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
1.15.2. Carbon polymorphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
1.15.3. Carbon in the Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
1.15.4. Carbon in high P – T: stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
1.15.4.1. C, Si and Ge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
1.15.5. Carbon-bonding structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
1.15.6. Graphite and diamond phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
1.15.6.1. Superhard graphite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
1.15.6.2. Resistivity and phase transition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
1.15.6.3. Pre-solar nano-diamonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
1.15.6.4. Terrestrial occurrence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
1.15.7. Carbon isotopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
1.15.7.1. Oxygen and carbon-12 (C-12) evolution
on the Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
1.15.7.2. 12C/13C ratios: interstellar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
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1.15.7.3. Raman line: P, T calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

1.15.7.4. 14C diamond: elastic moduli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
1.15.8. Optical behaviour of diamond: flow and
pressure-luminescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
1.15.9. Carbon clusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
1.15.9.1. Charged carbon clusters: low-P diamond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
1.15.9.2. C-nanotubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
1.15.9.3. Fullerenes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
1.15.10. Organic minerals in meteorites: shock loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
1.15.10.1. Amino-acid racemization: chirality retention . . . . . . . . . . . 126
1.15.10.2. Vitrinite maturation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
1.16. Nitrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
1.17. Sulphur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
(B) Terrestrial Planets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
1.18. Early geochemical evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
1.18.1. Chondritic character of terrestrial bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
1.18.1.1. Chemical differentiation: siderophile elements . . . . . . . . . . 132
1.19. Accretionary evolution of the Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
1.20. Compositional characteristics of the Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
1.20.1. Magma ocean generation and crustal fractionation in
early Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
1.20.1.1. Early crust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
1.21. Fluids within the Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
1.21.1. Water in the Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
1.21.2. Water in the magmatic processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
1.21.3. Fluids in the lower crust: granulites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
1.21.4. Mantle fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
1.21.5. Atmospheric noble gases in mantle melts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
1.21.5.1. Inert gases: solar-like? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
1.21.5.2. Ar, Kr and Xe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
1.21.5.3. Ar solubility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
1.21.5.4. The “missing xenon problem” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
1.22. Potassium budget in the Earth’s mantle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
1.22.1. K-feldspar/Hollandite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
1.22.2. Phlogopite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
1.22.3. Clinopyroxene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
1.22.4. K2O in mantle solidus: seismic attenuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
1.23. Mantle isotopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
1.23.1. Sm – Nd ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
1.23.2. Eu anomaly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
1.23.3. Sr, Nd and Hf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
1.23.4. Osmium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
1.23.5. 187Re and 187Os . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
1.23.6. U – Pb and Re – Os ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
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1.23.7. Isotopes in MORB and hotspots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

1.23.8. Isotopes in UHP rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
1.23.8.1. 18O isotopes: non-equilibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
1.23.8.2. d18O: an example for isotope separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
3 4
1.24. He/ He reservoirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
(C) Heavy Element Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
1.25. Ferrous metals in rocky planets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
1.26. Element distribution in mineral system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
1.26.1. Partitioning of elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
1.26.1.1. Siderophile elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
1.26.1.2. Incompatible elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
1.27. Transition metals in magmas: CFSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
1.27.1. Principles of metal distribution in magmatic differentiation . . . . . . . . 161
1.27.2. Transition-element partitioning in mineral systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
1.27.2.1. Ni2þ and Co2þ: pressure partitioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
1.27.2.2. Cr3þ, Ni2þ, Fe3þ and Ti4þ ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
1.27.2.3. Cr2þ, Ni2þ and Co3þ ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
1.27.2.4. Ni –Co partitioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
1.27.2.5. Plutonic rocks and metal concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
1.27.2.6. Highly siderophile elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
1.28. Ca –Al and Mg – Si proportionation in the mantle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
1.28.1. Critical ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
1.29. Core differentiation / heterogeneous accretion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
1.29.1. 182W fractionation and Hf/W ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
1.29.1.1. Hf/W in early history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
1.29.2. Core:Re/Os . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
40
1.30. K in the core . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

Chapter 2. Petro-Tectonic Features of Terrestrial Planets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

2.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
2.2. The Earth models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
2.2.1. The PREM model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
2.2.2. Seismological models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
2.2.2.1. Elastic constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
2.2.3. Petrological models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
2.2.3.1. Pyrolite model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
2.2.3.2. Piclogite model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
2.2.4. Convection model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
2.2.4.1. Mantle convection at Archean –Proterozoic transition . . . 187
2.2.4.2. Mantle Raleigh number and flush instability
at late Archean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
2.3. Physical parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
2.3.1. Parameter changes with depths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
2.3.1.1. Lithosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
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2.3.2. Parameterized PREM model: EOS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192

2.4. Seismic model: discontinuities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
2.4.1. Seismic discontinuities: Moho to the D00 zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
2.5. Thermal structures of the Earth’s mantle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
2.5.1. Temperature –depth relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
2.5.1.1. Heat sources and heat flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
2.5.2. Thermal anomalies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
2.5.2.1. Upper mantle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
2.5.2.2. Lower mantle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
2.5.2.3. Thermal structure of the core and CMB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
2.5.3. Adiabatic gradient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
2.5.3.1. Deviations from adiabaticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
2.5.3.2. Heat flow and plate tectonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
2.6. Elastic parameters of the Earth’s interior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
2.6.1. Stress and strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
2.6.1.1. Strain tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
2.6.1.2. Zero-pressure bulk modulus, K0 : Eulerian strain . . . . . . . . 205
2.6.2. Seismic waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
2.6.2.1. P- and S-waves in seismic discontinuities
and in the core . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
2.6.2.2. Minor discontinuities (reflective) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
2.6.2.3. Wave velocities in the lower crust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
2.6.2.4. Wave velocities in lower mantle: T effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
2.6.2.5. Crustal plates and earthquakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
2.6.2.6. Strain transients and earthquakes, co- and
post-seismic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
2.6.2.7. Precursors to earthquakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
2.6.3. Acoustic and ultrasonic wave-velocities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
2.6.3.1. Ultrasonic velocities and Q in porous rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
2.6.4. Subcrustal stress fields: ore localization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
2.6.4.1. Gravitational field models: degree harmonics
and mantle flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
2.6.5. Tools for sub-surface studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
2.6.5.1. GPS in tectonic studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
2.6.5.2. Mars global surveyor (MGS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
2.7. The crust and cratons (“keels”) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
2.7.1. Continental lithosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
2.7.2. Subcontinental mantle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
2.7.3. Plate tectonics, magmatism and hotspots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
2.8. The mantle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
2.8.1. Geochemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
2.8.1.1. Mantle end members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
2.8.2. Petro-tectonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
2.8.3. Xenoliths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Table of Contents xvii

2.8.4.
Deep-mantle flow and Wilson cycle: American Cordillera . . . . . . . . . 226
2.8.5.
Diversification of rock types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
2.8.5.1. Petrogeny’s residua system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
2.8.5.2. Effusive rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
2.8.5.3. Calc-alkaline magmatism: LIL enrichment
and “Pb paradox” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
2.9. Earth’s rheology and dynamism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
2.9.1. Lithospheric rheology and dynamism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
2.9.2. Mantle rheology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
2.9.2.1. Decompression and magma fragmentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
2.9.3. Seismic tomography: Iceland hotspot and Nazca plate . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
2.9.3.1. Anomalous low-velocity zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
2.10. Convergent plate boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
2.10.1. Subducting slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
2.10.1.1. Slab tomography: volatiles and partial melting . . . . . . . . . 235
2.10.1.2. Deflections of seismic discontinuities:
NW Pacific subduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
2.10.1.3. Deep-focus earthquakes: fossil slab at
transition zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
2.10.2. Subducting mafic, ultramafic rocks and sediments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
2.10.2.1. Subduction of oceanic lithosphere: upper to
lower mantle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
2.10.2.2. Mid-oceanic ridge basalt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
2.10.3. Mantle wedge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
2.10.3.1. Arc magmatism: alkali and H2O activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
2.10.4. Hotspots and mantle plumes: OIB versus MORB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
2.10.4.1. Iceland mantle plume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
2.10.4.2. Plumes and underplating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
2.10.4.3. Megaplumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
2.11. Upper mantle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
2.11.1. Upper-mantle anisotropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
2.11.2. Mantle minerals versus discontinuities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
2.11.2.1. Upper mantle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
2.11.2.2. 400, 520 and 670 km discontinuities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
2.11.2.3. Ca-phases in mantle discontinuities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
2.11.3. Mantle melting and extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
2.11.3.1. Deep-mantle melting: melt sinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
2.11.3.2. Depletion and mixing: non-Newtonian
high-viscosity blobs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
2.11.4. Peridotite mineralogy at depths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
2.11.4.1. Mantle silicate framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
2.12. Lower mantle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
2.12.1. Phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
2.12.2. Solidus in the lower mantle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
xviii Table of Contents

2.12.3. Fe, Si enrichment in the lower mantle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258

2.12.3.1. Effects of Fe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
2.12.3.2. P- and S-velocities and shear modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
2.13. Core – mantle boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
2.13.1. Minerals at CMB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
2.13.2. Hotspots and CMB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
2.13.3. Anisotropic structures at CMB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
2.13.3.1. Seismic anisotropy in D00 layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
2.13.3.2. Anisotropy caused by paleo-slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
2.13.3.3. Carribbean and Pacific evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
2.14. Reaction between mantle and liquid-core . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
2.14.1. Ultra-low-velocity zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
2.15. The Earth’s magnetism and orbital obliquity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
2.15.1. Mantle plume and geomagnetic reversals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
2.16. Mars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
2.16.1. Crust and mantle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
2.16.2. SNC and LHB: ALH 84001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
2.16.3. Martian mantle composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
2.16.3.1. Mantle geochemistry: SNC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
2.16.3.2. Mantle-phase stability: MB versus KLB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
2.16.3.3. Fe-rich Martian mantle: density increase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
2.16.3.4. Olivine –spinel phase transition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
2.16.3.5. Mantle-flow: viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
2.16.3.6. Magmatic water in Mars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
2.16.4. Magnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
2.16.4.1. Core formation and magnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
2.17. Venus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
2.17.1. Gabbro ! eclogite transition in Venus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
2.18. Mercury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
2.19. Galilean satellites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
2.20. Interplanetary flights of planetary materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282

Chapter 3. Structural Types of Major Phases: AB, AB2, A2B3, ABX3,

ABX4, AB2X4 and A2B2X7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
3.1. AB structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
3.1.1. NaCl (B1): alkali halides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
3.1.1.1. Exciton in alkali halides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
3.1.1.2. NaCl structure at lower mantle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
3.1.2. CsCl (B2) structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
3.1.2.1. Cs-halide (B2), CsI: metallization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
3.1.2.2. Convergence with rare gas: solid Xe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
3.1.3. NiAs (B8) structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
3.1.3.1. Chemical bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
3.1.3.2. Hexagonal close packing and c/a ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Table of Contents xix

3.2. AB2 structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294

3.2.1. SiO2 polymorphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
3.2.1.1. Si-coordination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
3.2.1.2. Polarization and chirality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
3.2.2. TiO2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
3.2.2.1. Cotunnite type: hardest polymorph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
3.2.2.2. Crystallographic shear (cs) planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
3.2.3. Post-stishovite phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
3.2.3.1. Stishovite(TiO2) ! a-PbO2 structural transformation . . . 301
3.2.3.2. Baddeleyite-type structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
3.3. A2B3 structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
3.3.1. Fe2O3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
3.3.1.1. Structural and spin transition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
3.3.1.2. X-ray emission spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
3.3.2. Al2O3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
3.3.2.1. Quadrupole polarizability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
3.4. ABX3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
3.4.1. Perovskite – ilmenite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
3.4.2. Ilmenite structure: stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
3.4.2.1. Polymorphism of FeTiO3: LiNbO3 structure . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
3.4.3. Ilmenite solution in olivine: Alpe Arami massif . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
3.5. ABX4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
3.5.1. Berlinite/scheelite structure: AWO4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
3.5.2. Berlinite and crystobalite: AlPO4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
3.5.2.1. GaPO4 and AlAsO4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
3.6. A2BX4 structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
3.6.1. Tetragonal structure: K2NiO4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
3.6.2. Spinel structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
3.7. A2B2X7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
3.7.1. Pyrochlore structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
3.7.1.1. Frustration and magnetic “spin ice” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
3.7.1.2. Tl2Mn2O7: GMR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317

Section C: Basics for Pressures Studies

Chapter 4. Principles of Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321

4.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
4.1.1. Insulator –metal transition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
4.1.1.1. Mott insulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
4.1.2. High-pressure techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
4.1.2.1. Synchrotron source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
4.1.2.2. Synchrotron radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
mass ; form into balls by pressing Mith the floured hands. Ordinary
molasses may be used for this purpose boiled to same degree, no
gum being necessary. Pop-corn Cake is prepared the same, putting
the mass while warm into tins and pressing with rollers into thin
sheets, afterwards dividing them into small square cakes. Everton
Taffy. — Use broAvn sugar, and to each cup take quarter pound very
best butter ; put into a clean, bright basin or pan and melt together
over a brisk fire, stirring constantly with a wooden spatula, adding a
fcAV drops lemon juice. Ten minutes' boiling wall bring it to the
desired degree, the crack., which may be known by dropping a little
upon a cold plate or saucer ; if it hardens at once,
 142 CONFECTIONERY. it is done ; add lemon or vanilla
flavoring just before the cooking is completed ; pour it into buttered
pans or on a marble table (slightly buttered), and, when cool
enough, cut or mark it with a greased knife into square tablets ;
loosen it from the marble by running a knife under it before it
becomes entirely cold. This is the real English recipe and and is the
favorite confection of all true Britons. HlcTiory-nut Taif)j. — Two
pints maple sugar, half pint water, or just enough to dissolve sugar ;
boil until it becomes brittle ^^^. by'dropping in cold water ; just
before pouring out add table- (Slg^ spoon vinegar ; having prepared
the hickory-nut meats in ^^"^ ^" halves, butter patty pans well,
line with the meats, and pour taffy over them. French Trifles. —
These are made same as kisses, but the board upon which they are
baked should not be wet, that they may harden through. A cut of
tube to be used in confectioner's bag when shaping them is here
given. Sugar Threads. — Boil sugar until brittle, put a few drops on
buttered form and draw out the thread. If sufficiently cooked the
thread can be twisted into any shape. If it becomes too cold to work,
heat again." . Kiss Wafers. — Half pint blanched bitter almonds,
heaping cup powdered sugar, whites of six eggs, one-third cup flour,
two tablespoons corn-starch ; blanch the almonds and pound them
in a mortar, adding as soon as they are broken the white of an egg.
Pound until very fine. When there is a smooth paste add the sugar, a
little at a time, the whites of two eggs, one at a time, and the flour
and corn-starch. When thoroughly mixed, add by degrees the three
remaining whites. Butter the bottom of a flat baking pan and put the
mixture on it in spoonfuls ; spread it very thin, especially in the
center, and bake in a quick oven. The moment the cakes are taken
from the oven roll into the shape of cornucopias. If allowed to cool
they cannot be rolled, and for this reason it is best to bake only half
a dozen at a time. 'When all are shaped, fill with the kiss mixture
made by beating whites of three eggs to a stiff froth, and stirring
into them, light Iv, four tablespoons powdered sugar. Place the
wafers in a warm oven for twenty minutes or half an hour, to dry.
With the quantities given two dozen can be made. Cochineal
Coloring. — This is said to be quite harmless and is made by taking
one ounce each powdered cochineal, cream tartar, two drachms
alum and a half pint water. Boil cochineal, water and cream tartar till
reduced one-half, add the alum and put into small bottles. Use to
color candies, cakes, blanc-mange and jellies.
 CANNING FRUITS. 148 OAlSnsriNG^ FPMJITS. In order to
work intelligently, the princii^le applied in canning should be
understood. The fruit is prepared by placing it in a vessel from which
the external air is entirely excluded, and this is effected by the use
of heat to rarefy and expel the air that may be entangled in the
mass of fruit or lodged in its j)ores. The preservation of fruit does
not depend upon sugar, though enough of this is generally used to
make it palatable. The heat answers another purpose ; it destroys
the ferment which fruits naturally contain, and so long as they are
kept from contact with the external air they do not decompose.
Fruits for canning should be selected carefull}^ and are much better
if gathered in the morning, in dry weather, with the morning sun
upon them, if possible; they will then have their fullest flavor, and
keep in good condition longer than when gathered at any other
time. Until fruit can be used, it should be placed in the dairy, an ice-
house, or a refrigerator. In an ice-house it will remain fresh and
plump for several days. Fruit gathered in wet or foggy weather will
soon be mildewed. All imperfect and over-ripe fruit must be rejected.
Large fruits, such as peaches, pears, etc., are in the best condition
to can when not quite fully ripe, and should be put up as soon as
possible after picking. An easy way to peel peaches is to place them
in a wire basket, to the handle of which a cord has been tied, let
down into boiling water for a moment (some use strong white lye),
then into cold Avater, and strip off the skin. This is called the dipping
process. The fruit must be at a certain stage to be prepared in this
way, for if too green it will not peel, and if too
 144 CANNING FRUITS. ripe it will be too much softened by
the hot water. Peaches, pears, and all large fruits should be thrown
into ^•*^w_J==^ pi^^iin Lt^ an earthen vessel of cold water as
soon as Paring K.nie. peeled,as exposure to the air darkens them.
But the fruit should not stand long in the water, as it will soon
become soft, and it is better to prepare only enough for one can at a
time. Cooking reduces peaches ahout one-half and pears onethird.
Small fruits, such as berries, should never stand overnight if it is
possible to avoid it, and should neve?' be put in tin. The highest-
flavored and longest-keeping fruits are best put up without paring,
after having carefully removed the down with a fine but stiff" brush.
Use only the best sugar in the proportion of half a pound of sugar to
a pound of good fruit, varying the rule, of course, with the
sweetness of fruit. Fine granulated sugar is the best for canning. In
canning for pies man}' omit sugar, as the natural flavor is better
preserved without it, and some prefer this method for all purposes ;
several recipes without sugar are given. It is economical, and well
worthy of experiment. Cans put up in this way should have a special
mark to distinguish them from the rest. Before beginning the work of
canning have ready all the necessar}' utensils, which include the
following : A thin-bladed, sharp, steel knife which should be often
wiped off" during the paring process (though a silver knife is
1)etterwhen fruit is wanted extra nice), an earthen vessel to hold
fruit after it is peeled, scales for weighing, or two pint measures, one
each for measuring sugar and fruit, a porcelain-lined or granite
ironware kettle with lip (a six-quart kettle is a good size and two will
be found convenient), a tin skimmer for removing the scum, a silver
or thoroughly clean wooden spoon (never use any other in fruit), a
silver knife for one-quart cans or round wooden stick for two-quart
ones for expelling the air from cans after filling, a silver fork or a
broom splint for testing cooked fruit (a steel fork discolors), a wide-
mouthed fun- /^H^ — nel or can-filler made to set into the can,
though a ^1;.. ^iW^ "" small tin strainer or dipper of the right size
with- ^^n^^ out a bottom will do, a wire spoon for lifting the
/^^^^^ larger fruits, a bright tin dipper (if old or rusty it || will
discolor the fruit), or a small pitcher or large "^ cotfee-cup with
handle for dipping syrup and small can-nuer. fruits, and a small
handled strainer for dipping small fruits as de 
 CANNING FRUITS. 145 scribed with recipe, a large pan with
heavy folded towel in bottom on which to stand cans while lieating,
and plenty of holders and towels for lifting from Stove and wiping
ofi' cans. Canned fruit is much nicer if syrup is strained Avhen
pouring into can, and for this purpose make a strainer of cheese-
cloth cut round and large enough to sink into can-filler, and run a
fine wire or string into the top to tie or hold it in place, or use
handled strainer as given above. The cans must be thoroughly
cleaned and tested to see if any leak or are cracked. If tin cans leak
send them to the tinner ; if discolored inside they may be lined with
writing paper and are thus used by many with success, but glass
cans are always preferable. In buying stoneware for canning
purposes be sure that it is well glazed, as fruits canned in jars or
jugs imperfectly glazed sometimes become poisonous. Never use
defective glass cans, but keep them for storing things in the pantry,
and in buying them, take care that they are free from flaws and
blisters, else the glass will crumble off in small particles when
subjected to heat. Self-sealers are very convenient, those with a
porcelain-lined screw top being the best, the Mason ])referred. (The
improved JMason has a glass top held in place by a metal band
screwing doAvn over the can, and these are not reliable.) The "Almy"
is highly reconnnended by many. The heat hardens the rubber rings
used on self-sealers but new ones may now be procured at any
furnishing store. Most of the earthenware and tin cans have a
groove around the top for sealing with wax or putty ; sealing with
the latter is most convenient as the jars can be opened readily with
a strong fork or knife, and are much more easily cleaned than when
wax-sealed. Putty may be bought ready for use, and is soon made
soft by molding in the hand. In using it should be worked out into a
small roll, and pressed firmly into the groove with a knife, care being
taken to keep it well pressed down as the can cools. Sealing-wax is
bought ready prepared or can be made of two parts resin to one
part beeswax melted together. In sealing pour wax over covers,
filling the grooves, and break the air bubbles that rise witli the wet
finger, adding more if necessary to make air tight. Fruit intended for
transportation should be put up in tin cans with the flat tops that are
soldered on, as if shipped in glass the danger of breakage is great,
and if the tin cans sealed with resin or putty are used bits are liable
to crack off^ letting the air in and so spoiling the fruit.
 146 CANNING FRUITS. There are several ways of preparing
glass cans for fruit, among them the following : Wring a towel from
cold water, double and wrap closely about and under the can so as
to exclude the air, and fill ; or, put a towel in a steamer, set in the
cans, and place over a kettle oicold water; boil the water, and when
ready to fill, remove the cans and wrap in a towel wrung from warm
water ; or wash the cans in tepid water and at once pour in the
boiling fruit, but not too fast ; and in any method used always pour*
into the center ; or, when ready to can fruit, place the glass jars in a
large pan of warm water on the back of the stove, in which a thick
folded towel has been previously placed to guard against too great
heat for the bottom of cans, placing the covers on the stove in a
smaller vessel of water, make ready the syrup in the clean porcelain-
lined or granite ironware kettle before mentioned, put in the fruit —
it is better to prepare only enough fruit or syrup for two or three
cans at a time — and by the time it is done the water in the pan will
be hot and the cans read}^ for use. Peaches and pears are properly
cooked when they can be pierced with a silver fork. Use the wire
spoon for lifting the larger fruits from the S3^rups and a silver fork
to help place in the cans, which should be done closely and
compactly but carefully, filling around the sides first, turning the
inside halves of the fruit outward. Put in as much fruit as possible
and then fill up with the hot syrup, first t3dng on the little cheese-
cloth strainer heretofore described, which catches all loose particles
of fruit and makes a clearer syrup. Berries should be cooked from
five to fifteen minutes, according to the ripeness of the fruit. When
done place the can-filler in the can, fill to within a half inch of the
top with hot fruit, always pouring into the center, and using for this
purpose the bright tin dipper (if a pitcher or cup is used it must first
be heated to prevent cracking), then place on a hot platter, remove
to table, wipe off upper parts and put on the rubber rings ; be sure
these are perfect and close-fitting, throwing away all that are
imperfect; let stand two or three minutes, or till other cans have
l)ecn filled, when the fruit will have shrunk away a little ; fill almost
to top with the hot syrup, or if you have none, boiling water from
the teakettle will do Now carefully insert a silver knife into the cans,
putting it in at the sides 80 as not to bruise the fruit, let it touch the
bottom, and push gently around to remove the air bubbles, slowly
pressing and withdrawing
 14-7 CANNING FRUITS. ^^* from all sides until the
bubbles cease to come up ; seal at once, first filling to overflowing
so that when the covers arc screwed down the eyrup squeezes out
around the edge, taking care when canning berries or tomatoes that
none of the seeds overflow and are left on the rubber rings under
the covers. Many insert a spoon in cans before fiUincr and use the
spoon to remove the air bubbles ; in cannmg berries this answers
very well, but the knife is better, especially for peaches, pears and all
the larger fruits, as it is not so hable to bruise them and slips in
easier around the sides. In the two-quart cans a round wooden stick
may be used for this purpose, neither knife nor spoon being long
enough. Wipe off the cans with cloth wet m hot water and also
inside of covers, in seahng, first screw on the covers as closelv as
possible with the hand, and as the cans cool turn down with the
can-tightener, which always comes with the cans, this is a great help
as it is impossible to screw covers on perfectly tight with the hands.
Care must be taken to have the rubber ring show an even surface all
round, for if it slips back at any point air will be admitted. When this
is found to be the case take off the cover, find a ring to fit perfectly
and re-seal (it may be necessary to add more syrup, which must
squeeze out again as cover is tightened). Remove the cans from the
hot platter and place where no current of air will strike them,
wringing out a towel from hot water on which to stand them. When
other cans are filled remove these to another part of table and set
those filled last on the towel. After all are canned re-tighten the tops
; this retightening is very important and the tops must be turned
down again, and agnin, the glass contracting as the fruit cools.
Letthe cans stand over niQht hottom side ujj ; in the morning turn
down covers again with the can-tightener, wrap well in paper, tying it
on to exclude all hght, label— the gummed labels that can be
purchased in book form ready to cut and use are very convenient—
and place in fruit closet or cellar. Where one can have a small room
in cellar, with one or more windows, place shelves around the sides
on which to put stone jars of pickles, preserves, jam, etc. It is nice
to make in one corner a fruit closet with a door, and shelves
arranged in heights to fit one and two-quart cans and jelly glasses ;
then each shelf or part of shelf can be labeled with the fruit or j elly
placed upon it. Have in upper part of door a small piece of window
wire put in, or two or three augur holes made to admit the air. In
Ueu of this closet many bury cans
 148 CANNING FRUITS. in boxes of sand. Light injures all
fruits, but especially strawberries. The place should be dry and dark
and cool, but where there is fresh air; if too warm the fruit will spoil,
as heat makes it ferment and dampness causes mold. Cans should
be examined two or three days after filling, and if syrup leaks out
from the rim they should be unsealed, the fruit thoroughly cooked
and kept for jam or jelly, as it will have lost the delicacy of color and
flavor so desirable in canned fruits. When canning a quantity of fruit,
after removing the first lot of cans from the pan of hot water the
water must be made tepid before setting in the remaining cans, then
heated gradually to boiling again and kept hot until those cans are
filled, repeating thus until all are done. If at any time there is not
fruit enough to fill a can it may be left standing partly filled in the
hot water until more fruit is cooked, then filled and removed like the
rest to the hot platter. It is always best to cook a small quantity of
fruit, either large or small, at a time (not more than one or two
quarts of the large varieties, and two or three of berries) that it may
be done evenly. If a large mass is cooked at once that in the bottom
will be done sooner than that on top, and if stirred to secure
uniformity its shape will be injured. It shordd also be cooked slowh/
to preserve the form, and the larger fruits after being put in the
syrup must be watched very closely and each piece taken out and
placed in can as soon as it becomes tender, as some pieces will cook
in much less time than others. In canning berries use as little water
as possible, and some can successfully without water. To better
preserve the form of fruit many place it in the cans raw, cover with a
hot syrup and cook by placing in a boiler of water. The same object
is attained by first steaming the fruit, and when done carefully
removing to the boiling syrup a moment or two, then place in cans
when steamed tender, or place at once in cans and fill up with hot
syrup, testing by piercing with a silver fork. The cold process has
also been successfully tried by good housekeepers, and considering
the amount of labor saved is certainly worth an experiment by all.
Recipes are given for each method. To clarify sugar for canning
break a pound of loaf sugar in small pieces, put on the stove in
porcelain-lined or granite ironware vessel with half pint water and
well-whisked white of one egg. Have a cup of cold water ready and
throw in a little when the sugar begins to rise, skim and let rise thus
three times,
 CANNING FRUITS. 149 skimming until clear, then strain
througli a flannel bag and when cool bottle for use. Scientists claim
that cane sugar when added to boiling fruit is converted to grape
sugar which has far less sweetening power than cane sugar, and
advise housekeepers to SAveeten fruits when brought to table for
consumption instead of before canning. AMien dissolving sugar for
syruj) it sliould be stirred constantly to prevent scorching. A good
projiortion for syrup for canning is one pint sugar to one quart water,
which is enough for a twoquart can of fruit. The flavor of canned
peaches is improved by adding two or three whole peaches or
dropping in the center of each can a few of the stones. Many leave
the stone attached to one half, and others cook a number of stones
with the fruit, then blanch as almonds and put meats in the cans.
Peaches are sometimes canned whole, and the clingstone varieties
are of course always put up in this way. Before peeling Avith a knife
it is well to rub the fuzz off peaches with a coarse towel. Many
parboil quinces before peeling. In preparing grapes it is better not to
press the skins too closely, to avoid the formation of the
disagreeable small particles, or what are called " clinkers,'-' in the
canned fruit. As the acid is not fully developed until the fruit is
thoroughly ripened this may be avoided also by canning before fully
ripe. Currants are nice mixed with an equal weight of raspberries,
and pears are improved by adding quinces or lemon peel. Equal
quantities of quince and apple canned together will taste as if quince
entirely. For ordinary'family use quart cans are better for peaches
and the larger fruits, two-quart cans for tomatoes and other
vegetables, and pint cans for berries. Strawberries keep their color
best in stone jars ; if glass cans are used for them they should be
buried in sand. If syrup is left after canning berries it may while thin
be flavored with vinegar, boiled a moment and then bottled and
corked for a drink mixed with ice-water; or add the proportion of
sugar given in recipes for jellies, allowing for the sugar used in
canning, and make into jelly. All skimmings from fruits can be added
to the vinegar barrel. If tin cans which are closed with resin or
soldering are used, great care should be taken that none drops into
the can, as a single drop of resin will often make the whole can
bitter. By covering first with a piece of cloth or white paper cut to fit
the top, this will be avoided, and wetting this with brandy or alcohol
tends to help
 150 CANNING FRUITS. preserve the fruit. On opening tin
cans rememljer to pour all the fruit into an earthen or glass dish. If
any part is not used at the time, recook and return to dish, and it
will keep for a day or two, many of the less perishable fruits longer.
Or if put up in self-sealing glass cans the fruit or vegetables left over
will keci> a day or two by simply returning to the cans, screwing on
the cover and setting in refrigerator. Wines, cider, shrubs, etc., must
be bottled, Avell corked, sealed, and the bottles placed on their sides
in a box of sand or sawdust. To can maple syrup, pour hot into cans
or jugs and seal well. Quinces, pears, citrons, watermelon rinds and
some of the smaller fruits, such as plums, cherries, currants, etc.,
harden when put at first into a syrup of their own weight of sugar.
These should first be boiled tender in water, or in a very weak syrup,
and the rest of the sugar added afterward. Fruits which become soft
too readily and fall to pieces may be hardened a little by pouring the
hot syrup over the fruit, or strewing part of the sugar over it and
letting it stand awhile to draw out the juice ; or it may be skimmed
out of the syrup after cooking a few minutes, placed in the sun two
or three hours, and the boiling syrup poured over it afterward. As
many recipes for canning give proportions in pounds, the table of
weights and measures in back part of book will be found a
convenient reference when scales are not at hand. A bushel of
peaches makes about twelve or thirteen quarts, and pears almost
twice as many as peaches ; .a bushel of either blackberries,
blueberries or raspberries makes about nineteen quarts, and
strawberries about sixteen or seventeen. The above estimates are
given from tests, but no really definite rule can be given, as some
use more or less syrup in canning, and a great deal depends upon
the ripeness of fruits. In opening a can without the can-tightener, as
that answers for opening self-sealers if hard to open, insert the point
of a thin-bladed penknife or other instrument beneath the rubber
and push it in towards the neck, which lets in the air, and the top
can then be readily unscrewed. «When not in use the rubber rings
may be left in, not on, cans, but the tops should not he screioed on,
as the cans will become musty if kept closed. Keep the covers (best
place also for rubbers) in a box or basket near the cans. Those who
use tin cans advise throwing them away after the second year, as
the fruit acids damage the tin. All cans, jars or bottles, should be
carefully washed as soon as emptied, taking care that the stoppers
and covers
 CANNING FRUITS. 151 have their share of attention. It is
well to put soda or ammonia into the jars or bottles, fill up with
water, and let stand an hour, putting the stoppers or covers into a
bowl to soak in the same way. Then pour out ands cald nicely, but
not with boiling water, as that .cracks the polished surface inside ;
wipe dry, set in the sun or wind to air, and then set away carefully. It
is often difficult to remove the tops of glass jars when screwed on,
on account of the slippery nature of the glass. The holder
represented in the cut Avill be understood at a glance. It clasps and
holds the jar without danger of breaking it. The following table gives
the time required for cooking and the quantity of sugar to the quart
for the various kinds of fruit. By observing these rules and the
general directions given above any fruit may be successfully canned.
However, for convenience, a number of valuable recipes are
appended. Qviant. Time for b iling f uit. Bar Ictt pears, halved 20
min Blackberri s 6 " Blncberrries 5 " Cherrie 5 " Goose erries 8 "
Peaches, .r 8 " Peaches, whole 15 " P^e-plant, sliced 10 " Pine-
apples, sliced 15 " P.ums 10 " sugar to qt. 6oz 6 " 5 " 6 " 8 " 4 " 4 "
8 " 6 " 10 " Time for boiling fruit. Quinces, sliced 30 min.
Raspberries 6 " Ripe Currants 6 " Siberian crab-apples 25 " Small
sour pears, whole.. . 30 " Sour apples, quartered 10 ■' Strawberries
8 " Tom toes 30 " Whorflcberies 5 " Wild Grapes 10 " Quant, sugar
to qt. 10 oz, 4 " 8 " A quart of stemmed currants or berries by
measure weighs one and a quarter pounds. Canned Berries. —
Select those the skins of which have not been broken, or the juice
will darken the syrup ; fill cans compactly, set in kettle of cold water
with a cloth beneath them, over an even heat ; when sufficiently
heated pour over the berries a syrup of white sugar dissolved in
boiling water, cover the cans closely to retain heat on the top
berries. To insure full cans when cold, have extra cans of berries
heated in like manner to supply the shrinkage. If the fruit swims
pour off surplus syrup, fill with hot fruit, and seal up as soon as fruit
on top is thoroughly scalded. In using this or any of the following
recipes refer to the preface above for general directions. Canned
Berries. — Pick out stems or hulls if any — if gathered carefully the
berries will not need washing, put in porcelain kettle on stove,
adding a scant cup water to prevent burning at first.
 152 CANNED FRUITS. When they come to a boil, skim well,
take off all surplus juicej keeping it for jelly, add sugar to taste (for
pies it may be omitted), or a half pound sugar to each pound fruit,
let boil 'i'/ik-S!^^^ five minutes, fill in glass, stone, or tin cans,
using a small strainer for di])])ing berries so that tiie quantity of
juiee ])ut up may be regHandie strainer. uUited, filling 111 the julce
With dlppcr. The strainer if of size to fit m cans may be set into them
and syrup poured through instead of using the cheesecloth strainer
described. Seal Avitli putty unless self-sealers are used. This rule
applies to all berries and small fruits. Canned Blaclcberrhs. (Without
water.) — Place fruit in preserving kettle, sweeten as for eating, or
add sugar according to above table, let stand on back of stove until
dissolved, then draw gradually to the front, keep at lioiling j)oint
long enough to thoroughly cook the fruit, skimming well, and can as
previously directed. All berries may be ]iut up in this way, blueberries
requiring less sugar than other varieties, and some can Peaches and
Pears thus. Canned Cherries. — Boil moderately five minutes the
proportion of six ounces sugar to each cpiart stoned cherries ; or
make a syrup of one pint water and three pounds sugar, add
cherries and cook as above. Can as in general directions. Canned
Crah- Apples. — To each pound fruit allow half pound sugar, and a
pint water to three pounds sugar. When the syrup is boiling hot drop
in the apples. They will cook very quickly. Or better, steam till tender,
place in syrup a moment, then fill cans with fruit and fill up with
syrup. Canned Currants. — Look them over carefully, stem and
weigh, allowing a pound sugar to every one of fruit ; put in kettle,
cover, and leave to heat slowly and stew gently for twenty or thirty
minutes, then add the sugar, and shake the kettle occasionally to
make it mix with the fruit ; do not allow it to boil, but keep as hot as
possible until the sugar is dissolved, then pour it in cans and secure
the covers at once. White currants are beautiful preserved in this
way. Canned Gooseherries.— Cut off tops and stems and cook the
berries in water until white, but not enough to break them ; put into
cans with as little water as possible, fill up the can with boiling water
and seal ; when opened pour off water and cook like fresh berries.
Or put berries into wide-mouthed bottles, cork or put on covers, and
set in ves'Sel of cold water on the stove until it boils. Do not boil
long enough to break the berries, Take usual precautions in sealing.
Will keep a year in a dry place. Ca7ined Gooseberries. — Prepare
and place in a large pan, pour boiling water over tliem, let stand
until cold ; fill jars as full as you
 CAFNIiD FRUITS. 153 can, pour boiling water over them, be
suro it covers the berries, then 8eal. You will find berries as solid as
when first gathered. Canned Grapes.— ?ic\ grapes ofi' stems, wash
in cold water and squeeze= the pulps into an earthen dish or
preserving kettle, throwing skins into another. Boil skins with a very
little water until tender, and pulps until seeds separate, then strain
through a colander (to remove seeds) into dish with the skins. Add
sug;iir_to taste, or half as much sucar as fruit, stew and can as
other truits To can Green Grapes halve them, extract the seeds with
a small knife, sweeten, cook as above, and can. Canned Peaches.
(With vinegar.)— Pour boihng water over one ppck of large
clingstone peaches to remove the fuzz ; niake a syrup of three
pounds sugar and one pint vinegar, using a little water if required to
cover the peaches ; cook until pretty soft, and can as usual. Canned
Peaches.— JliWQ one porcelain kettle with boiling water and another
with a svrup made sweet enough with white sugar for the peaches,
well skimmed, or clarified according to directions m preface ; pare,
halve, and drop the peaches into the boiling water, let remain until a
silver fork will pierce them, lift them out with a wire spoon, fill can,
pour in all the boiling syrup the can will hold, and seal immediatelv.
Continue in this way, preparing and sealing only one can at a time,
until done. Or, rich proportions for the same recipe are seven pounds
sugar and seven gills boiling Avaterfor the syrup, SAveetening the
water in which peaches are cooked, using two pounds sugar to
'three quarts water. Boil down the water in the first kettle with the
svrup if any is left ; if not, add more sugar and quite a nice marm-
alade will result. This manner of canning peaches has been
thoroughly tested, and is pronounced by the experienced the best of
all methods. Canned Peaches.— When wanted extra nice for prize
competition, or for use on " state occasions," select with great care
fruit of uniform size and shape and all perfect. Peel with a thin sharp
silver fruit knife, which does not discolor, dropping as soon as pared
into an earthen vessel of water to prevent the air from darkening
them. As soon as fruit enough for one can is pared put up by laying
piece by piece in the can, turning the inside of halves from which
stones were removed, outward, which gives a handsome
appearance, and fill up with syrup as clear as crystal, placing the
cheese-cloth strainer over the filler. Screw on covers without the
rubbers, stand cans in wash-boiler on slab or a board perforated
with holes, or a folded towel with a towel between them (some use
straw or hay), fill up with cold water to within two or three inches ot
top of cans, graduallv bring to a boil and boil fifteen minutes. Draw
to back of stove to let steam pass off, roll the hand in a towel, lift
cans
 154 CANNED FRUITS. out and pLace on hot platter. Take off
covers and let out air bubbles with a knife, as directed in preface.
The fruit will settle some and the contents of one or two cans will be
needed to till up the others ; prepare for this purpose nearly a fourth
more cans.. Fill up, put on rubbers, seal and put away according to
previous directions. The same process may be used for canning all
kinds of fruit. Canned Peaches. — Prepare peaches and weigh out
half a pound best loaf sugar to each pound fruit. Sprinkle a little
sugar in a deep earthen bowl, put in a layer of peaches, then one of
sugar, and so alternate until closely packed, covering top with sugar;
cover lightly and let stand ten or twelve hours. Drain juice off into
preserving kettle, let come to a boil, put in peaches, and as fast as
pieces swell sufficiently take out with rdiver fork and place in airtight
glass jar. When filled pour txie Doiling syrup over, filling to top and
seal at once. Peaches and other fruits prepared in this way have
been kept three or four years. Canned Peaches. (Cold) — Pare and
halve peaches and pack closely as possible in cans without sugar,
and pour in enough cold water to fill to brim. Let stand long enough
for w^ater to soak into all crevices — six hours or so — then let out
air bubbles with a silver knife, fill up again with cold water and seal.
Canned thus, peaches retain all their freshness and flavor. A cold
syrup may be used instead of water if preferred, but peaches taste
most natural without sweetening. Can pears same way. Canned
Peaches. (Steamed.) — After peeling, seed and place in a steamer
over a kettle of boiling water, first laying a cloth in bottom of
steamer ; fill about half full of fruit, cover tightly, make a syrup in a
porcelain kettle for fruit alone, lot the fruit steam until it can be
easily pierced with a silver fork, drop gently for a moment into the
hot syrup, place in the cans, fill, cover, and seal. The above recipe is
for canning a few at a time. This recipe, applies equally well to
pears. Canned Peaches. — Pare, halve and seed ; make a syrup of a
pint granulated sugar to a quart water (enough for two quart-cans)
place on stove in porcelain kettle and when syrup boils, skim, and
drop in enough fruit (two quarts halved peaches) for a one-quart
can ; watch closely, test and can as in general directions. Add more
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