Applied Research on Polymer Composites 1st Edition

Pooria Pasbakhsh - Downloadable PDF 2025

https://ebookfinal.com/download/applied-research-on-polymer-
composites-1st-edition-pooria-pasbakhsh/

Visit ebookfinal.com today to download the complete set of

ebooks or textbooks
Here are some recommended products that we believe you will be
interested in. You can click the link to download.

Green Composites Polymer Composites and the Environment

1st Edition Caroline Baillie

https://ebookfinal.com/download/green-composites-polymer-composites-
and-the-environment-1st-edition-caroline-baillie/

Polymers Polymer Blends Polymer Composites And Filled

Polymers Synthesis Properties and Applications 1st Edition
Abdulakh K. Mikitaev
https://ebookfinal.com/download/polymers-polymer-blends-polymer-
composites-and-filled-polymers-synthesis-properties-and-
applications-1st-edition-abdulakh-k-mikitaev/

Lignocellulosic Polymer Composites Processing

Characterization and Properties 1st Edition Vijay Kumar
Thakur
https://ebookfinal.com/download/lignocellulosic-polymer-composites-
processing-characterization-and-properties-1st-edition-vijay-kumar-
thakur/

Reinforcement of Polymer Nano Composites Theory

Experiments and Applications 1st Edition T. A. Vilgis

https://ebookfinal.com/download/reinforcement-of-polymer-nano-
composites-theory-experiments-and-applications-1st-edition-t-a-vilgis/
Science and Engineering of Short Fibre Reinforced Polymer
Composites 1st Edition S-Y. Fu

https://ebookfinal.com/download/science-and-engineering-of-short-
fibre-reinforced-polymer-composites-1st-edition-s-y-fu/

Advanced Fibre Reinforced Polymer Frp Composites for

Structural Applications 2nd Edition Jiping Bai

https://ebookfinal.com/download/advanced-fibre-reinforced-polymer-frp-
composites-for-structural-applications-2nd-edition-jiping-bai/

Trends in Polymer Research 1st Edition G.E. Zaikov

https://ebookfinal.com/download/trends-in-polymer-research-1st-
edition-g-e-zaikov/

Polymer Science And Technology Plastics Rubber Blends And

Composites 3rd Edition Dr. Premamoy Ghosh

https://ebookfinal.com/download/polymer-science-and-technology-
plastics-rubber-blends-and-composites-3rd-edition-dr-premamoy-ghosh/

Compendium of Polymer Terminology and Nomenclature IUPAC

Recommendations 2008 International Union Of Pure And
Applied Chemistry. Commission On Macromolecular
Nomenclature
https://ebookfinal.com/download/compendium-of-polymer-terminology-and-
nomenclature-iupac-recommendations-2008-international-union-of-pure-
and-applied-chemistry-commission-on-macromolecular-nomenclature/
Applied Research on Polymer Composites 1st Edition
Pooria Pasbakhsh Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Pooria Pasbakhsh, Gennady E. Zaikov
ISBN(s): 9781771880381, 1771880384
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 12.78 MB
Year: 2015
Language: english
 Applied Research on Polymer Composites Pasbakhsh
Applied Research on Polymer Composites Haghi Pasbakhsh
This important volume presents leading-edge research in the rapidly changing and Zaikov Haghi AAP Research Notes on Polymer Engineering Science & Technology
Applied
evolvingThisResearch
field of polymer
important volume on presents
Polymer
science and Composites
chemical processing.
leading-edge The topics in the book
research in the rapidly changing and
Pasbakhsh Zaikov AAP Research Notes on Polymer Engineering Science & Technology
reflect evolving
the diversity
field of
of research
polymer advances
science andin chemical
the production and application
processing. The topicsofinmodern
the book
polymeric materials and related areas,advances
focusing in
onthe
theproduction
preparation, characterization, Haghi
reflect the diversity of leading-edge
research and application of modern AAP Research Notes on Polymer Engineering Science & Technology
Applied Research on
This important volume presents research in the rapidly changing and Zaikov
and applications of polymers. Also covered are various manufacturing techniques.
polymeric materials and related areas, focusing on the preparation, characterization,
evolving field of polymer science and chemical processing. The topics in the book

Applied Research on
The book helps to fill theof gap between theory and are
practice in manufacturing
industry.
reflect theand applications
diversity of research polymers.
advances Also
in thecovered
production various
and application techniques.
of modern

Applied Research on Polymer Composites

ABOUTThe
polymeric THEbook helps
EDITORS
materials to fill areas,
and related the gapfocusing
between ontheory and practice
the preparation, in industry.
characterization,

Applied Research on

Applied Research on Polymer Composites

andPooria Pasbakhsh,
applications
ABOUT of THE PhD, is currently
polymers.
EDITORS a Lecturer
Also covered areat various
the School of Engineering,techniques.
manufacturing Monash University

Polymer Composites
TheSunway Campus,
book Pooria
helps to Malaysia.
fill the gap
Pasbakhsh, Dr.between
PhD, Pasbakhsk’s aresearch
theory
is currently has beenSchool
and practice
Lecturer at the centered
in on the development
industry.
of Engineering, Monash and
University

Polymer Composites
application of computational approaches and experimental tools
hasfor modern polymers,
on thehalloysite

Applied Research on Polymer Composites

ABOUT THESunway
EDITORSCampus, Malaysia. Dr. Pasbakhsk’s research been centered development and
nanotubes, and polymer
application of clay nanocomposites.
computational approaches and experimental tools for modern polymers, halloysite
Pooria Pasbakhsh, PhD, is currently a Lecturer at the School of Engineering, Monash University

Polymer Composites
Gennady
Sunway nanotubes,
E. Zaikov,
Campus, and
DSc,
Malaysia. polymer clay
Dr.isPasbakhsk’s
Head nanocomposites.
of the Polymerhas
research Division at the N.on
been centered M.the
Emanuel Institute
development andof
Biochemical Physics,
application Gennady
of computational Russian Academy
approaches
E. Zaikov, and of
DSc, is Head ofSciences,
experimental
the PolymerMoscow, Russia,
toolsDivision
for modern and
N. Professor
polymers,
at the at Moscow
halloysite
M. Emanuel Institute of
State Academy
nanotubes, of Fine
and polymer
Biochemical Chemical
clay Technology,
nanocomposites.
Physics, Russian Academy Russia, as well Moscow,
of Sciences, as Professor at Kazan
Russia, National at Moscow
and Professor
Research Technological University, Kazan, Russia. HeRussia,
is also as
a prolificasauthor, researcher,
atofKazanand
Gennady E.State
lecturer.
Academyis of
Zaikov,
He has DSc,
received
FineofChemical
Head
severalthe Polymer
awards
Technology,
Division
forKazan,
his work atand
thehas
N. M. well
Emanuel
been
Professor
aamemberInstitute
of many
National
professional
Biochemical Research
Physics, Technological
Russian AcademyUniversity,
of Sciences, Russia.
Moscow, He
Russia,is also
and prolific
Professor author,
at Moscow researcher, and
organizations and
lecturer. Heeditorial boardsseveral
has received of international
awards forscience
his workjournals.
and has been a member of many professional
State Academy of Fine Chemical Technology, Russia, as well as Professor at Kazan National
Research organizations
A. K. Haghi,
Technological and editorial
PhD, isUniversity,
the author boards
and
Kazan, editor ofofinternational
Russia. 150
He books
is also science
as journals.
wellauthor,
a prolific as 1000 published
researcher, andpapers in
various
lecturer. journals
HeA.has and
received conference
several proceedings.
awards for his work He is
and currently
has been Editor-in-Chief
a member of of
many the
K. Haghi, PhD, is the author and editor of 150 books as well as 1000 published papers in International
professional
Journal various
organizations ofand
Chemoinformatics
editorial
journalsboards and
of Chemical
international
and conference Engineering
science
proceedings. He isand
journals. Polymers
currently Editor-in-Chief of the and
Research Journal on the
International
editorial boards
A. K. Haghi,Journal ofthe
PhD, isof many international
Chemoinformatics
author journals.
and editor and
of He isas
Chemical
150 books awell
member
Engineering ofand
as 1000 the Canadian
Polymers
published Research
Research
papers and and on the
in Journal
Development
various journals Center
and
editorial boardsof Sciences
conference
of many and Cultures
proceedings. (CRDCSC),
He is journals.
international currently Montreal,
Editor-in-Chief
He is a member Quebec,
of of
thethe Canada.
International
Canadian Research and
Journal of Chemoinformatics
Development Center andofChemical
SciencesEngineering
and Cultures and Polymers Research
(CRDCSC), Quebec,and
Montreal,Journal on the
Canada.
editorial
Books boards
in theof AAP
manyResearch
international journals.
Notes He is aEngineering
on Polymer member of the Canadian
Science and Research
Technology andseries
Development Center of Sciences and Cultures (CRDCSC), Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
Books
Functional in the Blends
Polymer AAP Research Notes on Polymer
and Nanocomposites: Engineering
A Practical ScienceApproach
Engineering and Technology series
Editors:Functional
Gennady E.Polymer
Zaikov, Blends
DSc, Liliya I. Bazylak,
and Nanocomposites: PhD, and A. K.
A PracticalHaghi, PhD
Engineering
Books in the AAP Research Notes on Polymer Engineering Science and Technology seriesApproach
PolymerEditors:
Surfaces Gennady E. Zaikov,Acid-Base
and Interfaces: DSc, LiliyaInteractions
I. Bazylak, and
PhD,Adhesion
and A. K.inHaghi, PhD
Polymer-Metal Systems
Functional Polymer Blends and Nanocomposites: A Practical Engineering Approach
Irina A. Polymer
Starostina, DSc,
Surfaces Oleg V. Stoyanov,
andLiliya
Interfaces: DSc,
Acid-Baseand Rustam Ya.
Interactions Deberdeev,
and DSc
Adhesion in Polymer-Metal Systems
Editors: Gennady E. Zaikov, DSc, I. Bazylak, PhD, and A. K. Haghi, PhD
Irina A. Starostina,
Key Technologies in PolymerDSc, Oleg V. Stoyanov, DSc, and Rustam Ya. Deberdeev, DSc
Chemistry
Polymer Surfaces and Interfaces: Acid-Base Interactions and Adhesion in Polymer-Metal Systems
Editors:Key
Nikolay D. Morozkin,
Technologies
Irina A. Starostina, DSc, Oleg in
DSc, Vadim
V. Polymer
Stoyanov,Chemistry
P. Zakharov, DSc, and Gennady E. Zaikov, DSc
DSc, and Rustam Ya. Deberdeev, DSc
KeyPolymers Editors:
and in
Technologies
Editors: Liliya
Nikolay
PolymerD.
Polymeric
D.I.Morozkin,
Bazylak,
Morozkin, DSc,
Composites:
Chemistry
PhD, Vadim
Gennady
Vadim Optimization,
Properties,
E. Zaikov,
P. Zakharov, DSc,
DSc,and
and
and and Gennady E. Zaikov, DSc
Applications
A. K. Haghi, PhD Editors
Editors: Nikolay
Polymers DSc,
and Polymeric P. Zakharov,
Composites: DSc,
Properties, Gennady
Optimization,E. Zaikov,
and DSc
Applications
Editors
Editors PooriaPooria
Pasbakhsh, PhD
Applied
Polymers Editors:
andResearch Liliya
Polymeric I. Bazylak,
onComposites:
Polymer PhD, Gennady
Composites
Properties, E. Zaikov, and
Optimization, DSc,Applications
and A. K. Haghi, PhD
Editors:
Editors: Pooria
Liliya Pasbakhsh,
I. Bazylak,
Applied PhD,on
Research PhD,
Gennady A. E.
Polymer K.Composites
Haghi, DSc,
Zaikov, PhD,andandA.Gennady E.PhD
K. Haghi, Zaikov, DSc
A. K. Haghi, Pasbakhsh, PhD
PhD
Applied Editors:onPooria
High-Performance
Research Pasbakhsh,
Polymers
Polymer PhD, A. K. Haghi,Composites
for Engineering-Based
Composites PhD, and Gennady E. Zaikov, DSc Pooria Pasbakhsh,
A. K.E.PhD
Haghi,
Editors:
Editors: Omari
Pooria V. Mukbaniani,
Pasbakhsh,
High-Performance A. DSc,
PhD,Polymers Marc
K. Haghi, J. M.and
PhD, Abadie,
Gennady
for Engineering-Based DSc,
E. and Tamara
Zaikov,
Composites DSc Tatrishvili, PhD
Gennady
A. K. Haghi, PhD Zaikov,PhDDSc
Editors:Polymers
Compositional
High-Performance Omari V.of
Analysis Mukbaniani,
forPolymers DSc, Marc
Engineering-Based J. M. Abadie, DSc, and Tamara Tatrishvili, PhD
Composites
Gennady E. Zaikov, DSc
Editors:
Editors: Aleksandr
Omari M. Kochnev,
V. Mukbaniani,
Compositional
and Renat
Compositional
Analysis
M. Akhmetkhanov,
Editors: Aleksandr
Analysis
PhD,
DSc, of
Marc
DSc
M. Kochnev,
of Polymers
J.Oleg V. Stoyanov,
M. Abadie,
Polymers DSc, DSc, Gennady
and Tamara E. Zaikov,
Tatrishvili, DSc,
PhD
PhD, Oleg V. Stoyanov, DSc, Gennady E. Zaikov, DSc,
Gennady E. Zaikov, DSc
and Renat
Editors: Aleksandr M. Akhmetkhanov,
M. Kochnev, DSc
PhD, Oleg V. Stoyanov, DSc, Gennady E. Zaikov, DSc,
and Renat M. Akhmetkhanov, DSc ISBN: 978-1-77188-038-1
90000
ISBN: 978-1-77188-038-1
ISBN: 978-1-77188-038-1 90000
90000

9 781 771 88 038 1

9 781 771 88 038 1
9 781 771 88 038 1
www.appleacademicpress.com
APPLIED RESEARCH ON
POLYMER COMPOSITES
 AAP Research Notes on
Polymer Engineering Science and Technology

APPLIED RESEARCH ON
POLYMER COMPOSITES

Edited by
Pooria Pasbakhsh, PhD, A. K. Haghi, PhD, and
Gennady E. Zaikov, DSc
CRC Press Apple Academic Press, Inc
Taylor & Francis Group 3333 Mistwell Crescent
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Oakville, ON L6L 0A2
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 Canada
© 2015 by Apple Academic Press, Inc.
Exclusive worldwide distribution by CRC Press an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa
business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Version Date: 20150206

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4822-5417-4 (eBook - PDF)

This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reason-
able efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher
cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The
authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in
this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not
been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so
we may rectify in any future reprint.

Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced,
transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or
hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers.

For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.
copyright.com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.
(CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organiza-
tion that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been
granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged.

Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and
are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at
http://www.taylorandfrancis.com
and the CRC Press Web site at
http://www.crcpress.com
For information about Apple Academic Press product
http://www.appleacademicpress.com
 v

ABOUT THE EDITORS

Pooria Pasbakhsh, PhD

Dr Pooria Pasbakhsh’s research has been centered on the development
and application of computational approaches and experimental tools on
modern polymers, halloysite nanotubes, and polymer clay nanocom-
spoites. He is currently Lecturer at School of Engineering, Monash Uni-
versity Sunway Campus, Malaysia.

Gennady E. Zaikov, DSc

Gennady E. Zaikov, DSc, is Head of the Polymer Division at the N. M.
Emanuel Institute of Biochemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences,
Moscow, Russia, and Professor at Moscow State Academy of Fine Chemi-
cal Technology, Russia, as well as Professor at Kazan National Research
Technological University, Kazan, Russia. He is also a prolific author, re-
searcher, and lecturer. He has received several awards for his work, includ-
ing the Russian Federation Scholarship for Outstanding Scientists. He has
been a member of many professional organizations and on the editorial
boards of many international science journals.

A. K. Haghi, PhD
A.K. Haghi, PhD, holds a BSc in urban and environmental engineer-
ing from the University of North Carolina (USA); an MSc in mechanical
engineering from North Carolina A&T State University (USA); a DEA
in applied mechanics, acoustics and materials from Université de Tech-
nologie de Compiègne (France); and a PhD in engineering sciences from
Université de Franche-Comté (France). He is the author and editor of 150
books and 1000 published papers in various journals and conference pro-
ceedings. Dr Haghi has received several grants, consulted for a number of
major corporations, and is a frequent speaker to national and international
audiences. Since 1983, he served as a professor at several universities. He
is currently Editor-in-Chief of the International Journal of Chemoinfor-
vi About the Editors

matics and Chemical Engineering and Polymers Research Journal and

on the editorial boards of many international journals. He is a member of
the Canadian Research and Development Center of Sciences and Cultures
(CRDCSC), Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
ABOUT AAP RESEARCH NOTES ON
POLYMER ENGINEERING SCIENCE
AND TECHNOLOGY

The AAP Research Notes on Polymer Engineering Science and Technology re-
ports on research development in different fields for academic institutes and indus-
trial sectors interested in polymer engineering science and technology. The main
objective of this series is to report research progress in this rapidly growing field.

Editor-in-Chief: Sabu Thomas, PhD

Director, School of Chemical Sciences, Professor of Polymer Science & Tech-
nology & Honorary Director of the International and Inter University Centre for
Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, India
email: [email protected]

Editorial Board

Alberto D’Amore, DSc

Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering, The Second University
of Naples, Italy

Devrim Balköse, PhD

Professor, Izmir Polytechnic Institute, Turkey

Nekane Guarrotxena, PhD

Institute of Polymer Science and Technology (ICTP), Spanish National Research
Council (CSIC), Madrid, Spain

Abbas Hamrang, PhD

Professor and Senior Polymer Scientist, Manchester, UK; Independent Polymer
Consultant

Alfonso Jimenez, PhD

Professor of Analytical Chemistry and Materials Science, University of Alicante,
Spain

Gennady E. Zaikov, DSc

Head, Polymer Division, N. M. Emanuel Institute of Biochemical Physics,
Russian Academy of Sciences; Professor, Moscow State Academy of Fine Chem-
ical Technology, Russia; Professor, Kazan National Research Technological Uni-
versity, Kazan, Russia
BOOKS IN THE AAP RESEARCH
NOTES ON POLYMER ENGINEERING
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY SERIES

• F
 unctional Polymer Blends and Nanocomposites: A Practical
Engineering Approach
Editors: Gennady E. Zaikov, DSc, Liliya I. Bazylak, PhD,
and A. K. Haghi, PhD

• P
 olymer Surfaces and Interfaces: Acid-Base Interactions and
Adhesion in Polymer-Metal Systems
Irina A. Starostina, DSc, Oleg V. Stoyanov, DSc,
and Rustam Ya. Deberdeev, DSc

• K
 ey Technologies in Polymer Chemistry
Editors: Nikolay D. Morozkin, DSc, Vadim P. Zakharov, DSc, and
Gennady E. Zaikov, DSc

• P
 olymers and Polymeric Composites: Properties, Optimization,
and Applications
Editors: Liliya I. Bazylak, PhD, Gennady E. Zaikov, DSc,
and A. K. Haghi, PhD

• A
 pplied Research on Polymer Composites
Editors: Pooria Pasbakhsh, PhD, A. K. Haghi, PhD, and
Gennady E. Zaikov, DSc

• H
 igh-Performance Polymers for Engineering-Based
Composites
Editors: Omari V. Mukbaniani, DSc, Marc J. M. Abadie, DSc, and
Tamara Tatrishvili, PhD
 Dedicated to
Professor Gennady E. Zaikov on the Occasion of
His Eightieth Birthday, 7 January 2015
CONTENTS

List of Contributors................................................................................... xiii

List of Abbreviations................................................................................ xvii
List of Symbols.......................................................................................... xix
Preface...................................................................................................... xxi
Foreword...................................................................................................xxv
1. Trends in New Generation of Biodegradable Polymers (Part 1)............. 1
A. L. Iordanskii, G. A. Bonartseva, Yu. N. Pankova, S. Z Rogovina,
K. Z. Gumargalieva, G. E. Zaikov, and A. A. Berlin

2. Trends in New Generation of Biodegradable Polymers (Part 2)........... 49

A. L. Iordanskii, S. V. Fomin, A. A. Burkov, Yu. N. Pankova, and G. E. Zaikov

3. Trends in New Generation of Biodegradable Polymers (Part 3)........... 63

A. P. Bonartsev, A. P. Boskhomodgiev, A. L. Iordanskii, G. A. Bonartseva,
A. V. Rebrov ,T. K. Makhina, V. L. Myshkina, S. A. Yakovlev, E. A. Filatova,
E. A. Ivanov, D. V. Bagrov, G. E. Zaikov, and M. I. Artsis

4. A Detailed Review on Physicochemical Properties, Synthesis,

and Application of Polyacetylene.............................................................. 81
O. A. Ponomarev, A. I. Rakhimov, N. A. Rakhimov, E. S. Titova, V. A. Babkin, and
G. E. Zaikov

5. Trends in Activated Carbon Fibers........................................................ 105

M. MehdiPour

6. Reinforcement of Polymer Nanocomposites: Variety of Structural

Forms and Applications........................................................................... 143
G. V. Kozlov, Yu. G. Yanovskii, and G. E. Zaikov

7. A Study on the Effects of the Modified Silica—Gelatin Hybrid

Systems on the Properties Paper Products............................................ 177
Przemysław Pietras, Zenon Foltynowicz, Hieronim Maciejewski, and
Ryszard Fiedorow

8. Development of Computational Techniques in Nanosystems.............. 191

V. I. Kodolov, N. V. Khokhriakov, V. V. Trineeva, M. A. Chashkin, L. F. Akhmetshina,
Yu. V. Pershin, and Ya. A. Polyotov
xii Contents

9. Calculating the Internal Structure and the Equilibrium Configuration

(Shape) of Separate Noninteracting Nanoparticles by the Molecular
Mechanics and Dynamics Interactions of Nanostructural
Elements.................................................................................................... 245
A. V. Vakhrushev and A. M. Lipanov

10. Trends in Ozonation of Polymer Compounds....................................... 279

M. P. Anachkov, S. K. Rakovsky, and G. E. Zaikov

Index........................................................................................................... 309
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

L. F. Akhmetshina
OJSC “Izhevsk Electromechanical Plant – Kupol”

M. P. Anachkov
S. K. Rakovsky, Institute of Catalysis, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Acad. G. Bonchev bl.11,
1113 Sofia, Bulgaria, Email: [email protected]

M. I. Artsis
Institute of Biochemical Physics after N. M. Emanuel, Kosygina 4, Moscow 119991, Russia,
Email [email protected]
M. MehdiPour, University of Guilan, Rasht, Iran

V. A. Babkin
Volgograd State University Architecture and Civil Engineering Sebrykov Department,
Email: [email protected].

D. V. Bagrov
Faculty of Biology, Moscow State University, Leninskie gory, Moscow 119992, Russia

A. A. Berlin
N. N. Semenov’s Institute of Chemical Physics, RAS, Moscow, 119996 RF

A. P. Bonartsev
A. N. Bach's Institute of Biochemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Leninskiy prosp, 119071
Moscow, Russia and Faculty of Biology, Moscow State University, Leninskie gory, 119992 Moscow,
Russia

G. A. Bonartseva
A. N. Bach's Institute of Biochemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Leninskiy prosp, Moscow
119071, Russia

A. P. Boskhomodgiev
A. N. Bach's Institute of Biochemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Leninskiy prosp, 119071
Moscow, Russia

A. A. Burkov
Vyatka State University, Kirov, 610000 RF, Email: [email protected]

M. A. Chashkin
OJSC “Izhevsk Electromechanical Plant – Kupol”

E. A. Filatova
A. N. Bach's Institute of Biochemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Leninskiy prosp, 119071
Moscow, Russia
S. V. Fomin
Vyatka State University, Kirov, 610000 RF, Email: [email protected]
xiv List of Contributors

Zenon Foltynowicz
Faculty of Commodity Science, Poznan University of Economics, 61-875 Poznań, Poland

K. Z. Gumargalieva
N. N.Semenov’s Institute of Chemical Physics, RAS, Moscow, 119996 RF

A. L. Iordanskii
A. N. Bach's Institute of Biochemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Leninskiy prosp, 119071
Moscow, Russia and N.N.Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences,
Moscow 119991, Russia

E. A. Ivanov
A. N. Bach's Institute of Biochemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Leninskiy prosp, 119071
Moscow, Russia

N. V. Khokhriakov
Basic Research – High Educational Centre of Chemical Physics and Mesoscopy, Udmurt Scientific
Centre, Ural Division, Russian Academy of Sciences, Izhevsk and Izhevsk State Agricultural Acad-
emy

V. I. Kodolov
M. T. Kalashnikov Izhevsk State Technical University and Basic Research – High Educational Centre
of Chemical Physics and Mesoscopy, Udmurt Scientific Centre, Ural Division, Russian Academy of
Sciences, Izhevsk

G. V. Kozlov
Institute of Applied Mechanics of Russian Academy of Sciences, Leninskii pr, Moscow 119991,
Russian Federation, Email: [email protected]

Hieronim Maciejewski
Faculty of Chemistry, Adam Mickiewicz University, 61-614 Poznań, Poland and Poznań Science and
Technology Park of Adam Mickiewicz University Foundation, 61-612 Poznań, Poland

T. K. Makhina
A. N. Bach's Institute of Biochemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Leninskiy prosp, 119071
Moscow, Russia
V. L. Myshkina
A. N. Bach's Institute of Biochemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Leninskiy prosp, Moscow
119071, Russia

Yu. N. Pankova
N. N. Semenov’s Institute of Chemical Physics, RAS, Moscow, 119996 RF Email: aljordan08@gmail.
com

Przemysław Pietras
Faculty of Chemistry, Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań, Poland
Ryszard Fiedorow, Faculty of Chemistry, Adam Mickiewicz University, 61-614 Poznań, Poland

Ya. A. Polyotov
M. T. Kalashnikov Izhevsk State Technical University and Basic Research – High Educational Centre
of Chemical Physics and Mesoscopy, Udmurt Scientific Centre, Ural Division, Russian Academy of
Sciences, Izhevsk
O. A. Ponomarev
Pushino, Institute of Mathematical Problem of Biology Russian Akademy of Science,
Email: [email protected]
List of Contributors xv

A. I. Rakhimov
Volgograd State University, Email: [email protected]

N. A. Rakhimov
Volgograd State University, Email: [email protected]

A. V. Rebrov
A. V. Topchiev Institute of Petroleum Chemistry. Leninskiy prosp, 119071 Moscow, Russia

S. Z. Rogovina
N. N. Semenov’s Institute of Chemical Physics, RAS, Moscow, 119996 RF

E. S. Titova
Volgograd State Technical University, Email: [email protected]
N. M. Emanuel Institute of Biochemical Physics of Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow 119334,
Russian Federation, Email: [email protected]

V. V. Trineeva
Basic Research – High Educational Centre of Chemical Physics and Mesoscopy, Udmurt Scientific
Centre, Ural Division, Russian Academy of Sciences, Izhevsk and Institute of Mechanics, Ural Divi-
sion, Russian Academy of Sciences, Izhevsk

A. V. Vakhrushev
A. M. Lipanov, Institute of Mechanics, Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Izhevsk,
Russia Email: [email protected]

S. A. Yakovlev
A. N. Bach's Institute of Biochemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Leninskiy prosp, 119071
Moscow, Russia
Yu. G. Yanovskii
Institute of Applied Mechanics of Russian Academy of Sciences, Leninskii pra, Moscow 119991,
Russian Federation, Email: [email protected]
G. E. Zaikov
N. M. Emanuel Institute of Biochemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow 119334
Russia, Email: [email protected]
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AC activated carbon
ACFs activated carbons fibers
ACNF activated carbon nanofiber
AFM atomic force microscopy
AKDs ketene dimers
AMF advanced method of surface investigation
ASAs alkenyl succinic anhydrides
ASM atomicpower microscopy
BET Brunauer–Emmett–Teller
BJH Barrett–Joyner–Halenda
CNF carbon nanofiber
DFT density functional theory
DOM dissolved natural organic matter
EDLC electric double-layer capacitor
FGG food grade gelation
FTIR Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy
GCMC Grand Canonical Monte Carlo
HK Horvath–Kawazoe
LC liquid chromatography
LIBs lithium-ion batteries
MD molecular dynamics
MFC microbial fuel cell
MFCs microbial fuel cells
MSC molecular sieving carbon
MW molecular weight
MWCNTs multiwalled carbon nanotubes
PALS positron annihilation lifetime spectroscopy
PBI polybenzimidazol
PGAs polyglycolides
PHAs polyhydroxyalkanoates
PHB poly(R)-3-hydroxybutyrate
PIB polyisobutylene
xviii List of Abbreviations

PIs polyimides
PLAs polylactides
POs primary ozonides
PSA pressure swing adsorption
PSD pore size distribution
PVA poly (vinyl alcohol)
PVDF poly (vinylidene fluoride)
RGG research grade gelatin
RVC reticulated vitreous carbon
SANS small-angle neutron scattering
SEM scanning electron microscopy
SOCs synthetic organic chemicals
SPIP scanning probe image processor
STM scanning tunneling microscopy
SWCNTs single-walled CNT
T&O taste and odor
TEOS tetraethoxysilan
TSA temperature swing adsorption
WAXS wide angle X-ray scattering
XRD X-ray diffraction
LIST OF SYMBOLS

ϕif and ϕn relative volume fractions

νm polymer matrix Poisson’s ratio
ρn density
ρn nanocomposite density
ρn nanofiller particle
ϕn nanofiller volume fraction
νTC nanofiller (technical carbon)
a lower linear scale of fractal behavior
c nanoparticles concentration
C∞ characteristic ratio
k Boltzmann constant
kd effective rate constant of hydrolytic depolymerisation
kh effective hydrolysis constant
kn proportionality coefficient
KT isothermal modulus of dilatation
l0 main chain skeletal bond length
Mm constant molecular mass of monomer
Pn0 initial number-average degree of polymerization at time 0
Si quadrate area
Su nanoshungite particles specific surface
T testing temperature
Wn nanofiller mass content
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
 190 THE SURVEY OF VVESTERX PALEST/ XE. The bottom
course Is let into the rock, and each course is set back from \ to I
inch. A shaft was commenced near the northern jamb of the gate on
i 7ih March, 1869, at level 2,392. At 5 feet below the surface a lamp
and a good deal of broken pottery, bearing scrolls and other devices,
was met with. The soil was very black and loose; at 14 feet hard
earth was met with, mi,\ed with large stones, some of them 2 feet
long. At 9 inches below the sill course a piece of stone flagging was
encountered, forming the flat roof of the drain running along the
Sanctuary wall to the south-west angle. This drain is here 2 feet 4
inches wide, and 5 feet 6 inches high. This drain was followed from
the south-west angle to within a few feet of this point ;
communication by knocking was made between the two portions of
the drain, but it could not be opened throughout, as rubbish from
above had choked up the passage. This drain is above the pavement
found at Robinson's Arch and at the south-west angle. Below this
drain, at 31 feet below the surface of the ground, is a heavy
masonry wall, faced to north with well-dressed stones in courses 9
inches to 18 inches in height, of malaki, without drafts; it is
perpendicular, and abuts on to the Sanctuary wall, and is a retaining
wall, as it has only a rough face to south : it is 6 feet thick. It
continues down for 35 feet 6 inches, and its foundations are about 7
feet from the rock ; they rest on rubbish. For the last 30 feet the
shaft was sunk through hard earth and broken cut stones, many of
them 3 feet by 2 feet by 1 8 inches. The rock is cut horizontally at
the base of the wall for the reception of the foundation-stone ; its
natural fall appears to be to the west at this point, but the general
fall must be to the east, as the bottom of the valley is considerably
to the east of this portion of the wall. Near the foot of the wall is the
aqueduct which runs from the Great Causeway to the south-west
angle.
 JERUSALEM. 191 Approach to the Gateway. From the two
shafts sunk at Wilson's Arch and at Barclay's Gate, it is obvious that
the Sanctuary wall is for this portion built up from the bottom with
drafted stones with well-cut faces. But to the south of the retaining
wall at Barclay's Gate, at the south-west angle and round the south-
west angle to the Double Gate, the stones in the wall have rough
projecting faces up to the level of the pavement under Robinson's
Arch, that is, up to Course P, or to about 23 feet 6 inches above the
rock at Barclay's Gate, the sill of the gate being about 50 feet above
the rock. From this the inference may be drawn that the wall to the
south of Barclay's Gate is of later date than that to the north, and
was not commenced till the valley had begun to fill up about 23 feet
6 inches at this part. In this case the retaining wall may have been
one side of a ramp or viaduct leading across the valley to this
Suburban Gate, at a height of 27 feet above the surface of the
ground at that time. Ancient Passage at Barclay's Gate. By those
who have considered the position of the Temple in the Court of the
Sanctuary, great stress has been laid upon the importance of the
passage under the lintel into the Mosque al Burak. Colonel Wilson
says : ' This mosque marks the line of the passage which gave
access to the Temple platform, and part of the original covering arch
can be seen.' And in speaking of the continuation of this passage
where it turns to the south, he says : ' The west wall of the cistern is
parallel to the Haram wall, and in prolongation of the west wall of
the passage, so that it evidently formed part of the approach to the
Temple platform.' All we know on the subject at present is that here
are the remains of an ancient passage leading from the Prophet's
Gate, but whether it is Byzantine, Herodian, or of more ancient date,
cannot be at present determined, and until correct plans on a large
scale of the tunnel and its arches are obtained, it is useless to
speculate with too great certainty.
I9-' Tlir. SUI
 JERUSALEM. 193 pointed roof supported by a set of piers
runninL;- up the centre. It appears to be modern in construction,
with the exception of the remains ot an old arch on the western
side. It seems probable that the passage opened out into the
Sanctuary at the site of this tank. The Great Causeway and Pool Al
Burak. The buildings of the Mahkama, or Court House, extend along
the Sanctuary wall from the Wailing Place to the Gate of the Chain,
over a distance of more than 90 feet, and within its vaults the great
wall can be traced at intervals, and is found to be in the same line,
and built in the same style, as at the Wailing Place. These vaults are
reached by an opening from the south through the garden, recently
walled off from the W^ailing Place. They have pointed ragwork
arches, and their haunches rest on corbels built into the Sanctuary
wall. From the appearance of similar cuttings in the stones of the
wall to south, it is probable that the Wailing Place was also at one
time covered up by a series of vaults. The level of the Wailing Place
is 2,394 ft^tit, but the lloors of the vaults are at 2,405. At about 71
feet north from the southern face of the IMahkama is the Pool al
Burak, whose level at bottom is 2,388 feet. This Pool is irregular in
shape : for about 25 feet it has a segmental arch of good masonry
of about 17 feet span, on which the wall of the Mahkama is built. On
the haunches of this arch are corbels which may possibly have
supported the 'Secret Passage' described page 203. Beyond, for
about 8 feet, is a trimmer arch of more recent construction and
inferior masonry, and the remainder of the Pool is covered by a
semicircular arch (Wilson's) with a span of 42 feet, and width of
about 43 feet. Recently (in 1866) about 16 feet of the northern
portion of the Pool has been cut off and turned into a tank, so that
the arch now only measures about 27 feet in width. The Pool
formerly extended still further beyond Wilson's Arch, and this
northern part is covered by a pointed arch.
 ly-j THE SURILY Ol- WESTERN PALESTINE. Masonry ok tiii;
Wist Wall. \ anOus iioriinns of the Sanctuary wall arc to be seen
within these vaults and in lluj I'ool al lUir.ik ; and Ijcnealli tin- lloor of
the Pool the wall was exaniincd by a shaft sunk down alonJ3^side it
It) the rock immediately under the southern end of Wilson's Arch,
and also by a gallery driven south along Course / from the shaft, 27
feet above the rock. A shaft also was sunk in one of the vaults for a
depth of i 7 feet, at a point 18 feet south of the soullurn entrance to
the Pool, 'i'he object of these researches was to e.xamine the wall,
in order to ascertain whether there was a second gateway similar to
the Suburban Gate (Prophet's Gateway), south of the Pool al Purak.
No signs of any such gateway could here be found, but subsequently
a gateway was found to the north of the Pool, near Bab el Mathara.
It was clearly ilemonstrated by these excavations that there was no
break in the continuity of the wall from the Wailing Place to the
northern end of the Pool. There are twenty courses of drafted stones
south of Wilson's Arch, exclusive of the foundation-stone. They vary
in height from 3 feet 3 inches to 4 feet i inch, and each course sets
back from i to 25 inches. The foundation course at this point is 2
feet 10 inches high, sets out 6 inches, and has no draft. The top
drafts vary from 2.^ to 5 inches, the bottom from 2\ to 4 inches,
and the side drafts from 2} to 4 inches. The stones exposed are
similar to, but in a much better state of preservation than, those at
the Wailing Place. The wall, when first Ijuilt, appears to have been
exposed to view from the bottom, and is probably one of the oldest
portions of the Sanctuary now in existence. Course D, level with the
concrete forming the bed of the Pool al Burak, has been cut away to
the depth of iS inches, ajiparently to receive the skewback of an
arch. Course / is very rough, M and N are nicely worked and
preserved, while O is much worn. From the manner in which stones
well preserved and those much worn, even as far a:; the foundation,
are mingled together, it is evident either that the whole wall is a
reconstruction from the bottom, cr else that it has been exposed to
view from the bottom, the stones much
 JERUSALEM. i9S worn being of vialaki, and those well
preserved being of 7nczzeJi. The highest course reaches up to level
2,412 feet, while the lowest {O) is bedded in the rock at a level of
2,337 ^^^t. The soft rock is cut away to a depth of 2 feet 9 inches,
in order to allow of the foundation resting on hard mezzeh. There is
thus a height of 75 feet from the top of the highest course of drafted
stones in the Sanctuary wall at this point to the bed of the
foundation course. The top of the highest course is nearly on a level
with the crown of Wilson's Arch, and is 7 feet below the level of the
Street of the Chain above. Wilson's Arch. The Mahkama, or Court
House (possibly the site of the Council House of Josephus), is a large
building measuring about 90 feet from north to south and 80 feet
from east to west. It rests upon the vaults already alluded to. To the
north of the Mahkama, supporting the roadway and a shop wall, is
the trimmer arch referred to before (p. 193), about 8 feet across,
and immediately to the north of this is Wilson's Arch, 42 feet in span
and 43 feet in breadth, stretching from the Great Causeway to the
wall of the Sanctuary. The road over the arch leads to the two gates
of the Sanctuary, Bab as Salam (Peace), and Bab as Silsile (Chain),
at a height of about 80 feet above the rock. This arch covers the
greater portion of the Pool al Burak, which was first discovered by
Dr. Tobler, and is shown by De Vogue in the ' Temple de Jerusalem,'
Plate I. ; but Colonel Wilson appears to have been the first to have
drawn particular attention to its importance during the visit to
Jerusalem in 1S64. The arch is twice mentioned in ' La Citez de
Iherusalem,' in Chapter HI.: 'A main senestre sur le pont avoit un
mostier de S. Gille,' and again in Chapter XVI. : ' La rue a main
senestre si va droit a unde posterne, c'on apele la posterne de la
tanerie, e va droit par desos le pont ' (' Descriptiones Terrse
Sanctee, by Titus Tobler). From this and from other accounts it is
apparent that the street from the Damascus Gate to tht; Dung Gate
passed under Wilson's Arch in the Middle Ages. Wilson's Arch has 23
courses of stones of varying dimensions, as will be .seen by
reference to the elevation (Plate XXXIII.); and the 25—2
 196 THE SIR\TA- OF WESTERX PALESTINE. voussoirs aro
not of 1 qual iliickness, as is the case with the more ancient arches
to the west. They are from 7 to 12 feet in length, and have no
appearance of any marginal draft on them. There is very little
similarity between this arch and that at the south-west angle
(Robinson's). The spring of Wilson's Arch is at level of 2,391 "5 feet,
whereas that of Robinson's is at 2,387-5. Thi; three fn-st stones of
the arch appear to form part of ilie Sanctuary wall ; but this is not
quite ascertained. It is sucrcfcsted that this arch as it now stands
cannot be (earlier tlian the fifth or sixth century. Colonel Wilson
suggests that it was ' rebuilt in its present form by Constantine or
Justinian'; but its reconstruction should more probably be ascribed to
a still later date. The western pier was examined by a shaft sunk at
7 feet from the southern end of the arch. It consists of two walls —
that to the east 10 feet thick, and that to the west 4 feet thick — of
different kinds of masonry. At the point where the walls were
examined there was a space of 6 inches between them, which
probably increased towards the north, in which
 JERUSALEM. i97 direction the walls splay outwards about
12 Inches. The total thickness of the pier at the point examined was
14 feet 6 inches. The east face of the pier (10 feet thick), for 25 feet
down from the springing of the arch, is built of large, .squared, well-
dressed stones without marginal drafts, and similar to those to be
found above the drafted stones in the Wailing Place. There are seven
courses of these stones, and they vary from 3 feet i inch to 4 feet 2
inches in height. In the three lower courses there is a recess 6 feet
wide, 9 feet 5 inches high, and 5 feet deep, the lintel being 4 feet 2
inches in height. The sides of the recess are well dressed. Some q-
roovcs cut in the stonework of the recess would indicate that there
was here, at one period, a metal gate. A hole was with great
difficulty broken through the pier, disclosing Its double nature. On
the western side, the 4-feet pier was found to be built of rubble
masonry, and to have a recess 2 feet 9 inches deep, 5 feet 6 inches
wide, and 5 feet high, the top of which Is nearly level with the
bottom of the Pool al Burak. This double pier rests upon a solid pier
14 feet 6 inches thick, constructed of rough hammer-dressed
boulders of large size. On the east side It extends 19 feet 3 inches,
down to the rock on level 2,347-25 feet. The interstices were filled
up with lime, but it would be impossible to say whether It was once
mortar, or caused by more recent infiltration of lime-water. In
consequence of the southern section of the Pool having been made
in 1866 into a tank, there was no possibility, without danger, of
examining the pier to the north, in order to see whether any portion
of it was of ancient date. The general impression gained from the
examination of this work is that the older portion of the pier of
Wilson's Arch was not built until the epoch when the squared stones
without marginal drafts were laid on the Sanctuary wall, when the
\'alley had filled up about 30 feet, to a level of 2,366'5 feet, possibly
In the second or third century ; but Wilson's Arch itself appears to
be even of a later date than the pier, as there Is a mass of broken
drafted stone, and apparently of fallen voussoirs, reaching from the
recess In the pier to level 2,367 feet 5 inches at the Sanctuary wall.
 198 THE SURVEY OF WESTERN PALESTINE. Gexf.ral Notes,
West Wall. A shaft was commenced at the south end of Wilson's
Arch, alongside the Sanctuary wall, on the 20th November, 1867.
The level of the bottom of the Pool is 2,388. The shaft was sunk
through 3 feet 6 inches of concrete, formed of stones about 3 inches
cube, set in a hard dark cement, nearly as solid as masonry. Below
this there is black soil, mi.xed with stones and chippings, to a depth
of 21 feet below the level of the Pool, when a mass of very large
stones was encountered, apparently the \-oussoirs and drafted
stones of a fallen wall and arch. These stones continue for a depth
of 8 feet, are of hard missce, and appear to be similar ti) the drafted
stones in the wall above. A similar mass of stones was met with in
the opposite shaft, alongside the pier, but it is not certain that they
extend across from pier to wall. Water was found at 44 feet below
the springing of the Arch ; but after a heavy rain it subsided, and the
shaft was continued down to level 2, 339*5 feet to the rock, through
black soil and large stones. At a depth of 2 1 feet below the bottom
of the Pool a gallery was driven in to south along ilie Sanctuary wall,
in search of any appearance of a suburban gate. At 23 feet from the
south end of Wilson's Arch, and about 27 feet above the rock, the
top of a wall was met with, abutting into the Sanctuary wall, of well-
dressed stones about 2 feet square. From the top of this wall for a
distance of 1 i feet, to a wall immediately below the south wall of
the Pool el Burak, a pavement was found on a level with the
entrance to Barclay's Gate. This pavement may have been in
connection with those found at the Prophet's (I'arclaj's) Gate and at
the south-west angle. It has been suggested that the ground on
which the lallen voussoirs and drafted stones were found must have
been rough and unlevelled, but there is nothing to indicate this. It is
possible that in sinking the shaft a pavement may have been passed
through without its having been observed, as a single mining-frame
would have covered it up. A shaft was also sunk on the east side of
the pier of Wilson's Arch, about 7 feet from the .southern end, and
at about 18 feet from the bottom of the Pool the mass of drafted
stones was met with, 3 feet higher than on the eastern side of the
arch. Prom hen- down to the rock was a
 JERUSALEM. 199 mass of rough stones mixed with black
earth, very difficult to work through. The Vallev. A gallery was then
driven across the valley through red mud and large rough stones,
and at the eastern end, about 3 feet above the rock, was found the
appearance of a rough concrete pavement. The rock under the
western pier of Wilson's Arch is 10 feet higher than under the Noble
Sanctuary, and the lowest point in the valley is about 16 feet west of
the latter. The gallery was constantly flooded with water, to the great
inconvenience and danger of the workmen, especially after heavy
rains. When the works commenced under Wilson's Arch, the water
was constantly about 10 to 12 feet above the rock; but during a
heavy rain it suddenly fell about 8 or 10 feet, and afterwards rose
only at uncertain periods. It seems probable that the opening of the
aqueducts under Robinson's Arch may have allowed an exit to the
pent-up waters. The water has the peculiar flavour of the Hammam
ash Shafa and of the Virgin's Fount, and the soil, for 8 to 10 feet
above the rock, is full of limestone crystals. The Causeway Vaults.
These vaults, discovered in January, 1868, during the progress of the
excavation, are of so complicated a nature that their description is a
matter of difficulty. They lie to the west of Wilson's Arch, and form
the continuation of the causeway, under the Street of the Chain.
They are totally distinct in appearance from the vaults of the
IMahkama, which latter have pointed arches, and appear to have
been built at a comparatively recent period. A closed window in the
second chamber of the northern row of the Mahkama vaults was
broken through in January, 1868, and the causeway vaults were
discovered. The opening led into a space covered over by a trimmer
arch immediately under the Street of the Chain, and the vaults lie to
the north of this street and immediately to the west of Wilson's Arch.
They consist of two parallel rows of vaults, and a long passage or
tunnel running along under
 100 THE SURVr.Y OF WESTER.y PALESTINE. the street,
which will be called the ' Secret Passage :' these parallel vaults lie to
the north of the Secret Passage, and are broken iqi by more recent
work, ajjparently Saracenic, and also are wanting in one i)ortion,
where there is a very ancient chamber of drafted stones, a ])(jrlioii
of which held been removed to make room for the vaults. Tiiic
Anciknt llAii, (PiATKs XXXI II., XXXV. .\M. XXXVI.). As this ancient
chamber e.xisted before the vaults and the causeway were
constructed, it will be first described. It lies about 27 degrees west
of north, and 8 feet of its southern end is under the Street of the
Chain; its south-eastern corner is about 84 feet from the Sanctuary
wall. It is at present 30 feet 8 inches from north to south, and 23
feet from east to west, but 10 feet 4 inches has been added on to its
southern end, so that it originally was but 20 feet 4 inches from
north to south. This additional portion has apparently been made for
the Secret Passage to pass over. It has been used as a cistern, and
its walls could only be seen when the plaster was broken away. The
pavement is at a level of 2,371-5 feet, about 2 feel above the
pavement under the Pool al Ikirak, and at the Prophet's (ist
sulnirban) Gate. The walls are 18 feet in height, and of very ancient
appearance. The crowning arch of the hall is semicircular, with 21
voussoirs, but not as old as the walls; the arch to the south is still
more recent, and, to cover the junction, a column was raised in the
centre under the break, and two pointed relieving arches thrown
over from the column to the sides, the span of each being about 10
feet. This column, with pari of the relieving arches, has since fallen,
exposing the junction of the arches. The chamber was filled up with
silt to a depth of about 15 feet 6 inches. Al the southern end of the
chamber is a break in the wall leadinir into one of the vaults of the
Mahkama. The walls of the Hall are 4 feet thick, and the stones are
on the c.\terior similar to those of the Wailing Place, with marginal
drafts ; in the interior the faces of the stones are plain dressed,
extremely well-jointed, looking as if laid without mortar, and at each
angle there are pilasters, projecting about 2 inches. These pilasters
have Ionic capitals of peculiar shape, the volute being something
similar to that on one of the capitals found at Hyrcanus' Palace, at
Arak el Emir.
 JERUSALEM. 201 At the original south-east angle of the
chamber on the east side is a double entrance, with lintels, on
which, as well as upon the jambs, there are traces of ornament. The
gateway was opened out, but a mass of fallen masonry was found in
front of it, and the outer walls could not be examined without
endangering the buildings above. In the centre of the chamber a
shaft was sunk, 15 feet 6 inches to the pavement, and then through
rough masonry to a further depth of 1 1 feet 6 inches, without
finding rock. This masonry was as hard as a solid wall. The Ancient
Hall has all the appearance of being one of the oldest buildings in
Jerusalem. Between the Ancient Hall and the southern portion of
Wilson's Arch there is but one vault, 23 feet 6 inches wide, with a
span of 22 feet ; its springing is at about 2,402 feet, and its Boor at
2,398 ; its crown is a little lower than that of Wilson's Arch ; it has
19 courses of stones, all of the same size, and is apparently Roman
work. Below this vault there is another of similar description, nearly
choked up with rubbish. Below the spring of the lower arch is the
recess in the pier, already alluded to when speaking of the pier of
Wilson's Arch. In the rubbish below some com26
 202 THE SURVEY OF WESTERN PALESTINE. plicated
aqueducts were found, which arc cut asunder by the Mahkama
buildings; they probably were in connection with the aqueduct
running under Robinson's Arch. To the north of the Ancient Hall and
of the vault just described is a series of vaults running somewhat to
the south of west from the northern portion of the pier of Wilson's
Arch. These are also vault upon vault, and can be examined below ;
but the vaults above, with one exception, are covered over with
some water-passages of later date. These vaults are 21 feet wide,
and about 14 feet span ; they have semicircular arches, of from 13
to 15 courses each. These two sets of viaducts arc thus 44 feet 6
inches wide, rather more than the width of Wilson's Arch. The
continuity of the southern viaduct, as has been already stated, is
broken by the 'Ancient Hall,' and west of this it is replaced by the '
Secret Passage ' already alluded to. The northern viaduct extends
from these arches in the same direction as that to the south ; it then
trends somewhat more southerly, and runs north of and parallel to
the Street of the Chain and the Secret Passage. Between it and the
Secret Passage is another series of vaults, about 16 feet wide, with
thick piers. These vaults, when examined, were full of sewage and
water, and could only be sketched. The most easterly vault of the
northern viaduct has a span of 13 feet; its arch is semicircular, with
1 5 stones ; its flooring is on a level with that to the south (namely
2,398). Below it is a similar vault, the crown of the arch of which is
on a level with the crown of the Ancient Hall. In this chamber are
some curious aqueducts, which communicate by a shaft with the
aqueduct at a lower level found when breaking through the pier of
Wilson's Arch. The two vaults of the northern viaduct to the west are
covered over with some building of later date- — small passages
with pointed arches, connected with the supply of water to the
buildings above. There are draw-well openings in the roof, and the
marks on the sides caused by the rope of the bucket. These
passages arc choked up with rubbish at their ends. The vaults of the
northern viaduct average 18 feet from north to south, and 14 feet
span, with piers of about 7 feet 6 inches thickness ; the vaults of the
southern viaduct are about 16 feet from north to south, and 1 1 feet
from east to west, with piers about i 2 feet thick, the arches opening
into the Secret Passage. Between the two eastern
 JERUSALEM. 203 chambers of the southern viaduct is a
vault at a lower level ; the floor at the level, 2,390, runs east and
west, in it there is a shaft to the depth of 14 feet, and from it an
aqueduct running- in a south-easterly direction, and cut off by the
later buildings of the Mahkama. Secret Passage. This passage is
mentioned by Mejr ed Din, who, in speaking of the Street of David,
states that it is ' so named from a subterranean gallery which David
caused to be made from the Gate of the Chain to the Citadel called
the Mihrab of David. It still exists, and parts of it are occasionally
discovered. It is all solidly vaulted.' The Gate of the Chain (Bab as
Silsile) lies immediately over the Pool al Burak, and the Street of the
Chain (Tarik Bab as Silsile) runs west towards the Citadel or Tower of
David, and along the western prolongation is called the Street of
David. It is certain, therefore, that the subterranean gallery referred
to by Mejr ed Din should lie somewhere under the present Street of
the Chain. For the first iio feet from the Sanctuary wall this passage
has disappeared, having made way for the more recent vaults at the
Mahkama ; but for a distance of 150 feet, that is to say, up to a
distance of 260 feet from the Sanctuary wall, it has been discovered
to be still in existence, a portion of it being used as a sewer, and
other portions as tanks for water. This passage has no appearance of
great antiquity about it : it appears to be Roman of a late date. It
has been suggested that its western entrance is probably that
noticed in the ditch of the Citadel ; but on the other hand, its
entrance may be at the so-called Gennath Gate. As it has only at
present been traced one-seventh of the whole distance from the
Gate of the Chain to the Citadel, it would be hazardous to speculate
with too much certainty on its having connected the Citadel with the
Temple ; but it may be mentioned that there is a general impression
among the inhabitants of the buildings about this line at the present
day, that such a passage runs through under their houses, and that
it has been divided into tanks and receptacles for sewage. It is
possible that it may yet prove to have been a water-channel only.
This passage is from 8 to 12 feet in 26 — 2
 204 THE SURVEY OF WESTERN PALESTINE. widtli, and is
covered by a semicircular arch of cut stone ; it is nearly choked up
with sewage, so that it could only be examined with great difficulty
at certain points. At its eastern extremity its floor-line is about on
level 2,400 feet ; the walls are about 8 feet in height ; and the
crown of the arch is about 8 feet below the level (2,419 feet) of the
street above. At the western extremity, 260 feet from the Sanctuary
wall, the passage appears only to be aboi.it S feet wide ; its floor is
on the same level of 2,400, and ihi: crown of its arch is about 8 feet
below the level (2,422) of the street above. Above the crown of this
arch probably runs the aqueduct from the Pools of Solomon. This
Secret Passage, at its eastern extremity (about i 10 feet from the
Sanctuary wall), is suddenly broken, the end being filled up with
rubbish from above. If it ever continued to the Sanctuary wall, it
would have passed over the southern and newer portion of the arch
over the Ancient Hall, and along the trimmer arch to the south of the
causeway vaults, and south of Wilson's Arch. There is an appearance
of a break in the Sanctuary wall to the south of Wilson's Arch, by
which the entrance may have been effected. Westwards this passage
runs almost immediately under the Street of the Chain. At first it is
about 12 feet broad, but it gradually narrows to 8 feet in width. The
arch is semicircular, of w^hitc viezzeli. On the north are to be seen
the entrances to the vaults already mentioned, which form the
causeway, and to the south is a door or opening. At about 205 feet
from the Sanctuary wall the passage was blocked up with a thin
masonry wall, and there was here a drop of 6 feet to the bottom of
the passage. The passage terminated at 220 feet in a solid wall to
the west. The chamber or section thus cut off had a door to the
south, which opened into a donkey-stable built in the side of the
causeway. The continuation of this Secret Passage was subsequently
found to a distance of 260 feet from the Sanctuary wall. A section of
it is here used as a tank, about iS feet in length, and the breadth is
about 8 feet. The plan of this passage was not completed before the
vaults leadinoto it were closed up by order of the Pacha, but it is
probable that there is not likely to be any great error in the sketch-
plan given on Plate XXXV.
 JERUSALEM. 205 It may be supposed that the Secret
Passage should run immediately under the roadway of the Bab as
Silsile, but this is merely a matter of conjecture ; and as it is known
that there is a slight error in the ground-plan of the city at this part,
no correction of the underground plan can profitably be made until
that on the surface is examined, even on the supposition that one
lies over the other. It appears, however, improbable that the modern
houses of the Moslems should necessarily follow the lines of a
passage of the existence of which they are uncertain. It is also
doubtful, however, whether the causeway and Secret Passage may
not be of comparatively recent date, as is indicated by the discovery
of an arched gateway or city postern nearly immediately below it.
Postern of anxient City Wall. Close to the last section of the Secret
Passage, at 250 feet from the Sanctuary wall, was found a vaulted
chamber of peculiar shape, the crown of which was about 13 feet 6
inches below the bottom of the Secret Passage. It had the
appearance of having originally been a postern in the city wall,
leading out eastwards ; but if so, it must have been before the
causeway was constructed. In the vault leading to the cistern, or
portion of the Secret Passage at 250 feet from the Sanctuary wall
(see Plate XXXV.), is the mouth of a narrow .shaft, at a level of 2,412
feet. At a depth of 25 feet this shaft opens into the crown of a
vaulted chamber running nearly east and west, its western side on
the plan being about 5 feet from the southern side of the Secret
Passage.
 2o6 THE SURVEY OF WESTERN PALESTINE. This chamber
is 14 feet 6 inches in length, 8 feet broad at its western end, and 10
feet 6 inches broad at its eastern end. It is plastered. The roof is
peculiar : it is a ' straight-sided,' pointed arch, the rise at the widest
part being only 2 feet. It was nearly full of rubbish. A doorway, built
up, was found leading into another vaulted chamber lying east and
west, 18 feet long, and, like the first chamber, wider at its eastern
extremity than at its western — 12 feet wide to east, and 13 feet 9
inches wide to west. There was no plaster about this chamber. The
arch appeared to be semicircular, of nineteen courses of nearly equal
size. At the eastern end is a doorway 5 foot wide, with a lintel 12
feet 4 inches in length, ami i foot 10 inches in height, and a
semicircular relieving arch of 5 feet span. Beyond this doorway is a
passage 2 feet 6 inches wide, and covered over with blocks of stone
laid horizontally. At 10 feet to east this passage is closed by fallen
masonry. The entrance between these two chambers is 4 feet 6
inches wide, and is covered by a lintel i foot 9 inches in height, with
a segmental relieving arch. A hole was made 4 feet to west of the
western chamber, but no continuation could be found, and it is
possible that this may be a more recent addition to the eastern
chamber. A broken volute of an Ionic capital was found in the
eastern chamber. It has been suggested that these chambers may
be the vestibule or guard-room to the postern of the city wall.
Nothing similar to the eastern chamber has been found about
Jerusalem. Anxient Crrv \V.\ll. Although the complicated nature of
the causeway vaults makes it extremely hazardous to offer any
conjectures as to the date when any portion was built, yet there is
one conclusion at which all theorists appear to have arrived, viz.,
that the first city wall mentioned by Josephus lies along the northern
edge of these vaults. Josephus states (B. J. v. 4. 2) that the first wall
'began on the north at the tower called Hippicus, and extended as
far as the Xystus, a place so-called, and then joining to the Council
House, ended at the west cloister of the Temple.' Colonel Wilson
says : 'It is almost certain that
 JERUSALEM. 207 this wall crossed the deep ravine running
down from the Damascus Gate at Wilson's Arch.' It would thus join
the Sanctuary wall about 650 feet from the southwest angle ; and as
it joined the zvest cloister of the Temple, the north-west angle of the
Temple cloister must be looked for at least at some distance to the
north of the Pool al Burak and Wilson's Arch. There is nothing at
present known to bear out the suggestion that at the building of the
second wall the first wall was pierced for through communication
towards Siloam. All that is known is that after the Roman period,
during the Middle Ages, such a passage existed. The west pier of
Wilson's Arch and the voussoirs are essentially Byzantine in their
appearance, and quite distinct from the arches and vaults more to
the west. Until there is a correct ground-plan of the buildings on the
surface and of those beneath on a large scale, it will be premature
to do more than make the faintest suggestions as to the original
construction of the vaults and their precise object. Possible Nature of
the Causew.w. Assuming that the northern side of the vaults defines
the position of the first wall, the question arises whether these
vaults are of the same age as this supposed wall (which is known to
have been built in the Maccabaean period), or whether they are of
more recent construction. There is nothing in their construction
which will warrant any closer identification than that they are
Roman, and as such may be attributed to any period from the
Roman procurators to Justinian. The Ancient Hall alone can be
considered of ancient type, and is of the same date, apparently, as
the Sanctuary wall. If the Sanctuary wall is Herodian, then this
Ancient Hall is probably Herodian also, and the Secret Passage and
causeway vaults are comparatively modern, and Wilson's Arch is of
so late a date that it affords no interest to those whose study is the
topography of the Bible. But if it be admitted that the Sanctuary wall
at the Pool al Burak is of the time of Solomon or of the Jewish kings,
then there is a possibility of the Secret Passage and causeway vaults
being as old as the time of Herod. The following conjectures are put
forward with much difiidence :
 2o8 THE SURVEY OF WESTERX PALESTIXE. During the
time of Solomon or of the Jewish kings, the present Sanctuary wall
at the Pool al Burak was constructed from the bottom of the valley,
at which time there were only a few feet of red or virgin soil in the
valley. The Ancient Hall was at the same time built, and was the
Council House. It is to be noted that the floor of this Hall is 30 feet
above the rock at the Noble Sanctuary ; it may therefore have been
constructed after the valley had commenced to fill uj). In the time of
the Maccabees the city wall was built, called the birst Wall by
Josephus. Portions of this wall have been found on the northern side
of the Upper City, south of the Muristan. Either at the building of the
w^all or at some subsequent period a causeway was constructed
along its southern side to join the Temple to the Upper City. Probably
this was done when Akra was cut down. Whether the present
causeway vaults were built at this period or not can only be a matter
of conjecture. When this causeway was built there was possibly a
series of vaults, reaching u]) to the Sanctuary wall over the space
now occupied by Wilson's Arch. These causeway vaults are double,
and run together east and west, and do not appear to be of the
same age or construction. One set must be older than the other. The
northern viaduct appears to be more ancient. In after years this
viaduct appears to have been added to by the southern viaduct,
making up together a width of 44 feet 6 inches. At the same time
the Secret Passage was constructed. This may have taken place in
the time of Herod, or at a later period. This Secret Passage passed
over the new arch over the Ancient Hall, and probably was
connected with the arch spanning the southern portion of the Pool al
Burak, which has all the appearance of being more ancient than
Wilson's Arch. At the time of Constantine, when the present Holy
Sepulchre was taken within the city walls, there was no object in
keeping up the old First Wall at this point, as it had been broken
down in other parts. Therefore a roadway was made along the
Sanctuary wall at a level 2,366 feet, spanned by an arch 42 feet in
width. Whether this was done
Welcome to our website – the ideal destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. With a mission to inspire endlessly, we offer a
vast collection of books, ranging from classic literary works to
specialized publications, self-development books, and children's
literature. Each book is a new journey of discovery, expanding
knowledge and enriching the soul of the reade

Our website is not just a platform for buying books, but a bridge
connecting readers to the timeless values of culture and wisdom. With
an elegant, user-friendly interface and an intelligent search system,
we are committed to providing a quick and convenient shopping
experience. Additionally, our special promotions and home delivery
services ensure that you save time and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and

personal growth!

ebookfinal.com