Nervous Coordination

The system of the body that provides communication through electrical

and chemical signals ( nerve impulse ) is ca!ed nervous system.
-> Nervous coordination comprises highly specialised ca!ed neurons.
-> Neurons are the fundamental unit of the nervous system.
-> Nervous system consists of two types of tissues ca!ed neurons and
neuroglia.

The entire communication from the stimulus to the response

occurs within mi!iseconds.

Receptors as Transducers
-> Receptors detect the stimulus.
-> Sensory receptors are specialised neurons or epithelial ce!s
that exist singly or in groups with other types of sensory organs.
-> A! receptors are transducers ( structures that convert signals
from one form to another ).
 Types of Receptors
1) Mechanoreceptors ; are stimulated by physical deformation caused
by such stimuli as pressure, touch, stretch, motion and sound a! forms
of mechanical energy.
2) Pain receptors ( Noicereceptors ) ; A stimulus that causes or is
about to cause tissue damage is perceived as pain. The receptors that
transmit impulses perceived as pain.
3) Thermoreceptors ; respond to either heat or cold help in regulation
of body temperature by signaling both surface and body core
temperature.
4) Chemoreceptors ; transmit information about the total solute
concentration in a solution and speci"c receptors that respond to
individual kinds of molecules are :

i) Osmoreceptors ; in human brain (hypothalamus) detect changes in

total solute concentration of the blood and stimulate thirst when
osmolarity increases.
ii) Olfactory receptors ; found in nasal epithelium ( sme! )
iii) Gustatory receptors ; found in tongue for tastes.

5) Photoreceptors ; these receptors detect light stimuli, are organized

in eyes (Rods and Cones).
-> Neuron ;
Functional and structural unit of nervous system, and it is
specialised for transmitting signals from one location in the body
to another.
-> Structure of Neuron ;
Supporting ce!s of its supply neurons with nutrients, removing
waste, guiding axon migration and performing immune functions.

Receptors to CNS CNS to e#ectors Mediator between

sensory, motor
neuron and CNS
Functions of neurons ;
-> Receive information from the internal or external environment or from
other neurons.
-> Integrate the information it receives and produces appropriate output signal.
-> Conduct the signal to its terminal ending, which may be some distance away.
-> Transmit the signal to other nerve ce! , glands or muscles.
-> Coordinate the metabolic activities that maintain the integrity of the ce!.

-> Re!ex action ; An Involuntary action of an voluntary part of the body.

-> Re!ex arc ; The pathway of nerve impulse during re!ex action.

Nerve impulse ;
It is an electrical signal that depends on the !ow of ions across the membrane
of a neuron. The signal begins as " change in the electrical gradient across the
ce"'s plasma membrane “.
 Generation and transmission of nerve impulse
-> The voltage measured across the neurolema is ca!ed membrane potential.
-> Neurolemma is polarised and from inside negatively charged with respect
to the outside, due to distribution of ions.
-> Nerve impulse travels through dendrites or axon due to the voltage
proteinic gated channels in neurolemma.

Distribution of Ions
 Resting membrane potential
-> No nerve impulse is sent
-> The resting membrane is only slightly permeable to these ions.
-> The potential di#erence between negative and positive charges is
membrane potential.
-> Membrane potential is measured in mi!ivolts.
-> RMP = -70 mv ( negative sign shows excessive negative ions inside)
-> Neurons are excitable hence they respond to the changes to their
surroundings.
-> If the membrane potential becomes more negative than the resting
potential, the membrane becomes hyperpolarised.
-> If the membrane becomes less negative than the resting potential
membrane, the membrane is depolarised.
-> 2 K+ ions enter inside (cytoplasm) and 3 Na+ ions move outside,
making the inside -ve .
-> the -ve charge is created by the ce! membrane being more
permeable to K+ ion movement than Na+ ion movement.
-> The Na+ and K+ leaky channels a!ow di#usion down the concentration
gradient.
-> K+ leakage channels are more than the Na+ leakage channels ,
therefore, more potassium defuses out of neurolemma, making
inside negative.
-> Na-Ka+ pump maintains the resting potential ( -ve charge)
-> Chlorine also accumulate outside of the ce! because they are
repe!ed by the negatively charged proteins within the cytoplasm.

Action membrane potential

-> Triggered when any stimulus is received by the neuron .

-> If a stimulus is capable to produce action potential in neuron, it is
ca!ed threshold stimulus
-> Na+ channels open — making inside more +ve ( Depolarisation )
-> AMP = +50 mV
-> K+ channels open and Na+ channels close — making inside -ve
as K+ di#use out ( repolarisation ).
-> This return to resting stage takes from 10 to 30 Mi!iseconds.
-> The action potential state is based on “A! or none” method.
Stimulus < thresholds stimulus —> no action potential
Stimulus > threshold stimulus —> nerve impulse generated that wi!
travel across the entire neurolemma.
-> the sodium potassium, pump works continuously throughout the
action potential

The refractory phase is a brief period after the successful transmission

of a nerve impulse. During this period, the membrane prepares itself
for the conduction of the second stimulus after restoring the original
resting state. It persists for only 2 mi!iseconds.

-> The sodium potassium pump restores the resting membrane state
for the conduction of the second nerve impulse using ATP (active
transport )
Velocities of nerve impulse
1) Electrical synapse : involves direct cytoplasmic connections formed
by gap junctions between the presynaptic and post synaptic neurons.
-> Impulses transmit from neuron to neuron without delay and with no
loss of signal strength.
-> Electrical synapses in the CNS synchronize the activity of neurons
responsible for some rapid stereotypical movement.
-> Electrical synapses are common in invertebrate nervous systems, but
less so in vertebrates.

• Pre synaptic —> transmits action potential to the synapse

• Post synaptic —> ce! receiving the signal on the other side of
the synapse.
• Neurotransmitters —> The end of presynaptic axon is swo!en
and contains numerous synaptic vesicles each packed with
chemicals ca!ed neurotransmitters.
2) Chemical synapse ;

Depending on the type of receptors and the ions channels they

control , neurotransmitters binding to the post synaptic membrane
may either excite the membrane by bringing its voltage closer to the
threshold potential or inhibiting the post synaptic ce! by
hyperpolarizing its membrane. Neurotransmitter must be rapidly
removed from the synaptic cleft to a!ow new signals to be
transmitted. This is accomplished by a variety of mechanisms,
including enzymatic digestion in the synaptic cleft, reuptake of
neurotransmitters by the neuron and uptake by glial ce!s.
 Classi!cation of neurotransmitters
1) Excitatory neurotransmitters ;
At an excitatory synapse neurotransmitter, receptors control a
type of gated channel that a!ows Na+ to enter the ce! and K+ to
leave the ce! causing depolarization, the electrical change caused
by the binding of neurotransmitter to the receptor is ca!ed an
excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP).

Parkinon’s disease
Is due to Low level of
dopamine.

Schizopherenia
Is due to high level of
dopamine.
2)Inhibitory neurotransmitters ;
-> The binding of neurotransmitter molecules to the postsynaptic
membrane hyperpolarizes the membrane by opening ion channels .
-> That make the membrane more permeable either to K+ which
rushes out of ce! or to Cl- which enters the ce! because of a large
concentration gradient or to both of these ions.
-> Membrane potential becomes more negative than the resting
potential making it more di#icult for an action potential to be
generated, voltage change associated with chemical signaling at an
inhibitory synapse is ca!ed inhibitory postsynaptic potential (ISP).
 Organisation of nervous system

1) Central nervous system (CNS) :

-> Sensory information is received and processed , thoughts are
generated and responses are directed .
-> the CNS is protected in three ways.
i) Bony armour
ii) Meninges

iii) Cerebrospinal $uid ( CSF )

a) Brain :
-> shielded by Cranium
-> cerebral cortex is more
developed in humans
-> the human brain is large
and weighs 1.4 kg (3 pounds )

i ) Fore Brain ; largest part of the human brain

Telencephalon Diencephalon

Cerebrum Corpus Ca!osum Thalamus Limbic system

Or
cerebral hemispheres
Amygdala
Hypothalamus Hippocampus

White matter Grey matter

(Cerebral cortex)

1) Sensory Area 1) Frontal 2) Parietal

2) Motor area 3) Occipital 4) Temporal
3) Association area
-> White matter ; composed of primarily myelinated axons
-> Grey matter ( Cerebral cortex )
Composed of neuronal ce! bodies,
their dendrites and neuroglia.
Divided into 4 regions ;
1) Frontal
2) Parietal
3) Occipital
4) Temporal

Activities ;
1) Sensory Area -> receive imports from di#erent body parts
2) Motor area -> controls the responses of the body
3) Association area -> Site of higher mental activities ( inte!igence,
reasoning and memory ) which analyses incoming information.
-> Thalamus :
The clearing house for sensory impulses as it receives them from
di#erent parts of the brain and relays them to appropriate part of
the motor cortex.
-> limbic system : Located in an arc between the thalamus and cerebrum.
i) Hypothalamus : Important in regulation of homeostasis , it
regulates pituitary gland and is involved in regulation of
temperature, blood pressure, hunger, thirst, aggression, pleasure,
and pain.
 ii) Amygdala -> produces sensation of pleasure, punishment, or sexual
arousal upon the stimulation and take control of feelings and emotions.

iii) Hippocampus -> resembles the shape of seahorse and plays an

important role in the formation of long-term memory and is required
for learning.
-> Short-term memory and procedural memory types (walking) are
managed by cortex and cerebe!um.

ii) Mid brain -> Contains reticular information which plays an important
role in sleep, and arousal, emotion muscle tone , certain movement and
re$exes.
iii) Hind Brain ;

Medu!a Pons Cerebe!um

• Controls autonomic functions, • Located above the medu!a • Controls Coordinating
such as breathing,heart rate, • Regulate activities, like. movement of the body
blood pressure and swa"owing. muscular coordination, facial, • Receive sensory
expressions, breathing and information and provides
sleeping. autonomic coordination of
movement and balance
Brainstem -> controls, involuntary functions
of the body, like heartbeat and breathing. It
consists of midbrain, Medu!a oblongata and
pons.
 b) Spinal cord ;
• Serves as an expressway for signals between autonomic nervous
system and brain.
• It also controls sudden involutely movement of muscles and sudden
re$exes.

2) Peripheral nervous system (PNS) ;

-> Composed of sensory and motor neurons.
-> Neurons are arranged in the form of ;

Nerves Ganglia
Bundle of neuro"bres Co!ection of neuron ce! bodies

Spinal nerves Cranial nerves

Originate from head originate from head
to spinal cord to the brain
-> The axons of sensory neurons enter the dorsal surface of the
spinal cord and form the dorsal root of spinal nerve.
-> Motor axons leave from the ventral surface of the spinal cord and
form ventral root of spinal nerve.

-> For stressful and

highly energetic activity
-> It consists of thoracic
and lumbar nerves
originating from spinal cord
 Sensory receptors and their working
1) Sme! receptors ( olfactory receptors ):
located in the upper portion of the nasal cavity. The human
olfactory epithelium is sma! compared with that of many other
mammals (dogs) whose sense of sme! is far more active.
Olfactory neurons dendrites end in tassels of cilia, project into
the nasal mucosa, and their axons project directly into the
cerebral cortex. When odorous substance di#uses into this
region it binds to speci"c receptor molecules on the plasma
membrane of the olfactory cilia.

2) Tounge receptors :
-> Modi"ed epithelial ce!s organised into taste buds.
-> Human tounge has about 1000 taste buds.
-> Most of the taste buds are on the surface of the tounge or papi!ae
on the tounge.
-> the "ve basic tests are sweet, sour, salty, better and umami
(perception of glutamate and another amino acid that give taste to
protein rich foods such as meat, cheese and butter).
3) Sensory Receptors in human skin :
 E"ects of drugs on nervous coordination
Drugs that provide pain relief, such as morphine and Dermol block
the synapse in the pain pathways of the brain or spinal cord.
Narcotic drugs :
1) Heroin -> white powder with a bitter taste
-> highly addictive drug
-> drived from the morphine alkaloid found in
opium poppy plants
2)Cannabis -> dried $owering tops and leaves
-> herbal cannabis and cannabis resin are forma!y known
as Marijuana and hashish
-> cause mild euphoria with alteration in vision and judgement
3) Nicotine -> derived from tobacco
-> binds directly to the speci"c receptor on postsynaptic
neuron of the brain.
-> mainly binds with ACh
-> stimulates heart rate, blood pressure and increases
the muscular activity.
4) Alcohol -> interfere with the brains communication pathways
-> causes change in mood , behaviour and coordination
5) Inhalants -> volatile substances
-> easily found like spray paint, markers and glues.
 Disorders of nervous system
1) Vascular disorders of the CNS : due to abnormality in blood
circulation.
a) Stroke : caused by interference with blood supply to the brain
Causes -> hypertension, smoking, diabetes me!itus, high alcohol
intake and cocaine abuse.
Symptoms -> loss of balance and coordination ,headache ,paralysis
and weakness in the arm, face and leg.
Treatment-> re-storing the blood $ow of anticoagulant and platelets
aggregation inhibitor is given also blood pressure management and
nursing care is essential.

b) Haematoma : massive accumulation of blood into between

brain and its outermost covering.
Causes -> due to hypertension
Symptoms -> loss of consciousness, confusion, pale skin and seizures.
Treatment -> surgery to remove the clot and drain blood.

2) Infectious disorders of the CNS : due to infection, virus, bacteria,

fungi, and Protozoa. example, meningitis and encephalitis.
a) Meningitis : in$ammation of the $uid and membranes surrounding.
brain and spinal cord.
Causes -> viral, bacterial and fungal infections.
Symptoms -> high fever sti#ness in the neck and headache with nausea
and vomiting. It may cause paralysis,Coma and death.
Treatment-> bacterial meningitis can be treated with intravenous
antibiotics and corticosteroids. however, viral meningitis can be
improved itself.

b) Encephalitis : in$ammation of the brain

Causes -> virus and rarely fungus
Symptoms -> headache, confusion, muscle, weakness, dementia, and
irritation.
Treatment -> must be treated immediately

3) Structural disorders of the CNS : disturb the structure of brain and

spinal cord.
a) Tumour : growth of ce!s in the brain that divide in an abnormal and
uncontro!able way.
Causes -> by mutation and radiations
Symptoms -> headache,vision problems, seizures, paralysis, coma and
death.(varies with the size and growth of tumour)
Treatment-> surgery, radiation therapy and chemotherapy

4) functional disorders of the CNS :

Headache:
Headache is de"ned as pain arising from the head or upper neck of the
body. Pain originates, from the tissues and structures that surround
the sku!, the brain itself has no nerves that give rise to the sensation
of pain.
Primary headache:
Includes migraine, tension, and cluster headaches.
Secondary headache:
due to an underlying or infection problem in the head or neck, dental pain
from infected teeth, pain from an infected sinus, and bleeding in the brain
or infections like encephalitis or meningitis.
Cranial neuralgias, facial pain and other headache:
Cranial neuroglia means in$ammation of one of the 12 cranial nerves
coming from the brain that control the muscles and carry sensory signals
to and from the head and neck.
Cause : in$ammation on irritation of the structures surrounding brain.
Symptoms : pain in the back of the head in a upper neck
Treatment : pain medications

3) Degenerative disorders of the CNS : due to degeneration in di#erent

parts of the CNS.
a) Alzheimer’s : memory loss in early stage end, and in late stage it
a#ects the communication.
Causes -> inheritance of certain genes
Symptoms -> memory loss (in early stage) delusion and ha!ucination.
Treatment-> no cure but can be managed
b) Parkinson’s disease : by degeneration or damage to nerve tissues
within the basal ganglia of the brain.
Causes -> death of dopamine producing neurons
Symptoms -> tremors in the arm or leg , sti#ness , weakness ,trembling
Treatment-> no cure but can be managed
 Diagnostic test for nervous disorders

1) Electroencephalogram (EEG):
-> Record minute changes in electrical activity within the brain.
-> Macro electrodes are used ( stuck the skin and scalp )
-> Produces a chart (varries in frequency and amplitude )
-> electric output from the brain changes over time
2) Computed tomography (CT scan):
-> Computerised x-ray imaging procedures
-> X-ray beam rotate around the body producing signals which are
processed by the computer, generating cross-sectional images
and slices (tomographic images).
3) Mgnetic resonance imaging (MRI):
-> It’s a radiological technique which uses magnetism, radio waves
and a computer.
-> Produces a detailed image of body structures.