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Textiles and Human Thermophysiological Comfort in the
Indoor Environment 1st Edition Radostina A. Angelova
(Author) Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Radostina A. Angelova (Author)
ISBN(s): 9781498740135, 1351230328
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 13.83 MB
Year: 2015
Language: english
 MATERIALS SCIENCE

“… a very comprehensive textbook that covers the interactions between

Textiles and Human
humans, clothing, and the environment. … an excellent source of
knowledge.”
—Dr. Abhijit Majumdar, Associate Professor, Department of Textile Technology,
Thermophysiological
Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi
“… a very good systematic study about all the topics related to thermo-
Comfort in the
Indoor Environment
physiological comfort in the indoor environment.”
—Dr. Yordan Kyosev, Professor, Hochschule Niederrhein – University of
Applied Sciences, Mönchengladbach, Germany

Textiles and Human Thermophysiological Comfort in the Indoor Environment

delivers a methodical assessment of textile structures for various applications
in the indoor environment with respect to the thermophysiological comfort of
the inhabitants. The book begins by offering an overview of the role of indoor
textiles and clothing as a barrier between the environment and the human
body, and then:
• Explores the use of textiles as an insulation barrier, examining the
relationships between textiles and the environment, and textiles and
the human body
• Details an experimental study of heat and mass transfer processes
through woven textiles with different applications in the indoor
environment
• Describes a numerical investigation of the transport of air and
heat through woven fabrics by means of computational fluid
dynamics (CFD)
• Develops, applies, and verifies an original approach for simulating the
woven macrostructure as a jet system, presenting proven results
• Evaluates thermophysiological comfort under the influence tof indoor
environmental parameters, clothing insulation, and activity

Textiles and Human Thermophysiological Comfort in the Indoor Environment

provides a valuable reference for students and researchers working in the area
of clothing comfort.

K25340 Radostina A. Angelova

ISBN: 978-1-4987-1539-3
90000

9 781498 715393

K25340_Covers1_PG.indd All Pages 8/18/15 11:27 AM

Textiles and Human
Thermophysiological
Comfort in the
Indoor Environment
This page intentionally left blank
Textiles and Human
Thermophysiological
Comfort in the
Indoor Environment

Radostina A. Angelova
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Version Date: 20150811

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4987-1540-9 (eBook - PDF)

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To Peter and Alexander
This page intentionally left blank
Contents

List of Figures ..................................................................................................... xvii

List of Tables ..................................................................................................... xxvii
Preface ................................................................................................................. xxxi
Author ...............................................................................................................xxxiii

Section I Interaction of Textiles and Clothing

with the Environment and Man
1. Human Comfort: Thermophysiological Comfort .................................... 3
1.1 Role of Textiles and Clothing .............................................................. 3
1.2 Human Comfort ....................................................................................4
1.3 Physiological and Thermophysiological Comfort ............................5
1.3.1 Physiological Comfort .............................................................5
1.3.2 Thermophysiological Comfort ...............................................6
1.3.2.1 Phases of Thermophysiological Comfort .............. 6
1.3.2.2 Terms Associated with
Thermophysiological Comfort ...............................7
1.4 Summary ................................................................................................9

2. Textiles and Clothing in the Indoor Environment ................................ 11

2.1 Interaction between the Human Body and the Indoor
Environment ........................................................................................ 11
2.2 Textiles in the Indoor Environment ................................................. 13
2.2.1 Risk Factors in the Indoor Environment ............................ 13
2.2.2 Floor Coverings ...................................................................... 15
2.2.3 Upholstery Textiles ................................................................ 17
2.2.4 Bedding and Blankets ........................................................... 18
2.2.5 Curtains and Screens ............................................................ 18
2.3 Summary .............................................................................................. 19

3. Thermal Insulation Properties of Textiles and Clothing..................... 21

3.1 Hierarchical Structure of Textiles ..................................................... 21
3.2 Heat Transfer through a Textile Layer .............................................22
3.2.1 Dry Heat Transfer .................................................................. 23
3.2.1.1 Conduction .............................................................. 23
3.2.1.2 Convection............................................................... 23
3.2.1.3 Radiation ................................................................. 24

vii
viii Contents

3.2.2 Impact of the Hierarchical Structure on the Dry Heat

Transfer.................................................................................... 24
3.2.3 Latent Heat Transfer .............................................................. 25
3.2.4 Impact of the Hierarchical Structure on the Latent
Heat Transfer .......................................................................... 26
3.3 Transfer of Fluid through a Textile Layer ........................................ 27
3.4 Thermal Insulation of Textiles and Clothing .................................. 28
3.5 Factors That Influence the Thermal Insulation of the Textiles ..... 29
3.6 Methods for Determination of Thermal Insulation
Properties of Textiles .......................................................................... 32
3.7 Thermophysiological Comfort and Special Textile Materials
and Garments ...................................................................................... 33
3.7.1 Silver Fibers............................................................................. 33
3.7.2 Carbon Fibers .........................................................................34
3.7.3 Phase-Change Materials .......................................................34
3.7.4 Application of Special Textile Materials ............................. 35
3.7.4.1 Active Wear ............................................................. 35
3.7.4.2 Automotive Textiles ............................................... 35
3.7.4.3 Outdoor Sports Clothing....................................... 36
3.7.4.4 Lifestyle Apparel .................................................... 36
3.7.4.5 Aerospace Textiles .................................................. 36
3.7.4.6 Medical Textiles ...................................................... 36
3.8 Summary .............................................................................................. 37

4. Interaction between Textiles and Clothing and the Human Body ........... 39
4.1 Regulation of Body Heat .................................................................... 39
4.2 Mechanisms of Heat Loss and Heat Generation of the
Human Body........................................................................................ 41
4.2.1 Mechanisms of Heat Loss ..................................................... 41
4.2.2 Mechanisms of Heat Generation .........................................42
4.3 Impact of Textiles in the Indoor Environment on the
Human Body........................................................................................44
4.3.1 Effect of Chairs .......................................................................44
4.3.2 Effect of Bedding Textiles .....................................................44
4.3.2.1 Duvets ...................................................................... 45
4.3.2.2 Common Blankets .................................................. 45
4.3.2.3 Electric Blankets ..................................................... 46
4.3.3 Some Solutions for Improving the Effect of Textiles
on Human Thermophysiological Comfort ......................... 46
4.4 Summary .............................................................................................. 47
Contents ix

Section II Experimental Study of Woven Textiles

Used in the Indoor Environment
5. General Considerations and Methodology
of the Experimental Study .......................................................................... 51
5.1 Aims and Scope of the Experimental Study ................................... 51
5.2 General Description of the Study ..................................................... 52
5.2.1 Experimental Investigation of the Mesostructure ............ 52
5.2.1.1 Linear Density ...................................................... 52
5.2.1.2 Twist ....................................................................... 53
5.2.1.3 Width of Ribbons ................................................. 53
5.2.1.4 Tenacity and Elongation at Break ...................... 53
5.2.2 Experimental Investigation of the Macrostructure .......... 53
5.2.2.1 Warp and Weft Density....................................... 53
5.2.2.2 Thickness............................................................... 53
5.2.2.3 Yarn Crimp............................................................ 53
5.2.2.4 Fabric Weight ........................................................54
5.2.2.5 Warp and Weft Cover Factor ..............................54
5.2.2.6 Fabric Cover Factor ..............................................54
5.2.2.7 Fabric Areal Porosity ...........................................54
5.2.2.8 Air Permeability ................................................... 55
5.2.2.9 Thermal Resistance .............................................. 55
5.2.2.10 Liquid Transfer ..................................................... 55
5.3 Calculation of the Relative Error ...................................................... 55
5.4 Summary .............................................................................................. 56

6. Experimental Investigation of the Mesostructure ................................. 57

6.1 State of the Art of the Problem: Impact of the Mesostructure
on the Transfer of Heat and Fluids ................................................... 57
6.2 Properties of the Yarns ....................................................................... 60
6.3 Manufacturing of Identical Woven Structures from
Different Yarns .................................................................................... 60
6.4 Analysis of the Effect of the Mesostructure on the Air
Permeability of the Macrostructure .................................................65
6.4.1 Effect of the Linear Density.................................................. 66
6.4.2 Effect of the Twist .................................................................. 67
6.5 Analysis of the Effect of the Mesostructure on Heat
Transfer through the Macrostructure .............................................. 69
6.5.1 Effect of the Linear Density.................................................. 69
6.5.2 Effect of the Twist .................................................................. 70
x Contents

6.6 Analysis of the Effect of the Mesostructure on Moisture

Transfer through the Macrostructure .............................................. 71
6.6.1 Effect of the Linear Density.................................................. 71
6.6.2 Effect of the Twist .................................................................. 73
6.7 Summary .............................................................................................. 74

7. Experimental Investigation of the Macrostructure of Textiles

for Clothing and Bedding ........................................................................... 75
7.1 Introduction ......................................................................................... 75
7.2 Properties of the Macrostructures .................................................... 75
7.3 Experimental Assessment of the Porosity ....................................... 76
7.4 Experimental Assessment of the Air Permeability ........................85
7.4.1 Analysis of the Air Permeability of Gray Fabrics.............. 92
7.4.2 Analysis of the Air Permeability of Finished Fabrics ....... 93
7.5 Experimental Assessment of the Conductive Heat Transfer ........ 94
7.6 Experimental Assessment of the Moisture Transport ................... 99
7.7 Summary ............................................................................................ 102

8. Experimental Investigation of the Macrostructure of Textiles

for Surgical Clothes and Medical Drapes ............................................. 103
8.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 103
8.2 Thermophysiological Comfort in an Operating Room ............... 104
8.2.1 Surgeons ................................................................................ 104
8.2.2 Anesthesiologists and Nurses............................................ 107
8.2.3 Patient .................................................................................... 107
8.3 Properties of Single Woven Structures for Surgical Clothes
and Drapes ......................................................................................... 108
8.4 Experimental Assessment of the Air Permeability
of a Single Layer ................................................................................ 110
8.5 Experimental Assessment of the Air Permeability
of Multilayer Systems ....................................................................... 113
8.5.1 Theoretical Model of Clayton............................................. 114
8.5.2 Air Permeability of a System of Two Identical Layers .........114
8.5.3 Air Permeability of a System of Two Different Layers.........116
8.5.4 Air Permeability of a System of Three Identical
Layers ................................................................................. 116
8.5.5 Regression Models for the Air Permeability of
Systems of Layers ................................................................. 118
8.5.5.1 Regression Models for the Air Permeability
of a System of Identical Layers ........................... 118
8.5.5.2 Regression Models for the Air Permeability
of a System of Different Layers .......................... 119
Contents xi

8.6 Theoretical Models for the Air Permeability of Systems

of Layers ........................................................................................... 119
8.6.1 Theoretical Model for the Air Permeability
of a System of Identical Layers ....................................... 119
8.6.2 Theoretical Model for the Air Permeability
of a System of Different Layers ...................................... 121
8.7 Experimental Assessment of the Moisture Transport ............... 121
8.7.1 Effect of Fabric Weight..................................................... 123
8.7.2 Effect of Thickness ........................................................... 124
8.7.3 Effect of Areal Porosity.................................................... 126
8.8 Summary .......................................................................................... 126

9. Experimental Investigation of the Macrostructure of Upholstery

Textiles .......................................................................................................... 129
9.1 State of the Art of the Problem ...................................................... 129
9.2 Experimental Assessment of the Air Permeability .................... 133
9.3 Experimental Assessment of the Heat Transfer ......................... 138
9.4 Summary .......................................................................................... 140

10. Experimental Investigation of the Macrostructure of Textiles

for Packing ................................................................................................... 141
10.1 State of the Art of the Problem ...................................................... 141
10.2 Properties of the Macrostructures ................................................ 143
10.3 Experimental Assessment of the Porosity ................................... 144
10.4 Experimental Assessment of the Air Permeability of a
Single Layer...................................................................................... 148
10.5 Experimental Assessment of the Air Permeability of
Double-Layered Systems................................................................ 154
10.6 Theoretical Assessment of the Air Permeability of
Double-Layered Systems ...........................................................155
10.7 Summary .......................................................................................... 157

11. Experimental Investigation of Textile Macrostructures in the

Indoor Environment................................................................................... 159
11.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 159
11.2 Materials in Contact with the Air in the Indoor Environment ...... 161
11.2.1 Wood and Wood-Based Materials ................................. 163
11.2.2 Textiles ............................................................................... 163
11.2.3 Paper and Paper-Based Materials .................................. 164
11.2.4 Gypsum and Gypsum Boards ........................................ 164
11.2.5 Concrete and Ceramics.................................................... 164
11.2.6 Other Materials................................................................. 164
xii Contents

11.3 Distribution of Moisture Buffering Materials in Real

Enclosures: Offices and Hotel Rooms .......................................... 165
11.4 Interaction of Textiles with Water Vapor Indoors ...................... 170
11.5 Sorption Isotherms ......................................................................... 172
11.6 Summary .......................................................................................... 174

Section III Mathematical Modeling and

Numerical Study of the Properties
of Woven Structures with Respect
to Thermophysiological Comfort
12. Mathematical Modeling and Numerical Simulation of
Air Permeability and Heat Transfer through Woven
Macrostructures: State of the Art ............................................................ 177
12.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 177
12.2 Air Permeability Modeling ............................................................ 178
12.3 Heat Transfer Modeling ................................................................. 182
12.4 Summary .......................................................................................... 184

13. Simulation of Air Permeability by Using

Hagen–Poiseuille Law ....................................................................... 185
13.1 Applicability of the Hagen–Poiseuille Law................................. 186
13.2 Mathematical Model for Calculation of Air Permeability...............186
13.2.1 Calculation of the Number of Voids np in the
Woven Macrostructure ................................................. 187
13.2.2 Calculation of the Diameter of the Threads............... 187
13.2.3 Determination of the Pore Size .................................... 187
13.2.4 Calculation of the Pore Area and Pore Perimeter ..... 188
13.2.5 Determination of the Porosity of the
Macrostructure ............................................................... 188
13.2.6 Calculation of the Thickness ........................................ 189
13.2.7 Calculation of the Hydraulic Diameter of the Void .......189
13.2.8 Determination of the Mean Velocity ........................... 189
13.2.9 Calculation of the Hydraulic Area of the Pore .......... 190
13.2.10 Determination of the Air Flow Rate through
the Sample ....................................................................... 190
13.2.11 Determination of the Air Permeability
Coefficient Bp of the Macrostructure........................... 190
13.3 Theoretical Results .......................................................................... 191
13.4 Verification of the Model ................................................................ 196
Contents xiii

13.5 Numerical Simulation of the Air Permeability of Textiles

for Clothing and Bedding .............................................................. 198
13.5.1 Numerical Procedure and Results ................................. 198
13.5.2 Verification of the Results ............................................... 199
13.6 Summary .......................................................................................... 201

14. Mathematical Modeling and Numerical Simulation of the Air

Permeability of Woven Structures by CFD ........................................... 203
14.1 Methods for Modeling of Fluid Flows ......................................... 204
14.2 Mathematical Model ....................................................................... 205
14.3 Turbulence Modeling ..................................................................... 206
14.4 Theoretical Background of the Modeling of Woven
Macrostructures .............................................................................. 208
14.4.1 Jet Systems ......................................................................... 208
14.4.2 Approximation of a Woven Structure to a Jet
System ........................................................................... 210
14.5 Numerical Procedure for the Parametric Study ......................... 211
14.5.1 Computational Domain................................................... 211
14.5.2 Selection of the Woven Macrostructure ........................ 212
14.5.3 Selection of the Jet System............................................... 213
14.5.4 Selection of a Grid ............................................................ 213
14.5.5 Turbulent Model ............................................................... 215
14.5.6 Initial and Boundary Conditions ................................... 216
14.5.7 Convergence Conditions ................................................. 216
14.5.8 Additional Conditions ..................................................... 216
14.5.9 Summary of the Investigated Cases .............................. 216
14.6 Numerical Results from the Parametric Study ........................... 220
14.6.1 Effect of the Number of Jets in the System ................... 220
14.6.2 Effect of the Shape of the Pore Cross Section ...............223
14.6.3 Effect of the Initial Flow Velocity................................... 226
14.6.4 Effect of the Numerical Grid .......................................... 228
14.7 Numerical Procedure for the Model Study ................................. 229
14.7.1 Computational Domain................................................... 230
14.7.2 Selection of the Woven Macrostructure ........................ 230
14.7.3 Selection of the Jet System............................................... 230
14.7.4 Selection of a Grid ............................................................ 230
14.7.5 Turbulent Model ............................................................... 231
14.7.6 Initial and Boundary Conditions ................................... 231
14.7.7 Convergence Conditions ................................................. 231
14.7.8 Additional Conditions ..................................................... 232
14.7.9 Summary of the Investigated Cases .............................. 232
xiv Contents

14.8 Numerical Results from the Model Study ................................... 233

14.8.1 Effect of the Turbulent Model......................................... 233
14.8.2 Effect of the Woven Macrostructure ............................. 236
14.8.3 Verification of the Numerical Results for the Air
Permeability from the Model Study .............................. 239
14.8.4 Modeling of the Porosity of the Mesostructure ........... 241
14.9 Summary .......................................................................................... 243

15. Mathematical Modeling and Numerical Simulation of

Heat Transfer through Woven Structures by CFD .............................. 245
15.1 Mathematical Model ....................................................................... 245
15.2 Numerical Procedure for the Study ............................................. 246
15.2.1 Computational Domain................................................... 246
15.2.2 Selection of the Woven Macrostructure ........................ 247
15.2.3 Jet System and Turbulence Modeling ............................ 247
15.2.4 Selection of a Grid ............................................................ 247
15.2.5 Initial and Boundary Conditions ................................... 247
15.2.6 Convergence Conditions ................................................. 249
15.2.7 Summary of the Investigated Cases .............................. 249
15.3 Numerical Results ........................................................................... 250
15.4 Summary ..........................................................................................254

Section IV Mathematical Modeling and Numerical

Study of Thermophysiological
Comfort with a Thermophysiological
Model of the Human Body
16. Thermoregulation of a Clothed Body: Physiological
Peculiarities ............................................................................................257
16.1 Thermophysiological Control of the Human Body.................... 257
16.1.1 Role of the Hypothalamus .............................................. 258
16.1.2 Mechanisms of Body’s Thermoregulation ................... 259
16.1.2.1 Effect of the Environment with High
Air Temperature .............................................. 259
16.1.2.2 Effect of the Environment with Low
Air Temperature .............................................. 260
16.1.2.3 Body Reactions of Thermal Discomfort ...... 260
16.2 Thermophysiological Models ........................................................ 261
16.2.1 Hardy’s Classification ...................................................... 262
16.2.1.1 Qualitative Models.......................................... 262
16.2.1.2 Quantitative Models ....................................... 263
Contents xv

16.2.2 Classification Based on the Number of Body

Segments............................................................................ 263
16.2.2.1 One-Cylinder Models ..................................... 263
16.2.2.2 Two-Cylinder Models ..................................... 264
16.2.2.3 Multilayered and Multisegment Models ..... 264
16.2.2.4 New Models ..................................................... 265
16.3 Gagge’s Thermophysiological Model ........................................... 265
16.3.1 Advantages of the Model ................................................ 265
16.3.2 Description of the Model................................................. 266
16.3.3 Passive System .................................................................. 267
16.3.3.1 Heat Exchange between the Body and
the Environment ............................................. 267
16.3.3.2 Heat Exchange between the Core Body
and the Skin ..................................................... 270
16.3.4 Control System.................................................................. 271
16.4 Implementation of the Model in FLUENT CFD Software
Package ............................................................................................. 273
16.5 Summary .......................................................................................... 273

17. Numerical Study of the Thermophysiological Comfort

of a Clothed Body ....................................................................................... 275
17.1 Specifics of the Study ...................................................................... 275
17.2 Mathematical Model ....................................................................... 276
17.3 Procedure of the Study ................................................................... 278
17.3.1 Local Thermophysical Properties of Textiles
and Clothing ..................................................................... 278
17.3.2 Selection of Clothing........................................................ 279
17.3.3 Selection of Activity ......................................................... 279
17.3.4 Parameters of the Indoor Environment ........................ 280
17.3.5 Parameters of the Human Body ..................................... 281
17.3.6 Summary of the Investigated Cases .............................. 281
17.4 Summary .......................................................................................... 281

18. Results from the Numerical Study on the Thermophysiological

Comfort of a Clothed Body....................................................................... 283
18.1 Influence of the Environmental Parameters ............................... 283
18.2 Influence of the Clothing Insulation ............................................ 287
18.3 Influence of the Activity................................................................. 290
18.4 Application Analyses of the Numerical Results......................... 292
18.4.1 Skin Temperature and Clothing Temperature
Isotherms ........................................................................... 292
xvi Contents

18.4.2Regression Analysis ......................................................... 295

18.4.2.1 Influence of the clo Value ............................... 295
18.4.2.2 Influence of the Activity................................. 297
18.4.2.3 Application of the Regression Models
and Their Verification ..................................... 297
18.5 Summary ..........................................................................................300
References ........................................................................................................... 301
Index ..................................................................................................................... 319
List of Figures

Figure 2.1 Effect of the environment on the human body .......................... 12

Figure 2.2 Risk factors for indoor air quality ................................................ 14
Figure 2.3 Distribution of world production of textile floor coverings
by type .............................................................................................. 16
Figure 2.4 Types of textile materials used in the production of floor
coverings .......................................................................................... 16
Figure 3.1 Dry heat transfer from the body to the environment
through textile layers...................................................................... 24
Figure 3.2 Dry heat transfer through a textile layer. .................................... 25
Figure 3.3 Latent heat transfer from the body to the environment
through textile layers ..................................................................... 27
Figure 3.4 Transfer of fluid through a screen of a porous woven
structure ........................................................................................... 27
Figure 4.1 Maximum weight of absorbed water in relation to the dry
weight of three types of blankets ................................................. 46
Figure 6.1 Distance between threads and pore area for different
yarns’ linear densities and constant warp and weft
density of the macrostructure ....................................................... 62
Figure 6.2 Warp and weft densities and number of pores in dm2 for
different yarns’ linear densities and constant of distance
between the threads .......................................................................63
Figure 6.3 Microscopic pictures of (a) sample 3 (133 g/m2, 20 tex)
and (b) sample 8 (235 g/m2, 50 tex)...............................................65
Figure 6.4 Influence of the yarns’ linear density on the air
permeability of gray fabrics .......................................................... 66
Figure 6.5 Influence of the yarns’ linear density on the air
permeability of finished fabrics .................................................... 67
Figure 6.6 Influence of the yarns’ twist on the air permeability of
gray fabrics ....................................................................................... 68

xvii
xviii List of Figures

Figure 6.7 Influence of the yarns’ twist on the air permeability of

finished fabrics ................................................................................ 68
Figure 6.8 Influence of the yarns’ linear density on the thermal
insulation Icl of the macrostructure ............................................ 70
Figure 6.9 Influence of the yarns’ twist on the thermal insulation Icl
of the macrostructure ................................................................... 71
Figure 6.10 Influence of the yarns’ linear density on the overall
moisture management capacity .................................................. 72
Figure 6.11 Influence of the yarns’ twist on the overall moisture
management capacity ................................................................... 73
Figure 7.1 Types of independent pores with interlacing threads ..............80
Figure 7.2 Microscopic images of (a) sample 4 and (b) sample 12
(4× enlargement) ............................................................................ 81
Figure 7.3 Measurement of a pore area, sample 13 ..................................... 81
Figure 7.4 Sample 2—measurement of the pore area: single values,
mean value, and standard deviation .......................................... 82
Figure 7.5 Sample 13—measurement of the pore area: single values,
mean value, and standard deviation ..........................................83
Figure 7.6 Square cross section of the pores: theoretical and
experimental results for the pore side........................................84
Figure 7.7 Circle cross section of the pores: theoretical and
experimental results for the pore diameter ...............................84
Figure 7.8 Air permeability as a function of the warp cover factor
of the macrostructure, gray fabrics............................................. 88
Figure 7.9 Air permeability as a function of the weft cover factor of
the macrostructure, gray fabrics ................................................. 88
Figure 7.10 Air permeability as a function of the fabric cover factor
of the macrostructure, gray fabrics ............................................. 88
Figure 7.11 Air permeability as a function of the areal porosity of
the macrostructure, gray fabrics ................................................. 89
Figure 7.12 Air permeability as a function of the thickness of the
macrostructure, gray fabrics ........................................................ 89
Figure 7.13 Air permeability as a function of the fabric weight of the
macrostructure, gray fabrics ........................................................ 89
List of Figures xix

Figure 7.14 Air permeability as a function of the warp cover factor

of the macrostructure, finished fabrics ...................................... 90
Figure 7.15 Air permeability as a function of the weft cover factor of
the macrostructure, finished fabrics........................................... 90
Figure 7.16 Air permeability as a function of the fabric cover factor
of the macrostructure, finished fabrics ...................................... 90
Figure 7.17 Air permeability as a function of the areal porosity of
the macrostructure, finished fabrics ........................................... 91
Figure 7.18 Air permeability as a function of the thickness of the
macrostructure, finished fabrics ................................................. 91
Figure 7.19 Air permeability as a function of the fabric weight of the
macrostructure, finished fabrics ................................................. 91
Figure 7.20 Thermal insulation as a function of the fabric weight of
the macrostructure........................................................................ 98
Figure 7.21 Thermal insulation as a function of the thickness of the
macrostructure .............................................................................. 98
Figure 7.22 Thermal insulation as a function of the areal porosity of
the macrostructure........................................................................ 99
Figure 7.23 Influence of the thickness on the bottom spreading speed .......101
Figure 7.24 Influence of the thickness on the overall moisture
management capacity ................................................................. 101
Figure 8.1 Air permeability as a function of the fabric weight—
single layer .................................................................................... 110
Figure 8.2 Air permeability as a function of the thickness—single
layer ............................................................................................... 111
Figure 8.3 Air permeability as a function of the warp cover factor—
single layer.................................................................................... 111
Figure 8.4 Air permeability as a function of the weft cover factor—
single layer .................................................................................... 111
Figure 8.5 Air permeability as a function of the fabric areal
porosity—single layer ................................................................. 112
Figure 8.6 Air permeability as a function of the fabric weight—six
samples ......................................................................................... 112
Figure 8.7 Air permeability as a function of the thickness—six
samples ......................................................................................... 113
Other documents randomly have
different content
one asked for adornment and sought honour, but the other was
adorned, since he had no request to make for himself.
And `Alí b. Bundár al-Ṣayrafí of Níshápúr says: Al-taṣawwuf isqáṭ
al-ru´yat li-´l-ḥaqq ẕáhiran wa-báṭinan, “Ṣúfiism is this, that the Ṣúfí
should not regard his own exterior and interior, but should regard all
as belonging to God.” Thus, if you look at the exterior, you will find
an outward sign of God’s blessing, and, as you look, outward actions
will not have the weight even of a gnat’s wing beside the blessing of
God, and you will cease from regarding the exterior; and again, if
you look at the interior, you will find an inward sign of God’s aid,
and, as you look, inward actions will not turn the scale by a single
grain in comparison with the aid of God, and you will cease from
regarding the interior, and will see that all belongs to God; and when
you see that all is God’s, you will see that you yourself have nothing.
Muḥammad b. Aḥmad al-Muqrí[39] says: Al-taṣawwuf istiqámat al-
aḥwál ma`a ´l-ḥaqq, “Ṣúfiism is the maintenance of right states with
God,” i.e. “states” do not seduce the Ṣúfí from his (right) state, nor
cast him into wrong, since he whose heart is devoted to the Author
of states (muḥawwil-i aḥwál) is not cast down from the rank of
rectitude nor hindered from attaining to the Truth.

Section.

Maxims of Conduct (mu`ámalát).

Abú Ḥafṣ Ḥaddád of Níshápúr says: Al-taṣawwuf kulluhu ádábun li-
kulli waqtin adabun wa-li-kulli maqámin adabun wa-li-kulli ḥálin adabun
fa-man lazima ádáb al-awqát balagha mablagh al-rijál fa-man
ḍayya`a ´l-ádáb fa-huwa ba`ídun min ḥaythu yaẕunnu ´l-qurb wa-
mardúdun min ḥaythu yaẕunnu ´l-qabúl, “Ṣúfiism consists entirely of
behaviour; every time, place, and circumstance have their own
propriety; he that observes the proprieties of each occasion attains
to the rank of holy men; and he that neglects the proprieties is far
removed from the thought of nearness (to God) and is excluded
from imagining that he is acceptable to God.” The meaning of this is
akin to the dictum of Abu ´l-Ḥasan Núrí: Laysa ´l-taṣawwuf rusúman
wa-lá `ulúman wa-lákinnahu akhláqun, “Ṣúfiism is not composed of
practices and sciences, but it is morals,” i.e. if it consisted of
practices, it could be acquired by effort, and if it consisted of
sciences, it could be gained by instruction: hence it is morals, and it
is not acquired until you demand from yourself the principles of
morals, and make your actions square with them, and fulfil their just
claims. The distinction between practices (rusúm) and morals
(akhláq) is this, that practices are ceremonial actions proceeding
from certain motives, actions devoid of reality, so that their form is
at variance with their spirit, whereas morals are praiseworthy actions
without ceremony or motive, actions devoid of pretension, so that
their form is in harmony with their spirit.
Murta`ish says: Al-taṣawwuf ḥusn al-khulq, “Ṣúfiism is good
nature.” This is of three sorts: firstly, towards God, by fulfilling His
Commandments without hypocrisy; secondly, towards men, by
paying respect to one’s superiors and behaving with kindness to
one’s inferiors and with justice to one’s equals, and by not seeking
recompense and justice from men in general; and thirdly, towards
one’s self, by not following the flesh and the devil. Whoever makes
himself right in these three matters is a good-natured man. This
which I have mentioned agrees with a story told of `Á´isha the
veracious (ṣiddiqa)—may God be well-pleased with her! She was
asked concerning the nature of the Apostle. “Read from the Koran,”
she replied, “for God has given information in the place where He
says: ‘Use indulgence and order what is good and turn away from
the ignorant’ (Kor. vii, 198).” And Murta`ish also says: Hádhá
madhhabun kulluhu jiddun fa-lá takhliṭúhu bi-shay´in min al-hazl, “This
religion of Ṣúfiism is wholly earnest, therefore do not mix jest with it,
and do not take the conduct of formalists (mutarassimán) as a
model, and shun those who blindly imitate them.” When the people
see these formalists among the aspirants to Ṣúfiism in our time, and
become aware of their dancing and singing and visiting the court of
sultans and quarrelling for the sake of a pittance or a mouthful of
food, their belief in the whole body of Ṣúfís is corrupted, and they
say: “These are the principles of Ṣúfiism, and the tenets of the
ancient Ṣúfís were just the same.” They do not recognize that this is
an age of weakness and an epoch of affliction. Consequently, since
greed incites the sultan to acts of tyranny, and lust incites the savant
to commit adultery and fornication, and ostentation incites the
ascetic to hypocrisy, and vanity incites the Ṣúfí also to dance and
sing—you must know that the evil lies in the men who hold the
doctrines, not in the principles on which the doctrines are based;
and that if some scoffers disguise their folly in the earnestness of
true mystics (aḥrár), the earnestness of the latter is not thereby
turned to folly. And Abú `Alí Qarmíni[40] says: Al-taṣawwuf huwa ´l-
akhláq al-raḍiyyat, “Ṣúfiism is good morals.” Approved actions are
such that the creature in all circumstances approves of God, and is
content and satisfied. Abu ´l Ḥasan Núrí says: Al-taṣawwuf huwa ´l-
ḥurriyyat wa-´l-futuwwat wa-tark al-taklíf wa-´l-sakhá wa-badhl al-
dunyá, “Ṣúfiism is liberty, so that a man is freed from the bonds of
desire; and generosity,” i.e. he is purged from the conceit of
generosity; “and abandonment of useless trouble,” i.e. he does not
strive after appurtenances and rewards; “and munificence,” i.e. he
leaves this world to the people of this world.
And Abu ´l-Ḥasan Fúshanja[41]—may God have mercy on him!—
says: Al-taṣawwuf al-yawma ´smun wa-lá ḥaqíqatun wa-qad kána
ḥaqíqatan wa-la ´sman, “To-day Ṣúfiism is a name without a reality,
but formerly it was a reality without a name,” i.e. in the time of the
Companions and the Ancients—may God have mercy on them!—this
name did not exist, but the reality thereof was in everyone; now the
name exists, but not the reality. That is to say, formerly the practice
was known and the pretence unknown, but nowadays the pretence
is known and the practice unknown.
I have brought together and examined in this chapter on Ṣúfiism a
number of the sayings of the Shaykhs, in order that this Path may
become clear to you—God grant you felicity!—and that you may say
to the sceptics: “What do you mean by denying the truth of
Ṣúfiism?” If they deny only the name it is no matter, since ideas are
unrelated to things which bear names; and if they deny the essential
ideas, this amounts to a denial of the whole Sacred Law of the
Apostle and his praised qualities. And I enjoin you in this book—God
grant you the felicity with which He has blessed His Saints!—to hold
these ideas in due regard and satisfy their just claims, so that you
may refrain from idle pretensions and have an excellent belief in the
Ṣúfís themselves. It is God that gives success.

31. Kor. xxv, 64.

32. See Chapter IX.

33. The name zaddíq (an Aramaic word meaning “righteous”) was
given to the ascetics and spiritual adepts among the Manichæans.
Its Arabic equivalent, siddíq, which means “veracious”, is a term that
is frequently applied to Ṣúfís.

34. Yataṣára`ún. B. has yata`ádawn, and in marg. yatasára`ún.

The true reading is yata`áwawn, “barking (or ‘growling’) at one
another.” Cf. Lisán, xix, 343, 3.

35. Yatagháwarún. This is the reading of J., I. has yata`áwarún, L.

yata`áwadún, B. yataghámazún, and in marg. yatafáwazún.

36. Examples of this signification of the form tafa``ul are given in

Wright’s Arabic Grammar, vol. i, p. 37, Rem. b.

37. Viz., purity (ṣafá) and Ṣúfiism (taṣawwuf).

38. So J. The Lahore edition has Ibn al-Jalálí, I. Ibn al-Jullábí. See
Chapter X, No. 34.

39. Died in 366 A.H. See Nafaḥát, No. 332.

40. IJ. Qazwíní. B. Abú `Alí Kirmánsháhí Qurayshí. The Shaykh in

question is probably Muẕaffar Kirmánsháhí Qarmíní (Nafaḥát, No.
270).

41. Generally written “Fúshanjí”. See Nafaḥát, No. 279.

 CHAPTER IV.
On the Wearing of Patched Frocks (Muraqqa`át).

Know that the wearing of a muraqqa`a (patched frock) is the

badge of aspirants to Ṣúfiism. The wearing of these garments is a
Sunna (custom of the Prophet), for the Apostle said: `Alaykum bi-
labs al-ṣúf tajidúna ḥaláwat al-ímán fí qulúbikum. And, further, one
of the Companions says: Kána ´l-nabí salla ´lláh `alayhi wa-sallama
yalbasu ´l-ṣúf wa-yarkabu ´l-ḥimár. And, moreover, the Apostle said
to `Á´isha: Lá tuḍayyi`i ´l-thawb ḥattá turaqqi`íhi. He said: “See
that ye wear woollen raiment, that ye may feel the sweetness of
faith.” And it is related that the Apostle wore a garment of wool and
rode on an ass, and that he said to `Á´isha: “O `Á´isha, do not let
the garment be destroyed, but patch it.” `Umar, the son of Khaṭṭáb,
wore, it is said, a muraqqa`a with thirty patches inserted on it. Of
`Umar, too, we are told that he said: “The best garment is that
which gives the least trouble” (ki ma´únat-i án sabuktar buvad). It is
related of the Commander of the Faithful, `Alí, that he had a shirt of
which the sleeves were level with his fingers, and if at any time he
wore a longer shirt he used to tear off the ends of its sleeves. The
Apostle also was commanded by God to shorten his garments, for
God said: “And purify thy garments” (Kor. lxxiv, 4), i.e. shorten them.
And Ḥasan of Baṣra says: “I saw seventy comrades who fought at
Badr: all of them had woollen garments; and the greatest Ṣiddíq
(Abú Bakr) wore a garment of wool in his detachment from the
world” (tajríd). Ḥasan of Baṣra says further: “I saw Salmán (al-Fárisí)
wearing a woollen frock (gilím) with patches.” The Commander of
the Faithful, `Umar b. al-Khaṭṭáb, and the Commander of the
Faithful, `Alí, and Harim b. Ḥayyán relate that they saw Uways
Qaraní with a woollen garment on which patches were inserted.
Ḥasan of Baṣra and Málik Dínár and Sufyán Thawrí were owners of
woollen patched frocks. And it is related of the Imám Abú Ḥanífa of
Kúfa—this is written in the History of the Shaykhs composed by
Muḥammad b. `Alí Ḥakím Tirmidhí—that he at first clothed himself in
wool and was on the point of retiring from the world, when he saw
in a dream the Apostle, who said: “It behoves thee to live amidst the
people, because thou art the means whereby my Sunna will be
revived.” Then Abú Ḥanífa refrained from solitude, but he never put
on a garment of any value. And Dáwud Ṭá´í, who was one of the
veritable adepts among the aspirants to Ṣúfiism (yakí az
muḥaqqiqán-i mutaṣawwifa), enjoined the wearing of wool. And
Ibráhím the son of Adham came to visit the most venerable Imám
Abú Ḥanífa, clad in a garment of wool. The latter’s disciples looked
at him with contempt and disparagement, until Abú Ḥanífa said:
“Our lord Ibráhím b. Adham has come.” The disciples said: “The
Imám utters no jests: how has he gained this lordship?” Abú Ḥanífa
replied: “By continual devotion. He has been occupied in serving God
while we have been engaged in serving our own bodies. Thus he has
become our lord.”
It may well be the case that at the present day some persons
wear patched frocks and religious habits (muraqqa`át ú khiraq) for
the sake of public honour and reputation, and that their hearts belie
their external garb; for there may be but one champion in a host,
and in every sect the genuine adepts are few. People, however,
reckon as Ṣúfís all who resemble the Ṣúfís even in a single rule. The
Apostle said: Man tashabbaha bi-qawmin fa-huwa minhum, “He that
makes himself akin to a party either in conduct or in belief, is one of
that party.” But while some regard only the outward forms of their
practice, others direct attention to their spirit of inward purity.
Those who wish to associate with aspirants to Ṣúfiism fall into four
classes: (1) He whose purity, enlightenment, subtlety, even balance
of temperament, and soundness of character give him insight into
the hearts of the Ṣúfís, so that he perceives the nearness of their
spiritual adepts to God and the loftiness of their eminent men. He
joins himself to them in hope of attaining to the same degree, and
the beginning of his novitiate is marked by revelation of “states”
(kashf-i aḥwál), and purgation from desire, and renunciation of self.
(2) He whose health of body and continence of heart and quiet
peace of mind enable him to see their outward practice, so that he
fixes his gaze on their observance of the holy law and of the
different sorts of discipline, and on the excellence of their conduct:
consequently he seeks to associate with them and give himself up to
the practice of piety, and the beginning of his novitiate is marked by
self-mortification (mujáhadat) and good conduct. (3) He whose
humanity and custom of social intercourse and goodness of
disposition cause him to consider their actions and to see the virtue
of their outward life: how they treat their superiors with respect and
their inferiors with generosity and their equals as comrades, and
how untroubled they are by thoughts of worldly gain and contented
with what they have; he seeks their society, and renders easy to
himself the hard path of worldly ambition, and makes himself at
leisure one of the good. (4) He whose stupidity and feebleness of
soul—his love of power without merit and of distinction without
knowledge—lead him to suppose that the outward actions of the
Ṣúfís are everything. When he enters their company they treat him
kindly and indulgently, although they are convinced that he is
entirely ignorant of God and that he has never striven to advance
upon the mystic path. Therefore he is honoured by the people as if
he were a real adept and is venerated as if he were one of God’s
saints, but his object is only to assume their dress and hide his
deformity under their piety. He is like an ass laden with books (Kor.
lxxii, 5). In this age the majority are impostors such as have been
described. Accordingly, it behoves you not to seem to be anything
except what you really are. It is inward glow (ḥurqat) that makes the
Ṣúfí, not the religious habit (khirqat). To the true mystic there is no
difference between the mantle (`abá) worn by dervishes, and the
coat (qabá) worn by ordinary people. An eminent Shaykh was asked
why he did not wear a patched frock (muraqqa`a). He replied: “It is
hypocrisy to wear the garb of the Ṣúfís and not to bear the burdens
which Ṣúfiism entails.” If, by wearing this garb, you wish to make
known to God that you are one of the elect, God knows that already;
and if you wish to show to the people that you belong to God,
should your claim be true, you are guilty of ostentation; and should
it be false, of hypocrisy. The Ṣúfís are too great to need a special
garment for this purpose. Purity (ṣafá) is a gift from God, whereas
wool (ṣúf) is the clothing of animals. The Ṣúfí Shaykhs enjoined their
disciples to wear patched frocks, and did the same themselves, in
order that they might be marked men, and that all the people might
keep watch over them: thus if they committed a transgression, every
tongue would rebuke them, and if they wished to sin while clad in
this garment, they would be held back by shame. In short, the
muraqqa`a is the garb of God’s saints. The vulgar use it merely as a
means of gaining worldly reputation and fortune, but the elect prefer
contumely to honour, and affliction to prosperity. Hence it is said
“the muraqqa`a is a garb of happiness for the vulgar, but a mail-coat
(jawshan) of affliction for the elect.” You must seek what is spiritual,
and shun what is external. The Divine is veiled by the human, and
that veil is annihilated only by passing through the “states” and
“stages” of the mystic Way. Purity (ṣafá) is the name given to such
annihilation. How can he who has gained it choose one garment
rather than another, or take pains to adorn himself at all? How
should he care whether people call him a Ṣúfí or by some other
name?

Section.

Muraqqa`as should be made with a view to ease and lightness,

and when the original cloth is torn a patch should be inserted. There
are two opinions of the Shaykhs as to this matter. Some hold that it
is improper to sew the patch on neatly and accurately, and that the
needle should be drawn through the cloth at random,[42] and that no
trouble should be taken. Others again hold that the stitches should
be straight and regular, and that it is part of the practice of the
dervishes to keep the stitches straight and to take pains therein; for
sound practice indicates sound principles.
 Now I, who am `Alí b. `Uthmán al-Jullábí, asked the Grand
Shaykh, Abu ´l-Qásim Gurgání at Ṭús, saying: “What is the least
thing necessary for a dervish in order that he may become worthy of
poverty?” He replied: “A dervish must not have less than three
things: first, he must know how to sew on a patch rightly; second,
he must know how to listen rightly; third, he must know how to set
his foot on the ground rightly.” A number of dervishes were present
with me when he said this. As soon as we came to the door each
one began to apply this saying to his own case, and some ignorant
fellows fastened on it with avidity. “This,” they cried, “is poverty
indeed,” and most of them were hastening to sew patches on nicely
and to set their feet on the ground correctly; and everyone of them
imagined that he knew how to listen to sayings on Ṣúfiism.
Wherefore, since my heart was devoted to that Sayyid, and I was
unwilling that his words should fall to the ground, I said: “Come, let
each of us say something upon this subject.” So everyone stated his
views, and when my turn came I said: “A right patch is one that is
stitched for poverty, not for show; if it is stitched for poverty, it is
right, even though it be stitched wrong. And a right word is one that
is heard esoterically (ba-ḥál), not wilfully (ba-munyat), and is applied
earnestly, not frivolously, and is apprehended by life, not by reason.
And a right foot is one that is put on the ground with true rapture,
not playfully and formally.” Some of my remarks were reported to
the Sayyid (Abu ´l-Qásim Gurgání), who said: “`Alí has spoken well
—God reward him!” The aim of this sect in wearing patched frocks is
to alleviate the burden of this world and to be sincere in poverty
towards God. It is related in the genuine Traditions that Jesus, son
of Mary—God bless him!—was wearing a muraqqa`a when he was
taken up to heaven. A certain Shaykh said: “I dreamed that I saw
him clad in a woollen patched frock, and light was shining from
every patch. I said: ‘O Messiah, what are these lights on thy
garment?’ He answered: ‘The lights of necessary grace; for I sewed
on each of those patches through necessity, and God Almighty hath
turned into a light every tribulation which He inflicted on my heart.’”
I saw in Transoxania an old man who belonged to the sect of
Malámatís. He neither ate nor wore anything in which human beings
had a hand. His food consisted of things thrown away by men, such
as putrid vegetables, sour gourds, rotten carrots, and the like. His
clothes were made of rags which he had picked up from the road
and washed: of these he had made a muraqqa`a. And I have heard
that among the mystics of recent times there was an old man of
flourishing condition (qawí ḥál) and of excellent character, living at
Marv al-Rúd, who had sewn so many patches, without taking pains,
on his prayer-rug and cap, that scorpions brought forth their young
in them. And my Shaykh—may God be well pleased with him!—wore
for fifty-one years a single cloak (jubba), on which he used to sew
pieces of cloth without taking any pains. I have found the following
tale among the anecdotes of the (holy) men of `Iráq. There were
two dervishes, one a votary of the contemplative life (ṣáḥib
musháhadat), and the other a votary of the purgative life (ṣáḥib
mujáhadat). The former never clothed himself except in the pieces
of cloth which were torn off by dervishes in a state of ecstasy
(samá`) from their own garments, while the other used for the same
purpose only the pieces torn off by dervishes who were asking
forgiveness: thus the outward garb of each was in harmony with his
inward disposition. This is observance of the “state” (pás dáshtan-i
ḥál). Shaykh Muḥammad b. Khafíf wore a coarse woollen frock
(palás) for twenty years, and every year he used to undergo four
fasts of forty days’ duration (chilla), and every forty days he would
compose a work on the mysteries of the Sciences of the Divine
Verities. In his time there was an old man,[43] one of the adepts
learned in the Way (Ṭaríqat) and the Truth (Ḥaqíqat), who resided at
Parg[44] in Fárs and was called Muḥammad b. Zakariyyá.[45] He had
never worn a muraqqa`a. Now Shaykh Muḥammad b. Khafíf was
asked: “What is involved in wearing a muraqqa`a, and who is
permitted to do so?” He replied: “It involves those obligations which
are fulfilled by Muḥammad b. Zakariyyá in his white shirt, and the
wearing of such a frock is permitted to him.”

Section.
 It is not the way of the Ṣúfís to abandon their customs. If they
seldom wear garments of wool at the present day, there are two
reasons for this fact: (1) that wools have deteriorated (pashmhá
shúrída shuda ast) and the animals (which produce wool) have been
carried off from one place to another by raiders; and (2) that a sect
of heretics has adopted the woollen garment as a badge (shi`ár).
And it is praiseworthy to depart from the badge of heretics, even
although one departs at the same time from a traditional practice
(sunna).
To take pains (takalluf) in sewing muraqqa`as is considered
allowable by the Ṣúfís because they have gained a high reputation
among the people; and since many imitate them and wear
muraqqa`as, and are guilty of improper acts, and since the Ṣúfís
dislike the society of others than themselves—for these reasons they
have invented a garb which none but themselves can sew, and have
made it a mark of mutual acquaintance and a badge. So much so
that when a certain dervish came to one of the Shaykhs wearing a
garment on which the patch had been sewn with too wide stitches
(khaṭṭ ba-pahná áwarda búd) the Shaykh banished him from his
presence. The argument is that purity (ṣafá) is founded on delicacy
of nature and fineness of temperament, and undoubtedly
crookedness in one’s nature is not good. It is natural to disapprove
of incorrect actions, just as it is natural to derive no pleasure from
incorrect poetry.
Others, again, do not trouble themselves about clothes at all. They
wear either a religious habit (`abá) or an ordinary coat (qabá),
whichever God may have given them; and if He keeps them naked,
they remain in that state. I, who am `Alí b. `Uthmán al-Jullábí,
approve of this doctrine, and I have practised it in my journeys. It is
related that Aḥmad b. Khaḍrúya wore a coat when he visited Abú
Yazíd, and that Sháh b. Shujá` wore a coat when he visited Abú
Ḥafṣ. This was not their usual dress, for sometimes they wore a
muraqqa`a and sometimes a woollen garment or a white shirt, as it
might happen. The human soul is habituated to things, and fond of
custom, and when anything has become habitual to the soul it soon
grows natural, and when it has grown natural it becomes a veil.
Hence the Apostle said: Khayr al-ṣiyám ṣawm akhí Dáwud `alayhi ´l-
salám, “The best of fasts is that of my brother David.” They said: “O
Apostle of God, what kind of fast is that?” He replied: “David used to
keep his fast one day and break it on the next day,” in order that his
soul should not become accustomed either to keeping the fast or to
breaking it, for fear that he might be veiled thereby. And, as regards
this matter, Abú Ḥámid Dústán[46] of Merv was the most sound. His
disciples used to put a garment on him, but those who wanted it
used to seek him out when he was at leisure and alone, and divest
him of it; and he would never say to the person who put it on him:
“Why do you put it on?” nor to the person who took it off: “Why do
you take it off?” Moreover, at the present day there is at Ghazna—
may God protect it!—an old man with the sobriquet Mu´ayyad, who
has no choice or discrimination with respect to his clothes; and he is
sound in that degree.
Now, as to their garments being mostly blue (kabúd), one of the
reasons is that they have made wandering (siyáḥat) and travelling
the foundation of their Path; and on journeys a white garment does
not retain its original appearance, and is not easily washed, and
besides, everyone covets it. Another cause is this, that a blue dress
is the badge of the bereaved and afflicted, and the apparel of
mourners; and this world is the abode of trouble, the pavilion of
affliction, the den of sorrow, the house of parting, the cradle of
tribulation: the (Ṣúfí) disciples, seeing that their heart’s desire is not
to be gained in this world, have clad themselves in blue and have sat
down to mourn union (with God). Others behold in the practice (of
devotion) only imperfection, in the heart only evil, in life only loss of
time: therefore they wear blue; for loss (fawt) is worse than death
(mawt). One wears blue for the death of a dear friend, another for
the loss of a cherished hope.
A dervish was asked why he wore blue. He replied: “The Apostle
left three things: poverty, knowledge, and the sword. The sword was
taken by potentates, who misused it; knowledge was chosen by
savants, who were satisfied with merely teaching it; poverty was
chosen by dervishes, who made it a means of enriching themselves.
I wear blue as a sign of mourning for the calamity of these three
classes of men.” Once Murta`ish was walking in one of the quarters
of Baghdád. Being thirsty, he went to a door and asked for a drink of
water. The daughter of the householder brought him some water in
a jug. Murta`ish was smitten with her beauty and would not leave
the spot until the master of the house came to him. “O sir,” cried
Murta`ish, “she gave me a drink of water and robbed me of my
heart.” The householder replied: “She is my daughter, and I give her
to you in marriage.” So Murta`ish went into the house, and the
wedding was immediately solemnized. The bride’s father, who was a
wealthy man, sent Murta`ish to the bath, where they took off his
patched frock (muraqqa`a) and clothed him in a night-dress. At
nightfall he rose to say his prayers and engage in solitary devotion.
Suddenly he called out, “Bring my patched frock.” They asked,
“What ails you?” He answered, “I heard a voice within, whispering:
‘On account of one disobedient look We have removed thy
muraqqa`a, the garb of piety, from thy body: if thou lookest again
We shall remove the raiment of intimacy from thy heart.’” Only two
kinds of men are fitted to wear the muraqqa`a: (1) those who are
cut off from the world, and (2) those who feel a longing for the Lord
(mushtáqán-i mawlá).
The Ṣúfí Shaykhs observe the following rule. When a novice joins
them, with the purpose of renouncing the world, they subject him to
spiritual discipline for the space of three years. If he fulfil the
requirements of this discipline, well and good; otherwise, they
declare that he cannot be admitted to the Path (Ṭaríqat). The first
year is devoted to service of the people, the second year to service
of God, and the third year to watching over his own heart. He can
serve the people only when he places himself in the rank of servants
and all other people in the rank of masters, i.e. he must regard all,
without any discrimination, as being better than himself, and must
consider it his duty to serve all alike; not in such a way as to deem
himself superior to those whom he serves, for this is manifest
perdition and evident fraud, and is one of the infectious cankers of
the age (az áfát-i zamána andar zamána yakí ínast). And he can
serve God Almighty only when he cuts off all his selfish interests
relating either to this world or to the next, and worships God
absolutely for His sake alone, inasmuch as whoever worships God
for any thing’s sake worships himself and not God. And he can watch
over his heart only when his thoughts are collected and cares are
dismissed from his heart, so that in the presence of intimacy (with
God) he preserves his heart from the assaults of heedlessness.
When these three qualifications are possessed by the novice, he may
wear the muraqqa`a as a true mystic, not merely as an imitator of
others.
Now as to the person who invests the novice with the muraqqa`a,
he must be a man of rectitude (mustaqím al-ḥál) who has traversed
all the hills and dales of the Path, and tasted the rapture of “states”
and perceived the nature of actions, and experienced the severity of
the Divine majesty and the clemency of the Divine beauty.
Furthermore, he must examine the state of his disciples and judge
what point they will ultimately reach: whether they will retire
(ráji`án), or stand still (wáqifán), or attain (bálighán). If he knows
that some day they will abandon this Path, he must forbid them to
enter upon it; if they will come to a stand, he must enjoin them to
practise devotion; and if they will reach the goal, he must give them
spiritual nourishment. The Ṣúfí Shaykhs are physicians of men’s
souls. When the physician is ignorant of the patient’s malady he kills
him by his art, because he does not know how to treat him and does
not recognize the symptoms of danger, and prescribes food and
drink unsuitable to his disease. The Apostle said: “The shaykh in his
tribe is like the prophet in his nation.” Accordingly, as the prophets
showed insight in their call to the people, and kept everyone in his
due degree, so the Shaykh likewise should show insight in his call,
and should give to everyone his proper spiritual food, in order that
the object of his call may be secured.
The adept, then, who has attained the perfection of saintship
takes the right course when he invests the novice with the
muraqqa`a after a period of three years during which he has
educated him in the necessary discipline. In respect of the
qualifications which it demands, the muraqqa`a is comparable to a
winding-sheet (kafan): the wearer must resign all his hopes of the
pleasures of life, and purge his heart of all sensual delights, and
devote his life entirely to the service of God and completely
renounce selfish desires. Then the Director (Pír) ennobles him by
clothing him in that robe of honour, while he on his part fulfils the
obligations which it involves, and strives with all his might to perform
them, and deems it unlawful to satisfy his own wishes.
Many allegories (ishárát) have been uttered concerning the
muraqqa`a. Shaykh Abú Ma`mar of Iṣfahán has written a book on
the subject, and the generality of aspirants to Ṣúfiism display much
extravagance (ghuluww) in this matter. My aim, however, in the
present work is not to relate sayings, but to elucidate the difficulties
of Ṣúfiism. The best allegory concerning the muraqqa`a is this, that
its collar (qabba) is patience, its two sleeves fear and hope, its two
gussets (tiríz) contraction and dilation, its belt self-abnegation, its
hem (kursí)[47] soundness in faith, its fringe (faráwíz) sincerity. Better
still is the following: “Its collar is annihilation of intercourse (with
men), its two sleeves are observance (ḥifẕ) and continence (`iṣmat),
its two gussets are poverty and purity, its belt is persistence in
contemplation, its hem (kursí) is tranquillity in (God’s) presence, and
its fringe is settlement in the abode of union.” When you have made
a muraqqa`a like this for your spiritual self it behoves you to make
one for your exterior also. I have composed a separate book on this
subject, entitled “The Mysteries of Patched Frocks and Means of
Livelihood” (Asrár al-khiraq wa-´l-ma´únát), of which the novice
should get a copy.
If the novice, having donned the muraqqa`a, should be forced to
tear it under compulsion of the temporal authority, this is permissible
and excusable; but should he tear it of free will and deliberately,
then according to the law of the sect he is not allowed to wear a
muraqqa`a in future, and if he do so, he stands on the same footing
as those in our time who are content to wear muraqqa`as for
outward show, with no spiritual meaning. As regards the rending of
garments the true doctrine is this, that when Ṣúfís pass from one
stage to another they immediately change their dress in
thankfulness for having gained a higher stage; but whereas every
other garment is the dress of a single stage, the muraqqa`a is a
dress which comprises all the stages of the Path of poverty and
purity, and therefore to discard it is equivalent to renouncing the
whole Path. I have made a slight allusion to this question, although
this is not the proper place for it, in order to settle the particular
point at issue; but, please God, I will give a detailed explanation of
the principle in the chapter on rending (kharq), and in the revelation
of the mystery of “audition” (samá`). Furthermore, it has been said
that one who invests a novice with the muraqqa`a should possess
such sovereign mystical powers that any stranger on whom he looks
kindly should become a friend, and any sinner whom he clothes in
this garment should become a saint.
Once I was travelling with my Shaykh in Ádharbáyaján, and we
saw two or three persons wearing muraqqa`as, who were standing
beside a wheat-barn and holding up their skirts in the hope that the
farmer would throw them some wheat. On seeing this the Shaykh
exclaimed: “Those are they who have purchased error at the price of
true guidance, but their traffic has not been profitable” (Kor. ii, 15). I
asked him how they had fallen into this calamity and disgrace. He
said: “Their spiritual directors were greedy to gather disciples, and
they themselves are greedy to collect worldly goods.” It is related of
Junayd that he saw at the Báb al-Ṭáq[48] a beautiful Christian youth
and said: “O Lord, pardon him for my sake, for Thou hast created
him exceeding fair.” After a while the youth came to Junayd and
made profession of Islam and was enrolled among the saints. Abú
`Alí Siyáh was asked: “Who is permitted to invest novices with the
muraqqa`a?” He replied: “That one who oversees the whole
kingdom of God, so that nothing happens in the world without his
knowledge.”

42. Literally, “in whatever place it raises its head.”

43. This story is related in `Aṭṭár’s Tadhkirat al-Awliyá (pt. ii, p.

125, l. 17 sqq.), where it is expressly said that the old man was not
“learned in the Way”.
 44. I. in margin has Park. The Nuzhat al-Quhúb gives the name as
‫( برک‬Bark), and refers it to a village in the district of Kirmán.

45. B., I., and J. have Dhakariyyá (Zakariyya), L. ‫ذكرى‬. The MSS.
of the Tadhkirat al-Awliyá vary between Dhakírí and ‫ذكرى‬.

46. See Nafaḥát, No. 350.

47. This conjectural translation of kursí was suggested to me by

Colonel Ranking. The dictionaries give no explanation of the word as
it is used here.

48. A gate in the eastern quarter of Baghdád.

 CHAPTER V.
On the Different Opinions held concerning Poverty and
Purity.

The Doctors of the Mystic Path are not agreed as to the respective
merits of Poverty (faqr) and Purity (ṣafwat). Some hold that Poverty
is more perfect than Purity. Poverty, they say, is complete
annihilation in which every thought ceases to exist, and Purity is one
of the “stations” (maqámát) of Poverty: when annihilation is gained,
all “stations” vanish into nothing. This is ultimately the same
question as that touching Poverty and Wealth, which has already
been discussed. Those who set Purity above Poverty say that Poverty
is an existent thing (shay ast mawjúd) and is capable of being
named, whereas Purity is the being pure (ṣafá) from all existing
things: ṣafá is the essence of annihilation (faná), and Poverty is the
essence of subsistence (baqá): therefore Poverty is one of the
names of “stations”, but Purity is one of the names of perfection.
This matter has been disputed at great length in the present age,
and both parties have resorted to far-fetched and amazing verbal
subtleties; but it will be allowed on all sides that Poverty and Purity
are not mere words and nothing else. The disputants have made up
a doctrine out of words and have neglected to apprehend meanings:
they have abandoned discussion of the Truth. Negation of arbitrary
will they call negation of essence, and affirmation of desire they
regard as affirmation of essence. The Mystic Path is far removed
from such idle fictions. In short, the Saints of God attain to a place
where place no longer exists, where all degrees and “stations”
disappear, and where outward expressions fall off from the
underlying realities, so that neither “spiritual delight” (shurb) is left,
nor “taste” (dhawq), nor “sobriety” (ṣaḥw), nor “effacement”
(maḥw). These controversialists, however, seek a forced name with
which to cloak ideas that do not admit of being named or of being
used as attributes; and everyone applies to them whatever name he
thinks most estimable. Now, in dealing with the ideas themselves,
the question of superiority does not arise, but when names are given
to them, one will necessarily be preferred to another. Accordingly, to
some people the name of Poverty seemed to be superior and of
greater worth because it is connected with renunciation and humility,
while others preferred Purity, and held it the more honourable
because it comes nearer to the notion of discarding all that
contaminates and annihilating all that has a taint of the world. They
adopted these two names as symbols of an inexpressible idea, in
order that they might converse with each other on that subject and
make their own state fully known; and there is no difference of
opinion in this sect (the Ṣúfís), although some use the term
“Poverty” and others the term “Purity” to express the same idea.
With the verbalists (ahl-i `ibárat), on the contrary, who are ignorant
of the true meaning of these ideas, the whole question is an affair of
words. To conclude, whoever has made that idea his own and fixed
his heart upon it, heeds not whether they call him “Poor” (faqír) or
“Pure” (Ṣúfí), since both these appellations are forced names for an
idea that cannot be brought under any name.
This controversy dates from the time of Abu ´l-Ḥasan Sumnún.
He, on occasions when he was in a state of revelation (kashf) akin to
subsistence (baqá), used to set Poverty above Purity; and on being
asked by spiritualists (arbáb-i ma`ání) why he did so, he replied:
“Inasmuch as I naturally delight in annihilation and abasement, and
no less in subsistence and exaltation, I prefer Purity to Poverty when
I am in a state akin to annihilation, and Poverty to Purity when I am
in a state akin to subsistence; for Poverty is the name of subsistence
and Purity that of annihilation. In the latter state I annihilate from
myself the sight (consciousness) of subsistence, and in the former
state I annihilate from myself the sight of annihilation, so that my
nature becomes dead both to annihilation and to subsistence.” Now
this, regarded as an explanation (`ibárat), is an excellent saying, but
neither annihilation nor subsistence can be annihilated: every
subsistent thing that suffers annihilation is annihilated from itself,
and every annihilated thing that becomes subsistent is subsistent
from itself. Annihilation is a term of which it is impossible to speak
hyperbolically. If a person says that annihilation is annihilated, he
can only be expressing hyperbolically the non-existence of any
vestige of the idea of annihilation; but so long as any vestige of
existence remains, annihilation has not yet come to pass; and when
it has been attained, the “annihilation” thereof is nothing but self-
conceit flattered by meaningless phrases. In the vanity and rashness
of youth I composed a discourse of this kind, entitled the “Book of
Annihilation and Subsistence” (Kitáb-i Faná ú Baqá), but in the
present work I will set forth the whole matter with caution, please
God the Almighty and Glorious.
This is the distinction between Purity and Poverty in the spiritual
sense. It is otherwise when Purity and Poverty are considered in
their practical aspect, namely, the denuding one’s self of worldly
things (tajríd) and the casting away of all one’s possessions. Here
the real point is the difference between Poverty (faqr) and Lowliness
(maskanat). Some Shaykhs assert that the Poor (faqír) are superior
to the Lowly (miskín), because God has said, “the poor who are
straitened in the way of Allah, unable to go to and fro on the earth”
(Kor. ii, 274): the Lowly possess means of livelihood, which the Poor
renounce: therefore Poverty is honour and Lowliness abasement, for,
according to the rule of the Mystic Path, he who possesses the
means of livelihood is base, as the Apostle said: “Woe befall those
who worship the dínár and the dirhem, woe befall those who
worship garments with a nap!” He who renounces the means of
livelihood is honoured, inasmuch as he depends on God, while he
who has means depends on them. Others, again, declare the Lowly
to be superior, because the Apostle said: “Let me live lowly, and let
me die lowly, and raise me from the dead among the lowly!”
whereas, speaking of Poverty, he said, “Poverty is near to being
unbelief.” On this account the Poor are dependent on a means, but
the Lowly are independent. In the domain of Sacred Law, some
divines hold that the Poor are those who have a sufficiency ([s.]áḥib
bulgha), and the Lowly those who are free from worldly cares
(mujarrad); but other divines hold the converse of this view. Hence
the name “Ṣúfí” is given to the Lowly by followers of the Path (ahl-i
maqámát) who adopt the former opinion: they prefer Purity (ṣafwat)
to Poverty. Those Ṣúfís who accept the latter view prefer Poverty to
Purity, for a similar reason.
 CHAPTER VI.
On Blame (Malámat).

The path of Blame has been trodden by some of the Ṣúfí Shaykhs.
Blame has a great effect in making love sincere. The followers of the
Truth (ahl-i ḥaqq) are distinguished by their being the objects of
vulgar blame, especially the eminent ones of this community. The
Apostle, who is the exemplar and leader of the adherents of the
Truth, and who marches at the head of the lovers (of God), was
honoured and held in good repute by all until the evidence of the
Truth was revealed to him and inspiration came upon him. Then the
people loosed their tongues to blame him. Some said, “He is a
soothsayer;” others, “He is a poet;” others, “He is a madman;”
others, “He is a liar;” and so forth. And God says, describing the true
believers: “They fear not the blame of anyone; that is the grace of
God which He bestows on whomsoever He pleases; God is
bounteous and wise” (Kor. v, 59). Such is the ordinance of God, that
He causes those who discourse of Him to be blamed by the whole
world, but preserves their hearts from being preoccupied by the
world’s blame. This He does in His jealousy: He guards His lovers
from glancing aside to “other” (ghayr), lest the eye of any stranger
should behold the beauty of their state; and He guards them also
from seeing themselves, lest they should regard their own beauty
and fall into self-conceit and arrogance. Therefore He hath set the
vulgar over them to loose the tongues of blame against them, and
hath made the “blaming soul” (nafs-i lawwáma) part of their
composition, in order that they may be blamed by others for
whatever they do, and by themselves for doing evil or for doing
good imperfectly.
 Now this is a firm principle in the Way to God, for in this Path
there is no taint or veil more difficult to remove than self-conceit.
God in His kindness hath barred the way of error against His friends.
Their actions, however good, are not approved by the vulgar, who
do not see them as they really are; and they themselves do not
regard their works of mortification, however numerous, as
proceeding from their own strength and power: consequently they
are not pleased with themselves and are protected from self-conceit.
Whoever is approved by God is disapproved by the vulgar, and
whoever is elected by himself is not among the elect of God. Thus
Iblís was approved by mankind and accepted by the angels, and he
was pleased with himself; but since God was not pleased with him,
their approval only brought a curse upon him. Adam, on the other
hand, was disapproved by the angels, who said: “Wilt Thou place
there [on the earth] one who will do evil therein?” (Kor. ii, 28), and
was not pleased with himself, for he said: “O Lord, we have done
ourselves a wrong” (Kor. vii, 22); but since God was pleased with
him, the disapproval of the angels and his own displeasure bore the
fruit of mercy. Let all men, therefore, know that those accepted by
us are rejected by the people, and that those accepted by the
people are rejected by us. Hence the blame of mankind is the food
of the friends of God, because it is a token of Divine approval; it is
the delight of the saints of God, because it is a sign of nearness to
Him: they rejoice in it even as other men rejoice in popularity. There
is a Tradition, which the Apostle received from Gabriel, that God
said: “My friends (saints) are under My cloak: save Me, none
knoweth them except My friends.”

Section.

Now blame (malámat) is of three kinds: it may result (1) from

following the right way (malámat-i rást raftan), or (2) from an
intentional act (malámat-i qaṣd kardan), or (3) from abandonment of
the law (malámat-i tark kardan). In the first case, a man is blamed
who minds his own business and performs his religious duties and
does not omit any practice of devotion: he is entirely indifferent to
the behaviour of the people towards him. In the second case a man
is greatly honoured by the people and pointed out among them: his
heart inclines to the honour in which he is held, and becomes
attached to those by whom it is bestowed: he wishes to make
himself independent of them and devote himself wholly to God;
therefore he purposely incurs their blame by committing some act
which is offensive to them but which is no violation of the law: in
consequence of his behaviour they wash their hands of him. In the
third case, a man is driven by his natural infidelity and erroneous
beliefs to abandon the sacred law and abjure its observances, and
say to himself, “I am treading the path of blame:” in this case his
behaviour depends on himself alone.
He who follows the right way and refuses to act hypocritically, and
refrains from ostentation, pays no heed to the blame of the vulgar,
but invariably takes his own course: it is all one to him what name
they call him by. I find among the anecdotes (of holy men) that one
day Shaykh Abú Ṭáhir Ḥaramí was seen in the bazaar, riding a
donkey and attended by one of his disciples. Some person cried out,
“Here comes that old freethinker!” The indignant disciple rushed at
the speaker, trying to strike him, and the whole bazaar was filled
with tumult. The Shaykh said to his disciple: “If you will be quiet, I
will show you something that will save you from trouble of this sort.”
When they returned home, he bade the disciple bring a certain box,
which contained letters, and told him to look at them. “Observe,” he
said, “how the writers address me. One calls me ‘the Shaykh of
Islam’, another ‘the pure Shaykh’, another ‘the ascetic Shaykh’,
another ‘the Shaykh of the two Sanctuaries’, and so on. They are all
titles, there is no mention of my name. I am none of these things,
but every person gives me the title which accords with his belief
concerning me. If that poor fellow did the same just now, why
should you quarrel with him?”
He who incurs blame purposely and resigns honour and withdraws
from authority is like the Caliph `Uthmán who, although he
possessed four hundred slaves, one day came forth from his
plantation of date-palms carrying a bundle of firewood on his head.
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