MARIAN UNIVERSITY COLLEGE

(A Constituent College of St. Augustine University of Tanzania)

FACULT OF NATURAL AND APPLIED SCIENCES

Department of Education and Training
Language and Linguistics Unit

Communication Skills
(Including English Grammar)

GST 112, 102 & 121

BenBon
 CHAPTER ONE
Communication Process
1.1. Meaning of communication
The term is quite familiar to most of us. It refers to an activity that people perform every day. Actually, it is said
that as humans we begin to communicate the moment we are born. For example, the cry of a baby draws the
attention of its mother thus making the mother to either feed or comfort it. In this case the baby’s cry communicates
a message to its mother.
Communication refers to an activity or process that serves to connect people through space and time. All
communication involves a person understanding others and having others understanding him/her. In this way, it
unites person and person, person and group or group and group. Studies have found out however that even though
people communicate since their infancy, they are not as effective as they should be the process of transmitting
information from an individual (or group) to another is a very complex process as it involves different stages
The word communication derives from the word “common” which infers to share, exchange, send along, transmit,
talk, gesture, write, put in use, relate, etc. Humans communicate in order to share knowledge and experiences.
Communication can be defined as a process of transmitting information and common understanding from one
person to another (Keyton 2011). This definition explicates the need for common understanding resulted from the
exchange of information amongst people to ensure effective communication. Since time immemorial human beings
are known to have communicated in a number of ways. In the tradition African society people used to communicate
in different ways. For example, in some communities, a certain form of wailing or cry denoted occurrence of a
dangerous situation in the society, like an attack by a wild animal or some other calamity. Likewise, different forms
of drum-beat carried different messages e.g. joy and celebration, sorrow and grief, invitation and reception. In some
cases, the drum was used to announce the demise of the ruler of the land like the chief or king.
In modern times, communication between people and groups has evolved very much especially after the
establishment of the print, audio and the visual media. Furthermore, the advent of the internet has, metaphorically
speaking, reduced the size of the world by making it possible for people from different places in the world to carry
out face-to-face interaction.

What is communication?
Communication as an academic discipline embraces a large body of study and knowledge that relate to all the ways
we communicate. It focuses on how people use messages to generate meanings within and across various
contexts, cultures, channels and media. In all, the field promotes the effective and ethical practice of human
 communication. Speaking, listening and our ability to understand verbal and non-verbal meanings are skills we
develop in various ways. We learn basic communication skills by observing other people and modeling our
behaviours based on what we see.

1.2 Objective/Purpose of communication

The way we communicate with others can greatly alter the relationships we have and techniques can be used to
either deliberately create harmonious working or to put a spanner in the works. By fostering a common
understanding and awareness the message you try to portray becomes ever clearer and you are more likely to gain
support from others.

As a course, communication has synonyms such as expressing outlook, conversing, verbal communication,
corresponding, inscription, listening and exchanging. People communicate to satisfy needs in together their work
and non-work lives. People want to be heard, to be appreciated and to be wanted. They also desire to complete tasks
and to achieve goals. Obviously, then, a major purpose of communication is to help people feel good about
themselves and concerning their friends, groups, and organizations.

For those of us who work or live with people with communication difficulties it’s important that we consider the
purposes of human communication. Light, (1988) describes four main purposes which are; expression of needs and
want, information transfer, social closeness, social etiquette.

• 1. Expression of needs and want - to regulate the behaviour of another person to get something

• 2. Information transfer - to convey information from person A to person B

• 3. Social closeness - to establish and maintain relationships with others

• 4. Social etiquette - to conform to the social conventions of politeness

We believe that there is a tendency to concentrate too much on 1 and 2 and not enough on 3 and 4. If we dwell on
needs and wants, which is very often the focus of communication aids, there is a danger that the person with the
communication difficulty will find it hard to establish and/or maintain relationships.

In (Locke, 1998) wrote that ‘small talk’ is crucial for the construction and enjoyment of relationships with others
and that by revealing thoughts we elicit reactions from others. This is what we regard as social closeness or
engagement. ‘Small talk’ or ‘social closeness’ may sound irrelevant but it is one of the most important purposes of
human communication.

We can deduct from the above discussion that purpose of communication is to convey messages to one another i.e:
speech, email, letters etc. Communication links people who believe in a common cause together with a view to
strengthen relationships, and allows people with opposing views to express those views. Communication allows
people or groups to better understand each other and connect. Communication is the means in which information is
disseminated. Communication is also the transduction of emotions and or thoughts from one to another. The
purpose is to intentionally create harmony or dissonance with the sender and receiver

1. Discuss with your colleague the forms of communication that traditional people of your ethnic
community used.
2. How people use messages to generate meanings within and across various contexts, cultures,
channels and media
Take Note

WHY IS COMMUNICATION IMPORTANT?

In our daily undertakings, we spend most of the time communicating with one another. It is estimated that 75% of
a person’s day is spent communicating in some way. Most of our communication time is in spent in listening and
speaking, while a minority of that time is spent in reading and writing. These communication actions reflect skills
which foster our personal, academic and professional success. The ability to speak clearly and eloquently on one
hand and to write effectively on the other, have been recognized as the hallmarks of an educated person.
Put in other words, these actions of communication are central in determining a person’s ability to succeed or fail
in life.
Explore how you interact with others in various kinds of contexts as a university student, an employee or member
of society in general.
Who do you interact with and what information is exchanged?

1.3 Essential Elements of Communication

Communication is described as the process of transmitting information and common understanding from one person
to another (Keyton, 2011). The definition underscores the fact that unless a common understanding results from the
exchange of information, there is no communication. The information, ideas, attitudes and feelings should have
meaning to both parts involved in the communication process. As stated in this unit that, the purpose of
communication is to pass on your intended meaning to others. Studies conducted on the way communication takes
place have shown that it is a well-defined process that comprises a number of components.

However, it is important to note that, communication is not fixed but dynamic; it is associated with evolution and
change and that it is irreversible in the sense that one communicative encounter affects the next one. In order to
understand communication as a process requires us to examine it as a system.
A system is any entity that consists of interdependent parts that work together to achieve a desired goal (Steinberg,
2007) e.g. a computer is composed of different but interdependent parts, for example, without a screen, we can
hardly use it.
We can also explore communication in a similar way by identifying its components or elements in order to see how
each part affects the other in the communicative process. Let us examine the components of the communication
process:
Steinberg (2007) identifies a number of components of communication. However, i.e will only focus on main
components of the communication process as follows:
1.3.1 Participants (people)
People involved in the communication process are referred to as communicator or interlocutor (sender) and recipient
(receiver). I prefer to use sender and receiver. Since communication is a dynamic process, people are never
exclusively senders or receivers. They play both roles in a communicative event. As a sender (communicator) one
intentionally forms purposeful messages using either the verbal/non-verbal signs and passes them to others. This
process is called encoding. The sender initiates the communication. This is the source where information comes
from; it could be an individual speaking, writing, signaling or gesturing. As a receiver (recipient) you receive
messages but more so actively participate in the communicative encounter by intentionally and consciously paying
attention to the message in order to understand it. In order to understand the meaning of a message a receiver is
involved in assigning meaning to the verbal/non-verbal signs. This process is called decoding. Thus, we
encode/make messages and decode or give meaning to messages. The receiver decodes the received message into
meaningful information. The receiver is the individual to whom the message is sent. The sender encodes the idea
by selecting words, symbols, or gestures with which to compose a message.

1.3.2 Message
The message is the outcome of the encoding, which takes the form of verbal, nonverbal, or written language. This
refers to the ideas, data or feelings that the sender intends to share with others. There cannot be communication
without a message, just as there cannot be a message without participants. Thus, communication takes place through
the sending and receiving of messages. A message carries with it content conveyed during a communication
encounter. The content of a message could be factual information or merely ideas and feelings expressed by
participants. (NB: that the content of a message is not necessarily sent through verbal signs but also through non-
verbal signs). The content of a message can be obvious or covert (hidden).

1.3.3 Medium and Channel

When a sender encodes (creates) a message, it has to be carried to the receiver. The message travels through the
medium/channel to reach the receiver. A medium is the physical means by which messages are transmitted e.g.
voice and body movements. Medium is referred to the form in which the idea or feeling is delivered across. In
spoken communication, this could include face-to-face, meetings, telephone or video conferencing. In written
communication it includes letters, e-mails, memos and reports. Each of the medium will have different
requirements. A channel is a route by which the messages travel e.g. airwaves carrying my voice or light waves for
TV. A channel has little or no effect on the meaning of a message.
1.3.4 Meaning
Meaning is what is produced in an act of communication. We can look at meaning of messages from two
perspectives: content information and relational information. Content level pertains to the factual information about
a topic of the message – what it is about. Relational level relates to how participants understand their relationship.
It provides information about the feelings of the sender and how the content should be interpreted. The relational
level and not the content of a message determine whether a person is expressing affection or dislike.

1.3.5 Interpretation
This involves understanding the signs in a message but more so requires both social (shared) meaning and individual
(personal/subjective) meanings. By social we mean that participants need to have something in common e.g.
language. By personal we mean that our individual backgrounds will determine how we interpret a given message.
E.g past experiences, religion etc. your frame of reference influences your interpretation.

1.3.6 Noise
It refers to any stimuli that hinder the sending and receiving of the message so that the intended meaning is not
understood. It is more than just the distraction of physical sounds e.g. yells but anything that interferes with the
success of the communication by distorting the message so that the intended meaning is not passed is called noise.
It can also be referred as an interference that keeps the message from being understood. Therefore, noise is anything
that distorts the message which may be different perceptions of the message, language barriers, interruptions,
emotions, and attitudes are examples of noise.

Types of noise:
(i) External Noise- any stimuli that affects your attention from any communicative event.
For example, someone may be unable to hear properly due to a weak cell phone signal.
(ii) Internal Noise- any stimuli that affect the cognitive awareness in any communication
process. This usually originate as feelings or thoughts within a person e.g. how many of
you are thinking about lunch right now while I’m lecturing? How many of you allow moods
and attitudes about modules/lecturers to affect your concentration in a class? Why a
hungry person cannot be able to read, listen or write effectively?
(iii) Semantic noises: this occurs when people attach different meanings and interpretations for the same
words/sentences/parts of speech and when these meanings are not mutually understood e.g. two friends are chatting
about their weekend activities:
Sophia: Did you watch the day after tomorrow last night?
Ben: Huh? How can I watch something that must still happen before its time?
Sophia: No man! The movie The day after tomorrow, it was on B-TV last night.
 Again!

1.3.7 Feedback
Feedback is an important part of any communicative encounter because it helps participants know whether their
intended communicative goal has been met or not. It can be verbal or non-verbal reactions from the audience who
receive the message. This gauges whether or not the receiver has understood the message. It also gives
communication its dynamic nature by making it interactive than linear. Through feedback there is negotiation of
ideas and an exchange of meaning. The elements in the communication process determine the quality of
communication. A problem in any one of these elements can reduce communication effectiveness (Keyton, 2011).
For example, information must be encoded into a message that can be understood as the sender intended. Selection
of the particular medium for transmitting the message can be critical, because there are many choices. For written
media, a school administrator or other organization member may choose from memos, letters, reports, bulletin
boards, handbooks, newsletters, and the like. For verbal media, choices include face-to-face conversations,
telephone, computer, public address systems, closed-circuit television, tape-recorded messages, sound/slide shows,
e-mail, and so on. Nonverbal gestures, facial expressions, body position, and even clothing can transmit messages.
People decode information selectively. Individuals are more likely to perceive information favorably when it
conforms to their own beliefs, values, and needs (Keyton, 2010). Let’s draw experiences from school administration
as far as communication is concerned, the key for being successful in the contemporary school is the ability of the
school administrator to work with other school stakeholders (faculty, support staff, community members, parents,
central office); and develop a shared sense of what the school/school district is attempting to accomplish – where it
wants to go, a shared sense of commitments that people have to make in order to advance the school/school district
toward a shared vision and clarity of goals. As school administrators are able to build a shared mission, vision,
values, and goals, the school/school district will become more effective. Building a relationship between school
administrators and other school stakeholders requires effective communication. For example, research indicates that
principals spend 70 to 80% of their time in interpersonal communication with various stakeholders (Pauley, 2010;
Keyton, 2010). Effective principals know how to communicate, and they understand the importance of ongoing
communication, both formal and informal: faculty and department meetings; individual conversations with parents,
teachers, and students; and telephone calls and e-mail messages with various stakeholder groups. The one constant
in the life of a principal is a lot of interruptions – they happen daily, with a number of one- and three-minute
conversations in the course of the day. This type of communication in the work of the principal has to be done one
on one - one phone call to one person at a time, one parent at a time, one teacher at a time, one student at a time;
and a principal need to make time for these conversations. For example, a principal may be talking with a parent
with a very serious problem. She may be talking with a community member. She may be talking with the police
about something that went on during the school day. The principal must be able to turn herself on and off in many
different roles in any given day.
 CHAPTER TWO
Forms of Communication
In the previous lectures, you have learnt about meaning of communication and the communication process in
relation to essential elements of communication. In this lecture, we will dwell much on forms of communication
which are important channels used in communication. We will explore the differences and similarities of categories
of communication and how they are used to ensure effective communication. Communication involves the
imparting or interchanging thoughts, opinions, or information among people by speech, writing, or signs. People
communicate in different ways. Humans communicate in a variety of ways, both verbally and non-verbally.
Primates and other animals have been communicating without the use of language since long before humans
invented verbal communication. Some scientists believe that even today, most communication between humans is
non-verbal. Both types of communication differ significantly between genders and across cultures. The
communication in which the sender uses words, whether spoken or written, to transmit the message to the receiver
is known as Verbal Communication. It is the most effective form of communication that leads to speedy interchange
of information and feedback. There are less chances of misunderstanding as the communication between parties is
clear, i.e. the parties are using words for saying anything. Verbal communication makes the process of conveying
thoughts easier and faster, and it remains the most successful form of communication (Steinberg, 2007). Yet, this
makes up only seven percent of all human communication! Verbal communication entails the use of words in
delivering the intended message. The two major forms of verbal communication include written and oral
communication.The communication can be done in two ways (i) Oral – like face to face communication, lectures,
phone calls, seminars, etc. (ii) Written – Letters, E- mail, SMS, etc.

2.1 Written communication

Written communication is the process of communication in which messages or information is exchanged or
communicated within sender and receiver through written form. It includes traditional pen and paper letters and
documents, typed electronic documents, e-mails, text chats, SMS and anything else conveyed through written
symbols such as language. This type of communication is indispensable for formal business communications and
issuing legal instructions.
Communication forms that predominantly use written communication include handbooks, brochures, contracts,
memos, press releases, formal business proposals, and the like. The effectiveness of written communication depends
on the writing style, grammar, vocabulary, and clarity
Written communication requires years of training and the development of basic writing skills. Over time and with
much practice one can attain confidence in a writing style that is clear and easy to understand. Written
communication is a slower process than just speaking what comes to our mind. It is more professional. Psychology
has proven that our human tendency is to believe what is written more than the spoken word. The first steps to
learning written communication begin with the first, creative scribbles of a toddler. The deliberate and not so well-
formed letters of a kindergartener when he writes his name are awkward and not so legible. As a child grows his
writing skills grow also. Overtime, techniques are developed to select a topic, with specific information in mind.
A target audience is determined. Keywords are carefully chosen. Sentence structure is evaluated

2.2 Oral Communication

The other form of verbal communication is the spoken word, either face-to-face or through phone, voice chat, video
conferencing or any other medium. Various forms of informal communications such as the grapevine or informal
rumor mill, and formal communications such as lectures, conferences are forms of oral communication. Oral
communication finds use in discussions and causal and informal conversations. The effectiveness of oral
conversations depends on the clarity of speech, voice modulation, pitch, volume, speed, and even non-verbal
communications such as body language and visual cues. Basically, oral communication is the process of
communication in which messages or information is exchanged or communicated within sender and receiver
through the word of mouth. It is a fact that 75% percent or more of our actual exchange of words is found in oral
communication. It comes naturally without prompting, as anyone who has been around a demanding baby can attest.
There is a continual barrage of words that are communicated on a daily basis. It is estimated that the average two-
year-old already owns a vocabulary of sixty words or more. By the time the child’s age doubles, his vocabulary has
grown to 1,500 words. Imagine a child trying to formulate sentences with pen and paper at that age. Effective written
communication would be impossible. Oral communication is not concerned with the proper spelling of words. There
is no need to deliberate over the use of capital letters. Nor do we bother ourselves with which punctuation mark to
use at the end of a sentence. Words just fall from our lips, as quickly as they are formulated with our thoughts,
unless we have learned the art of thinking before we speak. Oral communication is more personal and informal,
with contractions and slang acceptable.

2.3 Non-verbal communication

Nonverbal communication is more immediate than verbal communication, but its meaning is typically more
ambiguous, notwithstanding the fact that certain forms of nonverbal communication, such as the use of the eyes,
can convey emotions more effectively than words can. Some technological means of communication, such as film,
can effectively convey many forms of nonverbal communication. Non-verbal communication is based on the
understanding of the parties to communication, as the transmission of messages from the sender to receiver is
wordless i.e. the communication uses signs. So, if the receiver understands the message completely and proper
feedback is given afterwards, then the communication succeeds. It complements the verbal communication many
times, to understand the mindset and the status of the parties, which is not spoken by them, but it is an act of
understanding.

The types of Non-verbal communication are as under:

2.3.1 Chronemics: The use of time in communication is chronemics, which speaks about the personality of the
sender / receiver like punctuality, speed of speech etc.
2.3.2 Vocalics: The volume, tone of voice and pitch used by the sender for communicating a message to the
receiver is known as vocalics or paralanguage.
2.3.3 Haptics: The use of touch in a communication is the expression of feelings and emotions.
2.3.4 Kinesics: It is the study of body language of a person, i.e., gestures, postures, facial expressions, etc.
2.3.5 Proxemics: The distance maintained by a person while communicating with others, communicates about
the relationship of the person with others like intimate, personal, social and public.
2.3.6 Artifacts: The appearance of a person speaks about his personality, i.e. by way of clothing, carrying
jewelry, lifestyle etc. This kind of communication is known as artifactual communication.

2.5 Visual Communication

Visual communication is all around us. It is a survival skill that we tend to take for granted. We do not have to visit
an art gallery, read an art/design book to experience visual communication. We use visual communication to
navigate and understand the world (Tam, 2008). Packaging, signs, logos, bills, receipts, leaflets, books, mobile
phones, appliances, advertisements .to name but a few, are all examples of visual communication. A watch or clock
is a classic example of visual communication that we have grown used to depend on every day. Whether
consciously ‘designed’ or not, they play an important part of shaping our very existence. Indeed, ‘noticing’ or being
aware of design is not an essential criterion for a piece of visual communication to fulfil its function. There are
essential differences between ‘expression’ and ‘communication’. Expression appeals to our emotions, engaging the
audience in a deeper level, but it tends to be more ambiguous and often less precise. The word ‘communication’
came from the Latin word communication meaning ‘to share’. There has to be a mutual agreement between the
sender and the receiver of a message in order for communication to function. Visual communication is therefore
similar to how verbal or written language works. We use ‘visual language’ to communicate to an audience.
However, visual language might not be as reliable or consistent as written language, which has a more formalized
set of conventions and rules. When we talk about visual communication, we speak of a unification of content (the
message) and the form (how it looks). We as designers are ‘senders’ of the message. Through a medium, we deliver
the message to the receiver. This is not necessarily a one-way process; the receivers could provide feedback to the
sender and in turn the process is reversed. There are many ways in which the meaning of the message is impaired
during the process of delivery. This is called ‘noise’. Such situations happen when the receiver is unable to decode
the visual language and hence not able to gain the correct (intended) meaning of the message.
2.5.1 Ambiguity
Ambiguity means that a visual has multiple meanings. This is sometimes the intention of a designer, but very often
it is not. Clear communication attempts to avoid ambiguity as much as possible, but never completely.

2.5.2 Viewing/reading; images/text (Multimodality)

When we talk about visual communication, we also talk about the use of text. Typography (designing with text)
gives visual form to written language. Typography is therefore an extremely complex set of signs. Text
communicates more precisely and accurately than visual imagery, especially abstract ideas. Using a combination
of images and text is therefore a powerful way to communicate. An audience combines the acts of viewing and
reading when they are faced with a piece of visual communication. Such multiple communicative forms are well
explained by the term multimodality. Multimodality refers to the texts which use multiple forms of visual and
written texts within the same text to convey multiple meanings (Jewitt and Kress, 2003: 6). Stenglin and Iedema
(2001: 194) state that
a multimodal text is one in which a number of different modes (words in headings and headlines; images
and the written texts themselves) are integrated to form a composite whole.

This means that any type of texts including written language texts reveals various modes within a single text.

2.5.3 Appropriateness
The appropriateness of a piece of visual communication refers to the fitness of a visual form for its intended purpose.
An inappropriate use of visual language might get unexpected reactions from the audience or user.

2.5.4 Conventions
Conventions are accepted ‘unwritten rules’ for understanding things that are learned. Visual communication relies
on conventions in order to function. Some examples of visual communication are more governed by conventions,
for example road signs. Others are less reliant on conventions, for example a painting. In order for a piece of visual
communication to function as such, the use of conventions is unavoidable. Humans can only understand something
through connecting with something that they have previously learnt.

2.5.5 Semiotics
The term ‘semiotics’ refers to the study of signs, first used by Americam philosopher Charles Morries in the 1930s.
Morris believed that by analyzing visual and verbal signs, communication could be improved. There are three
aspects of semiotic theory namely syntactic, semantic and pragmatic. All three aspects work together. The
relationship between the signified (e.g. the animal ‘dog’) and signifier (e.g. the word d-o-g and/or an image/icon of
a dog) is arbitrary and is learnt. A signified could be read on the denotative and connotative levels. For example,
the meaning of a sign such as the image of an apple is beyond the object ‘apple’ that it represents (denotation).
Connotatively it could mean the fruit from the Tree of Knowledge in the biblical story in Genesis, which in turn
can symbolize temptation or sin. It could also convey ‘health’ (as in the saying, ‘an apple a day keeps the doctor
away’). Therefore, visual communication can reflect two related features of signifier (form) and signified (the
meaning).

2.5.6 Perception

Sensation is a lower-level function of our brain, referring to Reponses to simple properties of stimuli such as
warmth, colour, taste, etc. Perception, on the other hand, is a high-order function that deals with more complex
characteristics. We use prior knowledge and experience to interpret, understand and create meaning from what we
see, hear, etc. We have an innate ability to establish order according to certain laws of perception, such as Gestalt
psychology. We constantly construct relationships and groupings between things in an organized way.
 CHAPTER THREE
Communication Models
3.1 Linear models of communication

The linear model of communication is an early communication model created by Shannon and Weaver which
visualizes the transfer of information as an act being done to the receiver by the sender. Understanding several key
terms is important in order to follow the model. These terms are: Sender: the message creator. Encoding: the
process of putting thoughts into messages through the creation of content and symbols. Decoding: the process of
interpreting and assigning meaning to a message. Message: the transmitted information. Channel: the medium
through which the message passes. Receiver: the target of the sender and collector of the message. Noise: those
distractions which interfere with the transmission of the message. This linear model is great for electronic media,
such as radio and television, because of its one way nature, but it encounters several problems when looking at other
channels. However, the critique to this model is that, conversations with your friends and others are never one way,
but rather they are back-and-forth, which is a problem with the linear model. A second problem is that encoding is
typically done unconsciously. And finally, a third problem is that other factors like culture, environment, and
relational history often come in play to affect the message.

3.2.1 Lasswell’s view

The linear model views communication as a one-way or linear process in which the speaker speaks and the listener
listens. Laswell’s (1948) model was based on the five questions below, which effectively describe how
communication works: Lasswell linear model’s emphasis is on sender sending a message and not receiver. It focuses
on the sender as the main participant in one-way communication, thus allowing no feedback. The receiver is seen
as a passive participant while the sender is seen as one who influences others. It focuses our attention on the
individual components of the communication process e.g. sender, message, channel, receiver and medium. Also,
emphasizes that the components occur in a sequence that begins with a sender and ends with the receiver. However,
the model is not a technical one because he emphasizes on the meaning of a message.

3.2.2 Shannon and Weaver’s View

Shannon and Weaver’s (1949) model includes noise or interference that distorts understanding between the speaker
and the listener. Shannon and Weaver’s model also is a linear because it sees communication as one way but is
always referred to as transmission/technical model. Like Lasswell’s model it depicts a sequential process of
communication in which all components are clearly defined. This is so because it focuses on the technical aspects
of sending messages e.g. how much information can be sent and how accurate and efficient? This model assumes
that noises can only arise in the channel, thus, it depicts only the physical or external noise as distractors to
communication. Since the model is only concerned with clarity of message and not meaning, it assumes that nothing
goes on inside people when they communicate or that communication requires active participation of at least two
people. However, their model does not focus on the interpretation and meaning of the messages. They also argue
that only physical or external barriers cause communication breakdown. Their model has no channel for feedback
(Steinberg, 2007: 51).

3.3 Interactive Model

The main flaw in the linear model is that it depicts communication as a one-way process where speakers only speak
and never listen. It also implies that listeners listen and never speak or send messages. Schramm (1955) in Wood
(2009) came out with a more interactive model that saw the receiver or listener providing feedback to the sender or
speaker. The speaker or sender of the message also listens to the feedback given by the receiver or listener. Both
the speaker and the listener take turns to speak and listen to each other. Feedback is given either verbally or non-
verbally, or in both ways. This model also indicates that the speaker and listener communicate better if they have
common fields of experience, or fields which overlap (please refer to Figure 1.4):

3.3.1 Schramm’s views on interactive model

Schramm’s view is more advanced as it considers how participants interact in communicative events. For Schramm,
in order for communication to be a success, participants need to share common language, backgrounds and a
common culture. His model advocates for feedback in a communicative event as feedback tells us how messages
are being interpreted. Feedback is important because the sender can easily adjust his message or provide additional
information to the receiver about the intended meaning. Thus, Schramm’s model moves away from technical view
of communication by focusing on the content of the messages and the meaning that is exchanged between
participants. Participants are active. Meaning and interpretation in this model are more important than transmission
or channel. The only limitation in this model is that sender/receiver is seen as merely taking turns in the
communicative event.

3.4 Transactional Model

The main drawback in the interactive model is that it does not indicate that communicators can both send and receive
messages simultaneously. This model also fails to show that communication is a dynamic process which changes
over time.The transactional model shows that the elements in communication are interdependent. Each person in the
communication act is both a speaker and a listener, and can be simultaneously sending and receiving messages.

There are three implications in the transactional model:

i. “Transactional” means that communication is an ongoing and continuously changing process. You are
changing, the people with whom you are communicating are changing, and your environment is also
continually changing as well.
 ii. In any transactional process, each element exists in relation to all the other elements. There is this
interdependence where there can be no source without a receiver and no message without a source.

iii. Each person in the communication process reacts depending on factors such as their background, prior
experiences, attitudes, cultural beliefs and self-esteem.

Figure 1.5 shows a transactional model of communication that takes into account “noise” or interference in
communication as well as the time factor. The outer lines of the model indicate that communication happens within
systems that both communicators share (e.g., a common campus, hometown, and culture) or personal systems (e.g.,
family, religion, friends, etc). It also takes into account changes that happen in the communicators’ fields of personal
and common experiences. The model also labels each communicator as both sender as well as receiver
simultaneously.

3.4.1 Schramm’s view on transactional model

This model entails that participants do not only exchange messages but simultaneously negotiate meaning within a
particular context (thus feedback is essential). Simultaneously in this instance means that both sender and receiver
constantly encode and decode messages during the interaction (both participants are seen as active). It is not just a
two-way flow. Each participant brings their own background knowledge (schemata), feelings and views of several
aspects like culture, religion, politics, education, values, morals, gender, attitudes and much more to the
communicative event. Therefore, a transactional model emphasizes that the creation of meaning is negotiated
between participants. Success in a communication process is determined by the mutual involvement of the
participants in negotiating the meaning of messages.
 CHAPTER FOUR
Types of Communication
4.1 Interpersonal Communication

Described by Steinberg as communication that occurs between people in a face-to-face situation where participants
can see each other when exchanging messages. The main aim of interpersonal communication is to form and
maintain relationships.

(a)Direct Interpersonal Communication

Direct interpersonal communication involves a direct face-to-face relationship between the sender and receiver of
a message, who are in an interdependent relationship. Because of interpersonal communication’s immediacy (it is
taking place now) and primacy (it is taking place here), it is characterized by a strong feedback component.
Communication is enhanced when the relationship exists over a long period of time. Interpersonal communication
involves not only the words used but also the various elements of nonverbal communication.

(b)Mediated Interpersonal Communication

Mediated interpersonal communication involves technology that assists or links the sender and receiver of
messages. This may involve immediacy (live, or so-called real time). It does not involve a primary context but
instead uses technology to link the various parties in communication.
• Dyadic communication includes two people, with some of the elements of interpersonal, but the context is not
face-to-face. Example: Two business colleagues using the telephone or e-mail.
• Group communication includes a small group of people. Example: Teleconference in a distance learning class.

Mediated communication offers the advantage that it allows people to communicate over a distance or throughout
a time span that would not be possible in direct communication. E-mail offers instantaneous global communication,
and cell phones are highly mobile. Computer technology makes it possible for people to do their job without being
physically present, allowing them to work from their home or from across the world.

The purposes of interpersonal communication are to influence, help and discover, as well as to share and play
together. Interpersonal communication can be categorized by the number of participants.
• Dyadic communication involves two people. Example: Two friends talking
• Group communication involves three or more persons, though communication scholars are inconsistent as to the
top end of the number scale. The smaller the number in the group, the more closely this mode resembles
interpersonal communication. Often group communication is done for the purpose of problem solving or decision
making. Example: University study group.
• Public communication involves a large group with a primarily one-way monologue style generating only minimal
feedback. Information sharing, entertainment and persuasion are common purposes of public communication.
Example: Lecture in university class. Another way of categorizing interpersonal communication is on the function
or setting of the communication.
• Organizational communication deals with communication within large organizations such as businesses. This is
sometimes considered part of group communication, but communication scholars have built up a body of knowledge
focused primarily on organizations. Example: Work focused discussion between employer and employee.
• Family communication focuses on communication patterns within nuclear, extended and blended families. Like
organizational communication, this too is sometimes seen as part of the general category of group communication,
but much research has been focused specifically on communication within a family relationship.
Family communication can be enhanced by the long-standing and close relationships among participants as well as
the likelihood that families have shared heritage, similar values, and social rituals. Patterns differ in communication
between spouses, between parent and child, among siblings, and within the wider family context. Example:
Conversation during a holiday meal.
Additionally, some scholars identify a category of impersonal communication. This is a distinction between
impersonal and interpersonal communication on the basis of the quality of the interaction.
Impersonal communication is that which involves functional short-term exchanges such as might occur between a
shopper and a salesman; the label of interpersonal is reserved for communication that functions in deeper and more
meaningful relationships.
The process of interpersonal communication includes several stages over an extended life cycle. Communication
scholar Mark Knapp has outlined one useful framework for understanding the coming-together process. Note that
these stages can be applied to personal friendships, romantic relationships, business encounters, and many other
types of interaction. The initial encounter offers a first impression that can be full of communication data. Likes or
dislikes can be instantaneous, though many people have learned that first impressions may be misleading.
Experimenting is the second step in interpersonal communication. In this step, information is exchanged on a variety
of topics – general and “safe” at first, gradually becoming more personal and more self-revealing. Intensifying
follows when the experimentation leads to positive mutual conclusions that the relationship is worth pursuing. The
fourth step in interpersonal communication is integration, in which mutual decisions are made that the relationship
is fulfilling. This is the stage of intense friendships, close business partnerships, romantic commitments, and so on.

Bonding is the final stage, in which the relationship is sealed (often formally with contracts or written agreements)
and generally is publicized (such as through announcements). Knapp also outlined a similar reverse pattern for the
unraveling of interpersonal relationships: Differentiating mirrors the initiating phase but focuses instead on the
differences that people notice about each other. Communication likewise plays a central role in the circumscribing
stage, during which time participants in the relationship begin to minimize their communication and confine it to
mainly functional topics. Stagnating is the next stage, in which the relationship becomes flat and personally
unfulfilling and is continued mainly for reasons beyond the relationship, such as religious or family obligation,
contractual obligation, or social expectation. Overt unpleasantness is evident in the avoidance stage, in which the
participants in interpersonal communication both avoid each other and express mutual annoyance when they
encounter each other. Termination if the final stage of breakdown, at which time legal, religious or other formal
contracts are abrogated and the demise of the relationship is announced to others.

4.2 Intrapersonal Communication

Intrapersonal Communication is defined as the communication process within an individual. The way that society
communicates in our complex daily lives may only be understood after we are able to comprehend that
communication utterly relies on our particular perceptions. As (McLean, 2005) define intrapersonal communication
as communication with one’s self, and that may include self-talk, acts of imagination and visualization, and even
recall and memory. Many confuse this basic form of communication with interpersonal communication, which is a
conversation between at least two people. Developing effective intrapersonal communication takes discipline and
a willingness to slow down your day enough to hear your own thoughts. With time, an effective intrapersonal
communication strategy can help you better organize your daily tasks and remain calm in hectic situations.
Therefore, Intrapersonal communication takes place within a single person, often for the purpose of clarifying ideas
or analyzing a situation. Other times, intrapersonal communication is undertaken in order to reflect upon or
appreciate something. Three aspects of intrapersonal communication are self-concept, perception and expectation.

Self-concept is the basis for intrapersonal communication, because it determines how a persona sees him/herself
and is oriented toward others. Self-concept (also called self-awareness) involves three factors: beliefs, values and
attitudes. Beliefs are basic personal orientation toward what is true or false, good or bad; beliefs can be descriptive
or prescriptive. Values are deep-seated orientations and ideals, generally based on and consistent with beliefs, about
right and wrong ideas and actions. Attitudes are learned predisposition toward or against a topic, ideals that stem
from and generally are consistent with values. Attitudes often are global, typically emotional.
Beliefs, values and attitudes all influence behavior, which can be either spoken opinion or physical action. Some
psychologists include body image as an aspect of intrapersonal communication, in that body image is a way of
perceiving ourselves, positively or negatively, according to the social standards of our culture. Other things that can
affect self-concept are personal attributes, talents, social role, even birth order.
Whereas self-concept focuses internally, perception looks outward. Perception of the outside world also is rooted
in beliefs, values and attitudes. It is so closely intertwined with self-concept that one feeds off the other, creating a
harmonious understanding of both oneself and one’s world. Meanwhile, expectations are future-oriented messages
dealing with long-term roles, sometimes called life scripts. These sometimes are projections of learned relationships
within the family or society. Intrapersonal communication may involve different levels of communication activity:
internal discourse, solo vocal communication, and solo written communication. Internal discourse involves
thinking, concentration and analysis. Psychologists include both daydreaming and nocturnal dreaming in this
category. Prayer, contemplation and meditation also are part of this category, though from a theological point of
view the argument may be made that this is not solely internal to one person. In Sufi tradition, this is similar to the
concept of nafs, negotiating with the inner self. Example: Consciously appreciating the beauty of a sunset. Solo
vocal communication includes speaking aloud to oneself. This may be done to clarify thinking, to rehearse a
message intended for others, or simply to let off steam. Example: Talking to yourself as you complain about your
boss.
Solo written communication deals with writing not intended for others. Example: An entry in a diary or personal
journal.

4.3 Intergroup Communication

They define intergroup communication as an interaction that occurs when either party defines self or other in terms
of group memberships. They note that the consideration of interpersonal features is reduced as encounters become
highly intergroup in nature. Intergroup communication proposes that when individuals interact with each other, it
is most often their salient social memberships and not their individual characteristics that shape the communication.
Thus, intergroup communication examines how our communication provides information about our identification
with different groups in society, as well as how information about groups and group membership shape
communication. While communication is acknowledged to be both an interpersonal and an intergroup phenomenon,
intergroup communication scholars argue that much of our communication is in some way intergroup (where groups
include, for example, age, ethnicity, sexual orientation, or political party). Intergroup communication views
communication as a dynamic process where each speaker’s cognitions, emotions, and motivations influence
communication behavior in interactions. These processes are argued by intergroup communication scholars to
underpin communication across many different contexts. Intergroup communication also focuses on explaining
conflict and miscommunication and, in particular, intergroup communication focuses on communication between
dominant and subordinate groups. The systematic study of intergroup communication has its strongest roots in
social psychology, together with socio-psychological areas of communication. Early on, much of the research on
intergroup communication was undertaken with social psychology, but more recently communication scholars have
also adopted this approach. Early intergroup communication research was also primarily in intercultural
communication, but the field quickly expanded to include research on gender, aging/intergenerational,
organizational communication, and health communication. The field has continued to embrace new contexts such
as policing and civilian relations, and Internet communication.
4.4 Mass Communication
Mass communication is a process in which a person, group of people, or an organization sends a message through
a channel of communication to a large group of anonymous and heterogeneous people and organizations. You can
think of a large group of anonymous and heterogeneous people as either the general public or a segment of the
general public. Channels of communication include broadcast television, radio, social media, and print. The sender
of the message is usually a professional communicator that often represents an organization. Mass communication
is an expensive process. Unlike interpersonal communication, feedback for mass communication is usually slow
and indirect.

Therefore, mass communication is the study of how individuals and entities relay information through mass media
to large segments of the population at the same time. It is usually understood to relate to newspaper, magazine, and
book publishing, as well as radio, television and film, as these mediums are used for disseminating information,
news and advertising. Mass communication differs from the studies of other forms of communication, such as
interpersonal communication or organizational communication, in that it focuses on a single source transmitting
information to a large group of receivers. The study of mass communication is chiefly concerned with how the
content of mass communication persuades or otherwise affects the behavior, attitude, opinion, or emotion of the
person or people receiving the information. Mass communication is a more public form of communication between
an entity and a large and diverse audience, mediated by some form of technology. This may be either real time or
on a taped delay basis or it may be rooted in the usually recent past. Examples: Radio and television, newspapers
and magazines.
 CHAPTER FIVE
Barriers of Communication
5.1 Introduction

This lecture intends to explore barrier of communication. A barrier to communication is something that keeps
meanings from meeting. Meaning barriers exist between all people, making communication much more difficult
than most people seem to realize. We will learn various communication barriers which affect the communication
process and how to ensure communication takes place effectively.

5.2 Barriers
Every step in the communication process is necessary for effective and good communication. Blocked steps become
barriers.
Consider the following situations:
• Sender barrier. A new administrator with an innovative idea fails to speak up at a meeting, chaired by the
superintendent, for fear of criticism.
• Encoding barrier. A Spanish-speaking staff member cannot get an English-speaking administrator to understand
a grievance about working conditions.
• Medium barrier. A very upset staff member sends an emotionally charged letter to the leader instead of
transmitting her feelings face-to-face.
• Decoding barrier. An older principal is not sure what a young department head means when he refers to a teacher
as "spaced out."
• Receiver barrier. A school administrator who is preoccupied with the preparation of the annual budget asks a
staff member to repeat a statement, because she was not listening attentively to the conversation.
• Feedback barrier. During a meeting, the failure of school administrators to ask any questions causes the
superintendent to wonder if any real understanding has taken place.
Because communication is a complex, give-and-take process, breakdowns anywhere in the cycle can block the
transfer of understanding.

5.2.1 Physical Barriers

Any number of physical distractions can interfere with the effectiveness of communication, including a telephone
call, drop-in visitors, distances between people, walls, and static on the radio. People often take physical barriers
for granted, but sometimes they can be removed. For example, an inconveniently positioned wall can be removed.
Interruptions such as telephone calls and drop-in visitors can be removed by issuing instructions to a secretary. An
appropriate choice of media can overcome distance barriers between people.

5.2.2 Semantic Barriers

The words we choose, how we use them, and the meaning we attach to them cause many communication barriers.
The problem is semantic, or the meaning of the words we use. The same word may mean different things to different
people. Words and phrases such as efficiency, increased productivity, management prerogatives, and just cause may
mean one thing to a school administrator, and something entirely different to a staff member.
Technology also plays a part in semantic barriers to communication. Today's complex school systems are highly
specialized. Schools have staff and technical experts developing and using specialized terminology—jargon that
only other similar staff and technical experts can understand. And if people don't understand the words, they cannot
understand the message.

5.2.3 Psychosocial Barriers

Three important concepts are associated with psychological and social barriers: fields of experience, filtering, and
psychological distance (Antos, 2011)). Fields of experience include people's backgrounds, perceptions, values,
biases, needs, and expectations. Senders can encode and receivers decode messages only in the context of their
fields of experience. When the sender's field of experience overlaps very little with the receiver's, communication
becomes difficult. Filtering means that more often than not we see and hear what we are emotionally tuned in to
see and hear. Filtering is caused by our own needs and interests, which guide our listening. Psychosocial barriers
often involve a psychological distance between people that is similar to actual physical distance. For example, the
school administrator talks down to a staff member, who resents this attitude, and this resentment separates them,
thereby blocking opportunity for effective communication.
 CHAPTER SIX
Reading and Study Skills
6.1 Introduction

This lecture exposes students to four language skills potential in enabling them to communicate effectively
particularly in the academic situation. The linguistic skills are interdependent since they depend on each other to
ensure effective communication. The four skills are grouped into two categories; receptive skills and productive
skills. Listening and reading are known as ‘receptive’ skills sometimes called passive skills while speaking and
writing are active skills also known as ‘productive’ skills. These are important skills to learn and understand as a
language user and they will sustain you during university study. You will learn the interdependence of the four
basic language skills necessary to facilitate effective communication.

6.2 Reading Skills

Reading is going to be an essential element during the course of your university studies. This is not only because
reading is a principal means of obtaining information, expanding your knowledge and understanding of your
subjects but also because a large proportion of your time of study will be spent working with written sources of
information and because you have to cover a great deal of material in a short amount of time. For these reasons it
is essential that you develop a reading capability that is both purposeful and efficient. People generally tend to
assume that “everyone knows how to read”, the truth is that not everyone does and those who do are often not
reading as effectively as they should be. This lecture intends to provide you with guidelines that will turn you into
a more effective reader.

6.2.1 The Meaning and Nature of Reading

People conceptualize reading in a number of ways. We need not necessarily be tied to one particular definition. It
is necessary however to review some of the ideas before we opt for one working definition. The definition of reading
categorizes it as a way of getting information from something that is written. It is a process that involves recognizing
the symbols that make up language. The Michigan language programmed on the other hand defines reading as a
process of constructing meaning through the dynamic interaction among the reader’s existing knowledge, the
information suggested by the text and the context of the reading situation.
6.2.2 Author’s Purpose and Reader’s Purpose
A number of assumptions underlie these definitions. The first assumption is that reading is a component of
communication. That the meaning constructed by the reader is dependent to a large extent on the relationship
between the author’s purpose of writing the text and the reader’s purpose of reading. Consider for example, the
differences in meaning a reader might construct regarding information about “a flower” as presented by the other
of a poem, an encyclopedia entry or a science fiction. A person reading these sources will construct different senses
and images of the word” flower “.
6.2.3 External and Internal Factors
The second assumption is that the characteristics of the reader (e.g. psychological social, cultural or linguistic
background) interact with the characteristics of the reading task (e.g. purpose for reading assignment, characteristics
of the reading material, the setting in which reading occurs, nature of reading instruction) to influence the process.
In this sense, reading involves a dynamic interaction that changes depending on both the internal and external factors
of the reader, for example, the ability for one to understand the main idea of a text and his/her consequent
performance may vary considerably depending on the interaction among factors such as the readers’ familiarity
with the topic. Interest in the purpose of reading and the content and structure of the text self. This principle explains
the factors that increase or decreased motivation for the reader to read a particular text. Reading together with
hearing are the two most common ways of getting information. There is a wide range of information that one could
gain through reading. This includes news, entertainment, autobiography and academic information.
6.2.4 Different types of Reading
When we read, we usually do so for a purpose, therefore depending on our purposes of reading different texts, we
deploy different methods of reading them.
Think of the various items you may have read just today. They might include a newspaper, a lecture hand out, a
course material text or a poster. Did you read them all in the same way? at the same speed and in the same detail?
Your answer to those questions would probably be “No”
6.2.4.1 Scanning
This is a fast reading technique. It is a way of reading to look for specific information in a text. When you scan
read, you ‘see’ every item on the page, but you don’t necessarily read the pages. You ignore anything you are not
looking for. In this way, when you discover the key words being searched for, you will be unable to recall the exact
content of the page. Scanning is a technique you often use when looking up a word in the telephone book or
dictionary. You search for key words or ideas. In most cases, you know what you’re looking for, so you’re
concentrating on finding a particular answer. Scanning involves moving your eyes quickly down the page seeking
specific words and phrases. Scanning is also used when you first find a resource to determine whether it will answer
your questions. When scanning, look for the author’s use of organizers such as numbers, letters, steps, or the words,
first, second, or next. Look for words that are bold faced, italics, or in a different font size, style, or colour.
Sometimes the author will put key ideas in the margin.
• Uses of scanning
There are many areas where the use of scanning would be of necessary importance. First, reading off a computer
screen has become a growing concern. Research shows that people have more difficulty reading off a computer
screen than off paper. Although they can read and comprehend at the same rate as on paper, scanning on the
computer is much slower than on paper.
Similarly, scanning skills are valuable for students studying at university level. First, they are an aid in locating new
terms, which are introduced in the chapter. Unless you understand the new terms, it is impossible to follow the
author’s reasoning without a dictionary or glossary. Thus a preliminary scanning of the chapters will alert you to
the new terms and their sequence. When you locate a new term, try to find its definition. If you are not able to figure
out the meaning, then look it up in the glossary or dictionary.
Take Note
Secondly, scanning is useful in locating statements, definitions, formulas, etc. which you must remember
completely and precisely. Scan to find the exact and complete statement of a chemical law. The formula of a
particular compound in chemistry, or the stages of cell division. Also, scan the charts and figures, for they usually
summarize in graphic form the major ideas and facts of the chapter. Scanning can be used to look up a telephone
number, read through the small adverts in a newspaper or for browsing TV or radio programmes, timetables, lists,
catalogues or web pages for information. For these tasks, you don’t need to read or understand every word. Scanning
is also useful when studying or looking to find specific information from a book or article quickly as there is not
always time to read every word.
• Hints and Tips for better scan reading
- Don’t try to read every word. Instead let your eyes move quickly across the page until you find what you are
looking for.
- Use clues on the page, such as headings and titles to help you.
- In a dictionary or phone book, use the ‘header’ words to help you scan. You can
find these in bold type at the top of each page.
- If you are reading for study, start by thinking up or writing down some questions
that you want to answer. Doing this can focus your mind and help you find the
facts or information that you need more easily.
- Many texts use an alphabetical order. These include everyday materials such as
the phone book and indexes to books and catalogues.
- There are many ways to practise scanning skills. Try looking up a favorite
recipe in the index of a cookbook, search for a plumber in your local Yellow Pages, or
scan web pages on the Internet to find specific information.
6.2.4.2 Skim Reading (or Skimming)
Skimming is a reading technique that can help you to read more quickly or decide if the text is interesting and
whether you should read it in more detail.
Skimming is when you “browse”, or glance randomly through a book. It has great importance in learning and is
emphasized as a strategy in speed reading particularly for exam taking.
The purpose of skimming is to get an “overview” not the specific details of the material. We use it to decide if the
book, article or report is worth our time, and has anything new and worthwhile to tell us. Why waste time on an
item if it is stuff we already know?
You use skimming when you want to quickly find the main ideas of a text. When you read a newspaper for example,
you’re probably not reading it word-by-word, instead you’re skimming the text. Skimming is done at a speed three
to four times faster than normal reading. People often skim when they have lots of material to read in a limited
amount of time. Use skimming when you want to see if an article may be of interest in your assignment or research.
They are many strategies that you may use when skimming. Some people read the first and last paragraphs using
headings, summaries and other organizers as they move down the page or screen. You might read the title, subtitles,
subheading, and illustrations. Consider reading the first sentence of each paragraph. This technique is useful when
you’re seeking specific information rather than reading for comprehension. Skimming works well to find dates,
names, and places. It might be used to review graphs, tables, and charts.
(a) How do you skim read?
Don’t read the whole text word-for-word. Use as many clues as possible to give you some background information.
There might be pictures or images related to the topic, or an eye-catching title. Let your eyes skim over the surface
of the text and, whilst thinking about any clues you have found about the subject, look out for key words.
Skimming is a step you should always take before you read any article of factual or practical narrative. You will
soon be able to detect most important facts, strange vocabulary, and words that are clues to important relationships.
It’s a good practice to skim everything in mass media after reading the title and first paragraph. You may get all the
information you want. This keeps your skimming skills from deteriorating, or will give you the practice you need
to develop necessary skills. Skim everything you intend to read before you make a final decision to read, discard,
or study the material. Skim all highlighting and develop a read-skim pattern to use for rapid review. And don’t
overlook this! Reviewing frequently and rapidly is the best way to memorize (or simply remember information)
from notes and long text assignments. Some speed-reading methods require you first to skim-read the material and
then read it over a second time more carefully, but yet still at high speed. In skim reading you often just scan through
the material, letting your eyes catch key words that give you the crux of the written material. Take some reading
material and read it as fast as you can for a minute. When reading at this pace you do not have to understand a single
word of what you are reading. Then start over for another minute and try to get to a further point that you did the
last. Repeat this step over and over trying to beat the place where you got to last. Eventually time yourself for a
minute and read for comprehension and you will see how fast you can really read. Like scanning, skimming requires
you to read quickly. When you skim a text, though, you are not looking for specific information, but rather, you are
trying to get the main idea or point of the text you are reading. When skimming a reading section, start with the title
of the text. Then read the topic sentence of each paragraph. Skimming is a skill that is especially suited for doing
research. By skimming a few pages of a reference book or novel, you can generally tell if the novel will be useful
for your research.
(b) How is ‘skimming’ different to ‘scanning’?
The term skimming is often confused with scanning. Remember: Skimming is used to obtain the gist (the overall
sense) of a piece of text. e.g. use skimming to get the gist of a page of a textbook to decide whether it is useful and
should therefore be read more slowly and in more detail. Scanning is used to locate specific information from a
piece of text. e.g. use scanning to find a particular number in a telephone directory.
Sometimes you can use both reading methods. After you have skimmed a piece of text to decide whether the text is
of interest, you may wish to use scanning techniques to locate specific information.
6.2.4.3 Specific Reading
This strategy is usually employed in conjunction with skim reading. It is especially useful if you are looking for
specific information which may be contained in a variety of books, journals or articles. The process is one of search
and discovery. It requires you to skim read, locate, mark and then return to close reading. When doing this across a
number of texts, you will need to reference the materials as you proceed.
6.2.4.4 In-depth (or Intensive) Reading
This is the most essential of all reading skills. It involves reading a text thoroughly in order to comprehend the ideas
and arguments it contains. In-depth reading is consequently much slower than skim reading, and you may find that
you need to read certain sections of a difficult text more than once.
When reading in-depth it is useful to:
(a) Read the opening paragraphs and conclusion first. This will help you to digest the intention and conclusion of
the writer prior to a closer reading of the text.
(b) Go back to the beginning, and read through the whole text, marking out and noting:
- key words and phrases;
- ideas, facts, and data you think are important;
- the structure of the argument. Make sure you understand the writer’s main ideas and arguments, and the overall
message of the text.
6.2.4.5 Critical Reading
Critical reading is a further dimension of in-depth reading. Reading a text critically means that you do not accept
what you are reading at face value. This does not necessarily mean that you should find fault with a text, but rather
that you should question and judge the merit and worth of the information it contains. A number of inter-related
processes are involved in critical reading. They are: Interpretation, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Whether you
use all, or only some of these processes, will depend on both the particular reading situation, and your purpose for
reading.
(a) Interpretation
When we read critically for interpretation, we read to discover meaning in a text, that is, to determine what
conclusions can be drawn about the various messages the text contains. Sometimes, there is more than one possible
interpretation, and in such cases it is possible that our reading may be directed at the best, or most likely meaning.
Interpreting a text will also frequently involve the processes of analysis and synthesis.
(b) Analysis
This is the process by which we examine the way the ideas and messages in a text fit together to crate the overall
meaning. When analyzing a text we focus on:
(i) Identifying assumptions
The hidden values that underlie what a writer is saying e.g. that everyone who cleans their teeth uses toothpaste, or
that anyone who loves Africa supported Ghana during the world cup matches.
(ii) The structure of the argument
The development and sequence of ideas, the relationship between ides, whether the argument is inductive or
deductive.
(iii) The relationship between evidence/data and argument
Whether the evidence supports and illustrates the argument, and whether it supports any conclusions that are drawn.
Synthesis usually occurs in conjunction with analysis, and involves the drawing together of the results of the analysis
into a conclusion on which to base an interpretation or evaluation.
 CHAPTER SEVEN
Listening Skills
7.1 Introduction
Somebody once told me that we were given two ears and only one mouth for a purpose. The continued, saying;”
we can expect to listen twice as much as we speak” for this matter therefore one ear would not be able to carry out
effectively the task of listening. Humour aside it remains amply true that listening is a communicative activity that
we carry out more often than any other in our daily life. As explained earlier on, skill in communication demands
that one masters a number of specific sub-skills. The first skill we will discuss in this course is the listening skill.

Expressing our needs, feelings, thoughts and opinions clearly and effectively is only part of what is required to
complete a communication cycle. The other part is listening and understanding what others communicate to us.
Listening is the communication skill most of us use more frequently. This makes listening one of the most important
sub skills of communication. Various studies point to the importance of listening as a communication skill. As
already said in the previous lecture, in a typical study we are informed that many of us spend 70 to 80 percent of
our working hours in some form of communication. Of that time, we spend about 9 percent writing, 16 percent
reading, 30 percent speaking and 45 percent listening. This reveals how important the skill of listening is in our
daily life. Despite this fact however, studies also confirm that most of us are poor and inefficient in the skill of
listening. Hence the purpose of this unit is to help you improve your listening skill.

7.2 Meaning of listening

Communication scholars estimate that listening takes up more working hours than any other activity we deploy for
communication. This confirms that listening is an important skill in our daily life. But what does listening mean?

7.3 Listening as a function of Communication

Listening is categorized as a receptive communication skill that is one that helps us to acquire ideas, information
and other people’s feelings. Effective communication depends very much on our ability to listen well. Listening
provides us with the aural input that serves as a basis for us to acquire information, ideas, attitudes and feelings of
the speaker. Listening then involves communication of an oral message between the speaker and the listener.
Furthermore, as an aspect of communication, listening involves a dynamic interaction that varies depending on both
the internal and external situations of the speaker and the listener involved in the communicative context.
7.4 Listening Strategies
Listening strategies are techniques or activities that contribute directly to the comprehension and recall of listening
input. Listening strategies can be classified by how the listener processes the input.
(a)Background Knowledge
This is a listener based strategy. Listening will be much improved if the listener knows the topic of the talk, is aware
of the situation or context of the talk and the cultural background of the speaker.
(b)Knowledge of Text
The listener will understand the talk better if he/she is familiar with the sounds, words, and grammar that creates
meaning used by the speaker
7.5 Types of Listening
Listening as an act of hearing and discerning meaning from an audio source can be classified into two broad types.
7.5.1 Attentive Listening
The main goal of the people who listen attentively is to understand and remember what they hear. They have in
addition the intention to give a positive impression, advance a relationship or demonstrate care.
Communication scholars have identified three listening skill clusters and accompanying behaviours that are used
by attentive listeners. As you read the information below try to determine which one of these behaviours you already
use in your listening interactions.

Following below are three skills you could use to optimize your attentive listening:
(a) Attending skills
These have to do with the way the listener positions oneself before the speaker. The position you assume has a lot
of influence on your understanding and remembering what you hear.
The following are some of the attending skills:
(i) A posture of involvement
You should incline your body toward the speaker, face him/her squarely, maintain an open body position and
position yourself an appropriate distance from the speaker.
(i) Appropriate body motion
Occasionally nod your head, use facial expression to reflect emotions back to the speaker.
(ii) Eye contact
Maintain a sustained, direct and reflective eye contact with the speaker.

(b) Following skills

These are behaviours meant to inform the speaker that you are following the talk
- Use of inviting comments to the speaker e.g. what’s up
- Use of minimal encouragers. These are brief indicators to the speaker that you are with them e.g. “mmmhmmm”
“oh” “I see” “Right” “Really?” “Go on”
- Use of infrequent questions, open ended, one at a time.
(c) Reflecting questions
These include paraphrasing and questions reflecting feelings or meaning.

7.5.2 Critical Listening

When people listen critically, their goal in addition to understanding and remembering is to evaluate, assess or
interpret what they are hearing; whereas attentive listening emphasizes nonverbal skills along with some verbal
skills, critical listening emphasizes critical thinking skills. Like attentive listening, critical listening is related to
asking questions. Listening attentively enables you to ask good questions of clarification; listening critically
provides the basis for good probing questions.
 CHAPTER EIGHT
Speaking Skills
1.1 Introduction
Many language learners regard speaking ability as the measure of knowing a language. As they define fluency as
the ability to converse with others, much more than the ability to read, write, or comprehend oral language. They
regard speaking as the most important skill they can acquire, and they assess their progress in terms of their
accomplishments in spoken communication.

8.2 Strategies for Developing Speaking Skills

It is often regarded that, the ability to speak a language is the product of language learning, but speaking is also a
crucial part of the language learning process. As a university student you need to be exposed to speaking strategies
such as -- using minimal responses, recognizing scripts, and using language to talk about language -- that you can
use to help yourself expand your knowledge of the language and your confidence in using it. Therefore, you need
to learn how to speak so that you can use speaking skills to learn.

(i) Using minimal responses

Minimal responses are predictable, often idiomatic phrases that conversation participants use to indicate
understanding, agreement, doubt, and other responses to what another speaker is saying. Having a stock of such
responses enables a speaker to focus on what the other participant is saying, without having to simultaneously plan
a response.

Speakers who lack confidence in their ability to participate successfully in oral interaction often listen in silence
while others do the talking. One way to encourage such people to participate is to help them build up a stock of
minimal responses that they can use in different types of exchanges. Such responses can be especially useful for
beginners.

(ii) Recognizing scripts

Some communication situations are associated with a predictable set of spoken exchanges -- a script. Greetings,
apologies, compliments, invitations, and other functions that are influenced by social and cultural norms often
follow patterns or scripts. So do the transactional exchanges involved in activities such as obtaining information
and making a purchase. In these scripts, the relationship between a speaker's turn and the one that follows it can
often be anticipated.
For example, Instructors can help students develop speaking ability by making them aware of the scripts for different
situations so that they can predict what they will hear and what they will need to say in response. Through interactive
activities, instructors can give students practice in managing and varying the language that different scripts contain.

(iii) Using language to talk about language

Students are often too embarrassed or shy to say anything when they do not understand another speaker or when
they realize that a conversation partner has not understood them. Instructors can help students overcome this
reticence by assuring them that misunderstanding and the need for clarification can occur in any type of interaction,
whatever the participants' language skill levels. Students also, need to be equipped with strategies and phrases to
use for clarification and comprehension check.

By encouraging students to use clarification phrases in class when misunderstanding occurs, and by responding
positively when they do, instructors can create an authentic practice environment within the classroom itself. As
they develop control of various clarification strategies, students will gain confidence in their ability to manage the
various communication situations that they may encounter outside the classroom.

(iv) Communicative Output Activities

Communicative output activities allow students to practice using all of the language they know in situations that
resemble real settings. In these activities, students must work together to develop a plan, resolve a problem, or
complete a task. The most common types of communicative output activity are role plays and discussions.

In role plays, students are eventually encounter outside the classroom. Because role plays imitate life, the range of
language functions that may be used expands considerably. Also, the role relationships among the students as they
play their parts call for them to practice and develop their sociolinguistic competence. They have to use language
that is appropriate to the situation and to the characters.
 CHAPTER NINE
Oral Presentation
9.1 Introduction
This lecture will provide you with some tips and techniques for ensuring your presentation is well planned,
structured and delivered. The ability to undertake an oral presentation is a valuable skill for assessment tasks,
interviews and your future work life. This skill can be developed by everyone and is not reserved to those who are
"naturally" confident at public speaking. An effective presentation requires thorough planning and practice and the
utilization of specific delivery techniques. For example, exhibiting confidence, credibility, eloquence, vocal
expressiveness, body language and listening skills.

What is oral presentation?

Oral presentation is the process of speaking to a group of people or a person in a structured, deliberated
manner with the intention of either informing, influencing or entertaining. Oral presentation skills are
essential communication skills in academic and professional life which show your knowledge on a
particular subject. You might be able to choose your topic or you might be given something to research
on and talk about to an audience or tutor/instructor

9.2 Preparation of Oral presentation

Preparing for presentation usually involves clear distinct stages which include: planning, preparation, practise and
present. The following is an explanation of each stage to help you make a good oral presentation.
9.2.1 Plan
A good presentation requires careful planning. This involves analysing your audience, determining your purpose
and strategically selecting appropriate information.

a) Analyse your audience

Consider who it is that you are providing the presentation for and direct your presentation on this basis. Some
questions to consider include:
• • What does your audience know about the subject? What terminology will they know?
• • What do they want to know?
• • How can you engage this audience? What matters to them?

b) Determine the purpose

Be clear about the purpose of your presentation. For instance, is the purpose to provide information, persuade the
audience to accept a point of view, or encourage them to take action? Understanding the purpose will inform you
as to the information to include for the presentation.

c) Select effective information

If your purpose is to provide your audience with information, you will need to select the most important elements
and convey it in a simplified manner. If you want to persuade your audience to accept a point of view or take action
on an issue, then you will need to provide them with reasons and evidence and explain the consequences of their
future actions. Some questions to ask yourself when planning include:
What kind of information will best support the presentation?
What kind of information will appeal to the audience?
Are there some useful examples or case studies to illustrate an idea?
Tip: It is a good technique to prioritise your information and select the three main points for your presentation. This
is because your audience's ability to retain information is limited, so select the most important information and
focus on presenting it in a clear, concise manner.
9.2.1 Prepare

a) Structure
Structure provides a framework for your presentation. This will assist you to sort information and remember key
ideas, while it will provide your audience with a logical guide as to what will be considered and in what order. A
presentation is much like an essay in structure:
1. 1. Introduction - an overview of the issue and the main ideas to be considered.
2. 2. Body - the main ideas, reasoning, evidence and explanation provided.
3. 3. Conclusion - a summary of what you have considered with repetition of key ideas.

b) Preparing the introduction

The purpose of your introduction is to engage your audience, explain the issue and provide an outline of the key
points you will be considering. To engage your audience, you can ask them a question, pose a problem or show
them a quick video. The issue should be explained with the background and key terms explained, while the outline
should be a brief summary of the key ideas you will be presented.

c) Preparing the body

The body should contain a clear structure of the main ideas, explanation or reasoning that will be considered. Avoid
overloading your audience with too much information but focus on that which is most important. Categorise your
information into key ideas and use numbers and/or phrases that direct your audience. For instance, the first reason,
the second reason…

d) Prepare the conclusion

The conclusion summarises the key points and your main findings and should not present new information. Finish
your presentation with an interesting possibility or question and avoid ending abruptly.

e) Select appropriate visual aids

Visual aids can help you convey your point in an engaging and simple manner. These may include powerpoints,
graphs, pictures or objects. The visual link to your auditory message can be very powerful, but should be used
carefully. For instance, a powerpoint can be distracting during your presentation if there is too much text or if the
slide does not correlate with what you are saying. Remember that the visuals are not the presentation. Their purpose
is to enhance what you are saying by providing a visual link.
9.2.3. Practise and present
The key to a good delivery is to practise your speech and your body language. Here are some tips to assist you:

a)Practise
• (i) Practise your presentation several times, aloud and standing up.
 • (ii) Time the presentation so that it fits within your allocated time. If it is too long, remove and/or
simplify information, rather than speaking more quickly.
• (iii) Speak naturally from small cue cards, rather than reading from a piece of paper.

b) Know your equipment

(i) Familiarise yourself with the equipment you will use.
(ii) Time your presentation using the equipment.

Delivery
• (i) Maintain positive body language, especially with respect to your legs, hands and eyes.
• (ii) Stand straight with your feet "planted" in the ground. This will eliminate swaying and nervous
movements in the legs. You can move, but do so with purpose.
• (iii) Establish a "resting place" for your hands at the front of your body, such as cupped at waist level.
Speak naturally with your hands, but always bring them back to this resting place. This will reduce
distracting hand movements, such as scratching and fidgeting.
• (iv) Eye contact is a powerful means to engage your audience so look at your audience when you speak.
Be mindful of speaking to everyone at some point, not just the examiner.
• (v) Speak more slowly and clearly than you normally would. Provide emphasis through voice
intonation, volume and pausing.
• (vi) Nervousness is normal. This can be overcome by good preparation, practice, maintaining strong
posture and taking deep breaths.

9.3 Methods of oral presentation

There are various ways or methods of oral presentation:

9.1.1 Extemporaneous speech

In this method, the presenter carefully plans in advance and has a delivery that is spontaneous. The presenter writes
down only the main points in a note card then uses the points to elaborate on the issue. This method allows
spontaneity of thought and adjustments to situations. It also enjoys personal contact with the audience. An example
of this method is a lecture where the presenter researches and prepares thoroughly, and then delivers to an audience
in conversational manner without reading.

9.1.2 Memorized speech

Here the presenter writes down the entire speech then commits everything to memory. The presentation is on the
memorsed items following a particular order. It is a risky method since one can fail to remember something which
could be embarrassing. This type of speech should be short to minimize the danger of forgetting what to say.
Examples of memorized speeches include an introduction at a function, a farewell, a vote of thanks, a welcome
speech and prayers

9.1.3 Scripted / read speech

Here the speech is fully written out and then read by the presenter. The script needs to be presented without error.
For example, the speeches given by a president on national holidays. Although the paper is read to the audience, it
should be presented, not simply read. This means maintaining eye contact and being loud and clear with interesting
intonation. This method is not recommended as it difficult for the speakers to maintain a rapport with the audience
while he/she is reading at length.

9.2 General purposes of Oral Presentation

There are several purposes of an oral presentation
a. a) To inform
To inform means that you tell someone about something or to give them information about something. To inform
means that you want your listeners to comprehend an idea that is new to them. A primary requirement of an
informative speech is that it must present new information to the listeners. It can also be entertaining too. For
example, class presentation.
b) To entertain
To entertain means that you give a performance that people enjoy. If you want to entertain, you have the duty of
making the listeners relax and enjoy the occasion. The speech may also make listeners aware of something but that
should be secondary. The primary purpose is to entertain. Ways od creating entertainment could be through vivid
description, suspenseful narration or humor. People enjoy humor if it is appropriate to the occasion.
c) To persuade/influence
To make someone agree to do something by giving them reasons why they should. An effective speech of this type
affects the way that someone thinks of behaves or affects the way that someone happens.
This can happen in three levels
-changing the direction of an existing attitude
-Increasing the intensity of an existing attitude
-Obtaining a behavioural response
d) To trigger
To insert a particular feeling or memory to people which result them into action or into a state of readiness

9.3 Qualities of a good speaker

a) Competence

The speaker should be the sources of valid information respected in terms of experience, age, leadership qualities,
educational background and general command of the subject. As a speaker you have to seem to know what you are
talking about. One way of demonstrating competence is to refer to books you have read quoting authoritative sources
b) Trustworthiness
This is the appearance that the speaker gives of being honest, just and objective. The speaker should avoid arguing
for his / her beliefs and interests

c) Similarity
Similarity of attitude and other factors between the speaker and the audience increases the audience’s linking of the
presenter and what he has to offer to the audience
d) Attraction
This is the orientation of the audience towards the speaker. Attraction refer to the relationship of approaching rather
than avoiding.

The sources of attraction/avoidance include:

-prejudice
-Appearance
-Audience’s recognition of the speaker’s positive self concept.
An effective speaker will emphasize factor/issues that will cause listeners to like or be attracted to him/her.

9.4 Job search interviews

9.4.1 Preparing for an interview
You need to do research to find out as much as you can about company and the job field. This research can be
general, such as the achievements or rankings, or more specific like trends in your field. Referencing this
information in an interview highlights your understanding of the strategic direction of the organisation. It will also
help you communicate how your role fits into the company’s strategy and direction.
Take Note

Note the knowledge and professional behaviours that are relevant to the job, and recall recent examples of how
you’ve used these skills in your area. Review the key selection criteria, as the selection panel will focus on these.
Think about significant events or achievements in your life and how you’ve learnt from them. You should also be
able to communicate how these experiences relate to the key selection criteria

9.5.2 Tips for the interview

• a) Be authentic, enthusiastic and passionate – it is appealing to the selection panel to see an engaged
candidate, as this could be a new chapter in your professional life.
• b) Prepare to demonstrate your abilities without hesitation and with clear examples as to why you are
the most suitable candidate.
• c) Prepare to talk about why you are the right person for the job.
9.5.3 The fundamentals about interviews
a) Confirm the time and date of the interview, and make a note in your calendar. First impressions are
vital – the last thing you want is to be late, so plan to be early.
b) Make sure you know which location e.g. campus/building you need to go to, as well as specific
directions and parking/public transport information Note the name of the interviewer/s and address them
by name when you first meet.
c) Dress the part – suffice to say, no denim or thongs, you should dress to suit the role and look
professional. The way you present yourself reflects commitment to the selection process.
d) If you’re asked to bring identification or qualifications, it’s a good idea to pack them the night
before.
e) Turn off your phone.
9.5.4 Non-verbals, like body language and tone of voice
• a) A solid handshake is essential – it denotes confidence.
• b) Keep eye contact with the interviewer, and if there’s more than one, move your glance between
them.
• c) Be aware of your body language – do not shift in your seat or fidget.
• d) Sit up straight and be mindful of your posture.
• e) Pronounce your words clearly, and in an audible voice and tone.
• f) Be mindful that crossed arms and legs can denote defensiveness.
• g) Be authentic. Your facial expressions will highlight your degree of interest and involvement in the
situation – they are a mirror of your emotions.

How should I respond to interview questions?

• • With honesty – just tell your story – nobody knows your background as well as you do.
• • Reference experiences that have happened recently (usually no more than the last 18 –
24 months).
• • Choose examples where you had a positive impact – it is helpful to talk about team
activity but the interviewer will want to know how you contributed.
• • Talk about the situation, the background, the steps you took and the outcome (STAR:
situation, task, action, result).
 • • Be prepared for questions – the interviewer is likely to want to know more.
• • If you can’t think of a work-related example, check with the interviewer about using a
personal experience, like a sporting achievement.
• • Don’t make derogatory remarks about your present or former employers; be
professional at all times
• • Avoid yes or no closed responses.
• • It is fine to pause if you need to gather your thoughts.
• • Don't be afraid to ask the interviewer to repeat or rephrase the question

9.5.5 Closing
At the end of the interview, take the opportunity to ask questions and concentrate on issues that are important to
you.
Helpful topics to discuss are:
• a) management styles
• b) objectives and responsibilities of the position, such as expected achievements in the first year.
• c) day-to-day responsibilities. For example, “What is an average day in the role of a Research
Assistant like at university?”
Finally, be sure to thank the interviewers for their time and for the opportunity. You might also like to send a thank
you email to follow up – it adds to the message that you are a professional person.
 CHAPTER TEN
Writing Skills
10.1 Introduction
There are many types (or modes) of writing such as descriptive writing, persuasive writing, informative writing,
narrative writing, and creative or fiction writing. Many students are familiar with the basic writing assignments such
as book reports, social studies reports, short stories, and essays on topics such as: "What I did on my summer
vacation". But these writing assignments should be thought of as applications of basic writing modes. For instance,
a book report is usually a type of descriptive writing, and an essay on dinosaurs might include both informative and
perhaps persuasive writing.

Discourse is generally understood to encompass almost any type of communication whether written or oral, and
there are some cases in which entire papers or speeches depend on just one style; most of the time, though, authors,
writers, and speakers use two or more methods at once. Different types are usually better suited for different
circumstances, and there are usually some pretty distinguishable features of each. The goals tend to be different, as
well. Most of the time writers and speakers will use the methods they think will be most effective at getting their
points across and reaching their intended audiences.

10.2 Letter Writing

Knowing how to write a letter is a fundamental skill you will use in business, school, and personal relationships to
communicate information, goodwill, or just affection. This lecture will expose you into letter and Curriculum Vitae
writing process so that you can produce them in the correct format. Despite the prevalence of emails and text
messages, everyone has to write letters at some point. Letters of complaint, job applications, thank you letters,
letters requesting changes or making suggestion. You might have been exposed into various types of letter however,
types of letters can be defined into two categories; formal and informal letters.
Take Note

Our grandparents and great-grandparents wrote letters all the time: to their friends and families, to the bank
manager, to express condolences, to complain, to invite someone to visit, to accept an invitation and to
thank people for hospitality or gifts.
Nowadays, we don’t need to write letters very often and it’s become a dying art. Emails, Facebook, Twitter
and instant messaging mean that we can stay in touch all the time. There are still, however, times when
writing a letter is appropriate, and it’s good to know when, and how to write one.
 This lecture explains different types of letters, from informal to formal, and how to write each one but also,
how to compile curriculum vitae for job seeking. In this lecture, we are talking about writing letters that
will be sent by post - snail mail - not by email. For example, many applications will require you to have
curriculum vitae which you will need to attach a formal letter either to be sent by mail or post.

10.3 FORMAL AND INFORMAL LETTERS

A good letter should consist of:
a) an appropriate greeting (Dear Sir/Madam, Dear Kathy, Dear Mr Brown)
b) an introduction clearly stating the reason you are writing
c) a main body in which the subject is developed. Begin a new paragraph for each main point
d) a final paragraph in which you sum up the topic or express your wish for something to be done
e) an appropriate ending (Yours/Best wishes, + first name, Yours sincerely, Yours faithfully, + full name).

Style in Letters
The characteristic of formal style in letters are:
- The greeting (Dear Mrs Lee, Dear Sir,)
- Frequent use of the passive
- Formal language (complex sentences, non-colloquial English)
- No abbreviated forms
- The ending (Yours sincerely,/Yours faithfully)

The characteristic of informal style in letters are:

- The greeting (Dear Alex, Dear Dad)
- Informal language and style (idioms, colloquial English)
- Abbreviated forms, pronouns omitted
- The ending (Yours/Love/Best wishes/Regards, Anthony)

Take Note

- Informal (friendly) letter have only one address (yours) whereas formal Letters have two (yours and the
recipient's)
- Friendly letters begin with Dear + first name and end with Love/Yours/Best wishes + first name
- Formal letters begin with:
a) Dear Sir/Madam and end with Yours faithfully + full name
b) Dear Mr/Mrs + surname and end with Yours sincerely + full name
- Semi-formal letters can begin with Dear Mr/Mrs + surname and end Best wishes/Yours + first name/full name

10.4 Curriculum Vitae

A CV (Curriculum Vitæ, which means course of life in Latin) is an in-depth document that can be laid out over two
or more pages and it contains a high level of detail about your achievements, a great deal more than just a career
biography. The CV covers your education as well as any other accomplishments like publications, awards, honours
etc.

The document tends to be organised chronologically and should make it easy to get an overview of an individual’s
full working career. A CV is static and doesn’t change for different positions, the difference would be in the cover
letter. The document tends to be organised chronologically and should make it easy to get an overview of an
individual’s full working career.

10.4.1 A typical CV will include the following information:

• • Name and Contact Information: contact information for your current institution or place of
employment may work best, unless you do not want your colleagues to know that you are job-hunting.
• • Areas of Interest: a listing of your varied academic interests.
• • Education: a list of your degrees earned or in progress, institutions, and years of graduation. You
may also include the titles of your dissertation or thesis here.
• • Grants, Honors and Awards: a list of grants received, honors bestowed upon you for your work,
and awards you may have received for teaching or service.
• • Publications and Presentations: a list of your published articles and books, as well presentations
given at conferences. If there are many of both, you might consider having one section for publications and
another for presentations.
• • Employment and Experience: this section may include separate lists of teaching experiences,
laboratory experiences, field experiences, volunteer work, leadership, or other relevant experiences.
• • Scholarly or Professional Memberships: a listing of the professional organizations of which you
are a member. If you have held an office or position in a particular organization, you can either say so here
or leave this information for the experience section.
• • References: a list of persons who write letters of recommendations for you, which includes their
contact information.
 CHAPTER ELEVEN
Essay writing
11.1 Introduction
Writing for the purpose of making your ideas and intentions known to others is different from writing for your
university lecturer to read. When you were still in school, you remember being asked by your teacher to write essays
in the form of composition. The essays you wrote were intended by your teacher to assist him/her in identifying and
eventually rectifying your errors of language usage and of writing. In real life however, writing is a serious activity
which is carried out to accomplish communication. Writing for communication is goal oriented. It does not aim
merely at transferring information but delivering information that is purposeful. This lecture is going to introduce
you to the techniques and skills of writing two types of discourse which are of great importance to you not only
now as a student but also after you have finished your studies. The two types of writing discourse are essay and the
report.

What is an Essay?

An essay is a prose form which is created by putting together ideas and linguistic expressions to create a larger
composite. The large unit so formed must be a unified whole consisting of a paragraph or more. Depending on
the purposes or desired effects of writing, essays may be categorized into three major forms namely description,
narration and exposition. These will be explained. The idea is that whatever forms of essay you will engage
yourself in, you will require the same skills and techniques to develop it.

11.2 Five Steps to Successful Writing of an Essay

The reason why many students have difficulty in writing essays is that they do not know that writing is a process
and that they need to organize themselves systematically in order to accomplish it well. The best way to ensure that
your writing is accomplished successfully is to divide the writing process into five major steps: preparation,
research, organization, writing the draft and revision.
(a) Stage of Preparation
In essay writing the stage of preparation is a pre-writing stage. It requires you to do the following tasks:
(i) Determination of Objectives
Even before you set out to commit yourself to writing the first line or your essay, you should ask yourself what
exactly do you want your readers to know after they have finished reading your essay. These are your objectives or
the ends you want to achieve. Objectives will guide you to focus only on important issues that you have set yourself
out to say. What you are supposed to do at this stage is to state in an outline for the ideas you intend to put out.
(ii) Determination of Audience
As you jot down ideas you want to write about, you should decide to whom exactly you want to impart the message.
This task is understandably not quite applicable to essays you will write as a student because in this case your
audience is going to be your lecturer. But it is a task of quite special importance when you are writing a free essay.
You need to know exactly who your readers are and to learn key factors about them, such as their educational level,
interests and their needs relative to the subject of your essay. Knowledge of these factors will guide you in the
choice of style, vocabulary, tone and sophistication of information to include in your essay.
(iii) Determination of Scope
It is very essential as well before you start writing to determine the amount and type of message you want to impart.
This is called scope; it simply means the extent in breadth and depth to which you cover your subject. The three
preparatory tasks we have stated here are all of crucial importance to you as a writer. You can compare them to the
process of focusing a camera before taking a picture. The three pre-writing tasks will help you to bring your writing
in focus before the actual writing begins.
• State a topic you wish to write about.
• Write the objectives, audience and scope of your subject.
(b) Stage of Search for Subject Matter
This stage which is also known as research refers to the process of investigating and collecting the content of your
essay. It entails the discovery of ideas through investigating, gathering and verifying information which is relevant
to the subject of your essay. You will be able to gather a lot of facts by consulting several different sources of
information. Listed below are some of the major sources of information.
You will find the library a very useful and convenient palace for you to collect information on any subject.
Libraries are arranged in some systematic ways which make it easy for the reader to retrieve information. Thus it
will serve you a lot of time if you learnt how to use the library effectively.
(ii) Newspapers
Daily newspapers, weeklies and magazines are similarly useful sources of up to date information which you should
consult. However some information gathered from newspapers needs thorough verification.
(iii) Special Collections
Some private groups, like missionaries, companies, project firms or nongovernmental organizations quite often
have a collection of documented information. You may find it useful to consult such places.
(iv)Television, radio, audio/video cassettes and films
These belong to the category of non-printed media. They are becoming increasingly available and increasingly used
as sources of information for writers.
You should not overlook them, be imaginative about using them.
(v) Local Experts
Don’t forget that there are many people around you who may have the knowledge and experience of what you
intend to write on. Find and talk to knowledgeable individuals in your locality who are experts in the field of study
which you are investigating on.
(vi)Personal Observations
You may be able to gather quite a lot of useful information simply by observing phenomena, events or behaviours.
Don’t depend only on information that others have written or documented.
When conducting an observation, however you must be objective, complete and accurate. Don’t let your feelings
or sentiments seep into your recording. If possible use a tape recorder or camera for accurate recording.
The main method used to extract information from the various sources mentioned above is note taking. This is the
process of selectively noting and recording information that one regards useful for future writing or any other use.
Since the subject of note taking forms the topic of last lecture of this course, we are not going to dwell on it at the
moment.
(vii) Internet
The internet is the richest source of information. Anything you could ever want to know is available online. For
students and scholars conducting research, the internet is a fantastic resource for finding out what has been done in
your area of specialization.
(c) Stage of Organisation
Organisation is a process in essay writing whereby points of ideas are arranged in a way that makes it easier for the
reader to understand your essay when it is eventually written. The reader can easily understand an essay if he or she
can distinguish main ideas from secondary ones.
Two t tasks are involved in the stage of organization. The first task is to make a list in a form of an outline, of all
the ideas you intend to include in your essay. The importance of making such a list is that it makes it possible for
you to see all the points you have developed so far. Two ways are commonly used by writers to make on outline;
these are the vertical list with headings and indented sub headings or tree diagram.
To outline points with a vertical list, first write your topic sentence or theses at the top followed by headings and
sub-headings which support

An example of vertical listing of points.

Example 11.1: The proper way to clean your teeth
(i) Obtain a proper toothbrush
- Stiff enough to remove food particles from between teeth
- Soft enough not to injure gums.
(ii) Squeeze out enough toothpaste
- too much will prevent contact of bristles with gums.
(iii) Rinse mouth after use
(iv) Use dental floss
- remove food particles missed by the toothbrush
- use back and forth motion to insert floss
- use up and down motion to clean between teeth
(v) Way to maintain good oral hygiene
- brush teeth within an hour after meal
- if not possible rinses thoroughly.
The second task in the organization of an essay is to arrange the outline points in a specific order of development.
This order should reflect the way ideas will flow in the essay itself, you should select an order you consider to be
most appropriate to your audience or the desired effect of the essay. There are many different methods or essay
developments available to the writer, the most common ones are the following:
(i) Sequential Method
This method which is also known as step-by-step method is the simplest and easiest to follow because it presents
steps in correspondence with the logical stages of the process or instruction it describes. As the name itself implies,
the method presents information according to the natural order of occurrence of activities, it is especially effective
in explaining a process or an instruction. An essay developed in sequential method.

Example 11.2: Proper way to clean your teeth

Proper tooth cleaning begins with the proper equipment. Chooses a brush stiff enough to remove particles from
between your teeth, yet soft enough to message your gums without making them bleed. Squeeze out a bead of
toothpaste just long enough to cover the bristles of message your brush Too much will prevent sufficient contact
between the bristles and your teeth and gums. Brush your teeth in on up and down motion. Rinse your mouth after
brushing. Then use dental floss to remove food particles between your teeth that the toothbrush may have missed.
Begin by wrapping the floss securely around
forefinger. Using a gentle black-and-forth motion, insert the floss between your teeth and move it up and down.

To maintain good oral hygiene, brush your teeth within one hour after each meal. If brushing is not possible after
meals, rinse your mouth thoroughly instead. (From: Handbook of Technical Writing)
(ii) Chronological Order
In this method of organization, points are arranged in such a way that they follow the order of events and time. It is
in a way very similar to the sequential method. Their main difference that in the sequential method only the notion
of events is given prominence whereas in the chronological order both are considered equally.

Example 11.3: Text organized in a chronological order

Attached you will find a timetable describing in detail the specific procedures to be accomplished on each date.
Here I would like to give you a general overview of each phase and its implications for the respective staff. As the
timetable indicates, phase one for the Marketing Department will commence on April 3. Members of the department
will need to occupy temporary quarters until April 12; when both phase one and phase two will be completed. At
that time, Mr. Phillip’s office can be refurbished.
On the morning of April 12, we will assemble the ten cubicles intended for Marketing Research Staff; during the
afternoon of the day, we will complete the ten cubicles intended for Marketing Communications. We will plan to
spend the remainder of that week eliminating problems and adding features to meet the specific needs of the
occupants.
(From: Communicating in Business today).
(iii) Special Order
In this method of organization, objects are explained in relation the space they occupy. You may for example start
by explaining objects which are outside then those which are inside a space or starting with those which are above
followed by those which are below a point.
(iv)Cause and Effect Order
In this method, one point is explained either as a reason or as a result of another.
The method is commonly used in academic essays as it makes it possible to establish logical connections between
ideas. It is especially relevant when you want to present an argument about why something happened or whey you
think it is likely to happen. The method is especially useful in writing about social, economic or political events or
problems.
(v) Decreasing-Order-of-Importance
In this method of organization, Points are arranged in a decreasing order of importance, beginning with the
important point going to the next most important until you end with the least important. One advantage of using
this method is that you make a strong initial impression to your reader
(vi) Increasing-order-of importance method
Similar to the above albeit in the opposite order. The sequencing of points in this method begins with a point of
least importance and ends with one that is most important. The advantage of this method is that it ensures that the
most important of your several ideas is freshest in your reader’s mind at the end of his or her reading.

(d) Stage of writing the draft

This stage involves the process of converting ideas into sentences to develop a text. When you have established the
objective of your essay, the audience and scope and if you have done adequate search of subject matter, created a
good outline and decided on a method of organization; you are in the position to begin writing the draft of your
essay. The primary goal in draft writhing is to shape information by presenting it in connected sentence and
paragraphs. When you are writing the draft, you should concentrate on converting the points in your outline into
topic sentences and supporting sentences. Make it a free flowing exercise. Present your ideas as if you are speaking
to someone across the table. Be concerned only with facts. Keep writing quickly to maintain unit of thought and
proportion. Don’t be worried about grammatical correctness. Worrying on grammar is of no use at this stage. It will
only slow down your thinking process and censor your ideas. One possible difficulty you will encounter in the
writing of the draft is finding a good opening. This is called blank page experience. It should not worry you much.
Many experienced writers very often have found themselves in a similar experience of starting a blank page. The
important thing is that you should not be concerned with finding the right introduction. Start writing the part you
feel most eager to write, the one you understand best and feel most strongly about. To keep the draft flowing skip
items that may tend to hold you. If for example you can’t find the right word, write it in Kiswahili or your mother
tongue or just leave it blank, whichever is more helpful to you.
When the writing of your draft is over, you will have before you a text that is not perfect in many ways; some facts
will be underdeveloped, certain ideas will require elaboration or clarification. There will be numerous wrong or
incorrect phrases, words and sentences, inappropriate punctuation, the tone or style may not be the intended one
and many more. All these will require to be corrected and put in the right way. This suggests the need and importance
of the last stage of essay writing.
(e) Stage of Revision
This is an essential final process of essay development. The word revision literally means “re-seeing” – it is the
process of looking a new at ideas, details, and language items of your essay with the aim of evaluating their
relationships, arrangement and effectiveness. Many students hold a misconception that revision is synonymous with
editing. Strictly speaking the two are different though related. Editing simply means refining the manner of
expression to improve clarity or style or to correct errors, it is only part of the revision process. In editing you deal
with the superficial surface structure. To the contrary in revision you examine the underlying meaning and structure
of the essay. Revision entails rethinking over all the aspects of the essay, retesting your assumptions, modifying
your arguments if necessary, ensuring that you have proved your assertions and making certain that your essay has
achieved the proper emphasis and proportion.
(f) Check The Draft Against Your Outline
This is important for two reasons: First, it tells you whether you have presented your facts according to the Plan.
Second, it informs you whether you have exhausted all points. Then examine your facts to see if they are accurate
and the presentation bears the tone you intended.
Relating to the manner of development of your essay, examine your introduction to see it presents the objective
clearly enough. This is particularly important because if your objective is not made clear, it will not enable the
reader to see the framework of your essay. After examining the introduction, look at your mode of transition; see if
the sentences, paragraphs and any other linguistic items are logically linked together. Finally check your conclusion
to see if it presents the chasing emphasis to the theme you have developed throughout the Essay.
Activity
 CHAPTER TWELEVE
Report Writing
12.1 Introduction
A report is a type of a discourse that is widely used in most professional settings. It is used in education, business,
and government, in hospitals and the like; however, it is a term which cannot be simply or easily defined. Some
people tend to define report as any presentation of information. This meaning includes both the extremely formal
and the highly informal presentations. Others tend to be more specific and look at the report as ‘a formalized
presentation of information’. These variations in the meaning are understandably a result of the wide range of
situations and purposes for which the report is used. In this course, however, we will adopt a moderately less general
meaning that will help to set off a number of other reports like forms of presentations.

12.2 Orderly Communication

A report is distinguished from other means of information presentation from the way it is prepared. The preparation
of a report is done with some care compared to the casual routine exchanges of information. What this means is that
in the preparation of a report some ordered steps have to be followed and shown in the presentation.
(a) Objective
A major feature of a report is that it is not biased in its presentation of facts. The report seeks to present truth
regardless of its outcomes.
(b) Communication
Means that a report is a means of transmitting message from one source to another.
(c) Factual Information
A report does not present opinions, sentiments or subjective assumptions. When these are included they are
presented as part of data and should either be clearly labeled as such or be supported by facts.
As stated earlier on, this definition is not specific enough but is broad enough to apply in the numerous variations
to be found in reports.
12.2.1 Types of Reports
Reports are of various types depending on the criterion one uses to classify them.
Following below are some of the criteria which are commonly used to label reports.
12.2.2 Subject Matter
Depending on the subject of the report, it can be an Education report, economic report, health report, military report,
business report etc.
12.2.3 Time Interval
Basing on the time interval when the report is written, it can be a daily report, weekly report, monthly report, mid
year report, biannual report, special report etc.
12.2.4 Status of Authorship
In this regard a report can be labeled as public report, private report or independent report.
12.2.5 Degree of Formality
A report can be said to be formal or informal.
12.2.6 Other
Some other not quite specific criteria give us: progress reports, Improvements report etc.
12.2.7 Functional Classification
A criterion that is suitable for the purpose of our course is a functional classification. In your study you may be
required to prepare as a requirement in your course, reports of this nature. Functional classification gives three types
of reports.
(a) Informational
As the term implies, this is a type of report that presents only facts on the subject without giving an analysis of them
and no conclusions.
(b) The analytical (or problem solving report)
This presents not only facts but also analyses and recommends. It is the most complete of all the types of reports. It
begins with an orientation and description of the problem and presents the information gathered analysis and
examines the information. From the analysis and examinations the report derives a solution in a form of a
recommendation.
Part of the reason why this classification has been given to you is to show you how wide the subject of reports is.
This suggests that various ways are required to study it properly.

12.3 What is the Purpose of Writing Reports?

You have certainly seen reports before. Have you asked yourself why at all they are written? Again depending on
the nature of the reports, they are written to achieve one or more of the following objectives.
12.3.1 To Record Information
This is done as routine for the purpose of keeping records of the institution or the discipline.
12.3.2 To Solve a Problem
Owing to its mature of factual objectivity, the report more than any other discourse type is most suitable in providing
information that is unbiased and reliable.
12.3.3 To Enable the Institution Function Properly
The success of any institution depends on the amount and type of information that its decision makers are able to
obtain. Reports ensure that such information is obtained regularly.
12.4 Essential Elements of a Report
Most of the reports you’re likely going to write are short and informal reports. Such reports will tend to be brief and
personal and will deal with issues which are of limited size. Typically the goal of a report is to handle a problem
and develop a specific conclusion or to recommend a particular course of action. In this kind of reports the
conclusion or recommendation is the most significant part that it often overshadows other elements of the report.
12.4.1 Presentation of the Problem
It is a good idea to clearly show this at the beginning of the report. There are a number of ways of doing this. The
problem may be presented simply as a subject line or heading on top of the report. The subject line is an
announcement of what the report is about.
Example 12.1: Reasons for mass student failures in the English Examination
Another way of presenting the problem is by writing a problem statement. The statement may be written either as
an infinitive phrase, a question or a declarative clause.
As an infinitive phrase

Example 12.2
To account for mass student failures in the English Examination.
As a question.
Example 12.3
What are the reasons for mass student failures in the English Examination?
Or as a declarative statement
Example 12.4
The ministry of education wants to know the reasons for mass student failures in
English.
This third form of presentation is not popularly used. It sounds rather cumbersome to some readers. Whichever
form of presentation you select, statement of the problem is an essential element as it helps the author not to stray
away from the goal. It also helps the reader to get the framework of the report even before one goes into the details.

12.5 Presentation of Findings

Findings are the ideas and facts which are related to the problem. After you have collected your information, arrange
the findings in an order appropriate for presentation. You may present your findings in one of the following two
ways.
(a) Indirect approach
This method is also called the logical or inductive approach. It is a method of presenting facts beginning with the
general to the specific or as others would say moving from the known to the unknown. If you decide to use the
indirect approach, begin with an introductory passage to orient your reader to the problem. Then proceed to present
findings and their analyses. From the facts and analysis, you’ve your conclusion or summary statements. You may
be required to write a recommendation to some of the problems.
(b) Direct Approach
This method is referred also as a psychological or deductive method. You have to begin with presenting the
conclusions, summaries or recommendations followed by facts and analyses from which the former are drawn.
12.6 Qualities of Effective Report Writing
As we have said elsewhere before, the report is a type of discourse which is largely used for decision making. If it
is to meet that objective, your report ought to be effective. For you to write an effective report, you have to observe
the following simple but essential qualities.

12.6.1 Readability
This is a critical factor in determining the effectiveness of a report. Readability is the easiness of reading a material.
It is achieved by the way your results are presented in the report. You must present your results objectively by
placing them logically and consistently in time so they tell a flowing complete story.
12.6.2 Objectivity
An effective report is factual, neutral and fair. It does not reflect the prejudice and bias of the writer about the
problem. Objectivity is the basis for our report being believed. You must present your results a development of a
complete, balanced research and logical analysis.
At every stage of your report writing; keep in mind that objectivity will be the basis for believability of your report.
12.6.3 Language
Write your report in a language that is clear and straight forward. Avoid as much as possible the use of passive
voice. It is dull and can make your report sound awkward.
Example 12.5
Passive: The problem of scarcity of study materials has been solved
Active: The management has solved the problem of study materials scarcity
 CHAPTER THIRTEEN
Text Coherence and Writing conventions
13.1 Introduction

When people communicate using language they usually do so by using a string of sentences. To use the language
effectively both in speaking and writing, we must ensure that our language "holds together" into a coherent and
thereby intelligible whole. Coherence itself is product of many different factors, which combine to make every
paragraph, every sentence, and every phrase contribute to the meaning of the whole piece. Coherence in writing is
much more difficult to sustain than coherent speech simply because writers have no nonverbal clues to inform them
if their message is clear or not. Therefore, writers must make their patterns of coherence much more explicit and
much more carefully planned.

13.2 TEXT AND TEXTUALITY

For the words to convey sensible message, they have to be joined together into a unified whole. A passage of
meaningfully linked words is what we refer to as text. When we speak of a text therefore, we refer to any passage,
spoken or written, of whatever length that forms a meaningful unified whole. The question that is put first is: what
are the features that distinguish text from a collection of unrelated sentences? According to the famous linguist
Michael Halliday, every text has to have a texture. A text derives its texture from the fact that it functions as a unit
with respect to its environment. The concept of Texture is entirely appropriate to express the property of 'being a
text.’ A text has texture, and this is what distinguishes it from being something that is not a text. There are certain
linguistic features that contribute to textual unity. The unity of text is described by the concept of cohesion. Cohesion
is a semantic concept which refers to relations of meaning that exist within the text and that define it as text.
Cohesion occurs where the interpretation of some element in the discourse is dependent on that of another element.
Formulated in other words, cohesion implies semantic resources for linking a sentence with that has gone before it.
Cohesion helps to create text by making it possible for discourse to unfold. This unit aims at surveying the text
phenomenon cohesion by describing it using a number of authentic language texts.

13.2.1 COHESIVE TIES

Cohesive ties or devices are text elements that are used to tie pieces of text together in specific ways. One of the
earliest accounts concerning the role of interclausal cohesive ties was proposed and described the linguists Michael
Halliday and Rukaya Hassan. According to Halliday and Hasan (1976), cohesion is displayed in the ties that exist
within text between a presupposed item and a presupposing item. For example, in the sentences Rukia makes good
meals. Last night she cooked matoke. The pronoun she in the second sentence is the presupposing item. And Rukia
in the first sentence is the presupposed item. Halliday and Hasan claim that text derives texture, i.e., coherence,
from these cohesive ties. Hence they suggest that: “The concept of ties makes it possible to analyze a text in terms
of its cohesive properties and give a systematic account of its patterns of texture.” Halliday and Hasan present a
taxonomy of various types of cohesive ties or relations in five main groups:
(a) Reference
Including antecedent anaphor relations, the definite article the, and demonstrative pronouns;
(b) Substitution
Including such various pronoun-like forms as one, do, so, etc,
(c) Conjunction
Involving words like and, but, yet, etc., and
(d) Lexical Cohesion
Which has to do with repeated occurrences of the same or related lexical items, and
(e) Ellipsis
Which involves the omission of items like words or phrases in a clause. Specifically Halliday and Hassan (1976)
have identified and described five major types of grammatical cohesive ties for English language.

13.2.2 Ties of Reference

Reference elements establish a semantic relationship between them, in which one of the elements provide the other
with the meaning. There are two basic types of reference. The first is reference to the “shared world” outside of the
text. This is called exophoric reference.
The second one is reference to elements in the text. This is called endophoric reference. Only the second one is
purely cohesive, although both of them are important to create texture. Within endophoric references there are two
types: if they refer to preceding elements they are called anaphoric; if they refer to following elements they are
called cataphoric.
Below are presented some of the several linguistic items which can create reference;
(a) Personal Reference
Personal pronouns (subject and object), possessive determiners and pronouns. We can use pronouns in a way that
ties them to certain nouns in the text. This occurs when a pronoun refers across a clause boundary to the referent
noun. There are two ways of using pronouns for grammatical reference.
Anaphoric pronoun. The anaphoric pronoun ties that point back to a previously established referent noun.
Example 13.1:
I could tell that my mother was upset by the look she had on her face.
In the sentence above we can see that “she” refers back to “my mother” which is mentioned earlier on the sentence.
Cataphoric pronoun. This pronoun ties portions of text by referring forward to the referent noun rather than back to
noun.
EXAMPLE. When she called me, Amina had not yet seen the examination result’s.

Table 2: Personal and Possessive Pronouns

First Person
Second Person
Third Person
Case Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
Subjective I
We
You
You
She/He/It
They
Objective Me
Us
Him
You Them
It
You
Her
Possessive My
Our
His
Your Their
It
Your
Her

(b) Demonstrative Reference

Demonstrative pronouns are words which point to the thing they modify, specifying its position in space or time.
These can also function as interclausal cohesive ties by making reference to an item that is described earlier on the
text.
These include ‘this’ and ‘these’ which specify closer position; ‘that’ and ‘those’ specify more remote position.
EXAMPLE. The pupils came to the school rather late, this really upset Mrs. Udomo.
Demonstrative determiners include location adverbs (here, now, there, then).
(c) Comparative Reference
A comparative can provide a tie to a referent and most of them are used for anaphoric reference. These include
adjectives in comparative degree and certain adjectives and adverbs
(same, identical, equal, similar, additional, other, different, else, identically, similarly, likewise, so, such, differently,
otherwise).
Comparative reference also includes transition words. These are words or phrases that introduce a sentence and
indicate its relationship to the previous sentence.
Example 13.2:
The opportunity cost of producing an additional tape is the number of bottles of cola we must forgo. Similarly, the
opportunity cost of producing an additional bottle of cola is the quantity of tapes we must forgo.
There are many different transition signals. There are transition signals to indicate sequence; logical divisions of an
idea; time; example; comparison; contrast; addition; opposition and conclusion.

13.2.3 Ties of Substitution

Substitution refers to a class of items. Substitution can be seen as tying the marker and group together and this forms
a more cohesive text. Substitutions can be made for nominal, verbs, and clauses.
Example 13.3:
You do what you can to ease your pain. ‘ I know how you feel, ‘ your friends
don’t: ‘
In this sentence ‘don’t ‘ substitutes ‘know how I feel’.
(a) Ellipsis
Ellipsis is the omission of elements normally required by the grammar which the speaker/writer assumes are obvious
from the context and therefore need not be raised. Hence we can think of ellipsis as a zero tie because it is not
actually said in the text. We can use it to create ties to nouns, verbs and clauses.
There are basically three types of ellipsis: nominal, verbal and clausal.
(i) Nominal ellipsis means the omission of a noun head.

Example 13.4:
He bought a red car, but I liked the blue.
The word ‘car’ is ellipsed.
(ii) Verbal ellipsis involves the omission of the verb head while the auxiliary
element remains explicit.
A: Will you come to the party?
B: Yes, I will. (…come to the party)
(iii) Clausal ellipsis represents the omission of a part of the clause. For instance,
the subject-pronoun element is frequently omitted, especially in spoken texts.
(b) Substitution
Is a half way point between reference and ellipsis. It involves nouns, verbs and clause elements, as for ellipsis, but
instead of omitting them, they are substituted by a pro-form: one(s), do, so/not, same.
Example 13.5:
He bought a red car, but I liked the blue one.
The word ‘car’ is substituted by ‘one’

13.2.4 Conjunction
The fourth type of creating cohesion is through conjunction. Conjunctions reflect the writer’s positioning of one
point in relation to another in creating a text, thus they are used to signal “a relationship between segments of the
discourse” which is the specific function of conjunctions. We have to note however that conjunctions have not been
defined as away of simply joining sentences. Their role in the text is wider than that, because they provide the
listener/reader with information for the interpretation of the utterance; that is why some linguists prefer to describe
them as discourse markers.
Conjunctions can be categorized according to the meaning they express in relating clauses. Although language
allows for limitless means of relating ideas, we will normally encounter four different kinds of logical relations that
conjunctions can express. Some of these cannot cross more than one clause, but others can. The following are some
common types.
(a) Additive
This is by far the most common of the logical relationships; it involves the simple addition of information similar
to what has already been mentioned. At their most basic, additive conjunctions link two or more parallel parts of
speech
(b) Adversative
These are conjunctive logical relations that expresses the opposition of their meanings.

(c) Causal
These relations are used to express a cause or a reason for what is said in the main clause. Where the relation
between the subordinate clause and the main clause is one of cause and effect. For example, Therefore, and because
(d) Temporal
These are conjunctive links that show time or transition in the clauses.
Example 13.6:
My sister, four years younger than I, comes down from her bedroom, asks frantically what that smell is, then goes
past and outside. Then she’s back, Proper use of conjunctions is important to writers as they help the writers to
signal the links between ideas.

13.3.5 Lexical Ties

There are several types of lexical ties. They can cross short or large pieces of discourse.
(a) Repetition
The repetition of the same lexical item stem strengthens the text cohesion. See how the words ‘poems’ and
‘dismissing’ are used in the following text.
Seventeen years ago I sent my first manuscript book of poems to a university Press for review. They were family
poems, mostly, the book itself a pale version of Joyce’s portrait of the Artist as a Young man. Months later the word
came back in effect dismissing not only the poems, but—what to me was unforgivable dismissing the very existence
of the world I’d written about
(b) Collocation
Collocation can tie the lexical items together. That is, when we think of a war, we also think of the soldiers, the
wounded, and the death. Note the cohesion created by collocation in the following paragraph. But then I remember
that I left my blue-collar world long ago. Sure, I still mow my lawn, weed the garden, paint the house. But I have
my card fixed, my house cleaned, my kitchen rebuilt by carpenters, my washing machine repaired, my antenna
removed, all by members of the working class, all jobs my father and two of my three brothers still do for themselves
 CHAPTER FORTEEN
Punctuation
14.1 Introduction
For our purpose in this lecture it will suffice to define punctuation as a system of symbols that helps the writer to
express oneself effectively and assist the reader to understand the structural relationship within the sentence and the
intention of a sentence. Punctuation marks can link, separate, enclose, indicate omissions, and terminate or classify
items in sentences.
Punctuation is used in relation to grammatical requirements and the writer’s intention. The following is information
on the use of some commonly used marks of punctuation.

14.2 Period (.)

A period, also called full stop or end stop plays a number of functions in writing.
(a) You can use a period to mark the end of a declarative sentence (a sentence that makes a statement), polite
command or indirect question.
Example 14.1:
I like watching western films. (statement)
Please send me the report. (command)
The host asked us what we wanted to eat. (indirect question)
(b) To indicate abbreviations
When worlds are used in abbreviated forms, a full stop is used.
Example 14.2:
Mr. and Mrs. Kidonga.
Dr. Batuli of K.C.M.C. Hospital.

Note that a period is not used in acronyms (words formed from initials of a multiword title).

Example 14.3:
NATO for North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
RADAR for Radio Detecting and Ranging
COBOL for Common Business Oriented Language.
(c) To mark letters or numerals used in vertical list
When you list items using letters or numerals, place a period between the letter or numeral and the item being listed.
Example 14.4:
The police are concerned with three kinds of crime
1. drug trafficking
2. cross border smuggling
3. poaching
If you give information in a sentence, enclose the letters or numbers within brackets and omit the periods.
Example :14.5
The police are concerned with three kinds of crime
1. drug trafficking
2. cross border smuggling
3. poaching

14.3. The Comma (,)

The comma has a wide variety of uses in writing. It can link, enclose, separate or show omissions to a clause.
Effective use of the comma depends upon the writer’s own understanding of how ideas fit together. When used
properly the comma can add clarity and emphasis to written text. In addition to that the comma can prevent
ambiguity by separating sentence elements that might otherwise be misunderstood.
Uses of the comma
(a) To Link
Use the comma to link long independent clauses that are joined by coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, nor, so,
yet). The comma usually precedes the conjunction.
Example 14.6:
The whistle blew, and the big game started.
Julius never attends military parades, for he hates war.
When the clauses to be linked are short and closely related, many writers tend to omit the comma. A transitional
word or phrase like moreover or furthermore is usually followed by a comma.
Example 14.7:
Moreover, the villagers wanted to know how their money was used. In addition, they asked to be given the bank
statement.
(b) To Enclose
Use the comma to enclose non-restrictive adjective clauses. A non-restrictive adjective clause is one that does not
identify the antecedent but simply gives information about it.
Example 14.8:
Our new history teacher, who began teaching last month, had invited us. We can, of course, expected the lawyer or
the police to summon us.
(c) Direct Address
Example 14.9:
Your will note, Elizabeth, that you do not qualify for this job. That comment was not meant for you, Janet.
Phrases in apposition
Example 14.10:
Our company, the Makuti Co. Limited, has done very well this year.
(d) Participial Phrases
Example 14.11:
The fullback, sensing danger, kicked the ball outside the field.
(e) To Separate
Use the comma to separate introductory elements from the rest of the sentence, to separate items in a series, to
separate subordinate clauses from main clauses.
(i) Separating introductory elements
• It is generally a good rule to put a comma after an introductory clause or phrase unless it is very short.
Example 14.12:
Since many students fail English examinations, it is wise to start teaching them English in standard One.
The tests completed, students in each class organized a picnic.
Yes, I will make sure you get your salary
Indeed, I will send you further information soon.
• Use comas to separate more than two words in a series
Example 14.13:
At the market Ruth got all she had wanted textiles, foods, utensils and furniture.
A big, old, dilapidated house stood on the corner.
Note that a comma precedes the ‘and ‘that links the final item to the others.
(ii) Separating subordinate clauses
Use a comma between the main clause and a subordinate clause when the subordinate clause comes first.
Example 14.14:
When you were reading the book, we managed to sneak to the sea shore.
• Separating two contrasting thoughts or ideas:
Example 14.15:
The project was finished in time, but not within the budge
• Separating direct quotation from its introduction:
Example 14.16:
The country mouse said, “I am going to the village tomorrow”.
(f) To Show Omissions
A comma sometimes replaces words in certain elliptical constructions. Use a comma when you want to omit a verb
you have already used in a clause.
Example 14.17:
Some members were punctual: others, late.
(g) Setting off dates, addresses, greetings and large numbers
• Use a comma to set off items of a date or address.
Example 14.18:
Kiletu was born on the morning of July 1, 1961.
The address she gave us was Makongo Farm, P.O. Box 32727, Dar es Salaam.
• Use a comma after a greeting expression in a friendly or informal written exchange also after the closing remark.
Example 14.19:
My dear Agnes, I hope you’re OK
Dear Aunt Majuto,
Yours sincerely, Anthony
Faithfully your customer, Ally
• Use commas to separate digits in large numbers beginning from one
Example 14.20:
3,000 shillings
130,000 people
Misuse of the Comma

A number of writers make writing errors by placing the comma where it does not belong. These errors often occur
because writers assume that a pause in a sentence should be indicated by a comma. It is true that commas usually
signal pauses but not every pause should be indicated by a comma.
Some of the common mistakes of using the comma are the following:
(i) Separating subject and predicate
Do not place a comma between a subject and verb or between a verb and its object
The big black hawk, ate all our chicken. (wrong)
The big black hawk ate all our chicken. (right)
(ii) Separating elements of a compound subject or compound predicate
Neither the chairman, nor his secretary came to the meeting. (wrong)
Neither the chairman nor his secretary came to the meeting. (right)
(iii) Placing a comma after a coordination conjunction
Do not place a comma after a conjunction such as, and, or, but.
The chairman was reported to be sick but, members doubted about it. (wrong)
The chairman was reported to be sick but members doubted about it. (right)
(iv) Placing a comma in a list of items
Do not place a comma before the first item or after the last item of a series
It was a, fast, clean, comfortable, train. (wrong) It was a fast, clean, comfortable train. (right)
Along the corridor were placed, bags, shelves and stools. (wrong)
Along the corridor were placed bags, shelves and stools. (right)

Summary

The following is the summary of the principles of comma usage.

1. Use a comma to link two independent clauses joined by and, for, but, for. so, or, nor, yet
2. Use a comma to separate introductory phrases, clauses and words from the rest of the sentence.
3. Use a comma to separate items presented in a series and adjectives that modify the same noun.
4. Use a comma to set off phrases or clauses which interrupt the sentence.
5. Use a comma to set off phrases and clauses that are not essential to the basic meaning of the sentence.
6. Use commas to set off names, titles, addresses, dates and quotations.

14.4 Semi-Colon (;)

The semi-colon is used to link independent clauses or other sentence elements of equal grammatical rank or status.
The semi-colon indicates a greater pause between clauses than a comma would, but not so great a pause as a period
would.
(a) Linking clauses of a compound sentence
• Use a semi-colon to join two or more closely related independent clause which are not joined by a coordinating
conjunction.
Example 14.21:
In the first week there was constant rain; in the second week it was constant sunshine.
No one applied for the job; the job was too difficult.

(b) In Complex sentences with strong connectives

• Use a semi-colon before transitional words or phrases (that is for example, namely) that introduce examples or
further explanation.
Example 14.22:
The aid was for the underprivileged; namely the children from poor families.
(c) In complex sentences with conjunctive adverbs
Conjunctive adverbs are words which specify a relation between one clause and another. They indicate relations as
listed here.
(i) To indicate addition
Use a semi colon before words like besides, furthermore, moreover or in addition.
Example 14.23:
The president inspected an official parade; furthermore, he promoted a number of soldiers.
(ii) To indicate likeness/similarity
Use a semi-colon before words like likewise, similarly or in the same way.
Example 14.24:
Young Tanzanians condemned Idd Amin’s invasion of their country; likewise they condemned the massacre of
innocent people in Rwanda.
(iii) To indicate contrast
Use a semi-colon before words like however nevertheless, still, nonetheless, conversely, otherwise, instead, in
contrast or on the other hand.
Example 14.25:
Darwin’s theory was rejected in the beginning; however, many of his ideas have now been confirmed.
(iv) To indicate cause and effect
Use a semi-colon before words like accordingly, consequently, hence therefore, as a result, for this reason.
Example 14.26:
The window was not well made; consequently it fell off during the strong wind.
(v) To indicate a means-and-end relation
Use a semi-colon before words like thus, thereby, this means or in this manner.
Example 14.27:
Amos passed well the first degree course; thereby clearing his way for a brighter future.
(vi) To indicate reinforcement
Use a semi-colon before words like for example, for instance, in fact, in particular or indeed.
Example 14.28:
Transport will be improved in the rural areas; in particular railway transport to the southern parts.
(vii) To indicate time
Use a semi-colon before words which express time like meanwhile, then, consequently, afterward, earlier, and later.
Example 14.28:
First chop the onions in small slices; then fry them for sometime.
Please note, when a conjunctive adverb is used at the beginning of a clause no punctuation is used on either side of
it.
Such conjunctive adverbs include, then in fact, still, otherwise and hence.
Exercises

Join the following sets of clauses by using a semi-colon and a conjunctive adverb to form a single sentence.
1. Schooling may give one a well-paying job. It cannot guarantee success in life.
2. Many children do not learn English at home. They must do so at school.
3 Every month I make plans how to spend my salary. I have never managed to keep any of them.
4 You can travel to Tabora for three days by train. You can reach there in two hours by train.
5 The discovery of gold in Maganzo created the gold rush. The discovery of ruby in Ulanga created a ruby rush.
Use full stops and commas in correct places in the following sentences.
1. Please forward my letters to Mrs. Magida of Tanganyika Blankets
P O Box 1771 Songea
2. The crowd gathered along Nyerere road to greet President N. Mandela
3. A total of 15500 cattle perished in the floods.
4. On 8th March 1996 a comet Harleys was sighted
5. The delegation reached Machakos Kenya on 3 April 1951

14.5 Question Mark (?)

This is one of the punctual marks which are usually used to end sentences.
The question mark is used in the following situations.
(a) To mark the end of a direct question
Example 14.29:
Why did you ignore the early warning?
To what extent are the poor assisted?
(b) To indicate that one is not certain about a word within a statement.
Example 14.30:
On reaching the house someone (a watchman?) appeared from behind the hedges.
Misuse of the Question Mark
A common mistake on the use of the question mark is using it in an indirect question,
• Do not use a question mark at the end of an indirect question.
Example 14.31:
Don’t say: Jose wanted to know who wrote the book?
Say: Jose wanted to know who wrote the book.
The question mark is commonly used with the idea of asking for information.
It has the following distinct uses:
• Use the question mark at the end of a sentence that is a direct question.
Example 14.32:
When are you presenting the report?
• Use the question mark at the end of a statement that is declarative in form but ask a question.
Example 14.33:
Is the president coming today?
• When you want to cite a title that has a question mark retain the question mark.
Example 14.34:
Her first novel was Why Are We Blessed?
• When used with quotation marks, the question mark may indicate whether it is the writer who is doing the quoting
or the person being quoted asks the question. The question mark is placed outside the quotation marks when it is
the writer who asks the question.
Example 14.35:
Did you say, “She won’t come today”?
On the other hand if the quotation itself is a question, then the mark is placed inside the quotation marks.
Example 14.36:
She asked him, “Can you help me?”
• When an interrogative sentence has separate items all items will carry a question mark.
Example 14.37:
Can you tell us more about the house? Its size? Surroundings? Whether it is occupied?
• Never use a question mark at the end of on indirect quotation.
Example 14.38:
Wrong: Surrah asked me whether I had seen her husband?
Correct: Surrah asked me whether I had seen her husband.

Exercises

Punctuate the following sentences using the correct marks.

1. We are prepared wrote Surrah to help all those who will call us
2. The history of life on earth wrote Nyerere has been a history of struggle between the haves and the have nots
3. Did Matano Juma define a fool as a person who does not know something but thinks that he knows it
4. Shaaban Roberts best poems are utenzi wa Adili and Amina Umejitenga
5. Shaaban Robert once wrote skin colour is but Gods decoration

14.6 Quotation Marks (“ “)

• Quotation marks are used to enclose spoken or written words which are directly repeated. You may enclose in
quotation marks only words which are quoted word for word (direct quotation) from spoken or written text.
Example 14.39:
She said clearly, “I am not happy with you.”
• Do not enclose in quotation marks speech which is indirectly quoted. An indirect quotation is usually introduced
by that, it represents a paraphrase of a speaker’s words or ideas.
Example 14.40:
She said clearly that she was not happy with us.
• When you quote from written text, use quotation marks in the same way: place words you wish to quote in
quotation marks.

Example 14.41:
Direct: The report sums up, “If the environment is not cared for the earth is going to become extinct”.
Indirect: The report concludes that if the environment is not cared for, the earth is going to become extinct.
• When the quoted text exceeds four lines, it is normally indented and lines are single spaced. When presented in
this way you should not use quotation marks.
When you want to present a quotation within a quoted text, use single quotation marks (similar to apostrophe) to
enclose the quotation that appears within the main quotation.
Example 14.42:
Alex said, “I heard her calling out, ‘thief, thief’”.
• Use quotation marks to enclose titles of short stories, articles, speeches, radio or TV Programmes.
Example 14.43:
Have you read Mandela’s Rivonia speech, “History will Absolve me?”
• Titles of books and periodicals are underlined or printed in italics.
Example 14.44:
I find David Mangui’s The Common Man a fascinating book.
• Quotation marks may also be used to represent the words, same as above.
When a word is written directly below a similar one in vertical listing.
Example 14.45:
Kitepo was represented by the village Chairman.
Sinza “ “ “ “ Secretary
Bukongo “ “ “ “ Council member.
14.7 Apostrophe ( ‘ )
The apostrophe is used to indicate possession, to mark the omission of letters in a
word.
• Use an apostrophe before an ‘s’ to show singular possession in some nouns.
Example 14.46:
Both Juliata’s and Asha’s school are closed.
Dar es Salaam city’s residents have had no water for two days now.
• In plural possession, the apostrophe is placed at the end of the noun following the ‘s’.
Example 14.47:
The girls’ dormitory is being repaired.
The headteachers’ meeting ended in the evening.
• When the noun to which possession is to be indicated ends in an ‘s’, place on apostrophe after the ‘s’.

Example 14.48:
Moses’ story frightened his listeners.
The neighbors helped Tans’ capture
• The apostrophe is not used with possessive pronouns.
Example 14.49:
Theirs, yours, its, his, ours, whose.
• You may use an apostrophe to mark the omission of letters in a word or date.
Example 14.50:
Cant’, I’m, I’II
The peasant revolts of the early ‘60s

14.8 Exclamation mark ( ! )

The exclamation mark is used in writing to indicate an expression of strong feeling. It can be surprise, fear,
indignation or excitement. It is a punctuation mark more commonly used in fiction and social written
communication than in academic or technical discourse.
14.8.1 Uses of exclamation mark
• The exclamation mark is most commonly used after a word, phrase, clause or sentences to indicate surprise, pain,
and jubilation.
Example 14.51:
Ouch! You have hurt me.
Wow! What a wonderful dress.
• Too many exclamation marks in a sentence will make text dull, do not overuse them. When you use the
exclamation mark together with quotation marks, the former goes inside unless what is quoted is an exclamation.
 CHAPTER FIFTEEN
Note Taking
15.1 Introduction

Taking notes is an important part of an active study strategy. This lecture looks at note taking technique to help you
increase your comprehension and retention of materials but also, be able to listen critically and carefully of what is
being communicated. By developing your techniques, you can make sure that the time you spend on taking notes
is really worthwhile. A more important reason for taking notes is that there is a direct relationship between what
happens in lectures and what comes up in the exam. If the lecturer does not personally set the exam, it is likely that
he/she will still submit a number of questions based on the content covered in course.

Take Note
There is no right or wrong way of taking notes. However, try to keep your notes brief and succinct. There is no
benefit gained from trying to write everything down - your notes should reflect the main themes and the areas you
have identified as important. When thinking about note-taking it is important to consider the lecturing style adopted
by different lecturers. Some will prefer dictating, others will provide printed notes
How do I take notes?

Many people find it effective to take notes in two stages. First you write down the main points, and then later you
go back to summarise, condense and organise your notes so they are in a useful form for writing assignments or
revising for exams. Revisiting your notes helps you pull together the ideas you have recorded, so you can make
cross-links with earlier study. It aids your memory too.

15.2 Note taking

Note taking is the practice of recording information captured from a transient source such as an oral discussion,
seminar, conference, during a speech, at a meeting or a lecture. It implies writing down information from oral
/verbal source and usually happens with the process of listening. Notes of a meeting are usually called minutes.
Note taking is an important skill for students especially at the university. Many different formats are used to
structure information and make it easier to find and to understand later.

What is note taking?

Note taking is a skill which you will need in order to be successful student. It is also a skill which your employer
wants you to have. For example, you need to have the ability to summarise what has been said or written clear and
concise with no important facts left out.

15.3 Taking notes in class

Note taking in class depend on three things. These are ears, hands and brain. This is different from dictated notes
where notes are perceived by the ears and transferred to the hands without stopping in the for analysis.

15.3.1 Effective note taking requires the following

• o Recognizing the main ideas, secondary points and important concepts
• o Identifying what information is relevant or irrelevant to your task
• o To have a system of note taking that works for you i.e use of abbreviations or symbols
• o Reducing the information of note and diagrams format
• o Where possible, putting the information in your own words
• o Recording the source of the information

15.3.2 Importance of note taking

• o It triggers basic lecturing processes and helps to remember information
• o It helps to concentrate in class
• o It helps to prepare for tests
• o Your notes often contain information that cannot be found elsewhere (i.e. in you textbook)
• o Your notes are often a source of valuable clues for what information the instructor thinks most
important
• o It helps in listening and writing skills

15.3.3 Some techniques in note taking

• o Do not try to write down everything that is said
• o Concentrate on picking out relevant points only
• o Write notes in point form with separate subheadings
• o Develop your own shorthand
• o Jot down any references given in class to read later
• o Number any handouts issued with a corresponding number in the relevant place in your notes
• o Underline key phrases in red or with highlighter pen
• o It is always advisable to date and number each sheet of A4 as you use it
• o Before your next lesson, it is important to expound on your class notes using text books, journals,
internet sources, etc.
 • o Always ask your lecturer for further explanation if there is something you do not understand

Note-taking abbreviations
Between
Thus / Therefore ∴
betw
or
Because ∵
/
Definition
Equals/same as =
def
Conclusion
Does not equal / not the same as ≠
conc
Regarding / with regard
Greater than / more than >
to re
As against / contrast
Less than <
with vs
Before
And &
B4
Especially
Important / importance of NB
esp
Namely / that is to
Example / for example eg
say ie
-ment (e.g. agreement becomes
However but
agreem't) m't
It is/ that
Compare/contrast with cf
is ie
Transfer
Without w/o
t/f
-ion (e.g. proposition becomes
proposit'n) 'n
Usually usu

1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of note taking?

2. Identify with examples the styles of note taking and indicate which one you find more effective to
use when revising for final examination
3. Get access of the first president of Tanzania, Mwalimu Julius Kambarage Nyerere’s speech about
education for self reliance and take notes of key issues addressed in the speech.
 Lecture SIXTEEN
Academic Writing Skills
16.1 Introduction
Writing is a skill that is required in many contexts throughout life. However, academic writing does many of the
things that personal writing does not: it has its own set of rules and practices. These rules and practices may be
organised around a formal order or structure in which to present ideas, in addition to ensuring that ideas are
supported by author citations in the literature. In contrast to personal writing contexts, academic writing is different
because it deals with the underlying theories and causes governing processes and practices in everyday life, as well
as exploring alternative explanations for these events. Academic writing follows a particular ‘tone’ and adheres to
traditional conventions of punctuation, grammar, and spelling. Therefore, as a university student, you will be
exposed to academic writing skills that will help you improve writing ability to that of academician.

16.2 Referencing Skills

Referencing skills involves making references in the text (citation). A citation is a reference to a published or
unpublished source but always the original. A biographic citation is a reference to a book, article, webpage, or other
published item. Citation content can vary depending on the type of source such as a book, a journal, a newspaper,
a web site, a play, a poem etc. The primary reason for citation is to encourage and support the collective construction
of academic knowledge.

Referencing demonstrates the understanding of a subject area through reading widely. In order to aid the
understanding of any subject, it is essential to refer to the work of others who have contributed to the development
of that field. By not showing the evidence that the subject has been read widely, the idea of writing will not be
supported. Without reference to the work of other academics or subject specialists, there will be little information
to support statements made in writing.

In order to aid undetstanding of any subject, it is essential to refer to the work of others who have contributed to the
development of that filed. In the case where students use original words or ideas from materials without providing
details of the source, the have plagiarized and it is considered to be an act of stealing other people’s work-words
and ideas.
Plagiarism is considered to be a serious academic offence. If a student is found to have committed plagiarism ,he/she
will usually be awarded a fail for the assignment and the student may requested to re-write it; sometimes a student
may be excluded from the programme.

A significant difference between academic writing and other writing genres is based on the citation and referencing
of published authors.

16.3 Referencing and citation

If you make judgments about something in academic writing, there is an expectation that you will support your
opinion by linking it to what a published author has previously written about the issue. Citing the work of other
authors is central to academic writing because it shows you have read the literature, understood the ideas, and have
integrated these issues and varying perspectives into the assignment task. The importance placed on referring to
other authors in your work can be reflected in the elaborate referencing conventions that have been created within
different disciplines, such as APA (American Psychological Association) referencing, which is used in psychology,
education, some social sciences, as well as for business.

When you have used a source in an assignment it is necessary to credit the source for the reader. This credit appears
in two places: within the body of the assignment (the in-text citation) and at the end of the assignment (in the
reference list). For every in-text citation there should be a matching entry in the reference list, and vice versa.

The in-text citation contains basic information about the source:

• • The source's author(s)

• • The year of publication

• • The page number (sometimes)

The reference list contains more detailed information about the source: the title, publishing details, etc.

An in-text citation looks like this:

When testing the usability of a website, it is necessary to gather demographic information about the users (Lazar,
2006). Note that the full stop only comes after the closing bracket, and that only the surname (family name) of the
author is used.
The author's name can also be incorporated into a sentence in the assignment, in which case it is moved outside the
brackets:
Lazar (2006) notes that a fundamental part of usability testing is understanding the demographics of the users.

An in-text citation is needed whenever you have used information, ideas, concepts, or facts from another source. If
you have paraphrased, summarised or quoted another author, you need to provide an in-text citation.

16.4 Quotations and block quotations

Direct quotations are usually put inside quotation marks (“ ”), followed by the reference:

When gathering data it is important to remember that “only relevant types of demographic information should be
requested” (Lazar, 2006, p. 52).
If a quotation is longer than 40 words, no quotation marks are used, and the quotation is indented instead:
Lazar (2006) describes the delicate balance of survey design:
Only relevant types of demographic information should be requested. Asking inappropriate questions in a survey,
interview, or focus group lessens the likelihood that users will respond. Also, if too many questions are asked, users
are less likely to respond. (p. 52)
The number of questions depends greatly on…
Quotations should be identical to the original source, but some small changes can be made.

16.5 The Open University of Tanzania referencing style

There are various referencing styles however the university adopts the APA referencing style. You need to make
individual efforts to make referencing part and parcel of your academic writing. For your assignments and projects,
you will be required to grasp referencing skills in order to produce acceptable piece of work. The guidelines of
systemematic referencing are provided in the university prospectus of 2017/18 page 400-403 and the same is
provided in this course for better follow up..

The reference should be arranged alphabetically by authors. All authors, surnames and initials should be included
(i.e. never use et al.) followed by the year of publication in parentheses, a full stop, the title of the paper; report;
book; etc. (as used in the original document and should not be abbreviated), the journal volume number; the issue
number (only if the pagination starts afresh in each issue concerned). If the reference is to a book, the town of
publication, the publisher, the edition number (if not the first) should be added. Journal and book titles should be
italicised.

16.5.1 Citation in the text

(a) Cite references by author’s SURNAME followed by year of publication. With a separating comma,
e.g. (Mbwette, 2000).
(b) For multiple authorship references cite up to two. For more than two cite the first mentioned, followed by
et al., (meaning ‘and others’), but cite them in full in lists of references.
(c) Citations in the text should take the following forms;
(i) …..have been reported by Bisanda et al. (2001).
(ii) …..Mbogo and Gimbi (2006) found that…………
(iii)…..other results (Bisanda and Witkowski, 2004; Bushesha, 2005) have indicated that….[Consistency
in chronological order of year of publication should be maintained throughout the document]
 (iv) …..Msindai and Machumi (2000, 2001) found that…..[papers published by the same author(s) in
two different years].
(v) …Fungameza (2001a, b)….[two papers published by the same author in the same year].
(d) To refer to personal communications relating to unpublished material, personal communication etc, use
the form (Varisanga, M. D. personal communication, 2001). Do not place such citations in lists of
references.
(e) Secondary citations should take the form….Victor (1996), cited by Fweja et al. (2002).
(f) Secondary citations should be kept to minimum or where possible avoided all together.
(g) In order for a thesis /dissertation to be recommended for examination at least 10% of all references cited must
be Journal articles. The Journal articles cited should not be older than 10 years. Journal articles may include ones
accessed through electronic data bases.

16.5.2 Citations in list of references

(a) Cite references in alphabetical order of author(s) and in order of year of publication.
(b) For references with same author(s) and year of publication, start with papers by the same author being
arranged in the order of (1) single author, (2) two authors alphabetically according to the name of the
second author, and (3) several authors chronologically with 2010a, 2010b, etc. for papers published in the
same year.
(c) References by one author take precedence over references by the same plus additional authors irrespective
of the year of publication.
(d) Avoid using Anon or Anonymous where possible. Where no name of an author is given, use the name of
sponsoring or issuing organization, ministry, department etc. if it can be identified.
(e) Separate authors by commas.

16.6 Order and style of citation details

The following guidelines and examples are designed to show the main elements that should be cited and the order
in which they should appear in references for the three main classes of publications most likely to be included in
list of references.
16.6.1 Journals
(i) Author’s surname and initials for forenames.
(ii) Year of publication in brackets; followed by a period (full stop)
(iii) Title of the published paper.
(iv) Name of Journal or publication; spelt in full, omitting any definite articles (i.e. The) at the beginning, and in
italics throughout.
(v) Volume and /or issue number.
(vi) First and last page numbers (in full) for journal papers; total number of pages for publications referred to as a
whole.

(a) Journal paper in English

Kihwelo, P. F. (2007). Criminal justice in disrepute: An overview of treatment of accused persons and convicts in
Tanzania. Open University Law Journal. 1(1): 47 - 54.

Mushi, H. M. K. (2010); Critical discourse analysis (CDA) of academic texts: A potential strategy in addressing
challenges of cross-border provision of higher education in sub-Saharan Africa. Huria Journal of the Open
University of Tanzania. 8: 73 - 91.

(b) Journal paper not in English

Nunes, E. (1985). Investigacao recente sobra as principal’s factor queimitam a producao do milho em Mozambique.
(A recent investigation of the main factors limiting sorghum production in Mozambique). Agricultura Boletin
Tecnica. 8: 4 - 10.

(c) Journal paper accepted for publication but still in press

Majamba, H. I. (In press). Legal training for diverse roles in Zanzibar: Open University Law Journal.

16.6.2 Books
(i) Authors/editor’s surname(s) and initials or name of sponsoring or issuing organization or corporate body in the
absence of a named individual author or editor.
(ii) Year of publication in bracket, followed by a period (full stop).
(iii)Title of book to be in italics
(iv) Name of publisher and town, in that order.
(v) Total number of pages.
Examples:
Socker, L. (2000). Practical Wildlife Care for Veterinary Nurses, Animal Care Students and
Rehabilitator s. Blackwell Science Ltd ., Oxford. 288pp.
(e) Edited Books
Hulme, D. and Murphree, M. (Eds.) (2001). African Wildlife and Livelihoods: The
promise and performace of community conservation. James Currey Ltd, Oxford. 336pp.

16.6.3 Individual chapters in multi-authored books

(i) Author’s surname(s) and initials.
(ii) Year of publication in bracket, followed by a period (full stop).
(iii) Title of chapter or article, followed by the word ‘In’.
(iv) Title of book in italics.
(v) The words ‘Edited by’, followed by surname(s) and initials of the editor(s)
of the publication, underlined and enclosed in brackets.
(vi) Name of publisher and town, in that order.
(vii) First and last page numbers of chapter, article, part, or section

Examples:
Barrow, E., Gichohi, H. and Infield, M. (2001). The Evoluation of Community Conservation Policy and Practice in
East Africa. In: Africa Wildlife and Livelihoods: The promise and Performance of Community Conservation.
(Edited by Hulme, D. and Murphree, M.), James Currey Ltd, Oxford. pp. 59 - 73.

16.6.4 Proceedings of conferences/workshops/monographs

(i) Author’s surname(s) and initials.
(ii) Year in bracket, followed by a period (full stop).
(iii) Title of article followed by the work ‘In’.
(iv) Title of proceeding or workshop underlined.
(v) Name of Editor(s) in brackets.
(vi) Date of the conferences, town, Country, Volume (if any), page numbers.
(vii) First and last pages of the article; pp. 180-194.

Example:
Boyle. P. J. (Ed.) (1987). Appropriate Manpower for Agricultural Research. Proceedings of SADCC Workshop,
Gaborone, Botswana, 25 November, 1985. 120pp.

16.6.4.1 Individual paper in conference or workshop

Gimbi, A. A., Kimambo, A. E., Kanuya, N. L., Mtenga, L. A., Laswai, G. H. and Madsen, J. (2003). Seasonal
variations on reproductive performance, mineral and body condition status of smallholder dairy cattle in Rungwe
district, Tanzania. In; Proceedings of Tanzania Society of Animal Production Scientific Conference. 28 – 30
October, 2003, Tanga, Tanzania 30: pp. 333 - 341.

16.6.4.2 Monographs
United States Agency for International Development (2000). Rice Production in Africa. Agriserve Ltd., New York,
150pp.
16.6.4.3 Annual Report
Botswana Ministry of Agriculture (1999). Livestock Research in Botswana Annual Report. Government Printer,
Gaborone, Botswana. 10pp.

16.6.5 Dissertation and Theses

(i) Author(s) surname(s) and initials,
(ii) Year in bracket, followed by a period (full stop).
(iii) Title of the dissertation.
(iv) Name and country of the host institution.
(v) Total number of pages in the form: 230pp.

Example:
Ndesendo, C. V. (2011). Role of job application using e-recruitment system in the banking industry: The case of
banks in Dar es Salaam region. A dissertation for award of MBA degree at Open University of Tanzania, Dar es
Salaam, Tanzania.103pp.

16.6.6 Citing from electronic sources

(i) Author’s surname and initials. Where no name of an author is given, use thename of sponsoring or issuing
organization, ministry, department etc. if it can be identified. Beginning with title of the article should be the last
resort!
(ii) Publication year (in brackets), followed by a period (full stop).
(iii) Title of the article.
(iv)Internet web address [in square brackets]
(v)Date of visit to the website.
Example:
Kimbrell, A. (2002). Fatal Harvest; The tragedy of industrial agriculture. [http://www.fatalharvest.org/press.htm]
site visited on 9/8/2008.

16.6.7 Citing newspaper articles and other reports

Kisembo, P. (2006). Survey shows food price further going down in Dr es Salaam.
Daily news, Issue No. 36000. p. 13. Preferably articles cited from Newspapers should
be more of feature articles than otherwise.
 CHAPTER SEVENTEEN
Understanding plagiarism
17.1 Introduction
The first step in the process of maintaining honesty in academic coursework requires having an effective
understanding of what plagiarism is. Just as you do not want others to rifle through your backpack and lift your
wallet or cell phone — because that's personal property — authors do not want others to "rifle through" their
research or texts and "lift" their words and ideas — because that's intellectual property. Using another person's
ideas, words, data, graphics, or other intellectual property without attributing them is plagiarism.
Plagiarism, however, isn’t solely about giving credit to the source. Citation is an important and vital step of using
source material, and this is something that most of you are generally aware of. Crediting source material is only one
aspect of source use, though. Another component that you might overlook is just how the source material is
presented or used in the project. Misusing or misrepresenting the source material can lead to plagiarism just as
lacking citations can.

In instructional settings, plagiarism is a multifaceted and ethically complex problem. However, if any definition of
plagiarism is to be helpful to administrators, faculty, and students, it needs to be as simple and direct as possible
within the context for which it is intended.

What is plagiarism?

In an instructional setting, plagiarism occurs when a writer deliberately uses someone

Else’s language, ideas, or other original (not common-knowledge) material without
Acknowledging its source.

17.2 Paraphrasing
Paraphrasing is a way of presenting a text, keeping the same meaning, but using different words and phrasing.
Paraphrasing is used with short sections of text, such as phrases and sentences.
A paraphrase may result in a longer, rather than shorter, version of the original text. It offers an alternative to using
direct quotations and helps students to integrate evidence/ source material into assignments. Paraphrasing is also a
useful skill for making notes from readings, note-taking in lectures, and explaining information in tables, charts and
diagrams.
17.2.1 How to paraphrase
• • Read the source carefully. It is essential that you understand it fully.
• • Identify the main point(s) and key words.
• • Cover the original text and rewrite it in your own words. Check that you have included the main
points and essential information.
• • Write the paraphrase in your own style.

17.3 Summarising
A summary is an overview of a text. The main idea is given, but details, examples and formalities are left out. Used
with longer texts, the main aim of summarising is to reduce or condense a text to its most important ideas.
Summarising is a useful skill for making notes from readings and in lectures, writing an abstract/synopsis and
incorporating material in assignments.

17.3.1 How to summarise

The amount of detail you include in a summary will vary according to the length of the original text, how much
information you need and how selective you are:
Start by reading a short text and highlighting the main points as you read.
Reread the text and make notes of the main points, leaving out examples, evidence etc.
Without the text, rewrite your notes in your own words; restate the main idea at the beginning plus all major points.

17.4 Abstract thought

Traditionally, academic topics have focused on abstract things, like ideas and concepts, which cannot, necessarily,
be given in a concrete or physical form.
Hence, while writing meeting minutes or covering letters of cvs draw on physical, practical, and functional tasks,
academic writing is often more likely to focus on abstract processes and relationships. Yet, despite the abstract,
non-material structure of some academic topics, you may be able to borrow concrete and physically oriented words
to explain these abstract ideas and the relationships between them.
Typically, academic writing requires you to clearly describe abstract forms and their component parts, their links
to other abstract forms, as well as where they are positioned in relation to a general, overall system.
Even if you are dealing with a practically oriented topic like economics, computer science, rehabilitation, nursing,
or teaching, the academic practice of learning about these things will likely require you to delve into theories,
philosophies, concepts, and other abstract ideas that underlie the practical nature of the activities concerned.
Therefore, the very nature of academic writing is also different from many practically-oriented or socially-oriented
writing tasks. This is because academic writing tasks require you to look beneath the surface for underlying
principles, theories, and concepts that can offer mainstream as well as alternative explanations for common
practices, processes, and procedures.

17.5 Academic tone

Like all varieties of writing, academic writing has its own tone, which dictates the choice of words and phrasing.

Academic tone
Academic writing typically aims to be:
• • Objective (e.g. Using inclusive language)
• • Concise
• • Formal (e.g. Avoiding slang, exclamation marks, contractions)

The tone of academic writing can also vary significantly depending on the subject-area and the academic discipline
you are writing for.

The readings, textbook, and study guide of your course show you what tone is expected in the paper, so study their
style carefully.

17.6 The audience

It is important to remember who you are writing for. Being conscious of academic tone suggests that you are aware
of your audience and respect the formality normally associated with academic writing.
When writing academically, you must target a more general audience than just your lecturer and/or marker. You
should assume that your readers will be intelligent thinking people, but they may not be specifically informed of
your topic. Do not presume that your reader knows all the terms and concepts associated with your work.

17.7 Punctuation and grammar

In academic writing you should always follow rules of punctuation and grammar, especially as the end-user or
consumer of your writing, unlike a friend, is likely to be very different from you and will not always know to what
you are referring. Hence, it is vital that you are clear. Punctuation and the conventions of grammar are universally
known systems (within English speaking cultures) that maintain clarity and avoid ambiguity in expression.

17.8 Steps involved in the writing process

College/University writing is a process of goal setting, writing, giving and using feedback, revising, and editing.
Effective assignments construct specific writing situations and build in ample room for response and revision. There
is no guarantee that, if adopted, the strategies listed below will eliminate plagiarism; but in supporting students
throughout their research process, these strategies make plagiarism both difficult and unnecessary.
17.8.1 Pre-Writing
Whatever type of writing a student is attempting, the prewriting stage can be the most important. This is when you
gather information, and begin to organize it into a cohesive unit. This process can include reading, taking notes,
brainstorming, and categorizing information. Prewriting is the most creative step and most students develop a
preferred way to organize their thoughts. Stream of consciousness writing, graphic organizers, outlines, or note
cards are popular techniques. Often this stage is best taught by a parent modeling the different methods, perhaps a
different one each week until the student finds which one works best for him.

17.8.2 Writing
The actual writing stage is essentially just an extension of the prewriting process. You can transfer the information
you have gathered and organized into a traditional format. This may take the shape of a simple paragraph, a one-
page essay, or a multi-page report. Up until this stage, you may not be exactly certain which direction your ideas
will go, but this stage allows you to settle on the course the paper will take. It also involves helping you choose
topics for writing based on your personal interests. For example, modeling the writing process in front of your child
also helps them see that even adults struggle for words and have to work at putting ideas together.

17.8.3 Revising or editing

It is usually the least favorite stage of the writing process, especially for beginning writers. Revising can include
adding, deleting, rearranging and substituting words, sentences, and even entire paragraphs to make their writing
more accurately represent their ideas. It is often not a one-time event, but a continual process as the paper progresses.
When doing revision, you need to voice aloud the problems you see in your writing. This may be challenging to
some students, you need to start with something small, such as replacing some passive verbs in their paper with
more active ones. Critiquing one’s own writing can easily create tension and frustration, you should be aware that
the most celebrated authors spend the majority of their time on this stage of the writing process. It is an important
stage which can support students to improve their writing skills.

17.8.4 Proof reading

This is a chance for the writer to scan his or her paper for mistakes in grammar, punctuation, and spelling. It is
important that students gain proofreading skills for themselves as this improves a student’s writing over time. This
can actually be the most opportune to learn some of the standard rules of grammar and punctuation. When you learn
the rules of mechanics during the writing process you are much more likely to remember to use them in the future.
 CHAPTER EIGHTEEN
Sources of Information
18.1 Introduction
Being able to research and use materials which back up your study or offer different interpretations of your study
area is an essential aspect of studying and learning. Primarily you need to be aware of where to look for information,
how to access it and how to use it. You must also be able to scrutinise your sources to check that they are relevant
and of a suitable nature to be included within your work. This lecture exposes you to understanding of different
sources of information to help you obtain necessary and useful information for your assignment, projects and
examinations.
What is information?
Information can be defined as communicated facts or ideas. It can also be said to be data to which meaning has been
given within a context for its use. Furthermore, information can be defined as anything that can change a person’s
knowledge and reduce uncertainty.

18.2 Ways of acquiring information

Information can be acquired through the following ways:

• o Life experiences
• o Studying and learning
• o Observation, listening and debating
• o Experimentation and research
• o Lectures, seminars, workshops etc.

18.3 Places where organised information may be found

• o Libraries and their collections

• o Museums
• o Information Bureaux
• o Exhibitions, fairs, shows
• o Classrooms, group discussions
• o Mass media e.g. TV
• o Computerised sources e.g. journals
18.3.1 Library

A library is a special building or room in which a collection of books and other information or materials for reading,
study, reference or learning is located. The word library comes from Latin word “liber” meaning book. Libraries
are categorized according to the needs of the learner. For example, public libraries, school libraries, college and
university libraries, and contemporary libraries contain a variety of materials. These include not only printed
materials such as manuscripts, books, newspapers and magazines but also art productions, films, sound and video
recordings, maps, photographs, microfiches, CD-ROMs, computer software, online databases and other media. It
provides physical or digital access to material, and may be a physical building or room, or virtual space, or both.
Students use libraries to supplement and enhance classrooms experience, learn skills in locating sources of
information and to develop good reading and study habits.

In order to determine which information to search, the student should decide from what perspective (e.g. business,
political, cultural, social, historical, psychological, anthropological, education etc) he or she wants to approach a
topic. It is better to examine a topic from more than one perspective in order to gain a well rounded understanding
of it.

In libraries, there is usually a catalogue which contains the names of different authors and subjects to enable students
to locate reading materials. There are types of library catalogue which include; the one which indicates the title of
the book, another indicates the name of the author of the book. Libraries should inform their users of what materials
are available in their collections and how to access that information. Te students use such catalogues to locate the
reading materials required to search a topic. In order to get appropriate information from the reading material,
students use contents and index pages which show the page number where information or a topic is found.

18.3.2 Materials in a library

A. Reference materials

These are materials which the users of a library are not allowed to take away from the library. They usually include
materials that the library has very few copies or whose demand is high. Reference materials are specifically
complied to supply different types of factual information brought together from many sources and intended for
reference only rather than to be read through.
Examples of reference works are;
i)Dictionary
Dictionary is a book that gives a list of words in alphabetical order and explains what they mean. A dictionary may
also list words in one language and gives translations in another language. For example: English-Kiswahili
dictionary. Sometimes a dictionary contains pronunciations, spelling, etymologies (word histories) and examples
of usage.

Examples of English to English dictionaries

-Macmillan English dictionary
-Oxford English dictionary
Examples of English to Kiswahili dictionaries
-English-Kiswahili (TUKI)

Unabridged dictionaries attempt to be complete by including all words currently in use in a language. They provide
extensive information about the words included. But abridged dictionaries omit words that do not regularly appear
in books, magazines and newspaper. And specialized dictionaries provide detailed information about the words that
apply to a particular subject such as space, mathematics, biology, psychology etc. There are many uses of a
dictionary and any scholar should always have one in his / her study. Entries in a dictionary are arranged
alphabetically and according to their spelling. This makes it easy to find a word quickly. Many dictionaries also
have pages which give extra information in grammar. There are also dictionaries with diagrams for further labeling
of items e.g. parts of a car, an insect etc.

Important details to look for in a dictionary include;

• o Word meaning
• o Pronunciation (including which syllable is emphasized)
• o Grammatical properties of a word e.g. parts of speech
• o Examples of how a word is used in content
• o Stress pattern that can change a word’s part of speech
• o Some non-standard or controversial use of words e.g. colloquial
• o The origin of the word

ii)The Encyclopedia
The word encyclopedia is derived from Greek enkyklios paideia meaning all embracing education. The term
originally signified instructions which include grammar, rhetoric, music, mathematics, philosophy, astronomy and
gymnastics. This concept gave rise to the idea of collecting the materials of such instruction into a single work, in
which the contents and relations of the various arts and science would be expounded systematically. The
encyclopedia is a type of reference book, a compendium holding a summary of information either from all branches
of knowledge or from a particular branch of knowledge. This means that it is a single or multiple volume reference
work that provides general background on either a wide range of topics or a more specialized discipline.

Information in an encyclopedia may be supplied in short paragraphs or in lengthy articles that include citation to
other works on the same topic. These articles are written by experts on each of the subjects. Encyclopedias may
include illustrations and diagrams, definitions of some words and references to additional information. A general
encyclopedia would include an overview of articles on a wide range of topics while subject encyclopedia would
contain longer and more detailed articles on specific topics, events of field of study.

B: DIGITAL SOURCE OF INFORMATION

The internet is the computer based global information system. The internet is composed of many interconnected
computer networks. Each network may link tens, hundreds or even thousands of computer enabling them to share
information and processing power. The internet has brought new opportunities to education. Educational institutions
have the internet for research and to deliver online courses and course materials to students.

i. (i) Search engine

What is search engine?

A search engine is a software program that helps users to find information stored on the internet. Search engines
are most often used to find pages, files, news, image and other data on the web. Some of the most popular web
search engines include Google Inc, Microsoft network (MSN) Search and Yahoo! INC. The internet has become a
valuable source of information. The student can find all sorts of information from online information providers.
He/she simply types the topic that he/she wants to research then a variety of articles are displayed.

For one to benefit from the research potential of the Internet, he or she has to know how to use the search engines.
Search engines provide for an Internet user to search the web by entering keywords. There are a number of search
engines available. Following below are some of the search engines that are of particular relevance for academic and
research work.

• λ Google: This is a comprehensive full-text search. It is very useful when one is searching for obscure
information. It is located at www.google.com.
• λ Excite: It is a search engine that can offer in-depth subject arrangement. It can also be used in
concept searching (it automatically searches related terms) and indexes, internet sites and Usenet. Excite is
located at www.exite.com

• λ Alta Vista: It is a widely used full-text search engine. It is said to be accessed over 10 million times
daily. It is located at www.altavista.com

• λ Lycos: This is a subject oriented search engine. It limits returns by title, pictures, sounds, URL,
language. Further more results are returned with good organization by relevance. Lycos can be located at
www.lycos.com

• λ Yahoo: This is subject directory to selected resources; it is not a full-text search engine. Is suitable
for browsing for subject categories or overviews of topics. Its returns are not organized by relevance. Yahoo
can be located at www.yahoo.com

• λ Magellan: It is a search engine that simultaneously presents original editorial content, a directory
of rated and reviewed internet sites. It can help you find what you are looking for. Magellan sites show
ratings on a scale from 1-10, that indicated how good the viewers think the resources are. You may locate
this at http://www.megellan.com

• λ ERIC: This belongs to the so-called scholarly search engines. The term “ERIC” stands for
Educational Resources Information Centre. It searches education journals and other scholarly documents,
including books, conference proceedings, symposia, studies and tests. This is found on the Web at
http://www.aspensys.com/eric.

(ii)Metasearch Engines

These are search engines which can search multiple engines at once. They provide an alternative to trying many
individual search engines to find the information you look for. These are types of search engines that can invoke
other search engines to automatically conduct different kinds of searches, collate the results into one list of results
and report them back. Following are some metasearch engines:

1. DOGPILE: This is a metasearch engine that can send queries to a multiple other search engines at once.
When you open Dogpile, it automatically opens you up to other search engines such as Yahoo, Lycos,
Excite, World Wide Web, Worm, Yellow pages, Webcrawler, Infoseek, Opentext, AltaVista Hotbot,
Looksmart that the Mining co. Dogpile is located at www.dogpile.com
2. METACRAWLER: This mega search engine can conduct searches by sending queries to several web
search engines simultaneously. The search engines linked to metacrawler include Lycos, Excite, AltaVista,
Yahoo, Hotbot and Galaxy. Metacrawler is found at http:// www.metacrawler.com.

3. REFDESK.COM: This is a very thorough and well organized search engine. Its links include facts search
desk, current news and features, links to a host of online information databases and much more. Refdesk is
found on the web at www.refdesk.com

(iii)Status of Web Sources

Websites are usually created differently. It is therefore, important that, when using web resources, you should be
careful to examine all potential resources, print and non-print for relevance, bias, accuracy and so forth.
Furthermore, resources found on the Internet should be carefully scrutinized; this is necessary for the simple reason
that anyone who possesses a computer and an Internet access can post his or her own web page without minding to
check for facts or to edit information.

Activity

List various differences between “Search Engines” and “Metasearch Engines”

(iv)Internet as an aspect of Communication

The Internet is a relevant aspect of communication because it plays two roles. The first is that it is a source of
information. You can use the Internet to obtain information you might require to tell other people or to write
something for other people to read. In fact it is said that the Internet is the richest source of information on the
planet. It can offer about anything that one would ever want to know. For this reason the Internet is a valuable tool
for you as a university student because it can help you to search for and locate relevant information you may need
for conducting research or writing your academic papers. It is important to say here that a wide range of database
exist across curriculum.
The second role is that of medium of communication. In this role, the Internet functions as mode or medium through
which one can receive or deliver information to an intended target. The target could be an individual person or
group of people whom you may want your message to reach. For this reason, the Internet is known as an information
superhighway.

Internet users

Who is using the Internet?

Use of the Internet is extensive, and the growth in number of users has been phenomenal. Internet users include
people from all works of life. Academicians, business people, government officials, politicians, teachers, doctors,
researchers students, kids, the elderly, parents, musicians, police, motel workers, the military, pilots, social workers,
disco-jockeys, movie stars - about everyone who wishes to participate and succeed in the information society has a
place in using the internet.

(v) Basic Internet Services

There are many possible things that people can do on the Internet. These possibilities are organized according to
services defined by protocols that specify how information moves across the network. Following below are some
of the most important services available on the Internet.
Electronic Mail (e-mail): The Internet allows you to send and receive mail (called e-mail) to and from anyone
connected to the Network. The e-mail is a highly efficient and convenient mode of global interaction and
communication. It is convenient because it is fast and you can respond to it at your convenience. Furthermore,
electronic mail has improved the way people communicate when they can’t talk in person. Nowadays, people don’t
have to wait for traditional postal mail delivery which has come to be known as ‘snail mail’ due to its slowness in
delivering mail.

• • Using e-mail

Each person using e-mail has a unique address also known as an account; an account enables you to log on the
computer that hosts your e-mail service. The computer that hosts your account is known as your e-mail host
computer. On the host computer, your account consists of a file space where your e-mail is kept for you to read.
You get your account from your Internet Service Provider (ISP).
The Internet address or account has several parts to it.
For example [email protected] made up as follows:
Santa…….. is the e-mail user name.
@ …………is found at
hotmail…..is the name of the host computer
com….. stands for commercial site.
Besides having an account, when using an e-mail, you have to have a password. This is a number or word known
only to yourself, which you must enter each time you log on to your account. The password prevents other users of
the Internet from logging on under your name and gaining access to your mail. You must always remember to keep
your password secret because if it is known to others, some malicious people might use it to sign under your name
and send offensive mail that could cause problems to you.
The electronic mail service has a facility for helping you to keep note of regularly used e-mail addresses. This saves
you rekeying addresses and avoids making typographic errors. When you wrongly type an address, it will result in
your mail being returned to you

• • Advantages of e-mail

1. Delivery is faster than traditional mail and replies can be quicker.

2. It is much cheaper than the telephone or fax; the cost is not dependant on the distance the message has travelled.
3. It overcomes time zone differences and inconveniences as the recipients do not have to be there to receive it.
4. It allows for one-to-many messaging which is simple, cheap and enables you to exchange information with
people unknown to you.

(vi)File Transfer

This service also known as File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a standard method for transferring files over the Internet
from one computer to another. It allows you to search the millions of computers on the network for the information
you need by using convenient search engines and directories.

This service can let you download pictures, files and software that you can in turn copy into your personal computer.
There are millions of files on the Internet that you can view on your computer. Many of these files are web pages
that you can find with the web based search engines. One such search engine is ARCHIE. Archie is capable of
searching for you the archives consisting of millions of files that are available on anonymous FTP sites.

(vii)Internet Relay Chat (IRC)

This is a protocol that allows Internet users to conduct real-time communication on the computer. It enables people
to converse with one another over the Internet. Internet relay chats are organized into channels. To benefit from this
service, you have to join one or more communication channels and converse with others who are subscribed to the
same channel. Conversations may be public, allowing everyone in a channel to see what you type, or private
between only two people who may or may not be on the same channel. To join IRC-and there are hundreds of open
IRC hosts worldwide, you may obtain information from the web site www.irchelp.org/irchelp/networks.

(viii)Mailing List
Popularly known as listserv is modelled on the e-mail protocol. It works like an electronic mailing list, it allows
you to send e-mail messages to people whose names are on the list. This makes it simple for members of a group
to communicate with one another through e-mail.

As a social being, you would want to communicate with other groups of people using the computer. You might be
working on a research project; for example, and you like to send a message to all people working on that project
with you. Instead of having to enter each persons e-mail address each time you want to send the group a message,
you can use your address book to crate mailing lists consisting of as many users as you like.

There are thousands of listservs that you may be able to join. Almost every subject imaginable has a listserv already
set up for people to receive and exchange information about that topic. When someone sends a message containing
new information on the listserv, everyone on the list receives a copy of the message.

Joining a Listserv

To join a listserv, you have to send an e-mail message to its host computer saying that you want to subscribe. Do
not expect to get an instant reply; normally it takes a while for a new subscription to be processed.

When you join a listserv, you will be instructed on how to address a new message that you want to send to the
listserv. You will be given an address to which to send your e-mail message, just as if you were sending mail to an
individual user. Keep in mind however, that when you send a message to a listserv, your message will be sent to a
lot of people so you have to be very careful.

(ix)Usenet Newsgroups

This service makes it possible for Internet users to join discussion group hold discussions, ask questions/answer
questions or become a part of a special interest group. The resource “Usenet newsgroups” are based on the concept
of computer conferencing. It has the advantage that anyone can participate in any discussion at anytime from any
place where there is an Internet connection.

This is a useful service to students as it enables them to converse and share experience with peers and fellows with
similar academic interests.

(x)World Wide Web

This is a networked hypertext system that allows documents to be shared. It provides access to millions of the
hypertext (a text that has been linked). When one views a hypertext and clicks a word that has been linked, the
computer will launch the object of that link. Links are pathways that interconnect the documents and resources on
the web, without links there would be no Web. You can activate a link by triggering it. There are two types of
triggers, i.e., hypertext and hyper picture.

Hypertext Links

These are words or sometimes phrases that you click to trigger the events that are linked to the text. They are also
known as ‘hot words’ because they make things happen when you click them. It is easy to identify hypertext links
on the Internet as they are usually underlined and presented in different colour than the rest of the text.

Hyperpicture links
These are pictorial hot spots that you click to trigger events linked to images on the screen. The images are normally
presented as little icons or larger graphics
18.4 Web Searching

18.4.1 Surfing the Web

Surfing the web simply means searching for information on the Net. It enables you to navigate the system of
interconnected information, discover new sites you didn’t know existed, and download things that interest you. By
mastering the art of navigating the Net, you will be able to get where you want quickly and locate the information
you want more easily. In order for you to locate relevant information on the Internet you have to understand how
information is organized on the Internet.

Documents are stored on the websites, these are locations on the web where persons, institutions and organizations
store their collections of web pages, images, audio files, videos and any other files used in conjunction with their
Web pages. This section intends to give you basic notions that would help you to locate information, send mail or
participate in a discussion via the internet.

18.4.2 Web Address – a URL

Every site you wish to go to on the web has an address known as a URL. You will probably recognize these, as they
are now becoming common place, signalled regularly in magazines and the press. URL is a short form for Uniform
Resource Locator. The resources referred here are hypertext documents, but they can also be application softwares,
animations, pictures, sounds or even movies. URLs can also bring up search engines, newsgroups, chartrooms or
real time audio and video streams (i.e. music and movies).

Elements of a URL
A URL is made up of two main parts, protocol and server names, which always appear in the same order.

1. Protocol: Refers to the hypertext transfer protocol; it forms the beginning of every web page of the URL.

2. Server Name: This is the identity of the computer or file server on which a particular resource is located.
The server name is subcategorized into three component parts; host name, sub domain and top-level
domain. The host name refers to the computer or server that hosts the resource while the sub domain names
the network to which the computer is connected. The top-lever domain indicates the institutional affiliations
of the website or the country from which a particular web site originates.
Following below are examples of common top-level domains.
.edu educational institutions site
.com commercial site
.org non-profit organization
.gov government site
.mil military site
.net large computer network
.au Australia
.tz Tanzania
.za South Africa
.uk United kingdom
Basing on this description, the URL for the Open University of Tanzania (OUT) Website has the following
elements.
http://www.out.ac.tz
PROTOCAL HOST SERVER NAME
http www out
Subdomain ac. tz
topleveldomains
The brief description of the site provided by your search engine should contribute to your decision about whether
the site deserves a much closer scrutiny.

Summary
This lecture gives a brief introduction on internet as one of the major technological inventions of the century.
Internet is a technology that has been integrated and has provided people with new important capabilities over a
wide range of sectors. Use of the internet has become such an important skill that understanding it and knowing
how to communicate over it has become modern literacy.
 CHAPTER NINETEEN
Words
1. NOUN.

Nouns are a part of speech that comprises words that are used to name people, places, animals,
objects and ideas. Almost every sentence will definitely have a noun, and they perform different
roles in a sentence. Nouns can act as the subject, an indirect object, a direct object, a subject
complement and an object complement. Nouns can also function as adjectives and verbs.
Examples of Nouns:
ii. People – Man, Person, Tommy, Women, Girl, The Prime Minister

iii. Places - India, South Africa, The Nile River, Classroom, Bedroom, Basketball Court,
Cricket Ground, Swimming Pool

iv. Animals - Birds, Aquatic Animals/Reptiles – Lion, Zebra, Snake, Ostrich,

v. Ideas – Evolution, Invention, Extinction, Argument, Destruction

vi. Objects/Things – Bat, Cycle, Curtains, Paper, Bag, Blackboard, Cupboard

TYPES OF NOUNS
Nouns can be broadly classified into:
1. Proper Nouns: Nouns that are used to name a person, place or thing specifically are called a
proper noun. Proper nouns always begin with a capital letter.
Examples:
Ø My name is Mack. (Name of a particular person)

Ø This is my dog, Mack. (Name of a specific pet animal owned by someone)

Ø David came back from Dodoma. (Name of a specific place)

2. Common nouns: Common nouns are those nouns that refer to a generic item, group or place.
This means that, unlike proper nouns, they are not used to identify specific people, places or
objects. Common nouns are not capitalized unless they appear at the beginning of a sentence.
Examples:
Ø I bought a pen yesterday. (Common object)
 Ø I am going to school. (Common place)

Ø Only ten employees showed up to work today. (Common group)

Ø The car is out of fuel. (Common items)

3. Singular nouns: These are words that are used to name a single person, place, animal, bird or
object.
Examples:
Ø There is a little boy in front of our house. (Single person)

Ø That is my daughter. (Single person)

Ø I found a wounded sparrow in the bush. (Single bird)

Ø A red van has been following us for a long time. (Single object)

4. Plural nouns: Plural nouns refer to a number of people, places, animals or things. Nouns are
made plural by adding an ‘s’ or ‘es’ or ‘ies’ or ‘ves’ to the existing root word. Nouns that end with
an ‘s’ remain the same. Some nouns remain the same in both their singular and plural forms, and
some others have totally different spelling.
Examples:
Ø I need some apples.

Ø Did you find the boxes you were looking for?

Ø I bought mangoes from the market.

Ø We took photos of some deer on our way.

5. Countable nouns are those nouns that can be counted or measured.

Examples:
Ø Tom brought ten packets of lays for the trip. (specific number – ten)

Ø Mother asked me to buy a dozen eggs. (specific – dozen means twelve)

Ø I saw an airplane around seven in the morning. (specific – an means one)

6. Uncountable nouns are those nouns that cannot be counted. This category of nouns includes
both concrete and abstract nouns.
Examples:
ii. I have a lot of homework to do. (Not specific)

iii. I have a cup of tea. (Cannot count)

iv. We are facing terrible weather today. (Cannot count)

7. Collective Nouns: A collective noun is a naming word that is used to denote a group of objects,
animals or people.
Examples:
Collective nouns for groups of animals
Ø A pride of lions

Ø A flock of sheep

Ø A swarm of bees

Ø A herd of elephants

Collective nouns for groups of people

Ø A band of musicians

Ø A board of directors

Ø A crew of sailors

Ø A company of actors

Collective nouns for a number of things/objects

Ø A pair of shoes

Ø A chain of mountains

Ø A fleet of ships

Ø A bunch of grapes
8. Concrete Nouns: A concrete noun refers to objects that are material and can be perceived by
the human senses.
Examples:
Ø The book is on the table.

Ø I had a cup of coffee.

Ø Sharon opened the windows.

Ø Hardy goes to school by bus.

9. Abstract Nouns: Any entities that cannot be perceived by the five senses of the human body
are called an abstract noun.
Examples:
Ø Love is a strong emotion.

Ø Honesty is the best policy.

Ø It takes a lot of courage to raise your voice and stand up against injustice.

Ø You should not misuse the freedom you are given.

1. VERBS

In the English language or any language for that matter, verbs happen to be an essential part of
speech, without which it would be impossible to indicate what the subject is doing. It refers to all
actions, including those related to feelings and emotions. Verbs come in different types and forms
so that they can perform differently in order to provide complete meaning. Before we look into the
types of verbs and the verb forms, let us look at how various dictionaries define the term ‘verb’.

The Oxford Learners’ Dictionary defines a ‘verb’ as “a word or group of words that express an
action (such as eat), an event (such as happen) or a state (such as exist)”. According to the
Cambridge Dictionary, a ‘verb’ is defined as “a word or phrase that describes an action, condition,
or experience”. The Collins Dictionary provides a much more elaborate definition of a verb.
According to them, “A verb is a word such as ‘ sing’, ‘ feel’, or ‘ die’ which is used with a subject
to say what someone or something does or what happens to them, or to give information about
them”.

GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS ACCORDING TO WHAT THEY SIGNIFY

I. Verbs Referring to Actions

Verbs referring to action (action verbs) are those that involve the movement of one’s body in one
way or the other. Some examples of verbs referring to actions are as follows:

• Walk
• Teach
• Present
• Build
• Break

II. Verbs Referring to Experiences or Feelings

These are verbs that refer to something that you can feel or experience and do not necessarily
involve a movement of any kind. Some examples of verbs referring to feelings and experiences
are as follows:

ii. Entrust
iii. Experience
iv. Care
v. Adore
vi. Loathe
vii. Appreciate

III. Verbs Referring to a State or Condition

These verbs are those that refer to situations or the state of being. All forms of ‘to be’ verbs belong
to this category. Some examples of verbs referring to a state or condition are as follows:

Ø Has
Ø Will be
Ø Appear
Ø Seem
Ø Become
Ø Been
Ø Being

TYPES OF VERB
Verbs can be classified into numerous types according to their function or role in a sentence or
context. Let us look into the various types of verbs and some examples of each type of verb.

1. Auxiliary Verbs/Helping Verbs

Auxiliary verbs or helping verbs, as the name suggests, is a verb that is used to help another verb
sound sensible and meaningful. It is used to change the other verb’s tense, mood or voice. So,
every time an auxiliary verb is used, you always have one more verb, which acts as the main verb
in a sentence.

Examples of auxiliary verbs are as follows:

Ø Am
Ø Is
Ø Are
Ø Was
Ø Were
Ø Have
Ø Has
One point you have to take care of when you use auxiliary verbs is that you should conjugate the
auxiliary verb correctly according to the tense form of a sentence. Another specific fact about
auxiliary verbs is that they can also be used as a main verb. Also, there are verbs called modal
verbs that can be used as a helping verb.

Work out exercises on auxiliary verbs to practice.

2. Modal Verbs

Modal verbs are those verbs that are used to denote the possibility, probability, capability or
necessity of something happening. Modal verbs, unlike other auxiliary verbs, cannot be used as a
main verb in a sentence.

Examples of modal verbs are as follows:

Ø Can
Ø Could
Ø Will
Ø Would
Ø May
Ø Might
Ø Should
Ø Must

3. Phrasal Verbs

Phrasal verbs include phrases that are formed by combining two or more parts of speech that
performs the same function as a verb in a sentence. In most cases, a phrasal verb results from a
combination of a verb and a preposition.

Some examples of phrasal verbs are as follows:

2. Go by
 3. Lay off
4. Log in
5. Get off
6. Run out
7. Think through
8. Fed up

4. Linking Verbs

A linking verb, just like the name suggests, is a type of verb that is used to link the subjects in a
sentence to the other parts of the sentence so that it is meaningful. It connects the subject to the
object, an adjective and even a prepositional phrase. All ‘to be’ forms of verbs and verbs like
‘seem’ and ‘become’ can act as linking verbs.

Have a look at the following examples to understand how verbs perform the role of a linking verb
in sentences.

Example 1: Connecting Nouns to Other Nouns in a Sentence

Ø Danny is my brother.

In the above example, the verb ‘is’ is used to connect the subject ‘Danny’ as the ‘brother’ of the
speaker. In this sentence, the words ‘Danny’ and ‘brother’ are used to refer to the same person.

Example 2: Connecting a Noun to a Prepositional Phrase in a Sentence

Ø The children were in the park.

In Example 2, the verb ‘were’ is used to connect the subject ‘the children’ to the prepositional
phrase ‘in the park’.

DIFFERENT CATEGORIES OF VERBS

Verbs can be divided into different categories according to their behavior when used in a context.
 b. Regular Verbs and Irregular Verbs

As you can see, verbs are used to denote actions, and they can be used in different forms to indicate
when the subject in a sentence is carrying out an action. A regular verb can be conjugated to show
if the action takes place in the past or if the action is taking place continuously.

In most cases, the past form of the verb is formed by adding an ‘ed’ to the root verb for regular
verbs. On the other hand, there are other verbs that do not follow this rule. They are called irregular
verbs. These verbs have their own unique forms. If you are wondering how to learn these irregular
verbs, read the article on irregular verbs to find out how.

Have a look at the examples given below.

Ø Mack searched for his white shirt in his cupboard, but he did not find it. (Root verb
– search)
Ø Did you find the book you were looking for?

In the above examples, the verb ‘searched’ is the past form of the regular verb ‘search’ by adding
an ‘ed’ and the verb form ‘looking’ indicates the continuous form of the regular verb ‘look’ by
adding an ‘ing’ to the end of the root verb.

Ø Irene read the book on the evolution of life on earth.

Ø Vaileth found the keys that went missing yesterday.

In the above examples, the verb ‘read’ stays the same in the past form and when used as a past
participle. ‘Found’ is the past form of the root verb ‘find’.

c. Transitive Verbs and Intransitive Verbs

Transitive and intransitive forms of verbs are used to denote how a verb acts when used with a
direct object and an indirect object. Let us look at a few examples.
 Ø Vincent gave a box of chocolates to his brother. (Indirect object – his brother,
Direct object – a box of chocolates)
Ø Garry passed the water bottle to Kevin, who was sitting in the first row. (Indirect
object – Kevin, Direct object – the water bottle)
Ø The little girl ran around the park for two hours.
Ø Francis walked to school every day.
Ø My mother cleaned the house today. (Direct object – the house)
Ø Celine did not like the movie. (Direct object – the movie)

In the above examples, the verbs ‘gave’ and ‘passed’ in the first two sentences are seen to take a
direct object and an indirect object, whereas the verbs ‘ran’ and ‘walked’ take no object at all. In
the last two sentences, the verbs ‘cleaned’ and ‘did not like’ take a direct object and no indirect
object.

Verbs that take a direct object alone are called transitive verbs, and those verbs that do not take
either a direct object or an indirect object are called intransitive verbs. There is yet another
category of verbs that take both the direct object and the indirect object, and they are called
ditransitive verbs.

VERB FORMS

A verb is used in different ways to indicate the time in which the subject is performing an action.
There are various verb forms that are used to do the same. Let us look at the different verb forms
explained below.

a. Root Verb

The raw or original form of the verb, how it originally exists in the English language, without any
inflexions or conjugations, is called the root verb.

Some examples of root verbs are as follows:

• Eat
 • Sit
• Fry
• Tick
• Shift

b. Simple Present – Third Person Singular

The third person singular form of the verb in the present tense is mostly the verb in the singular
form. When using the third person singular pronouns such as he, she and it, and the nouns that can
be substituted by the third person singular pronouns, the verb is singular (mostly done just by
adding an ‘s’ to the root verb) so that it agrees with the subject in the sentence.

For example:

Ø Kenny likes to have mangoes after every meal. (The noun ‘Kenny’ can be substituted with
the third person singular pronoun ‘he’)
Ø The cat chases every rat it catches sight of. (The noun ‘The cat’ can be substituted with
the third person singular pronoun ‘it’)
Ø She hates going to work on Saturdays and Mondays.

c. Present Participle

The present participle is used in the continuous form of tenses to indicate an action that is
continuing or in progress at that particular moment or sometime in the past or in the future. These
words are formed just by adding an ‘ing’ to the root verb. For verbs ending with an ‘e’, in most
cases, the present participle is formed by removing the ‘e’ and then adding ‘ing’ to the remaining
portion of the verb.

For example:

b. Jack is watching a movie along with her cousin. (Present Continuous Tense)
c. My mother is baking cakes (Present Continuous Tense)
d. All my brothers were playing dodge ball in the evening. (Past Continuous Tense)
 d. Simple Past

There is a change in the spelling of the root verb when it is used to indicate the simple past tense
form of the verb. There is no one rule to write a verb in the simple past tense; it changes for each
verb – some verbs like ‘give’ and ‘bring’ take a different spelling, and some verbs like ‘cut’ and
‘put’ remain the same when used in the past tense. However, most verbs can be made into the past
tense by adding an ‘ed’ at the end of the root verb.

For example:

b. The doctor asked me to take tablets for ten days. (The rook verb here is ‘ask’)
c. Nelson bought the car he checked out last week. (The root verbs here are ‘buy’
and ‘check’)
d. The baby drank the milk completely. (The root verb here is ‘drink’)

e. Past participle

The past participle form of the verb is used to denote the perfect tense forms in a sentence. In some
cases, the past tense and the past participle remain the same, but there are a number of verbs that
have different spellings when used as a simple past tense verb and a past participle.

For example:

Ø I have searched the entire loft for that box, but I did not find it. (The root verb
here is ‘search’, ‘have searched’ is the verb in the sentence that indicates the
perfect tense and ‘searched’ is the past participle)
Ø Dylan had read the book already.

In the above example, the root verb here is ‘read’, ‘have read’ is the verb in the sentence that
indicates the perfect tense and ‘read’ is the past participle. In this case, all forms of the verb take
the same spelling but have a different pronunciation.

f. Gerunds
Any verb can be transformed into a gerund by adding ‘ing’ to the root verb. Gerunds, when it
stands by themselves, can be used as nouns. A gerund can be used as a verb when used with an
auxiliary verb to indicate an action that is continuing at a particular period of time.

For example:

Ø He is eating an apple.
Ø Joy will be coming home next week.
Ø Walking every day is good exercise.
Ø Drinking and driving is dangerous.

g. Infinitives

Infinitives, like gerunds, can be used to turn verbs into nouns by adding a preposition ‘to’ in front
of the root verb.

For example:

Ø Would you like to have something?

Ø I like to dance in my free time.
Ø I am going to talk to my friend.

h. Active Voice and Passive Voice

According to the position of the subject and object in a sentence, the voice of the verb can be
determined. A sentence in which the subject does the action is called the active voice, and a
sentence in which the indirect object or the direct object is switched to make it the subject is called
the passive voice.

For example:

Ø Active Voice – The doctor checked the patient.

Ø Passive Voice – The patient was checked by the doctor.
 I. CONJUGATING VERBS IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE – TENSE FORMS

Verbs can be conjugated to denote the tense you need. There are four tense forms, namely the
simple tense, the continuous tense, the perfect tense and the perfect continuous tense. These tense
forms are used to represent three time periods such as the present, past and future, thereby forming
twelve main tense forms in total.

2. PRONOUNS

The Pronoun is a grammatical item which belongs to the closed system family. “Closed” in the
sense that items in this family do not easily combine with each other in the structure of a given
utterance and do not readily lend themselves to inflectional variation unlike the open class system.
TYPES OF PRONOUNS
1. Personal Pronouns:
The personal Pronouns include: (I, you, he, him, we, us, me, she,her, it, they and them). They are
referred to as personal because refer to the person speaking or being spoken to. The following are
examples of personal Pronouns within the sentence structure.
a) I reported the case to the police
b) The doctor told me I will be fine
c) Leave us alone, we will survive the storm
d) She told her the secret
e) He rarely eats sugar
f) It is sunny today, I am sure they will go visit them
2. Possessive Pronouns:
The possessive Pronouns include: (my, our, your, their, her, his and mine, ours, yours, theirs, hers,
his). They are referred to as possessive because they function in genitive case (i.e they indicate
ownership and express possession relationship) to the person speaking or being spoken to. The
following are examples of possessive Pronouns in sentences.
a) Our teachers are working hard.
b) Theirs is to eat and mine, to buy.
c) Should the pen be his, the book is ours.
d) His mother is my friend
e) Her car is dirty, she needs yours.
 3. Relative Pronouns:
Relative Pronouns are used to relate an adjectival or describing clause to the noun or Pronoun it
describes. They show relationship between two or more sentence elements. They include: (who,
whom, whose, which, that, what, when, why, so and how). The relative Pronouns who and whom
according to Akinbode, (2006), relate or refer to person, i.e when the antecedent is animate
whereas which is used when the antecedent is inanimate, such as things, objects, events etc. The
following are examples of relative Pronouns in sentences.
a) Look at the man who killed his mother.
b) Let me have the book that I asked you to buy.
c) The students lack the idea about how they failed the test.
d) Meet my son in whom I am well pleased.
4. Partitive Pronouns
These are Pronouns which refer to parts (not the whole) of the antecedents (what they represent).
They include: (any, some, something, no, nothing, anything).
Examples of partitive Pronouns include:
a) Please give me some plain sheets
b) There must be something wrong with Jane.
c) Students don’t read anything lengthy.

5. Reflexive Pronouns:
Reflexive Pronouns are those which refer directly to the nouns or
the noun phrase. According to Okunowo, (2014), reflexive Pronouns indicate co-referential
relationship, i.e when the subject and object are the same referent. Such Pronouns include: (myself,
themselves, itself, yourself, himself, herself, ourselves, yourselves). Examples of reflexive
Pronouns include:
a) They themselves are the evil doers
b) If you come yourself, he may be lenient
c) She solved the problem herself
d) The goat delivered an offspring itself
e) I can drive the car myself
Akinbode, (2006) adds that a reflexive Pronoun is one which shows that the action in the sentence
has its effect on the person or thing that does the action. However, some personal Pronouns are
joined with the word #self# (singular) or #selves# (plural) to form what is known as reflexive
Pronouns.
6. Demonstrative Pronouns:
These Pronouns are used to indicate or point out the person or thing being referred to. The English
language has four basic demonstrative Pronouns. They can be classified on two basis nearness
[this] and distance [that] as well as singular [this] and plural [these].
Examples of are given below:
a) Are these the gifts from John?
b) This is my pen.
c) That may not be my property.
d) Excuse me gentleman, those boots are not yours.
7. Interrogative Pronouns:
As the name implies, interrogative Pronouns are used to ask Questions. More often than not, they
appear as the first words in sentences terminating in a question. Eka, (2008) observes that
interrogative Pronouns have morphological shapes suggestive of relative Pronouns. The difference
between the duo, however, lies in the structural and functional characteristics. For instance,
interrogative Pronouns regularly ask questions. They include: (who, what, which and who).
Illustrations are provided below.
a) What is your name?
b) When is the event?
c) Which of the clothes are yours?
d) Who provided you the keys?
8. Indefinite Pronouns:
Indefinite Pronouns refer to unspecified referents. This category
of Pronouns often functions as adjectives.
a) Here are two ladies: an intelligent one and the rough one
b) Many are called but few are chosen.
c) I have another wife apart from this.
d) It is anyone whether or not I fail
e) Time will come, when no one will be poor
9. Distributive Pronouns:
These are Pronouns used to talk about each and every person separately.
Examples of such Pronouns include:
a) Each of us has a car
b) Every Nigerian is corrupt
c) Everything good will come
d) Either of them is beautiful
e) Neither of my parents is educated
10. Reciprocal Pronouns:
These are Pronouns used to talk about mutual relationship. They
are those Pronouns which demonstrated share or common relationship or action. Eka (2008)
observes in Quirk and Greenbaum (1979) that reciprocal Pronouns somehow are similar to the
reflexive Pronouns but with slight differences. While the reciprocal Pronoun relates to the action,
the reflexive relates to the person.
Example:
a) John and Mary love each other
b) The teacher talked about examination and the students looked at each other
c) They cheated one another in their business.
3. ADVERBS

Adverbs describe verbs and modify adjectives and other adverbs. Adverbs, unlike adjectives, do
not modify nouns. Adverbs can also modify phrases, clauses, and sentences. Adverbs answer one
of the following questions: When? Where? Why? How? Under what conditions? and To what
extent?
Example: The teacher had to speak loudly to be heard over the children. (Loudly modifies the
verb speak.) The children were really bad during the movie. (Really modifies the adjective bad.)
John approached the wounded dog very slowly. (Very modifies the adverb slowly.) Clearly, Sarah
did not understand the directions. (Clearly modifies the sentence.) The box is still below the stairs.
(Still modifies the phrase “below the stairs.”)
TYPES OF ADVERBS
Adverbs of Time
An adverb of time answers the question When? Adverbs of time include: after, always, before,
during, early, later, never, now, often, rarely, recently, sometimes, soon, then, today, tomorrow,
usually, yesterday, etc.
Example: John will attend the soccer game after he finishes his homework. (After answers the
question: When will John attend the soccer game?)
Adverbs of Manner
An adverb of manner answers the question How? Adverbs of manner include: badly, beautifully,
better, bravely, cheerfully, fast, hard, quickly, slowly, inadequately, healthy, well, etc.
Example: Sarah slowly walked over the rocky beach. (Slowly answers the question: How did
Sarah walk?)
Adverbs of Place
An adverb of place answers the question Where? Adverbs of place include: above, away, below,
down, here, inside, near, outside, there, up, etc.
Example: Susan placed the boxes above the file cabinet. (Above answers the question: Where did
Susan place the boxes?)

Adverbs of Degree
An adverb of degree answers the question How much? It describes the strength and intensity at
which something happens. Adverbs of degree include: almost, completely, enough, entirely,
extremely, hardly, just, little, much, nearly, quite, rather, very, too, etc.
Example: John worked very hard to complete his part of the project. (Very answers the question:
How hard did John work?)
Adverbs of Frequency
An adverb of frequency answers the question How often? Adverbs of frequency include: always,
never, usually, frequently, occasionally, rarely, seldom, sometimes, etc.
Example: Bob always forgets to check his email b
Interrogative Adverbs
An interrogative adverb introduces a question. Interrogative adverbs are usually placed at the
beginning of the sentence. Interrogative adverbs include: how, when, why, and where.
Example: When will John’s plane arrive from Atlanta?
Conjunctive Adverbs
Conjunctive adverbs serve as transitional words, joining and relating independent clauses.
Conjunctive adverbs include: accordingly, also, alternatively, certainly, consequently, finally,
nevertheless, moreover, previously, therefore, etc. For a list of more conjunctive adverbs, refer to
the Writing Center’s handout Common Conjunctions.
Example: We plan to leave early in the morning; therefore, we will go to bed early.
FORMING ADVERBS
Adding –ly to the end, Many adverbs are formed by adding –ly to an adjective.
Example: clear/clearly, hard/hardly
Irregular Adverbs, Some adverbs do not use the –ly ending. These adverbs do not have a particular
form. Following is a list of some of the most common irregular adverbs: already, also, always,
here, never, not, now, often, quite, seldom, soon, still, then, there, too, very well.
ADVERB PLACEMENT
Adverbs are flexible in their placement; therefore, they can be placed just about anywhere within
the sentence. At the beginning of a sentence or a clause
Example: Clearly, John has a problem arriving to work on time.
At the end of a sentence or a clause
Example: Sarah and John attend the opera frequently.
After the verb
Example: Bob and John have always participated in the soccer tournament.
Between the subject and the verb
Example: Sarah rarely forgets to call home when she is out late.
4. INTERJECTIONS

An interjection is a word or phrase used to express a feeling or to request or demand something.

While interjections are a part of speech, they are not grammatically connected to other parts of a
sentence.
Interjections are common in everyday speech and informal writing. While some interjections such
as “well” and “indeed” are acceptable in formal conversation, it’s best to avoid interjections in
formal or academic writing.
Examples: Interjections in a sentence
Wow! That bird is huge.
Uh-oh. I forgot to get gas.
We’re not lost. We just need to go, um, this way.
USES OF INTERJECTIONS IN SENTENCES
Ø Interjections add meaning to a sentence or context by expressing a feeling, making a
demand, or emphasizing a thought.
 Ø Interjections can be either a single word or a phrase, and they can be used on their own or
as part of a sentence.

Examples: Uses of interjections

Phew!
Shoot, I’ve broken a nail.
Oh really? I didn’t know that.
Ø As interjections are a grammatically independent part of speech, they can often be excluded
from a sentence without impacting its meaning.

Examples: Sentences with and without interjections

Oh boy, I’m tired.
I’m tired.
Ouch! That hurts!
That hurts!
TYPES OF INTERJECTIONS
Primary interjections
A primary interjection is a word or sound that can only be used as an interjection. Primary
interjections do not have alternative meanings and can’t function as another part of speech (i.e.,
noun, verb, or adjective).
Primary interjections are typically just sounds without a clear etymology. As such, while they
sometimes have standard spellings, a single interjection may be written in different ways (e.g.,
“um-hum” or “mm-hmm”).

Examples: Primary interjections in a sentence

Ugh! That’s disgusting.
Um-hum. I think that could work.
We won the game. Yippee!
Secondary interjections
A secondary interjection is a word that is typically used as another part of speech (such as a noun,
verb or adjective) that can also be used as an interjection.
Examples: Secondary interjections in a sentence
Goodness! That was a close one.
Shoot! My flight has been canceled.
Awesome! Do that trick again.
Volitive interjections
A volitive interjection is used to give a command or make a request. For example, the volitive
interjection “shh” or “shush” is used to command someone to be quiet.
Examples: Volitive interjections in a sentence
Shh! I can’t focus when you’re singing.
Psst. Pass me an eraser.
Ahem. Please pay attention.
Emotive interjections
An emotive interjection is used to express an emotion or to indicate a reaction to something. For
example, the emotive interjection “ew” is used to express disgust. Curse words, also called
expletives, are commonly used (in informal contexts) as emotive interjections to express
frustration or anger.
Examples: Emotive interjections in a sentence
Ew. I’m not eating that.
Yay! I’m so excited to see you.
Yum! This apple pie is delicious.
Cognitive interjections
A cognitive interjection is used to express a thought or indicate a thought process. For example,
the cognitive interjection “um” can express confusion or indicate that the speaker is thinking.
Examples: Cognitive interjections in a sentence
Um, can you explain it once more?
Wow! I wasn’t expecting that.
5. CONJUNCTION

Conjunctions are words that link other words, phrases, sentences or clauses. For example, and, or,
but, nor, for, yet, so, although, because, since, unless, when, while, where are some Conjunctions.
We can also simply call them as ‘joiner’.
TYPES OF CONJUNCTION.
1. Coordinating Conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions are used to connect individual words, phrases, and independent clauses
(of equal rank or importance).
Coordinating Conjunction List and, or, but, so, nor, for, yet, also, either….or, neither…nor, etc are
some of the Coordinating Conjunctions.
2. Correlative Conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions work in pairs (example: either/or, both/and, not only/but also, as/as)
Similar to coordinating conjunctions, they link grammatical elements of similar importance. I not
only passed the exam, but also got 100%. The box is as tall as it is wide.
What to watch for when using correlative conjunctions:
Correlative conjunctions need parallel construction. Check the words after each conjunction and
make sure they’re similarly structured.
Correct: We should either book the tickets in advance or arrive an hour early. (In this example,
the phrase “book the tickets” is parallel to “arrive an hour early”)
Incorrect: We should either book the tickets in advance or be arriving an hour early. (In this
example, the phrase “book the tickets” is not parallel to “be arriving”)
3. Subordinating Conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions are one or more words that unite ideas in a complex sentence
(example: as soon as, in case, unless, while).
They link dependent clauses (incomplete thoughts) to independent clauses (complete thoughts).
Unless we give him a ride, he won’t be able to come.
Here’s some cash in case your credit card doesn’t work.
The subordinating conjunction is placed in front of the dependent clause. As Cambridge Dictionary
explains, subordinating conjunctions modify the independent clause and provide a cause, reason,
result or purpose.
What to watch for when using subordinating conjunctions:
Use a comma if the subordinating conjunction and dependent clause are at the beginning of a
sentence. Otherwise, the comma isn’t required.
As soon as she’s finished her phone call, we’ll leave for the restaurant.
We’ll leave for the restaurant as soon as she’s finished her phone call.
4. Conjunctive Adverbs
Conjunctive adverbs are one or more words used to join two independent clauses (example: after
all, besides, nevertheless).
These words are technically adverbs, but perform the same linking function as conjunctions.
What to watch for when using conjunctive adverbs:
When a conjunctive adverb unites two independent clauses in one sentence, it’s preceded by a
semicolon and followed by a comma.
The dessert is so tempting; however, I’m trying to eat less sugar.
We’re happy to pay for your expenses; after all, you’re doing us a favor.
6. PREPOSITIONS

A preposition is a word or group of words used to link nouns, pronouns and phrases to other words
in a sentence. Some examples of prepositions are single words like in, at, on, of, to, by and with
or phrases such as in front of, next to, instead of.
Prepositions in English are most frequently dictated by fixed expressions. While there are some
general guidelines to follow, many prepositions are used idiomatically with certain verbs. In these
cases, it is best to memorize the phrase instead of the individual preposition.
TYPES OF PREPOSITIONS
1. Prepositions of time

Prepositions of time usually indicate when something happens, happened or will happen in the
future. There are several prepositions of time such as, at, on, in, before, during and after.

Here are several examples of prepositions of time!

• Mack was born on May 25, 2001.

• Mack was born at 4am in the morning.
• Mack was born during the holidays of 2001.

2. Prepositions of place

Prepositions of place usually indicate position and they are easily discernible. The three most
common prepositions of place are on, at or in.
What makes this interesting is that these three prepositions are used to indicate both time and place.
But as I said before, they are easily discernible.

Here are several examples of prepositions of place!

2. The cup is on the kitchen table.

3. The cups are in the kitchen cupboard.
4. We like the cups at the supermarket..

Of course, there are several more propositions of place; however, they are easily identified, such
as, under, over, near, behind, outside, inside and between.

Here are several more examples of prepositions of place!

• The ball rolled under the cupboard.

• The boy jumped over the fence.
• The dog was near the swimming pool.
• The broom was behind the door.
• The puppy was outside the house.
• The cat was inside the house.
• The thief hid between the sheds.

3. Prepositions of movement

Prepositions of movement indicate direction or destination in which something or someone is

moving towards.

In other words, they show movement from one place to another place and these propositions of
movement usually use them with verbs of motion. For example: “He went to the hotel.”

The most common preposition of movement is to.

Here are some examples!

 • Jenny went to Spain while on holidays.
• Candace will move to the beach house for Christmas.
• David went to the beach every day over the holidays.
• Rebecca and Rachel went to school by bus.
• Dad went to the park to play ball with the children.
• The puppy went to the park for puppy training with Rachel.

4. Prepositions of manner

Prepositions of manner describe the way things happen or the means by which things happen.
These prepositions include, by, in, like, with and on.

Here are several examples of prepositions of manner!

• The children go to school by bus.

• Candace went to the shopping mall in a taxi.
• The young girl sang like a professional.
• The man reacted with anger when confronted by the police.
• They traveled on foot due to the rough terrain.

5. Prepositions of agent or instrument

Prepositions of agent or instrument indicate action conducted on something or someone by

something or someone. These prepositions include, by and with.

Here are several examples of prepositions of agent or instrument!

• The movie script was written by Candace and David.

• Candace is writing the movie script with her black pen.
• The house was constructed by Jonathan.
• Jonathan is cutting the timber with his electric saw.

6. Prepositions of measure
Prepositions of measure indicate the quantity of something with someone or something. Theses
prepositions include, by and of.

Here are several examples of prepositions of measure!

• The fabric shop sells the material by the meter.

• Candace brought a kilogram of tomatoes for the salad.
• One-third of the world was destroyed by the meteor.

7. Prepositions of source

Prepositions of source indicate that something or someone originated from something or someone.
These prepositions include, from and by.

Here are several examples of prepositions of source!

• Rachel receives money from her father in order to live comfortably.

• This note was written by my wife.
• He gave donations to charity from a grateful heart.

8. Prepositions of possession

Prepositions of possession indicate something or someone is own by something or someone else.

These prepositions include, of, with and to.

Here are several examples of prepositions of possession!

• This is the property of my late husband.

• Candace meet the boy with the dark sunglasses at the football game.
• The antique clock belongs to my mother.
• He is the friend of my classmate.
• I saw a girl with a pink dress..

7. ADJECTIVE
An adjective is a part of speech that can be used to describe or provide more information about a
noun or pronoun that acts as the subject in a sentence. Adjectives are found after the verb or before
the noun it modifies.
According to the Cambridge Dictionary, an adjective is defined as “a word that describes a noun
or pronoun.” The Collins Dictionary gives a more elaborate definition. According to it, “an
adjective is a word such as ‘big’, ‘ dead’, or ‘ financial’ that describes a person or thing, or gives
extra information about them. Adjectives usually come before nouns or after link verbs.”
The Oxford Learner’s Dictionary defines an adjective as “a word that describes a person or thing,
for example ‘big’, ‘red’ and ‘clever’ in a big house, red wine and a clever idea.” An adjective is “a
word belonging to one of the major form classes in any of numerous languages and typically
serving as a modifier of a noun to denote a quality of the thing named, to indicate its quantity or
extent, or to specify a thing as distinct from something else”, according to the Merriam-Webster
Dictionary.
TYPES OF ADJECTIVES
b. Interrogative Adjectives:

An adjective that is used to modify a noun or a pronoun by asking a question is called an

interrogative adjective. There are only a few adjectives that can be termed as interrogative
adjectives. They are whose, what and which.
c. Demonstrative Adjectives:

Demonstrative adjectives are mainly used to describe the position of a subject (a noun or pronoun)
in space or time. This, that, these and those are the demonstrative adjectives in English.
d. Compound Adjectives:

Compound adjectives consist of two or more adjectives that are combined together to form an
adjective that can be used to modify the subject. Some examples of compound adjectives are
cotton-tailed, curly-haired, absent-minded, happy-go-lucky, etc