TableContents

Important Aspects of Governance 3

E-Governance 39
Non-governmental Organisations (NGOs) 71
Pressure Groups 87
Self Help Groups 101
Civil Services 120
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CHAPTER 1

Important Aspects
of Governance

Previous Year Questions 

[2024] The Citizens’charter has been a land mark initiative in ensuring citizen-centric administration. But it is yet to reach
its full potential. Identify the factors hindering the realisation of its promise and suggest measures to overcome them.

[2021] An independent and empowered social audit mechanism is an absolute must in every sphere of public service,
including judiciary, to ensure performance, accountability and ethical conduct. Elaborate.

[2020] “Recent amendments to the Right to Information Act will have a profound impact on the autonomy and independence
of the Information Commission”. Discuss.

[2019] There is a view that the Officials Secrets Act is an obstacle to the implementation of RTI Act. Do you agree with this
view? Discuss.

[2019] In the context of neo-liberal paradigm of development planning, multi-level planning is expected to make
operations cost effective and remove many implementation blockages.’- Discuss.(15M)

[2018] The Citizen’s Charter is an ideal instrument of organisational transparency and accountability, but it has its own
limitations. Identify the limitations and suggest measures for greater effectiveness of the Citizen’s Charters.

Answer Writing Framework 

Introduction
1. If the question is specifically on any aspect of good governance like Transparency or accountability then define the
concept and mention the source
2. If the question is on Negative lines - Start with Data or Report
3. If the question is on broader governance then can start with Definition, Context or Quote

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Main Body
1. A
 fter Introduction - use input-output model diagram to highlight interlinking
2. T
 ry to use circular diagrams to highlight interlinking or viscous or virtuous cycles
3. U
 se specific data and examples along with schemes in substantiation
4. U
 se state-level best practices and global best practices in Way Forward

If the question is on Good Governance then use

Pillars of Good Governance as subheadings

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If question is on Specific aspect of Policy - Formulation, Implementation,

Monitoring, Crisis Management - Use Temporal Approach

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For Significance - Use Stakeholder Approach

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For Issues - Use PESTLE

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Way Forward

Conclusion
1. T
 ry to use a quote or link with a vision of Minimum Government Maximum Governance, Viksit Bharat, Inclusive
growth etc.

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Quotes 
“Good governance is not about implementing everything; it’s about prioritizing intelligently.” - Ha-Joon Chang

“Good governance is perhaps the single most important factor in eradicating poverty and promoting development.” - Kofi
Annan

World Bank: 1992 report entitled “Governance and Development” - Governance is the manner in which power is exer-
cised in the management of a country’s economic and social resources for development.”

Corporate Governance
World Bank: Corporate governance is about promoting corporate fairness, transparency, and accountability.

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD): Corporate governance involves a set of relation-
ships between a company’s management, its board, its shareholders, and other stakeholders. Corporate governance
provides a structure through which the objectives of the company are set, and the means of attaining those objectives
and monitoring performance are determined.

Good Governance
World Bank: WB defined Good Governance as the manner in which power is exercised in the management of a country’s
economic and social resources for development.

Evolution of Governance in India 

Model Description Examples

Entitlement-Based State-led Development Theory - Five-Year Plans (1951)

Model: Post-Indepen- Initially focused on establishing
dence Era administrative frameworks License Raj (1950s-1980s)
necessary for a new nation.
Shift Towards Partic- Promoted equality and freedom, 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments
ipation-Based Model: moving towards participatory de-
Late 20th Century mocracy and neoliberal economic LPG Reforms and Rolling back of state
policy.
Establishment of Rights-Based Approach - Solid- Right to Information Act (2005)
Rights-Based Legisla- ified the rights-based model with
tions: 21st Century key legislations recognizing basic Right to Education Act (2009)
services as legal rights. Food Security Act (2013)
Governance Reforms Minimum Government Maximum Digital India (2015)
and Initiatives Post- Governance - Focused on digital
2014 governance, transparency, and en- Goods and Services Tax (GST)
hancing citizen engagement.

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Data
Category Data and Details
A total of 1.12 billion (76.6% of the total population) cellular mobile connections were active in India in
early 2025

806 million individuals using the internet in India at the start of 2025 (online penetration of 55.3%)

India was home to 491 million social media user identities in January 2025, equating to 33.7 percent of
the total population.

India’s digital economy is growing twice as fast as its overall economy and is projected to
contribute 20% of GDP by 2029.

Rural internet penetration stands at approximately 35%, whereas urban areas has penetration rates
exceeding 70%
Public Delivery of Ser- Aadhar Generated: 1.36 billion (99% Adults)
vices
Exclusion due to Aadhar Issues: 2.1% (2023 survey), 1.2% PDS biometric failure
DBT Total DBT transfer in 2024-25 - 6.6 Lakh Cr through 320 schemes of 60 Ministries. It has saved
around 3.48 Lakh Cr of the government (Budget 2025-26 - PIB)

Over 1.85 billion beneficiaries are registered under various DBT schemes.

Governance - RTI RTI Applications:

Since 2005, more than 4.5 crore RTIs have been filed and 27 lakh second appeals are there before the
commissions.

RTIs in 2022-23: 1.35 million (Central Govt) (Economic Survey 2024)

Rejection Rate: 4.5% (37% rise in national security rejections) (PIB)
Pending Appeals: 3.3 Lakh (48% rise since 2019) Pending Appeals: 3.3 Lakh (48% rise since 2019)
(Economic Survey 2024)
In 29 information commissions across the country only 6% of positions occupied by Women

E-Governance The digital gender gap is narrowing, with 47% of internet users now being women—the highest propor-
tion. In rural India, women represent around 58% of shared device users
with only 57% schools have computers and 53% schools have Internet access (UDISE data)

E-Courts: HC disposed 24 million cases, DC disposed 44 million cases (Economic Survey 2024-25)

over 188 million individuals and 18,000 organizations have issued over 8 billion documents on Dig-
iLocker.

Legal, Judicial, and Pending Cases: 70,000 in SC, 60 lakh in HCs, 4.35 crore in lower courts
Police Reforms
Vacancy: There is a shortfall of 5,900 judges across various courts (Economic Survey 2024-25).
Police and Prisons Police-Population Ratio: 155 per lakh. Best police ratio in Nagaland, Andaman & Nicobar

Prison Occupancy: 132% (2024)

Undertrials: 68% of prisoners

Corruption ​ ccording to Transparency International’s Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI) for 2024, India is ranked
A
96th out of 180 countries.

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Key Aspects of Governance 

Aspect Description Examples / Tools
Accountability Holding officials and institutions RTI Act, CAG audits, Parliamentary Committees,
responsible for actions and out- Citizen Charters
comes.
Transparency Openness in processes and ac- e-Governance, Open Data Portals, RTI
cess to government information.
Rule of Law Governance based on laws, equal- Independent Judiciary, Constitutional Safeguards
ity, and due process.
Participation Involving citizens in governance Elections, Panchayati Raj, Public Hearings, Civil
and decision-making. Society
Responsiveness Timely and effective response to CPGRAMS, Jan Sunwai, Helplines
public needs and grievances.
Effectiveness & Optimal use of resources to deliv- Outcome-based budgeting, Service Delivery Dash-
Efficiency er services and policies. boards
Consensus-Orient- Mediating interests for inclusive Public Consultations, Inter-State Councils
ed decision-making.
Equity & Inclusive- Equal access for all, especially Reservation policies, Gender budgeting, Inclusive
ness marginalized groups. schemes (e.g., PMAY)
Strategic Vision Forward-looking policy-making NITI Aayog Vision@2047, National Infrastructure
balancing short- and long-term Pipeline
goals.
e-Governance Use of technology to enhance Digital India, UMANG, Aadhaar, DigiLocker, Direct
governance. Benefit Transfers (DBT)

Different Models of Governance

Model Description Specific Example
Govern- The government functions like a machine with Traditional public administration in India,
ment-as-Ma- strict adherence to rules and regulations, lack- where bureaucratic processes often lead to
chine Model ing flexibility and responsiveness. delays and inefficiencies in service delivery.
Govern- The government operates as a complex, intercon- Smart City initiatives in India, where various
ment-as-Net- nected system, emphasizing connection, commu- stakeholders, including government, private
work Model nication, and collaboration to solve problems. sector, and citizens, collaborate to improve
urban living.
Market Model The government allows the private sector to Delhi Electricity Board’s privatization.
provide services, aiming for efficiency and
better service delivery compared to traditional
public sectors.
Participatory Emphasizes increased individual and collective Gram Sabhas
State Model participation in government decision-making
processes, especially for typically excluded
segments.
Deregulated Focuses on reducing bureaucratic control, pro- Liberalization reforms in India post-1991
Government viding more managerial freedom, and making
Model decisions based on societal needs and collec-
tive input.

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Model Description Specific Example

Entitle- The state provides essential goods and ser- Public Distribution System (PDS)
ment-Based vices to citizens who are seen as passive
Model recipients, e.g., food grains under the Public
Distribution System (PDS) in India.
Rights-Based Aims to empower citizens as active partici- Right to Information Act (RTI)
Model pants in decision-making and strengthens the
capacity of governments to fulfill their duties to
citizens.

Good Governance 
“In the happiness of his people lies the king’s happiness, in their welfare his welfare”. -Kautilya

“The exercise of economic, political and administrative authority to manage a country’s affairs at all levels. It comprises
the mechanisms, processes and institutions, through which citizens and groups articulate their interests, exercise their
legal rights, meet their obligations and mediate their differences.” - UNDP

Evolution of Good Governance

1. 1
 980s: Rise of Governance: With globalization-led economic reforms, “governance” became a key term, empha-
sizing the process and manner of governing towards sustainable development.
2. E
 nd of Cold War: Changing Perspectives: altered the approach of developed countries and multilateral aid agen-
cies towards developing nations, previously influenced by the bi-polar world.
3. 1
 990s: World Bank’s Role: The World Bank introduced good governance in its lending policies for developing
countries.
1. 1
 992 Governance and Development Report: Advocated using good governance to manage a country’s eco-
nomic and social resources for development.
2. 1
 996 Policy Shift: Focused on corruption in borrowing countries, making it central to lending decisions.
4. IMF’s Structural Adjustment Programme 1990: Recognized the necessity of good governance for successful
market reforms.
5. P
 olicy Shifts and Foreign Investment: Developing countries, competing for foreign investment, shifted policies to
improve governance.

Core Principles of Good Governance (UNESCAP)

Principle Description Example
Participation freedom of association and expres- Gram Sabhas
sion.
Rule of Law Impartial enforcement of laws, es- SC Judgment in K. Bharti Judgment
pecially human rights laws.
Transparency Information Accessability Right to Information Act (RTI)
Responsiveness Institutions and processes should CPGRAMS
serve all stakeholders in a reason-
able time.
Consensus-Oriented Decisions should be acceptable to EIA, Social Audits
all, even if not everyone’s wishes
can be accommodated.
Equity and Inclusive- Ensure justice and equal opportu- Reservation Policies, RTE
ness nity for everyone to improve their
welfare.

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Effectiveness and Decision-making processes and Implementation of the Direct Benefit Transfer
Efficiency institutions should meet everyone’s (DBT) system
needs while using resources wisely.
Accountability Institutions must be answerable Public audits by the Comptroller and Auditor Gen-
to the public to improve societal eral (CAG) of India
quality.

Steps Taken:
Step Specific Data

Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act Till 2025, Lokpal ordered investigation in just 24 cases and granted prosecu-
(2013) tion sanction in six cases

Insolvency and Bankruptcy 4,540 cases resolved, recovering ₹2.5 lakh crore as of 2023.
Code (IBC)

Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) ₹21 lakh crore transferred through DBT schemes till 2024

Aadhaar (Unique Identifica- 1.3 billion Aadhaar cards issued, reducing leakages in subsidies by 20%.
tion)

E-Governance Projects As per ACI Worldwide Report 2024, in 2023 around 49% of the global
real-time payment transactions is happening in India.

BharatNet As of March 25, 2025, the BharatNet project has made more than 2 Lakh
Gram Panchayats (GPs) service-ready, with a total of 6 Lakh km of Optical
Fiber Cable (OFC) laid.
National Digital Health Mission Over 67 crore Ayushman Bharat Health Accounts (ABHA) have been created
(NDHM)

UMANG App Over 2,132 services, including 919 Central and 1,213 State services are cov-
ered. The app has over 7.99 crore registrations and 579.38 crore transactions.

Right to Information Act In the financial year 2021-22, 14.21 lakh RTI applications were filed with the
(2005) Union Government

Lok Adalats (People’s Courts) In 2024, National Lok Adalats across India settled a over 1.14 crore cases.

Social Audits Conducted in over 6 lakh Gram Panchayats under MGNREGA.

73rd and 74th Constitutional Over 3 million elected representatives in Panchayati Raj Institutions.
Amendments (1992)

NITI Aayog Promoting competitive federalism and Bottom Up Approach

Good Governance Index (GGI) Regular ranking published to promote competitive federalism among states.

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State Initiative Details Specific Data

Kerala Haritha Keralam Mis- Focuses on sustainable Over 1 crore saplings planted and
sion development through waste numerous water bodies rejuvenat-
management and water ed.
conservation.
Maharashtra Right to Public Ser- Ensures timely delivery of Over 500 services covered under
vices Act public services with penal- the act.
ties for non-compliance.
Aaple Sarkar Portal Digital platform for access- Over 3 crore users registered and
ing a wide range of govern- millions of services availed.
ment services online.
Jalyukt Shivar Abhiyan A water conservation initia- Over 16,000 villages benefited from
tive to make Maharashtra the program.
drought-free.
Tamil Nadu Amma Unavagam Provides subsidized meals Over 500 canteens serving lakhs of
(Amma Canteens) to the urban poor. meals daily.

Tamil Nadu e-Gover- Implements e-governance Over 200 government services

nance Agency (TNeGA) initiatives for better service available online.
delivery.
Karnataka Sakala Guarantees timely service Over 1.5 crore applications pro-
delivery and tracks applica- cessed with 98% on-time delivery.
tion status online.
Bhoomi Digitizes land records for Over 70 lakh land records digitized.
transparency in land trans-
actions.
Andhra Pradesh e-Pragati A comprehensive e-gover- Over 400 services integrated under
nance initiative to provide the platform.
integrated services to
citizens.
Rajasthan RajNet Connects all panchayats Over 11,000 panchayats connected.
and government offices
through high-speed inter-
net.
Jal Swavlamban Abhi- Focuses on water conser- Over 21,000 villages benefited from
yan vation and management to water conservation projects.
ensure water self-sufficien-
cy.
West Bengal Kanyashree Prakalpa Provides financial aid to Over 70 lakh girls benefited.
girls for education and pre-
vention of early marriage.

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Issues With Government Schemes:

Issue Details Examples
Entitlement-Based Passive Citizenry: Government welfare Public Distribution System (PDS)
Model schemes often create dependency rather
than promoting self-reliance.
Colonial Legacy The hierarchical and centralized administra- Mai Baap Culture
tive structures inherited from the colonial
era often result in inefficiency and a lack of
responsiveness.
Poor Accountabili- Despite initiatives like the Right to Informa- Only 8 out of 29 states conducted manda-
ty Mechanisms tion (RTI) Act, mechanisms such as citizen tory social audits for MGNREGA in 2023,
charters and social audits are not effectively leading to fund misutilization and delays
enforced. (Economic Survey 2024-25)
Secrecy and Multi- The legal framework is often cumbersome The average duration for case disposal in
plicity of Laws and opaque, leading to delays in justice. Indian courts is over three years​​.
Top down ap- Schemes often adopt a one-size-fits-all Farm Laws
proach approach without considering regional
disparities.
Insufficient Feasi- Lack of preliminary studies leads to imprac- Low cost recovery in Atal Setu Bridge.
bility Studies tical schemes and wasted resources.
Complex Guide- Overly complex and bureaucratic guidelines Lack of private sector participation in Smart
lines deter private sector participation and delay Cities Mission
implementation.
Overlapping Juris- Overlap between central and state schemes PM-KISAN and state-level schemes like
dictional Issues can lead to confusion and inefficiency. Rythu Bandhu caused duplication of efforts​
.
Centre-State Con- Disagreements between central and state Odisha, West Bengal and Delhi are not im-
flict governments impede scheme implementa- plementing Ayushman Bharat Scheme​.
tion.
Corruption and Misappropriation of funds and resourc- PDS faces 46.7% leakages​. (NSSO)
Leakages es often undermine the effectiveness of
schemes.
Poor Monitoring Inadequate monitoring mechanisms lead to 40% of PMGSY roads needed repairs within
and Evaluation poor oversight and accountability. a year​.
Inaccurate Target- Incorrect identification of beneficiaries PM-KISAN had over 10 lakh ineligible recip-
ing leads to exclusion errors and inclusion ients​ ​.
errors.
Digital Divide Reliance on digital platforms excludes those 25% of rural households lack internet ac-
without internet access or digital literacy. cess, affecting DBT reach​.
Resource Con- Insufficient funding hampers comprehensive Ayushman Bharat has 30% of health cen-
straints implementation and coverage. ters non-operational​​.

Populist Spending Governments often overspend, leading to Loan Waivers & Fiscal Deficits: Excess
fiscal deficits. This results in reduced re- spending reduces private sector resources
sources for the private sector and increased and fuels inflation & Fiscal Deficits: Excess
inflation. spending reduces private sector resources
and fuels inflation (Budget 2025-26)
Capital vs. Reve- Emphasis on capital expenditure over rev- Doctor to population ration in India is 1:834
nue Expenditure enue expenditure leads to numerous infra-
structure projects but insufficient staffing,
affecting human development indicators.

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Funding Delays hinder timely execution and beneficiary MGNREGA had ₹10,000 crore in pending
payments. wages as of March 2023​.
Misallocation of Diversion of funds due to mismanagement Midday Meal Scheme reported substandard
Funds or corruption. meals in several states​​.
Technological Issues with integrating and using technolo- PDS technical glitches affected over 1 crore
Implementation gy effectively in schemes. beneficiaries in 2022​​.
Issues
Dominant Public The government still controls critical sectors Government hospitals account for 70% of
Sector like health and education, lacking the appli- patient load, yet face a 17% doctor shortage,
cation of “Minimum Government Maximum affecting healthcare quality
Governance.”
Slow Privatization The government set a disinvestment target LIC IPO in 2022 raised only ₹20,500 Cr
of ₹1.75 lakh crore for FY2021-22, revised it against the target of ₹65,000 Cr, highlight-
to ₹78,000 crore later, but the actual pro- ing slow disinvestment progress (Budget
ceeds were only ₹14,638 crore. 2025-26)
Poor Technological Only 30% of gram panchayats connected to Only 32% of villages under BharatNet
Infrastructure high-speed internet as of 2023​. Phase-II had operational broadband as of
2024, delaying rural digital access (PIB)
Cybersecurity Data breaches and cyber-attacks com- Aadhaar data breach exposed millions of
Threats promise the integrity and trust in digital citizens’ information​.
schemes.

Technical Glitches Frequent technical issues disrupt the GSTN issues caused compliance delays for
smooth operation of digital schemes. over 5 lakh taxpayers​.
Limited Impact Lack of systematic evaluations prevents as- 30% of Ujjwala Yojana beneficiaries revert-
Evaluation sessment of scheme success and necessary ed to traditional fuels​.
improvements.
Sustainability Short-term focus and lack of long-term sus- Jalyukt Shivar: 20% of structures became
Issues tainability planning. non-functional within 2 years Jalyukt Shivar:
20% of structures became non-functional
within 2 years (Economic Survey 2024-25)
Lack of Benefi- Absence of systematic mechanisms to gath- Non-institutionalization of Social Audits
ciary Feedback er and incorporate beneficiary feedback.
Mechanism
Limited Reach Some schemes fail to reach all intended 15% of targeted schools not covered by Mid-
beneficiaries, especially in remote areas. day Meal Scheme in 2022​.

Unintended Con- Some schemes have unintended negative Loan waivers led to reduced credit discipline
sequences impacts that undermine their objectives. among farmers​.

Political Interfer- Political involvement distorts scheme prior- 25% of Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana
ence ities and implementation, leading to favorit- projects affected by political interference​​.
ism and inefficiency.
Bureaucratic Hur- Red tape and bureaucratic hurdles delay Requirement of multiple clearances
dles project approvals and implementation.
Inter-Departmen- leads to fragmented and inefficient scheme ICDS faced issues due to poor coordination,
tal Coordination execution. affecting 30% of projects​(Ministry of Wom-
Issues en & Child Development)
Frequent Changes Frequent changes in administrative leader- Five different secretaries headed the
in Leadership ship disrupt the continuity and implementa- Ministry of Education between 2020-2024,
tion of schemes. delaying NEP 2020 implementation (PIB,
Economic Survey 2024-25)

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Citizen Participation and Good Governance

Citizen participation is essential in democracy, allowing people to influence public decisions, hold leaders accountable,
and help develop their communities. Good governance includes transparency, accountability, and inclusivity, crucial for
sustainable development.

“No one is born a good citizen; no nation is born a democracy. Rather, both are processes that continue to evolve over a
lifetime.” - Kofi Annan

Benefits

Aspect Importance Examples

Enhances Account- Ensures public officials are The Right to Information Act (2005)
ability answerable and reduces
corruption.
Improves Policy Incorporates diverse per- The National Education Policy (2020) involved extensive
Formulation spectives for comprehensive public consultations, resulting in a more inclusive frame-
policies. work​.

Enhances Service Aligns services with actual The Sevottam model in India improves service delivery
Delivery needs and improves efficien- through citizen feedback and performance evaluation​​.
cy.
Strengthens De- Empowers citizens and fos- Panchayati Raj Institutions in India enable local self-gov-
mocracy ters a sense of civic respon- ernance and direct citizen participation in decision-mak-
sibility. ing​​.
Builds Trust in Gov- Promotes mutual trust and Right to Service in Maharashtra.
ernment perceived legitimacy of
actions.
Facilitates Social Involves marginalized com- Social audits in schemes like MGNREGA promote inclu-
Cohesion munities, preventing con- sivity and help resolve local issues effectively​​.
flicts.
Promotes Sustain- Ensures development proj- The Jal Swavlamban Abhiyan in Rajasthan leverages local
able Development ects are sustainable and participation in water conservation​​.
community-supported.

Theory Explanation Examples

Participatory De- Emphasizes broad participation of constituents in political Gram Sabhas

mocracy Theory decision-making processes.
Deliberative De- Focuses on discussion and deliberation among citizens to public hearings in urban plan-
mocracy Theory reach consensus on public issues. ning projects​​.

Social Capital Suggests that networks of relationships among people in a Community organizations and
Theory society enable it to function effectively. social networks likePanchayati
Raj Institutions​​.
Agency Theory Focuses on the relationship between principals (citizens) Mechanisms like audits,
and agents (government officials), emphasizing account- watchdog organizations, and
ability. transparent reporting to ensure
government accountability

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Challenges in Citizen Participation

Challenge Details Examples

Lack of Aware- Citizens often lack information about Low awareness about Atal Pension Yojana and
ness their rights and the processes for PM-SYM among informal sector workers (Economic
participation. Survey 2024-25)
Digital Divide Limited internet access and digital 30% of rural households in India lack internet ac-
literacy prevent many citizens from cess, affecting the reach of schemes like DBT​​.
engaging with e-governance plat-
forms.
Low Levels of Edu- Illiteracy and low educational levels Low literacy among women leading to ‘Sarpanch
cation hinder effective participation in gov- Pati ’ in Panchayati Raj​
ernance processes.

Lack of Capacity Citizens often lack the skills and Limited and inconsistent training programs for par-
knowledge required to participate ticipation in social audits and governance initiatives
effectively in governance. (Economic Survey 2024-25)

Distrust in Gov- Historical instances of corruption and Decline in trust due to delays in MGNREGA wage
ernment inefficiency lead to a lack of trust in payments (₹12,000 Cr pending as of March 2024)
government initiatives. and inconsistencies in PM-KISAN beneficiary lists
(PIB, Economic Survey 2024-25)
Exclusion of Mar- Marginalized communities often find Preventing Dalits from participation in Gram Sabha
ginalized Groups it difficult to participate due to social in TN
and economic barriers.
Geographical Remote and rural areas face logistical 40% of villages in hilly and tribal areas lack reliable
Barriers challenges in accessing participatory banking infrastructure, limiting DBT accessibility
platforms and services. (Economic Survey 2024-25)
Bureaucratic Complex administrative processes, Complicated procedures for accessing benefits
Hurdles red tape discourage citizen participa- under schemes like PMAY
tion.
Poor Communica- Ineffective communication between Only 30% of farmers were aware of the PM Fasal
tion Channels government and citizens leads to Bima Yojana claim process, leading to low claim
misunderstandings and apathy. settlement rates (Economic Survey 2024-25)
Economic Con- Economic hardship can limit the time Daily wage laborers might prioritize earning a liveli-
straints and resources citizens can devote to hood over participating in governance activities​.
participation.

Way Forward 
Aspect Measure Recommendations/Examples

Enhancing Trans- Improved Effective- Reduce exemptions for security and economic institutes, ensure
parency and ness of the RTI Act records are machine-readable, implement legislation akin to the
Accountability Whistleblower Protection Bill of 2015.

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Enhancing Effective Implemen- Decentralized formulation, meaningful dialogues with civil society,
Service Delivery tation of Citizen’s periodic evaluations, clear procedures for redress.
Mechanisms Charters

Promotion of Social Ensure guidelines for all citizen-centric programs include social
Audits audit mechanisms.
Encouraging Citizen Reward schemes to encourage public service improvements.
Initiatives
Establishment Code of Ethics for Defining core values applicable across all government levels,
of Public Service Civil Servants enforce penalties for violations, enhance the code of ethics to
Values address conflicts of interest.
Improving Pub- Training and Develop- Enhanced training programs for pre-entry and mid-career, perfor-
lic Sector Work ment mance-linked pay, managerial autonomy, employee recognition
Culture through awards and newsletters.
IT Reforms for Infrastructure and Essential IT infrastructure, reliable electricity and internet services,
Good Gover- Skill Enhancement continual skill upgradation for staff.
nance
Boosting Citizen Participatory Bud- Community members allocate portions of the public budget.
Participation in geting
Governance

Joint Assessment and Collaborative evaluations for significant local flagship programs.
Monitoring

Global Best Practices 

Measure Examples

Whistleblower Protec- The United States’ Whistleblower Protection Act provides strong protections for federal
tion employees​​.

Open Data Initiatives The UK Government’s Open Data portal​.

Citizen Feedback South Korea’s e-People system allows citizens to file complaints and suggestions on-
Mechanisms line​​.

Participatory Budget- Porto Alegre in Brazil is known for its participatory budgeting process, involving thou-
ing sands of residents in budget decisions​.

Inclusive Policy-Mak- Canada’s Gender-Based Analysis Plus (GBA+) ensures diverse perspectives are consid-
ing ered in policy-making​​.
Strengthening Judi- The Judicial Appointments Commission in the UK ensures a transparent and mer-
cial Independence it-based selection of judges​​.
Anti-Corruption Mea- Hong Kong’s Independent Commission Against Corruption (ICAC)
sures
Digital Governance Estonia’s e-Estonia initiative provides a wide range of government services online, im-
proving accessibility and efficiency​​.
Citizen Charters The UK’s Citizen Charter introduced in 1991 set service standards for various public
services​.
Code of Ethics for Singapore’s Code of Conduct for civil servants emphasizes integrity and accountability​​.
Civil Servants

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Transparency and Accountability 

Transparency 
“Democracy must be built through open societies that share information. When there is information, there is enlighten-
ment.” - James Bovard

“Corruption thrives in the shadows, and transparency is the most effective antidote to corruption.” - Daniel Kaufmann

“A popular Government without popular information or the means of acquiring it is but a Prologue to a Farce or a Tragedy
or perhaps both.” - James Madison

“Transparency refers to the increased flow of timely and reliable economic, social, and political information, which is ac-
cessible to all relevant stakeholders, promoting accountability and informed decision-making.” - World bank

Transparency and Good Governance

1. E
 nhancing Accountability
1. V
 isibility of Actions: When government actions and decisions are transparent, public officials can be held
accountable for their actions. Eg- RTI
2. M
 onitoring and Evaluation: Eg- Public Financial Management System (PFMS) enables real-time tracking of
government expenditures
2. P
 romoting Public Participation
1. Informed Citizenry: to engage meaningfully in governance processes. Eg- MyGov platform
2. Inclusive Decision-Making: Open access to information allows diverse voices to be heard
3. B
 uilding Trust and Legitimacy
1. T
 rust in Institutions by demonstrating openness and honesty. Eg- live telecasting of SC proceedings
2. L egitimacy of Governance: When citizens are able to see and understand government actions.
4. P
 reventing Corruption
1. D
 eterrence: The risk of exposure and public scrutiny deters corrupt practices.
2. D
 etection: Eg- The Public Procurement Portal publishes details of government contracts and tenders, facili-
tating the detection of irregularities
5. Improving Efficiency and Effectiveness
1. B
 etter Decision-Making: Access to comprehensive and accurate information allows for more informed and
effective decision-making.
2. R
 esource Allocation: Transparency in budgeting and spending ensures efficiency and effectiveness, reduc-
ing waste and mismanagement.

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6. S
 trengthening the Rule of Law
1. L egal Clarity: Transparency in the legal and regulatory processes ensures that laws and regulations are clear
and accessible to all.
2. E
 qual Enforcement: Open access to legal information helps ensure that laws are applied equally and fairly.

Challenges

Strategies to Increase Transparency in Governance

1. A
 ccess to Information
1. E
 stablish records management laws and computerisation
2. P
 ublish government documents (e.g., ‘M’ books) on official websites
3. Implement web-based approval systems for various processes
2. E
 thics and Integrity
1. D
 evelop and implement a model code of conduct for political representatives, civil service, judiciary, and civil
society groups

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2. R
 emove all discretionary powers provided to officials under the law to prevent misappropriation
3. P
 ublic Hearings & Meetings: Conduct social audits and involve the public in policy-making processes.
3. Institutional Reforms
1. P
 roactive Disclosure of Information: This includes budgets, audits, and decision-making processes.
2. A
 nnual Transparency Reports: detailing their activities, budget utilization, and audits to keep the public
informed and engaged.
3. P
 ublic Service Agreements for the delivery of services by executive agencies
4. S
 takeholder Participation: Involve citizen committees, Citizen Boards and focus groups in the decision-mak-
ing process
5. E
 asy Access to Government Officials: Make contact numbers of senior officials available for grievance regis-
tration
6. C
 itizen Service Facilitation Counters: Set up counters to facilitate public access to government services
and information
4. A
 ssessment and Monitoring
1. P
 erformance Measurement and Management through performance indicators and annual performance
white papers
2. C
 itizens’ Charter Implementation to provide timelines for service delivery

Government Initiatives to Increase Transparency

1. R
 ight to Information Act, 2005:
2. E
 -Governance Initiatives: Utilizes ICT, including the Digital India mission, JAM trinity, and Direct Bene-
fit Transfer, to improve public access to government information and services.
3. S
 implifying Processes: The government has eliminated approximately 1,500 outdated rules and laws.
Measures such as self-attestation and the elimination of interviews for junior positions also contribute
to these goals.
4. A
 EBAS- Aadhar Enabled Biometric Attendance enables real-time and flawless monitoring of employee
attendance thereby ensuring punctuality among employees,
5. e
 -Office aims to usher in more efficient, effective, and transparent inter-government and intra-
government transactions and processes.
6. G
 eM: - listing products for individual categories of Goods and Services, and a user-friendly dashboard
for buying and monitoring supplies and payment.
7. T
 he Web Responsive Pensioner’s Service - single-point web solution to obtain information relating to
the status of the pension processing and payment.

Transparency Vs Privacy
“There is a fine balance required to be maintained between the right to information and the right to privacy, which stems
out of the fundamental right to life and liberty. The citizens’ right to know should definitely be circumscribed if disclosure
of information encroaches upon someone’s personal privacy. But where to draw the line is a complicated question.”
- Dr. Manmohan Singh

Emphasizing Transparency:
1. E
 ssential Nature: during the COVID-19 pandemic, the dissemination of affected individuals› travel histories
helped trace virus transmission chains, despite concerns about personal privacy.
2. N
 ot Absolute: The Supreme Court›s judgment in the Puttaswamy case (2017) declared privacy a fundamental
right but not an absolute one. This ruling supports the notion that personal data can be used for valid purposes,
aligning with public health and safety.
3. P
 revent Misuse: The RTI Act aims to curb the misuse of privacy claims that shield information necessary for public
scrutiny.

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4. D
 emocratic Accountability: Transparency holds public officials and institutions accountable to citizens
5. C
 hecks on Surveillance and Power Abuse: Makes government surveillance mechanisms more regulated and
visible to the public.
6. L egal Safeguards: Under the RTI Act, Section 8(1)j, information that concerns personal privacy can be disclosed if
there is an overriding public interest. Eg.- asset declarations by politicians.
7. P
 ublic Over Private: The principle that public interest trumps personal privacy is foundational to transparency
laws.

Upholding Privacy:
1. P
 ersonal Sovereignty: The principle of “informational self-determination,” recognized internationally, supports
individuals’ control over their personal data, starkly contrasting with approaches in totalitarian states.
2. E
 nsure Dignity: Privacy is linked to dignity and autonomy, essential for a free life.
3. M
 odern Needs: As the use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) expands, laws need to evolve to
protect personal data. Eg.- Personal Data Protection Bill.
4. R
 isk of Surveillance: The potential for surveillance and data misuse is a significant concern, incidents like the
Pegasus spyware scandal, shows the risks of privacy breaches when government authorities have unrestricted
access to personal data
5. C
 hilling Effect on Freedom of Expression: Without privacy, citizens may self-censor, fearing social or political
retribution.

Balancing the two Rights:

Aspect Balancing Transparency and Privacy

Legal and Ethical Stan- Comply with transparency laws and ethical guidelines while also adhering to data
dards protection laws.

Consent and Control Inform individuals about data collection and use, obtain explicit consent, and provide
control over their data.

Security Measures Disclose security measures to build trust and implement robust security protocols to
protect data.
Data Anonymization Share aggregated data for transparency while removing personally identifiable infor-
mation to maintain privacy.
Transparency Reports Regularly publish transparency reports and highlight steps taken to protect privacy.

Data Minimization Collect only necessary data for transparency purposes and avoid collecting excessive
or irrelevant information.

Access Controls Limit access to data to authorized personnel only and implement role-based access
controls to protect sensitive information.
User Rights Allow individuals to access information about data usage and enable them to access,
correct, and delete their data.
Accountability Mecha- Establish frameworks for oversight and appoint data protection officers or committees
nisms to ensure compliance.
Setting Boundaries It’s critical to clearly define the extent to which private information can be disclosed,
which will require continuous dialogue and legislative refinement.

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Transparency and Confidentiality

Necessity of National Security Measures:
Aspect Elaboration
National Security Protects information related to national security and public safety. Eg- details of surgical
strikes
Personal Privacy Eg- Confidentiality of Aadhaar data, with stringent measures to protect citizens’ biometric
information.

Effective Policy Incrementalism in Policy Making supports the idea that confidential discussions lead to
Formulation better policy decisions. Eg- Cabinet Committee meetings

Whistleblower Pro- Safeguards individuals who report corruption or misconduct from retaliation and ensure
tection safety.
Strategic Advan- Strategic Management Theory highlights the importance of secrecy in achieving competi-
tage tive and operational advantages.
Diplomatic Rela- Confidential negotiations during the India-China border talks to ensure sensitive discus-
tions sions remain undisclosed
Public Order and Withholding specific details of anti-terror operations in Jammu and Kashmir to avoid public
Stability panic and ensure operational success.
Protecting Sensi- Encryption of sensitive government communications to prevent cyberattacks, as empha-
tive Information sized after incidents like the malware attack on Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant

Way Forward:
1. B
 alance Secrecy and Disclosure: According to RTI Act’s Section 8(2), public interest can override secrecy when
disclosure is more beneficial than harmful.
2. R
 educing Overclassification: Officials should justify their reasons for classifying information.
3. R
 eform the Official Secrets Act: Based on the 2nd Administrative Reforms Commission’s (ARC) recommen-
dation, the OSA should be replaced with more transparent provisions within the National Security Act to suit a
democratic society.

Accountability 
“It is wrong and immoral to seek to escape the consequences of one’s acts.” -Mahatma Gandhi

“A body of men holding themselves accountable to nobody ought not to be trusted by anybody.” - Thomas Paine

Accountability means decision-makers must justify their actions and inactions to those impacted by these decisions. It
extends beyond mere hierarchical obligations to include responsibilities towards all stakeholders, such as citizens and
civil society.

Various Forms of Accountability

1. E
 xternal Accountability: Refers to the government’s responsibility to its citizens, primarily enforced via electoral
processes.
2. Internal Accountability: Deals with the internal controls, checks, and balances within government agencies. Eg-
the CAG of India plays a crucial role in auditing government expenditures, ensuring internal accountability.
3. F
 inancial Accountability: Involves the review of financial requests from various departments by parliamentary
committees.
4. E
 thical Accountability: Concerns the ethical obligations between organizations and their members.
5. P
 rofessional Accountability: Relates to adherence to professional standards and codes of conduct enforced by

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employers or professional bodies.

6. L egal Accountability: Applies when individuals or organizations are held responsible under legal statutes.
7. P
 olitical Accountability: Enables citizens to hold elected officials accountable, crucial for upholding democratic
values and human rights.

Mechanisms of Accountability
Category Mechanism Example

Constitutional Judiciary Supreme Court’s ruling on Section 377 decriminalizing homosexuality.

Parliamentary PAC review of MGNREGA scheme implementation.

Committees

Article 311 Provides safeguards to civil servants against arbitrary dismissal, remov-
al, or reduction in rank.

Legal RTI Act RTI request revealing Aadhaar data breach in 2017.

Whistleblower Protection under the Whistle Blowers Protection Act for an MCD em-
Protection ployee.

Lokpal and Lo- Karnataka Lokayukta’s chargesheet against senior IAS officer.
kayuktas

Institutional CAG CAG report on 2G spectrum allocation case.

CVC Investigation of corruption in the Food Corporation of India in 2021.

Election Commis- ECI’s cancellation of Vellore Lok Sabha election in 2019.

sion of India (ECI)

Central Informa- CIC’s directive to RBI to disclose willful defaulters list in 2015.
tion Commission
(CIC)
CPGRAMS A centralized system to monitor and address public grievances related to
administrative functions.

Societal Media and Civil Media investigation into PM CARES Fund management in 2020.
Society

Participatory Citizens directly participate in budget formulation and monitoring the

Budgeting execution at the local government level. Eg- Gram Sabha

Citizen Report Participatory surveys provide quantitative feedback to service providers

Card on citizens’ satisfaction with public services.

Social Audit Social audits of MGNREGA in Andhra Pradesh; Social audit initiatives by
the Society for Social Audit, Accountability, and Transparency (SSAAT)
in Telangana.
Public Hearings Jan Sunwais conducted by MKSS in Rajasthan, where officials are ques-
(Jan Sunwai) tioned in public about the implementation of welfare programs.

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Challenges in Ensuring Accountability in Governance in

India
Challenge Description

Corruption Corruption undermines trust in public institutions and hampers accountability mecha-
nisms. Eg - Vyapam scam in Madhya Pradesh
Bureaucratic Red Excessive procedural formalities delay decision-making and accountability. Eg- delays
Tape in environmental clearances
Lack of Transparency Limited access to government data restricts public scrutiny. Eg- refusal to disclose
details of the electoral bonds scheme
Political Interference Political influence compromises the neutrality and effectiveness of civil servants. Eg-
Frequent transfers of IAS officer Ashok Khemka
Social Audit Limita- The absence of mandated social audits leads to difficulties in verifying official actions
tions and resistance from authorities.
Weak Legal Frame- Delays in implementing the Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act
work
Limited Public Partic- Low public participation in the Gram Sabha, reduction in voting percentage etc.
ipation
Inefficiencies in Judi- Eg- The long pendency of the 2G spectrum case, which took nearly a decade to reach a
cial System verdict
Resource Constraints Understaffing and lack of funds for anti-corruption agencies like the CVC
Cultural Factors Social norms that tolerate corruption (“speed money”) and lack of accountability.

Resistance to Change Lack of enforcement of Supreme Court directives on police reforms and non-compli-
ance of political parties with RTI directives.

Way Forward
1. S
 trengthening Legal Frameworks - Expedite the implementation of pending laws like the Whistle Blowers
Protection Act and strengthen existing laws such as the Prevention of Corruption Act
2. J udicial Reforms - Implementing fast-track courts specifically for corruption and public interest litigation to ensure
timely resolution of cases.
3. E nhancing Transparency Mechanisms - Strengthen the Central Information Commission (CIC) and State
Information Commissions to reduce the backlog of RTI appeals and ensure compliance by public authorities.
4. E mpowering Independent Institutions - Ensure sufficient staffing and funding for the CVC and CAG to carry out
thorough investigations and audits without political interference.
5. P romoting Citizen Engagement - Expand the use of the MyGov platform to solicit citizen feedback on policy
decisions and improve accountability through direct public involvement
6. P roactive Information Sharing - Eg- Implementing a public dashboard for major infrastructure projects, similar to
the Pragati platform used by the Prime Minister’s Office to track project progress
7. Implement compulsory social audits for all government schemes by engaging community members in evaluating
the implementation and impact of government programs.
8. R evising citizen charters to include penalty clauses for service delays and non-compliance, and ensuring
widespread awareness among citizens
9. L imit discretionary powers in governance by defining clear rules and criteria for decision-making to minimize
subjectivity. Eg- implementing automated systems for approvals and licenses
10. C  reate and enforce a code of conduct for civil servants involving training, regular evaluations, and clear
disciplinary actions for violations
11. R  egular Monitoring and Evaluation - Establishing a Performance Management and Evaluation Sys-
tem (PMES) across ministries to regularly review and publicly report on project outcomes

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Citizen Charter
A Citizen’s Charter is a document that outlines the commitment of an organization to uphold certain standards, ensure
quality, and deliver services within a specified timeframe.

It promotes transparency and accountability in administration by including mechanisms for addressing grievances.

Components of a Citizen Charter:

1. V
 ision and Mission Statement: Defines the organization’s core objectives and the principles guiding its operations.
2. D
 omain of the Organization: Specifies the range of topics and service areas covered by the organization, clarify-
ing what users can expect in terms of service.
3. S
 tandards, Quality, and Timeframes: Establishes the expected quality and timelines for service delivery, ensuring
reliability and efficiency.
4. G
 rievance Redressal Mechanism: Details the process for addressing complaints, including how to access this
service and what to expect during the redressal.
5. C
 itizen Responsibilities: Describes the duties and obligations of citizens in utilizing the services provided, pro-
moting responsible engagement.
6. A
 dditional Commitments: Includes guarantees such as compensation or other remedial actions in case of service
failure, reinforcing the organization’s dedication to effective service delivery.

Significance of Citizen Charter:

1. T
 ransparency and Accountability: Enhances clarity and accountability in public services by detailing what citi-
zens can expect.
2. C
 itizen Participation: Boosts public involvement by informing citizens about organizational goals and procedures.
3. Improved Service Efficiency: Leads to more efficient and effective public service delivery.
4. C
 orruption Reduction: Helps reduce corruption by setting clear service standards.
5. C
 ost Reduction: Decreases costs and delays in public services, promoting efficient governance.
6. E
 quitable Services: Sets service standards that promote fair access and treatment for all citizens.

Issues:
1. L ack of Legal Enforcement: Citizen Charters aren’t legally binding, which limits accountability.
2. Inadequate Design: Many charters are poorly designed and lack essential information, weakening their impact.
3. L ow Awareness: There is significant unawareness among both citizens and implementing agencies.
4. L imited Consultation: Charters often don’t involve consultations with end-users or NGOs, leading to gaps in ser-
vice alignment.
5. R
 are Updates: Many charters are outdated, having not been revised since the 1990s.
6. O
 verlooking Vulnerable Groups: Needs of groups like senior citizens and the disabled are often ignored.
7. Insufficient Training: Implementing staff frequently lack the training and ownership needed to enforce the char-
ters effectively.
8. C
 omplex Procedures: The process for complaints and grievances is often complicated and inaccessible.
9. N
 o Independent Audits: The absence of audits undermines transparency and effectiveness.
10. L anguage Barriers: Charters are typically available only in English or Hindi, limiting accessibility for non-speak-
ers.

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Way Forward:
Recommendations by the 2nd Administrative Reforms Commission (2nd ARC)
1. D
 ecentralization of Charter Formulation: Customize Citizen Charters for different government departments to
reflect their specific operational realities.
2. E
 xtensive Consultation Process: Develop Citizen Charters through consultations within the organization and
with inputs from civil society and experts.
3. R
 obust Redressal Mechanisms: Include compulsory redressal mechanisms in Charters to ensure compliance and
accountability.
4. P
 eriodic Evaluation by External Agencies: Regularly evaluate the effectiveness of Citizen Charters through ex-
ternal agencies and use the findings for improvement.
5. E
 nd-User Feedback for Benchmarking: Use feedback from service users to measure the performance of agen-
cies and guide improvements.
6. R
 ealistic Promise Setting: Focus on achievable promises to enhance trust and ensure service delivery within the
capabilities of agencies.
7. A
 ccountability for Results: Hold officials and agencies accountable for delivering on the commitments made in
the Citizen Charters.
8. A
 doption of the Sevottam Model: The Sevottam model was suggested by the 2nd ARC in its 12th report on “Citi-
zen Centric Administration”. This model combines the principles of ‘service’ and ‘uttam’ (excellence) and outlines a
systematic approach:
1. D
 efining services and identifying clients.
2. S
 etting standards and norms for each service.
3. D
 eveloping capabilities to meet these standards.
4. P
 erforming services to achieve the standards.
5. M
 onitoring and evaluating performance continuously.
6. Implementing continuous improvements based on evaluations.
These steps provide a comprehensive pathway to revitalize the Citizen Charter framework, ensuring it effectively meets
the expectations of citizens and leads to a more accountable and responsive public service system.

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Social Audit 
Social audit is a collaborative process in which the public, particularly the beneficiaries, actively participate in evaluating
the performance of government programs and projects. This form of audit allows people to directly assess and oversee
the effectiveness of governmental initiatives, together with the administration.

Evolution of Social Audit in India:

1. 1
 979: In India, the concept of social audit was first initiated by Tata Iron and Steel Company Limited (TISCO) in
Jamshedpur.
2. 7
 3rd Constitutional Amendment Act: empowered Gram Sabhas to audit Panchayat accounts.
3. C
 ivil Society Initiatives (1990s onwards): Various civil society organizations and movements began conducting
social audits to monitor the performance of various institutions.
4. 9
 th Five-Year Plan (2002-2007): It emphasized the role of Gram Sabhas in conducting social audits .
5. R
 ight to Information Act, 2005: This act facilitated the indirect engagement of citizens in the social auditing of
government operations.
6. M
 GNREGA 2006: The inclusion of Section 17, mandating transparency and public scrutiny, significantly enhanced
the relevance and acceptance of social audit globally.
7. S
 ocial Audit Units (SAU): Established by many states, these units facilitate the social audit of programs like Prad-
han Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY), Midday Meal Scheme (MDM), etc.
8. M
 eghalaya Social Audit Act, 2017: Meghalaya became the first state in India to enact legislation that institution-
alizes the social audit of government schemes and programs as a governance mechanism.

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Objectives of Social Audit

1. T
 ransparency and Accountability: Enhance transparency and accountability in government policy implementa-
tion.
2. R
 esource Allocation: Ensure proper utilization of funds and prioritize development activities.
3. P
 olicy Scrutiny: Examine various policy decisions and identify any gaps in funding and outcomes.
4. P
 rogram Efficiency: Boost the efficacy and efficiency of local development programs, considering the interests of
stakeholders.
5. A
 wareness Creation: Raise awareness among beneficiaries and providers of local social and productive services.

Principles of Social Audit:

1. Inclusivity: Incorporate the viewpoints of all stakeholders affected by decisions.
2. C
 omprehensive & Comparative: Evaluate and report on every aspect of an organization’s performance.
3. P
 articipatory: Foster stakeholder engagement and value sharing.
4. C
 onsistency: Regularly produce social accounts to integrate the practice into the organization›s culture.
5. Integrity: Ensure that social accounts are audited by an impartial and experienced individual or agency.
6. T
 ransparency: Make audited accounts accessible to stakeholders and the broader community to support
transparency and accountability.

Importance of Social Audit in India:

1. P
 articipatory Governance: Public meetings (Jansunwais) review RTI records, identify issues, correct schemes, re-
duce secrecy, and build trust. Eg: Andhra Pradesh’s MGNREGA Jansunwais addressed job card and wage payment
discrepancies.
2. Innovative Approach: Social audits compare real outcomes with official records. Eg: Rajasthan’s PDS audits re-
vealed ration distribution issues, leading to reforms.
3. Increased Transparency: Audits publicize official information, raising awareness. Eg: PMAY audits published ben-
eficiary lists and construction progress online.
4. Improved Accountability: Audits hold officials accountable for poor implementation. Eg: Bihar’s MDM Scheme
audits exposed meal distribution irregularities, resulting in disciplinary actions.
5. L ocal Oversight: Gram Sabhas conduct regular project audits, ensuring community involvement. Eg: Kerala’s Peo-
ple’s Planning Campaign includes regular audits by Gram Sabhas.
6. D
 eters Corruption and Malpractices - In Rajasthan, social audits have exposed irregularities in various public
works and services, leading to corrective actions and prosecutions.
7. Improves Public Service Delivery - Social audits in the public distribution system (PDS) have helped to identify
and rectify issues such as fake ration cards and improper allocation of food grains .

Challenges in Implementing Social Audit:

1. L ack of Legal Backing - While social audits are mandated in several schemes, there is no comprehensive legal
framework ensuring their implementation and follow-up.
2. L ack of Political and Administrative Will: SA often seen as a formality with no real outcomes due to reluctance to
share information and fear of scrutiny.
3. L ow Public Awareness and Participation: Insufficient awareness, incentives, interest, and capacity among the
public to engage in SA meaningfully.
4. Institutional Issues: No permanent structure, lack of independence, inadequate staffing in SAUs, no strict penal-
ties for non-compliance, and no independent body to act on SA findings.
5. C
 omplexity and Scope: Audits covering large and multi-faceted schemes like MGNREGA can be overwhelming,
leading to incomplete or superficial assessments.

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6. F
 ollow-Up and Action on Findings: According to the Ministry of Rural Development, a significant percentage of
social audit recommendations remain unaddressed
7. Insufficient Resources: Many social audit units are underfunded and understaffed, making it difficult to conduct
thorough audits. Eg- social audits of MGNREGA
8. P
 oor Record Keeping: Inconsistent and fragmented government data hampers comprehensive audits.
9. L ocalized and Sporadic Audits: SA are often localized, sporadic, and ad-hoc, leading to inconsistent impacts and
reduced relevance due to delays.
10. W
 eak Civil Society Support: Few active and committed civil society organizations to facilitate social audits and
train stakeholders.

Government Steps to Institutionalize Social Audit:

1. Information-Monitoring, Evaluation, and Social Audit (I-MESA): Launched by the Ministry of Social Justice and
Empowerment in FY 2021-22 to audit all department schemes using State SAUs and NIRD&PR.
2. S
 hort-term Certificate Course: Developed for district-block resource persons and SHGs in collaboration with
TISS and NIRD&PR, Hyderabad.
3. Institutionalizing SAs in Rural Schemes: Implemented in major schemes like the National Social Assistance
Programme and PM Awas Yojana-Gramin, including funds from the 14th Finance Commission.
4. T
 raining Women SHGs: Approximately 60,000 women SHGs trained through a special certificate course to con-
duct social audits.
5. D
 irectorates of SAs: Established in various states with resource persons to conduct audits of government
schemes.
6. O
 perational Guidelines: Issued by the Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation for social audit method-
ologies across different schemes.
7. C
 ivil Society Engagement: Example: MV Foundation conducted social audits of Mid-Day Meals in Andhra
Pradesh, focusing on child labor and education rights.

Way Forward:
1. R
 aise Awareness and Build Capacity: Educate stakeholders to hold authorities accountable. Utilisation of Media
to popularize social audits.
2. M
 andatory Real-Time Data Disclosure: Require proactive sharing of financial data and beneficiary lists. Use
technology like MIS for transparency.
3. Increase Funding and Staffing for SAUs: Ensure SAUs are well-funded and staffed independently, free from
political influence.
4. L egal Sanctions and Punitive Actions: Implement legal consequences based on social audit findings to build
public trust. Meghalaya’s law can serve as a model.
5. P
 romote Civil Society Participation: Encourage civil society involvement to enhance capacity and streamline
processes. As Jharkhand includes CSO representatives in social audit panels.
6. Increase Audit Frequency: Conduct social audits more frequently. Every Gram Panchayat should have an audit
every six months.
7. T
 raining Programs: Implement training on social audit methods, report preparation, and presentation at Gram
Sabha. Establish district teams of social audit experts for training.
8. E
 nact National Law for Social Audits: Create a national law to empower citizens and strengthen grassroots
democracy.

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Right to Information 
“Where a society has chosen to accept democracy as its creedal faith, it is elementary that the citizens ought to know
what their government is doing.” - Justice P N Bhagwati

“Information is the currency of democracy,” - Thomas Jefferson

Right to Information Act, 2005

The Right to Information (RTI) Act, enacted in 2005, aims to enhance transparency, and accountability, and curb corrup-
tion.

Constitutional Basis:
• Article 21: RTI is a derivative right under this article, ensuring the protection of life and personal liberty.
• A
 rticle 19(1)(a): RTI complements the fundamental right to freedom of speech and expression, which includes the
Right to Know.

Goals of the RTI Act:

1. C
 itizen Empowerment: Informed Citizenry
1. A
 llows citizens to question and review government actions.
2. E
 mpower individuals to influence government policies and schemes.
3. E
 nhances transparency and accountability by providing the right to access state information.
2. Information Access:
1. E
 nsures proactive disclosure and reporting.
2. Improves record-keeping in government offices.
3. M
 andates dedicated public information officers in all government departments.
4. S
 upreme Court ruling: RTI Act overrides the Official Secrets Act, fostering greater transparency.
3. P
 romoting Good Governance:
1. U
 tilized for women’s rights, youth development, democratic rights, and the rights of the underprivileged.
2. A
 ddresses misuse of executive power and strengthens participatory governance.
3. H
 elps expose various scams, such as the Crawford Market redevelopment issues in Mumbai.
4. R
 ight to Know: RTI is a crucial tool for citizens to promote, protect, and defend their right to know.

Supreme Court on Right to Information:

1. B
 ennett Coleman and Co. v. Union of India (1973): Recognized the right to information as part of the right to
freedom of speech and expression under Article 19(1)(a).
2. Indira Gandhi v. Raj Narain (1975): Emphasized that secrecy in public affairs is against the public interest, and
officials must explain and justify their actions to prevent oppression and corruption.
3. S
 P Gupta v. Union of India (1981): Affirmed the public’s right to know about every public act and transaction by
public officials.
4. P
 eople’s Union for Civil Liberties v. Union of India (1996): Held that public scrutiny is essential for ensuring clean
and transparent governance.

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Evolution of RTI Act in India

Year Event Details
1977 Janata Government Formed to consider modifying the Official Secrets Act, 1923, for greater public access to
Working Group information.

1986 Supreme Court Direc- In Mr. Kulwal vs Jaipur Municipal Corporation, the court stated that Article 19 of the Constitu-
tive tion implies the Right to Information.

1990 Emphasis by Prime Stressed the importance of RTI as a legislated right, but failed to enact due to political insta-
Minister V.P. Singh bility.

1994 MKSS Grassroots Mazdoor Kisan Shakti Sangathan began advocating for RTI, focusing on rural development
Campaign transparency in Rajasthan.

1995 Drafting of RTI Act Social activists formulated a draft RTI Act at a meeting at LBSNAA, Mussoorie.

1996 Founding of NCPRI The National Campaign for People’s Right to Information was established to push for RTI
legislation.
1997 Tamil Nadu’s RTI Law Tamil Nadu became the first state in India to pass a Right to Information law.

2002 Freedom of Information The first central RTI legislation was passed but not implemented.
Act

2005 Enactment of RTI Act The amended Right to Information Act was passed and enacted.

Key Features of the RTI Act, 2005:

1. R
 ight to Information (Section 3): Citizens have the right to access information from public authorities.
2. O
 bligations of Public Authorities (Section 4): Public authorities must maintain and proactively disclose information.
3. D
 esignation of Public Information Officers (PIOs) (Section 5): Public authorities must designate PIOs to handle
requests and provide information.
4. R
 equest for Obtaining Information (Section 6): Citizens can submit a request in writing or electronically to the PIO,
specifying the information required.
5. D
 isposal of Request (Section 7): PIOs must respond to requests within 30 days. If the information concerns the life
or liberty of a person, the response time is 48 hours.
6. E
 xemptions from Disclosure (Section 8):
1. S
 ection 8(1):
1. S
 ensitive Information:
1. A
 ffects India’s sovereignty, security, or economic interests.
2. D
 amages foreign relations.
3. Incites offenses.
1. C
 ourt-Restricted Data: Forbidden by courts or constitutes contempt of court.
2. P
 arliamentary Privilege: Breaches the privilege of Parliament or State Legislature.
3. T
 rade Secrets and Intellectual Property: Harms the competitive position unless public interest justifies
disclosure.
4. C
 onfidential Information: Received from foreign governments.
5. C
 abinet Documents: Includes deliberations of the Council of Ministers and other officials (disclosed after
decisions are made).
6. P
 ersonal Data Unless it serves a greater public interest.
2. S
 ection 8(2): Allows disclosure of exempt information under the Official Secrets Act, 1923, if it serves the public
interest.

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1. T
 hird-Party Information (Section 11): In case the requested information relates to a third party, the
PIO must inform the third party within five days and take their representation into account.
2. C
 onstitution of Information Commissions (Section 12 & 15): Establishment of the Central Informa-
tion Commission (CIC) and State Information Commissions (SICs).
3. P
 owers and Functions of Information Commissions (Section 18 & 19): CIC and SICs have the au-
thority to receive complaints, conduct inquiries, and handle appeals regarding RTI requests.
Appeals process:

1. F
 irst appeal to the departmental First Appellate Authority.
2. S
 econd appeal to the Central or State Information Commission.
7. P
 enalties (Section 20): Imposes penalties on PIOs for non-compliance, including Rs. 250 per day of delay, up to a
maximum of Rs. 25,000.
8. J urisdiction of Courts (Section 23): Courts are barred from entertaining suits or applications challenging any order
made under the RTI Act. Appeals against CIC/SIC orders can only be made to the High Court.
9. P
 rotection of Action Taken in Good Faith (Section 21): Provides protection to PIOs from any legal action for any-
thing done in good faith while performing their duties under the Act.
10. T
 imely Response:
1. Information must be provided within 30 days, or 48 hours for urgent matters related to life and liberty.
2. P
 enalties for delays and disciplinary actions for officials who deny information with malafide intent.

Importance of RTI:
1. P
 romotes Transparency and Accountability: By allowing access to information, it holds public officials account-
able for their actions and decisions, reducing corruption and enhancing governance.
2. E
 mpowers Citizens: Citizens can use RTI to obtain information on public services, local development projects, and
government spending, enabling them to advocate for their rights and better services.
3. S
 trengthens Democracy: RTI promotes an informed citizenry, which is crucial for a functioning democracy. It en-
sures that citizens have the information needed to make informed choices and hold their representatives account-
able.
4. F
 acilitates Investigative Journalism: RTI is a powerful tool for journalists, enabling them to access government
records and documents, which are essential for investigative reporting.
5. E
 nhances Government Efficiency: By mandating transparency, RTI can lead to more efficient and effective gov-
ernment administration. RTI applications have revealed delays and mismanagement in public services, prompting
authorities to streamline processes and improve service delivery.
6. P
 rotects Public Interest: RTI helps in protecting public interest by ensuring that government actions are subject
to public scrutiny. It acts as a deterrent against arbitrary and unjust decisions.
7. E
 mpowerment of Marginalized Communities: Enables poor communities to use information to demand their
rights.
8. G
 rievance Redressal: Establishes Central and State Information Commissions to address RTI-related complaints.

Key Achievements of RTI:

1. E
 ffective Anti-Corruption Mechanism: Recognized as a top anti-corruption tool, ranking fourth out of
111 countries in 2016 for promoting transparency and accountability.
2. C
 ase Studies:
1. E
 xposure of Major Scams:
1. 2
 G Spectrum Scam: An RTI filed by activist Subhash Chandra Agrawal revealed massive
corruption in the telecom sector during the UPA regime.
2. M
 isappropriation of Relief Funds:
1. In 2008, an RTI application by a Punjab NGO uncovered the misuse of funds meant

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for Kargil war and disaster victims by local Indian Red Cross Society officials.
2. T
 he responsible officials were charged with fraud, and the misused funds were
transferred to the Prime Minister’s Relief Fund.
3. A
 darsh Society Scam and Assam Public Distribution Scam: RTI played a crucial role in
exposing these scams, leading to legal actions and systemic reforms.
2. L ocal Accountability:
1. R
 ation Shop Misconduct in Bikaner: Villagers used RTI to obtain records of their local
ration shop, uncovering the illegal sale of grains meant for the poor. The corrupt dealer
was removed, and the villagers received compensation equivalent to the stolen grains.

RTI Act Amendment 2019:

Reasons for Amendment:
1. Inconsistent implementation across states.
2. L ack of clarity regarding terms and conditions of service for Information Commissioners.
3. C
 hallenges in maintaining the independence of Information Commissions.

Key Changes Brought by the 2019 Amendment:

Aspect RTI Act 2005 RTI Amendment 2019
Tenure of Information Fixed tenure of five years for the Chief Infor- The Central Government will notify the tenure of
Commissioners mation Commissioner (CIC) and Information all Information Commissioners (at both central
Commissioners. and state levels).
Quantum of Salary CIC and Central Information Commissioners Salaries and allowances of Information Com-
were paid equivalent to the Chief Election missioners will be determined by the Central
Commissioner (CEC) and Election Commis- Government.
sioners. State Information Commissioners
were paid equivalent to the Chief Secretary of
the state.
Deductions in Salary If Information Commissioners were receiving These provisions have been removed, allowing
pension or other retirement benefits, their for full salary without deductions.
salaries were adjusted accordingly.

Criticism of the Amendments:

1. Impact on Federalism: The central government now controls the tenure and salaries of state informa-
tion commissioners, reducing the autonomy of state governments.
2. T
 hreat to Transparency and Accountability: The fixed tenure and salary that provided relative
independence to the Chief Information Commissioner (CIC) and Information Commissioners (ICs) have
been removed.
1. R
 isk of Manipulation: The new provisions may turn CIC and ICs into tools for protecting
sensitive government information.
2. L oss of Basic Guarantees: Essential tenure guarantees for independent oversight institutions
like the Central Vigilance Commission (CVC), Chief Election Commissioner (CEC), and Lokpal
have been undermined.

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Issues in Implementing the RTI Act

1. L ow Utilization: Despite 40 to 60 lakh RTI applications filed annually, less than 3% of Indian citizens
have ever filed an RTI plea.
2. Ineffective Information Delivery: A 2018-19 report by Satark Nagrik Sangathan (SSN) and the
Centre for Equity Studies (CES) revealed that less than 45% of applicants received the information they
sought. Of the 55% who didn’t, fewer than 10% filed appeals.
3. D
 ecline in Data Reporting: A study by the Commonwealth Human Rights Initiative noted a significant
drop in mandatory data reporting by Ministries and Departments to the CIC between 2012-13 and
2018-19.
4. B
 acklog of Appeals: The CIC takes an average of 388 days to dispose of a case. As of June 30, 2021,
2.56 lakh appeals were pending with 26 Information Commissions. In Odisha, it takes over 6 years to
dispose of a matter, according to the Satark Nagrik Sangathan (SNS) 2021 report.
5. P
 ublic Awareness:
1. L ow Awareness Levels: Less than 35% in rural areas and 40% in urban areas are aware of the
RTI Act, as per the RTI Assessment and Advocacy Group (RaaG) 2013 survey.
2. L imited Process Knowledge: Even fewer people know the complete process of seeking
information.
6. F
 iling Constraints: Absence of user guides causes hardship in understanding the RTI request process.
7. Q
 uality of Information: Applicants often receive raw data instead of precise information.
8. A
 ttitude of Public Information Officers (PIOs): 59% of respondents in a survey rated PIOs›
courteousness as «poor» or «just fair,» discouraging RTI applications.
9. O
 utdated Practices: Ineffective record management leads to delays in processing RTI applications.
10. M
 onitoring and Review: No centralized database for RTI applicants exists.
11. M
 otivation and Resources for PIOs: PIOs often lack motivation and resources to implement the RTI
Act effectively.
12. Infrastructure Issues: Lack of printers, computers, and other necessary infrastructure.
13. M
 inimal IT Integration: Low use of Information Technology for handling RTI applications.
14. E
 nforcement Powers: CIC has minimal enforcement powers, making it ineffective in some cases
(e.g., bringing political parties under RTI).
15. H
 igh Vacancies: As per a 2020 report by Satark Nagrik Sangathan (SNS) and Centre for Equity
Studies (CES), 31% of information commissions were without a chief commissioner. Some states like
Odisha, Rajasthan, Jharkhand, and Tripura are severely understaffed or defunct.
16. S
 afety Concerns: RTI activists face threats and attacks.
17. R
 ejection of Applications: Applications are sometimes rejected for trivial reasons like not being
typed or written in English.
18. A
 pplicability Issues:
1. P
 olitical Parties and Funding: Remain outside the RTI›s scope.
2. Q
 ualified Applicability: Exemptions for judiciary and intellectual property rights (e.g., RBI
denying information on demonetization).
3. P
 rivate Sector: Major service providers in the private sector are not adequately covered under
RTI.

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Misuse of the RTI Act

“The Right to Information Act is a good law, but it is being abused.” -- Chief Justice S.H. Kapadia

The RTI Act is often misused due to the lack of a requirement for applicants to demonstrate a justified reason for seeking
information (locus standi).

1. E
 vasion of Clauses like Section 2(h): Government evades this clause by denying public authority
status to certain bodies, like the PM-CARES fund.
2. N
 on-Compliance: The Act lacks provisions to hold officials in contempt for not complying with
information commission orders, reducing its effectiveness.
3. S
 ettling Scores: Some individuals misuse RTI to settle personal grudges.
4. P
 ressure Tactics: RTI is used to intimidate and harass senior officials. For example, a teacher in Vidya
Bharti school, Delhi, filed around 15 RTI petitions to harass authorities.
5. P
 ersonal Vendetta: RTI is misused to settle personal disputes. In Mr. Narayan Singh vs Delhi Transport
Corporation, the CIC noted the misuse of RTI for personal vendetta.
6. E
 xtortion: Some people use RTI to blackmail others, preventing officials from making decisions.
7. D
 ata Collection: RTI is sometimes used for non-essential purposes, such as PhD students using it to
gather data for their theses.

Way Forward
1. S
 trengthen Implementation:
1. E
 nhance Public Awareness: Conduct extensive awareness campaigns to educate citizens
about the proper use of RTI.
2. Improve Infrastructure: Invest in better infrastructure, such as computers and printers, for
processing RTI requests.
3. U
 tilize Information Technology: Integrate IT solutions to streamline the acceptance and
processing of RTI applications.
2. E
 nhance Accountability:
1. E
 nsure Compliance: Strengthen provisions for holding officials accountable for non-
compliance with RTI orders.
2. M
 onitor and Review: Establish a centralized database for RTI applications and implement
regular monitoring and review mechanisms.
3. S
 upport Information Commissions:
1. A
 ddress Vacancies: Fill vacancies in Information Commissions promptly to reduce backlog.
2. T
 raining for PIOs: Provide regular training for Public Information Officers to enhance their
understanding and implementation of the RTI Act.
4. R
 ationalizing Conflicting Laws:
1. M
 erge laws like UAPA, MISA with RTI.
2. R
 epeal the Official Secrets Act, 1923.
3. R
 evise Section 123 of the Indian Evidence Act, 1972.
5. A
 dministrative Reforms:
1. A
 mend Central Civil Services (Conduct) Rules to align with RTI.
2. R
 eplace the oath of secrecy with an oath of transparency for ministers.
6. E
 xpanding Applicability:
1. Include private sectors and political parties under the definition of public authority.
2. R
 educe exemptions in Section 8 to cover electoral bonds, PM CARES fund, NRC, etc.

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7. E
 nhancing Accessibility:
1. P
 ublish information online in regional languages.
2. S
 et up fast-track courts for RTI cases.
3. Improve training and infrastructure for Public Information Commissioners.
4. S
 implify the RTI application process for easier access, especially in rural areas.
5. A
 utomate and efficiently maintain information.
8. S
 trategies to Prevent Misuse:
1. Increase Fees for Large Requests: Utilize Section 7(3) to raise fees for extensive information
requests to discourage false cases and harassment.
2. Implementing Reasonable Restrictions: Impose restrictions to ensure requests serve genuine
public interest, and introduce penalties for misuse.
3. P
 reventing False Complaints: Mandate attaching a copy of ID proof when filing RTI complaints
to prevent false claims made in others› names.
4. P
 reventing Abuse: Ensure the RTI Act is not used for personal grudges, score-settling, or
harassment.

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CHAPTER 2

E-Governance

PYQs
[2024] e-governance is not just about the routine application of digital technology in service delivery process. It is
as much about multifarious interactions for ensuring transparency and accountability. In this context evaluate the
role of the ‘Interactive Service Model’ of e-governance.

[2023]- e-governance, as a critical tool of governance, has ushered in effectiveness, transparency and accountabili-
ty in governments. What inadequacies hamper the enhancement of these features?(10M)

[2022]-Reforming the government delivery system through the Direct Benefit Transfer Scheme is a progressive
step, but it has its limitations too. Comment.(10M)

[2021]-. Has digital illiteracy, particularly in rural areas, coupled with lack of Information and Communication Tech-
nology (ICT) accessibility hindered socio-economic development? Examine with justification. (15M)

[2020]-The emergence of Fourth Industrial Revolution (Digital Revolution) has initiated e-Governance as an integral
part of government”. Discuss. (10M)

[2019]-Implementation of information and Communication Technology (ICT) based Projects / Programmes usually
suffers in terms of certain vital factors. Identify these factors, and suggest measures for their effective implementa-
tion(10M)

[2018]-E-Governance is not only about utilisation of the power of new technology, but also much about critical im-
portance of the ‘use value’ of information Explain.(10M)

Answer Writing Framework

INTRODUCTION
1. D
 efinition + connecting statement
2. Context or data -
3. Can also start with Quote

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MAIN BODY
1. D
 iagrammatic representation to highlight its types
2. Follow TEMPORAL and STAKEHOLDER approach

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Use PIES for issues

1. T
 he brief way forward using global best practices, legal reforms, and effective regulation

CONCLUSION
1. L
 ink with democracy or highlight significance in ‘NEW GOVERNANCE’ or in GOOD GOVERNANCE

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The World Bank defines e-governance as the use by government agencies of information technologies (such as
Wide Area Networks, the Internet, and mobile computing) that can transform relations with citizens, businesses,
and other arms of government.”

According to the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), e-Government is the use of information and com-
munication technologies (ICTs) to improve the activities of public sector organisations.”

“E-governance is easy governance, effective governance, and also economic governance. E-governance paves the
way for good governance.” - Narendra Modi

Different connotations of e-governance

1. e-Administration: The use of ICTs to modernise the state; the
creation of data repositories for Management Information Systems
(MIS) and computerization of records (land, health, etc).
2. e-Services: The emphasis here is to bring the state closer to the
citizens.
3. e-administration and e-services together constitute what is largely
termed as e-government.
4. e -Governance: It includes the publishing of policy and programme
related information to transact with citizens. It extends beyond
provision of online services and covers the use of IT for strategic
planning and reaching development goals of the government.
5. e-Democracy: The use of IT to facilitate the ability of all sections
of society to participate in the governance of the state. Emphasis
is on bringing transparency, accountability and participation of people. It includes online disclosures of poli-
cies, online grievance redressal, e-referendums etc.

MODELS OF E-GOVERNANCE

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Evolution of e-governance in India

Early Initiatives (1970s-1990s)
 he establishment of the Department of Electronics in 1976 was the first major step towards e-governance
1. T
in India as it brought ‘information’ and its communication to focus.
2. N  ational Informatics Centre (NIC) established in 1977, launched the District Information System program
to computerise all district offices in the country.
3. N  ICNET (1987): The National Informatics Centre Network (NICNET) was established to connect all district
headquarters.
4. 1988: National Association of Software and Service Companies (NASSCOM)
5. R  ailway Computerisation: Introduction of the computerised reservation system by Indian Railways.
6. A National Task Force on Information Technology and Software Development was set up.
7. 1999: Establishment of Ministry of Information Technology

Growth Phase (the 2000s)

1. I nformation Technology Act, 2000
2. National E-Governance Plan (NeGP) 2006: Aimed at providing government services electronically to citi-
zens. It encompassed 27 mission-mode projects (MMPs) across various sectors.
a. S  tate Wide Area Networks (SWANs): Establishing secure network connectivity across states.
b. S  tate Data Centres (SDCs): Creating centralised data storage for efficient management and securi-
ty.
c. Common Service Centres (CSCs): Setting up access points for rural citizens to avail of various
e-services.
3. Common Service Centres (CSCs): Established to provide various e-services to citizens, especially in rural
and remote areas.

Recent Developments (2010s-Present)

1. MyGov (2014): A citizen engagement platform to involve citizens in governance through discussions, tasks,
and polls.
2. Aadhaar (2010): The world’s largest biometric identification system, facilitating various e-governance ser-
vices.
3. G oods and Services Tax Network (GSTN): An IT backbone for the implementation of GST, ensuring a uni-
form taxation system across the country.
4. U MANG App (2017): Unified Mobile Application for New-age Governance, providing access to various gov-
ernment services through a single platform.

Key Milestones
1. B
 haratNet (2011): Aims to connect all 250,000 gram panchayats in the country with high-speed internet.
2. DigiLocker: Provides a platform for issuance and verification of documents & certificates digitally.
3. e-Sign Framework: Allows citizens to digitally sign a document using Aadhaar authentication

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Digital India (2015)

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Data
Category Data

Internet Users 886 million (12% of global internet users), second in the world (Internet in India Report
2024)
Mobile Data Con- Average data consumption per user: 24.1 GB/month (2024)
sumption
Digital India Mission Providing broadband internet to 250,000 gram panchayats
eKranti
Digital Economy India’s digital economy contributed 11.74% to GDP in 2022-23, equivalent to ₹31.64 lakh
Growth crore (approximately USD 402 billion). It’s projected to grow to 20% of GVA by 2029-30
JAM Trinity 1.21 billion Indians enlisted in biometric digital identity initiative
Enabled banking, pension, and insurance services through Jan Dhan Yojana and other
initiatives
As per UDISE+ 2023-24 Report, the percentage of schools having computers increased
from 38.5 % in 2019-20 to 57.2 % in 2023-2024. Similarly, percentage of schools having
internet facility increased from 22.3 % in 2019-20 to 53.9 % in 2023-2024.
Digital Literacy only 24.7% of individuals aged 15 and above considered computer literate.

Adoption Cost 3% of GDP spent on e-governance initiatives

Digital Gender Divide Only 28% of women in rural areas have internet access

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Government Steps
Sector Initiative Key Features
Service Deliv- Digital India BharatNet, DigiLocker, UMANG, eHospital
ery Programme
Common Ser- Delivery of government, financial, and social services to rural areas
vice Centres
(CSCs)
UMANG App Over 2000 services from central, state, and local governments
E-office Digital file management, workflow automation
Meghraj Cloud infrastructure and services for government departments
Grievance PRAGATI Video-conferencing for project review, real-time data on project progress
Redressal
DARPAN Digital dashboards for real-time monitoring of development projects
LIMBS (Legal Digital management of court cases, tracking of legal proceedings
Information
Management &
Briefing System)
For Business- GeM (Govern- Online marketplace for government procurement
es ment e-Market-
place)
MCA 21 Online registration and filing of company documents, electronic payment
and tracking
GSTN (Goods Online tax registration, filing, and payment system
and Services
Tax Network)
e-Biz Portal Launching the e-Biz portal to facilitate online registration, licensing, and
clearances for businesses, including those in the manufacturing sector,
integrating multiple regulatory approvals into a single platform.
Agriculture e-NAM (Nation- Unified Online trading platform, transparent price discovery
al Agriculture
Market)
Soil Health Card Digital soil testing, issuance of soil health cards
Scheme
mKisan Portal SMS-based alerts, interactive voice response system
Health eHospital Online registration and appointment system, access to digital health re-
cords
CO-WIN Online registration and appointment scheduling, real-time monitoring of
vaccine distribution
Education e-Pathshala Digital textbooks, interactive e-learning content
SWAYAM Free online courses, certification and credit transfer options
National Schol- Centralised application and disbursement system, real-time status tracking
arship Portal
(NSP)
Women Mahila E-Haat Online marketing platform for women entrepreneurs to showcase and sell
their products and services, promoting economic empowerment and finan-
cial independence.

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Swadhar Greh Online portal providing shelter and support services to women in difficult
Portal circumstances, facilitating access to rehabilitation and counselling ser-
vices.
Online Com- Online platform for registering complaints related to sexual harassment at
plaint Portals the workplace, ensuring confidentiality and timely resolution of grievances.
(SHe-Box)
Judiciary e-Courts Mis- Digital case management, e-filing systems
sion Mode
Project
e-Courts Phase- Advanced digital case management, integration with other judicial databas-
II es

State Government E-Governance Initiatives in India

Initiative State Description
MeeSeva Andhra Pradesh & Tel- Unified platform for 500+ G2C/G2B services
angana
Bhulekh Odisha Online access to land records and ownership details
e-District Kerala Delivery of 150+ certificates and services through digital workflow

Jan Soochna Rajasthan Real-time scheme data access promoting transparency (RTI Sec 4)
Portal

Bhoomi Project Karnataka Digitization of land records and mutation services

Apuni Sarkar Uttarakhand Single-window digital access to government services

KAVERI Karnataka Online property registration and stamp duty payments
e-Nagar Gujarat Integrated municipal services like water, property tax, trade license

Khajane II Karnataka End-to-end online treasury management for state finance opera-
tions

Digital Literacy Programs

Pradhan Mantri Gramin Digital Saksharta Aims to usher in digital literacy in rural India by covering 6 crore
Abhiyaan (PMGDISHA) rural households. It has 6.63 crore registered candidates, out of
which 5.69 crore candidates have been trained and 4.22 crore
have been certified.
The National Digital Literacy Mission (NDLM) aims to train at least one person from every family in India in
digital literacy.
Nasscom Foundation and DXC Technology’s empowered over 4,00,000 marginalized individuals with tech-
digital literacy initiative nology in 2023.

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e-Governance initiatives for Disaster management

Initiative Description

NDMA Portal Provides real-time information on disasters, guidelines for preparedness,

and resources for relief operations.

NIDM-DISASTER Mobile App Sends real-time alerts, evacuation routes, emergency contacts, and safe-
ty guidelines to citizens during disasters.

National Cyclone Risk Mitigation Focuses on early warning systems, cyclone shelters, and community
Project (NCRMP) preparedness in cyclone-prone regions.
Online Training and Capacity Build- Offers courses, webinars, and simulations for disaster response teams,
ing Programs local authorities, and volunteers.

Geospatial Emergency Manage- Integrates satellite imagery, GIS, and remote sensing to monitor disas-
ment Support (GEMS) ters, assess damage, and plan relief operations.

Social Media Integration for Disas- Uses platforms like Twitter, Facebook, and WhatsApp for real-time up-
ter Response dates, public awareness, and emergency communication.

Vision of Digital India

Pillar Key Aspect Specific Examples

Digital Infrastruc- Provision of high-speed - BharatNet initiative aiming to connect over 250,000 Gram
ture as a Utility internet Panchayats with high-speed optical fibre network.

- National Knowledge Network (NKN) for seamless connectiv-

ity among educational and research institutions.

Accessible digital platforms - National Digital Health Mission (NDHM) providing digital
and databases health records and services accessible to citizens and health-
care providers.

- Digital Payment platforms like UPI enabling cashless trans-

actions.
Reliable and secure digital - Cyber Swachhta Kendra (Botnet Cleaning and Malware
infrastructure Analysis Centre) ensuring cybersecurity measures.

- Aadhaar for secure identity verification in digital transac-

tions.

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Services on De- Digital delivery of govern- - e-NAM (National Agriculture Market) facilitating online trad-
mand ment services ing of agricultural commodities across states.

- e-Courts for online filing of cases and tracking case status

in courts.

Efficiency and transparency - DigiLocker for storing and sharing digital documents with
in service delivery government agencies.

- UMANG (Unified Mobile Application for New-age Gover-

nance) for single-point access to multiple government ser-
vices.
Reduction of paperwork and - Digital India Land Records Modernization Programme
bureaucracy (DILRMP) digitizing land records to reduce paperwork and
enhance transparency.

- Online application portals for passports and driving licenses.

Digital Empower- Digital literacy programs - National Digital Literacy Mission (NDLM) providing digital
ment of Citizens and training literacy training to rural and underprivileged communities.

- Skill India Mission offering digital skills training for employ-

ment opportunities.

Access to digital resources - SWAYAM platform offering online courses and study materi-
and information al for students and lifelong learners

- Digital Library of India for accessing a vast repository of

books and manuscripts online.

Enhanced participation in - MyGov platform for citizen engagement in policy-making

digital economy/governance and governance initiatives.

- Start-up India providing digital platforms and support for

entrepreneurial ventures.

Pillars of Digital India Mission

Pillar Steps Taken

Broadband High- - Implementation of BharatNet to connect over 250,000 Gram Panchayats.

ways - Promotion of public and private investments in broadband infrastructure.
- Expansion of National Optical Fiber Network (NOFN) to enhance connectivity.
Universal Access - Promotion of mobile network expansion through initiatives like Mobile Seva.
to Mobile Connec- - Incentivizing mobile manufacturers to produce affordable smartphones.
tivity - Encouraging telecom operators to improve rural connectivity.
Public Internet - Establishment of Common Service Centres (CSCs) for digital service delivery.
Access Program - Deployment of Wi-Fi hotspots under Bharat Wi-Fi initiative.
- Setting up Rural Broadband Networks to improve internet access in remote areas.

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e-Governance - Launch of Digital India Portal and Mobile App for accessing government services.
- Implementation of e-Office for paperless governance.
- Adoption of Cloud Computing for secure data storage and accessibility.
- Implementation of PAHAL for direct benefit transfer of LPG subsidies.
- Implementation of CCTNS for integration of police services nationwide.
e-Kranti (Elec- - Digitization of government documents and records through DigiLocker.
tronic Delivery of - Implementation of e-Courts for online case management.
Services) - Introduction of e-Hospital for online registration and appointment scheduling in hospitals.
- Launch of SWAYAM for online education courses and SWAYAM Prabha for educational TV
channels.
- Implementation of Meghraj for cloud services for government departments.

Information for All - Digitalization of government information and databases for public access.
- Launch of portals like India Portal and National Knowledge Network (NKN).
- Initiatives to provide open access to educational and research resources like SWAYAM.
- Launch of UMANG for single-point access to multiple government services.
- Open Government Data (OGD) Platform for accessing government data sets.
Electronics Manu- - Promotion of electronics manufacturing under Make in India initiative.
facturing - Setting up Electronics Manufacturing Clusters (EMCs) for production facilities.
- Incentivizing electronics production through schemes like Modified Special Incentive
Package Scheme (M-SIPS).

IT for Jobs - Skill India Mission for digital skills training and certification.
- Startup India initiatives to support digital entrepreneurship.
- Encouraging IT sector growth through policy incentives and infrastructure support.
Early Harvest Pro- - Launch of Digital Payments platforms like BHIM and UPI for cashless transactions.
grammes - Aadhaar-based services for secure identity verification.
- Implementation of Digital Lockers for storing personal documents securely online.

Benefits

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FOR GOVERNMENT
a. D ata-Driven Decision Making: Enhanced data collection and analysis capabilities help in making informed
policy decisions and resource allocation
b. Cost-effectiveness of transactions through better management of procedures, procurements, etc. Eg- Gov-
ernment e-marketplace.
c. Effective monitoring of progress of projects and policy initiatives on a real-time basis. Eg- PRAGATI Platform
d. C ost Reduction: Automation and digital records reduce operational costs related to physical storage, print-
ing, and manual processing​
e. L
 ast mile connectivity: Expansion of the telephone network, rapid strides in mobile telephony, the spread
of the internet, and strengthening of other communications infrastructure would facilitate the delivery of a
number of public services.

For administration,
a. D epartmental coordination and information
sharing- Effective file transfers and delegation
of work between departments without hassle.
b. It lays the foundation for SMART Governance:
1. S
 imple – e-documentation, online sub-
mission, online service delivery,etc.
2. Moral- removes bribes, red-tapism.
3. A ccountable- as all data is available
online for everyone.
4. R esponsive-more informed citizens -->
responsible govt.
5. Transparent- no room for concealing
information.
c. P rocess Standardisation: E-governance en-
sures standardised procedures across depart-
ments, reducing inconsistencies and errors​.
d. I mproved Workflow: Digital systems enhance workflow management, making it easier to track progress and
manage tasks​ ​.
e. S kill Development: Adoption of e-governance requires upskilling of bureaucrats, leading to a more knowl-
edgeable and capable workforce​.
f. Reduced Workload: Automation of routine tasks allows bureaucrats to focus on more strategic and complex
issues​

For citizens
a. D e bureaucratization: Due to e-governance, the gap between the people and the government in all the ser-
vices of the government is narrowing and the dependence of the people on the bureaucracy is also greatly
reduced.
b. Informed citizenry- Faster information dissemination to the citizens, thereby increasing transparency. Eg-
the ‘Jan Soochna’ portal by the Rajasthan Government to display public records online.
c. Prompt Justice delivery through e-governance measures like e-courts, National Court Management System,
etc.
d. S peedy and efficient service delivery by better connectivity and portability. The e-governance ecosystem
has helped the union government to plug about $27 billion in leakage by digitally transferring money via DBT.
Eg- E-Kranti, Aadhar-linked PDS system, Mera Ration Mobile app.
e. C itizen-centric governance through higher citizen participation is based on reducing the feudal mindset
of bureaucrats with a greater reach of governance. Eg- mygov.in the portal, Champions dashboard of the
Aspirational District Programme
f. Participatory and deliberative democracy- Easy access to information through online forums and consulta-
tions empowers informed choices. Eg- Initiatives like Kerala’s online budgeting project.
g. Financial Inclusion: Initiatives like DBT have facilitated the direct transfer of subsidies and benefits to citi-
zens’ bank accounts, reducing leakages and ensuring that welfare schemes reach their intended beneficia-
ries.

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For Business
a. T imely approval of projects and tracking of the projects and policies are important for industrial growth.
b. ICT helps provide single window clearance, thus improving business efficiency. Eg- Central Board of Excise
and Customs has begun implementation of the Single Window Project to promote Trading Across Borders in
India as part of the “Ease of Doing Business” initiatives
c. Reduction in tender cycle time: The tender cycle time gradually came down to an average of 42 days from
earlier 90-135 days due to e-procurement.
d. I ncrement in supplier participation: Supplier participation has increased from an average of 3 percent in
the conventional mode to 4.5 in the e-procurement model
The BMC-Praja Foundation’s joint initiative of the Online Complaint Management System (OCMS) is per-
haps the world’s first citizen-government partnership for solving public grievances in municipal services.

ISSUES AND CHALLENGES:

Issues Data and Example

Duplication of efforts among multiple e-Gov- - Multiple overlapping e-Governance projects like NeGP, Digital India,
ernance projects causing redundancy. and state-specific initiatives.
Uneven infrastructure development between The internet density in rural areas is just 25.3, compared to 97.9 in urban
rural and urban areas. areas.

Fragmented governance frameworks leading Multiple agencies working in silos without a central coordinating body.
to inefficiencies.

Inefficient data management and integration Lack of integrated databases among various government departments.
across departments.

Digital literacy programs have reached less

than 10% of the targeted population, limiting
the effectiveness of initiatives like DigiLocker
and e-Pathshala
Trust due to fraudulent transactions and misuse of data, the trust of the people is
compromised. Eg- leaking of Aadhar Data.

Lack of capacity building, training and Skills Only 1.8% of government employees trained in e-Governance
gap for government officials.
Limited interagency collaboration in resource Delays in integrating services across platforms such as MCA21 and
and data sharing. GSTN due to coordination challenges

Resistance to technology adoption and out- The slow adoption projects like e-Office
dated practices.

vernacular languages- generally the information given on websites and other e-governance
platforms is in English which limits the accessibility, especially by the
rural population, old age, women

Bureaucratic delays and lengthy approval - Average project approval time is 18-24 months
processes.

Inadequate cybersecurity measures and data Aadhaar data breach incidents.

privacy protection.

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Complex regulatory environment for emerg- No comprehensive policy for blockchain applications in governance.
ing technologies.

Difficulties in enforcing digital contracts across states.

Fragmented decision-making and policy Different states have varying regulations for the same e-Governance
implementation across states. services.

Issues with interoperability have been observed in initiatives like

e-Courts and CCTNS​
Inadequate coverage and upgradation - Many
government agencies still do not provide all
the citizen services online. The website of
many government agencies is not updated
regularly

Ambiguous policy frameworks and inconsis- Lack of policy clarity affecting AI and blockchain adoption.
tent guidelines.

Lack of user-centric design in e-Governance Low usage rates of government portals due to usability issues.
services.

Underdeveloped sectoral policies affecting Inadequate e-Governance policies in healthcare and education sectors.
implementation in critical areas.

Absence of comprehensive legislation ad- Legal status of smart contracts is unclear.

dressing emerging technologies.

Legal challenges in enforcing digital con- Issues with cross-border recognition of digital signatures.
tracts and electronic signatures.

Outdated laws not keeping pace with techno- The Information Technology Act, 2000 doesn’t effectively address mod-
logical advancements. ern cyber threats, data privacy, or online harassment.

Inadequate protection of digital rights and Lack of comprehensive data protection legislation.
privacy.

High initial costs and ongoing maintenance

expenses of e-Governance infrastructure.

Digital divide between affluent and marginal- only 24% of rural Indian households have access to the internet, com-
ized communities. pared to a 66% penetration in cities. Furthermore, 14% of rural citizens
actively use the Internet, in contrast to 59% of urban adoption.

Only 16% of Indian women were found to be using mobile and internet
services, and women were 56% less likely to use mobile internet than
men.

Limited private sector participation in e-Gov- Insufficient PPP (Public-Private Partnerships) in e-Governance initiatives.
ernance projects.

Economic inefficiencies due to lack of Redundant processes causing higher operational costs.
streamlined processes and integration.

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WAY FORWARD
1. I ntegrated and multi-level planning- bottom-up planning should be done regarding e-governance from local
bodies to central government. Also, non-governmental entities like NGOs, cooperatives, and the private
sector should be involved in planning.
2. Implementation: Breaking up entire eGovernance projects into components/ activities - Planning each
activity in detail; Allocating resources (human and financial); Commencement of activities with Need-Based
midcourse correction. (2nd ARC)
3. Monitoring and Evaluation: Evaluation by independent agencies based on parameters fixed beforehand.
(2nd ARC)

4. Expand Broadband Infrastructure: Accelerate the BharatNet project to ensure high-speed internet con-
nectivity in all rural and remote areas. South Korea’s government-subsidized broadband infrastructure has
achieved near-universal internet access, promoting digital inclusivity

5. Enhancing Digital Literacy - Scale up digital literacy programs like the National Digital Literacy Mission
(NDLM), especially in rural areas and among disadvantaged groups. Eg- Estonia’s “Tiger Leap” program inte-
grated IT education in schools, resulting in high digital literacy rates among citizens.
6. User-friendly websites and applications by using local language and easier user interface. The Centre for
Development of Advanced Computing (CDAC) has developed multilingual software for their purpose.

7. Comprehensive Data Protection Law on the lines of the European Union’s General Data Protection Regula-
tion (GDPR) to ensure user privacy and security.

8. T
 ransparency and Accountability: Implement mechanisms for public feedback and grievance redressal in
e-governance projects. Eg- UK’s Government Digital Service (GDS).

9. I nterdepartmental Coordination: NITI Aayog has recommended creating an apex body for digital gover-
nance to ensure coherence and avoid duplication of efforts. Eg- Singapore’s Government Technology Agen-
cy (GovTech)

10. A
 ddressing Financial Constraints - Leverage PPPs to bring in expertise, innovation, and funding for imple-
menting e-governance projects efficiently. Eg- United States’ “Connect America Fund”

11. Capacity Building and Training - both the organisational and professional upgradation of individuals;
conduct a capacity assessment. Training is to be imparted through a network of training institutions in the
States with the Administrative Training Institutes at the apex (2nd ARC). Eg- Canada’s Digital Academy
provides training to government employees, enhancing their digital skills and capabilities.

12. A
 hybrid approach needs to be adopted to enhance interoperability among e-governance applications
which will encompass a centralised approach for document management, knowledge management, file man-
agement, grievance management, etc.
13. P
 rotecting Critical Information Infrastructure Assets: with improved analysis and warning capabilities as
well as improved information sharing on threats and vulnerabilities. (2nd ARC)

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2ND ARC ON E-GOVERNANCE

Building the Foundation
1. Government Commitment: Political will and support at all levels are crucial for successful e-governance
initiatives.
2. Public Awareness: Public demand for e-government services needs to be cultivated through awareness
campaigns.
3. Process Reengineering: Government processes and structures must be redesigned to be compatible
with e-governance.
Specific Initiatives
4. State Data Centers: Strengthen and centralise state data centres under government control for secure
data management.
5. Knowledge Management: Establish knowledge management systems to improve government efficiency
and support e-governance efforts.

National data governance

As the pace of government adoption of new technologies and services has picked up, public
Debate in India about the need to balance data rights with digital innovation has accelerated.

IMPORTANCE OF DATA IN GOVERNANCE

Data in Governance Details Examples

Improving Deci- Effective data governance leads to During COVID-19, data on infection rates and
sion-Making better data analytics, which in turn hospital capacities helped implement targeted
leads to better decision-making and lockdowns.
improved operations support.
Utilising historical data to predict fu- Predictive models in public health to forecast
ture trends and outcomes. disease outbreaks.
Enhancing Transpar- Publishing government data increases The US government’s Data.gov portal provides
ency and Account- transparency and allows citizens to access to numerous datasets.
ability hold public officials accountable.
Data enables the tracking of govern- PRAGATI platform uses data to monitor proj-
ment performance and service delivery. ect progress.
Optimising Resource Data helps identify areas where re- GIS data helps in disaster management by
Allocation sources are most needed, decreases identifying vulnerable areas.
data management costs, and increas-
es access to data for all stakeholders.
Data-driven budgeting ensures funds Performance-based budgeting in New Zea-
are allocated based on actual needs land ties funding to outcomes.
and performance metrics.

Data governance also plays an essen-

tial role in regulatory compliance.
This is key for minimising risks and
reducing operational costs.

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Enhancing Public Data analysis helps identify gaps Data on public transport usage to optimise
Services in public services and improve their routes and schedules.
delivery.
Personalising public services based on The UK’s NHS uses patient data to tailor
data insights to better meet citizens’ healthcare services.
needs.
Fostering Innovation Open data provides the foundation for Startups using public transport data to devel-
developing innovative solutions and op real-time transit information apps.
apps.

Data allows for the testing and evalua- Randomised controlled trials (RCTs) to evalu-
tion of new policies in controlled envi- ate social policy interventions.
ronments before wider implementation.
Strengthening Public Data governance helps to ensure that Transparency portals that publish budget
Trust data is usable, accessible, and protect- expenditures and project statuses.
ed.
Data-driven platforms allow for better Platforms like MyGov.in in India encourage
citizen engagement and feedback, citizens to contribute ideas and feedback.
fostering a participatory governance
model.

CHALLENGES IN DATA GOVERNANCE IN INDIA

1. Absence of a Comprehensive Data Protection Law - The Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023, is a
step forward but still faces implementation and enforcement challenges.

Fragmented Regulatory Framework - Multiple agencies (MeitY, RBI, TRAI, UID-

AI) oversee data independently without unified coordination. Leads to over-
lapping mandates, regulatory uncertainty, and compliance burdens.
Data Security and Privacy Concerns
● F requent data breaches (e.g., Aadhaar leaks, government databases) highlight weak cybersecurity.
● Lack of accountability for mishandling of personal and sensitive data by both public and private sec-
tors.

Low Data Literacy and Awareness

● C itizens and officials often lack awareness about digital rights, consent, and responsible data usage.
● Makes informed consent and opt-in frameworks difficult to implement effectively.

Institutional Capacity Deficits

● P ublic sector lacks skilled data professionals, cybersecurity analysts, and privacy experts.
● Departments often lack SOPs for ethical data management and protection.

Data Silos and Interoperability Issues

● Ministries and states maintain disconnected databases, preventing seamless service delivery and
real-time decision-making.
● Hinders integrated policy-making and citizen-focused governance.

Poor Data Quality and Standardization

● Inconsistent data formats, manual entry errors, and missing datasets compromise accuracy and
usability.
● Affects AI/ML applications in governance and policy decisions.

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Cross-Border Data Transfer and Localization Conflicts

● G lobal tech companies resist India’s push for data localization citing trade and operational costs.
● India lacks clear norms on cross-border data flows for sensitive personal and non-personal data.

Surveillance vs Privacy Debate

● Projects like Aadhaar, NATGRID, and facial recognition systems raise concerns over mass surveil-
lance.
● In the absence of judicial safeguards, the balance between national security and individual privacy is
under threat.

Ethical Concerns in Use of AI and Big Data

● Lack of a national framework for ethical AI, algorithmic transparency, and accountability in deci-
sion-making.
● Risk of reinforcing bias and exclusion in automated systems used in governance (e.g., welfare target-
ing).

STEPS TAKEN FOR DATA GOVERNANCE

Enactment of the Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023
● I ndia’s first dedicated data protection law to regulate the processing of personal data.
● Introduces principles like data minimization, purpose limitation, informed consent, and data fidu-
ciary accountability.
● Provides for the Data Protection Board of India to enforce compliance and redress grievances.

Establishment of Data Governance Frameworks and Policies

● N
 ational Data Sharing and Accessibility Policy (NDSAP), 2012: Promotes proactive public data
sharing through data.gov.in.
● D
 raft National Data Governance Framework Policy (NDGFP), 2022:
○ Proposes a National Data Management Office (NDMO).
○ Aims to standardize and secure data across ministries for improved data quality and sharing.

Cyber Security and Data Protection Infrastructure

● I ndian Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT-In): Nodal agency for responding to cyberse-
curity threats.
● C yber Surakshit Bharat Initiative: Government program to train officers in cyber hygiene and resil-
ience.
● Mandatory Cybersecurity Reporting: CERT-In mandates reporting of breaches within 6 hours for
critical sectors.

Empowering Citizens with Data Rights

● R ight to access, correct, and erase personal data under the DPDP Act, 2023.
● Mandatory consent-based processing and notice requirements for data fiduciaries.
● G
 rievance redressal mechanism for individuals against data misuse.

Promotion of Open Government Data (OGD) Platform

● Launched data.gov.in, a centralized portal hosting over 500,000 datasets from various ministries
and departments.
● Encourages transparency, innovation, and research through open access to anonymized public data.

Data Localization Initiatives

● R BI’s 2018 directive mandates payment data storage in India.
● DPDP Act allows conditional cross-border data transfer, ensuring oversight for sensitive data
flows.

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Integration of Emerging Tech in Governance

● U se of AI, Big Data, and Blockchain in health, agriculture, urban planning, etc.
● NITI Aayog’s National Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (AI for All) emphasizes ethical AI develop-
ment

Capacity Building and Digital Literacy

● Training programs under Capacity Building Commission, Digital India, and Mission Karmayogi to
upskill government officials in data handling.
● D
 ata stewardship roles introduced in ministries to manage datasets responsibly.

Data Classification and Security Guidelines

● G
 IGW (Guidelines for Indian Government Websites) and CERT-In advisories provide security pro-
tocols for public sector data.
● D
 raft India Enterprise Architecture (IndEA) offers a blueprint for secure and interoperable data
governance across departments

Way forward
Operationalize and Strengthen the Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023
● E stablish and empower the Data Protection Board of India with technical and legal expertise.
● Notify comprehensive rules and regulations for consent, data fiduciaries, and cross-border trans-
fers.
● Ensure independent oversight and accountability mechanisms for both private and government
actors.

Create a Unified Data Governance Authority

● Set up the proposed National Data Management Office (NDMO) under the National Data Gover-
nance Framework Policy.
● Coordinate across ministries and states to ensure data standardization, sharing protocols, and
interoperability.

Enhance Cybersecurity and Data Protection Infrastructure

● S trengthen the capabilities of CERT-In and cybercrime cells with AI-powered tools.
● Mandate regular data security audits and privacy impact assessments for public and private data
handlers.
● Encourage zero-trust security architecture across government digital platforms.

Improve Data Quality and Interoperability

● A dopt uniform metadata standards and classification frameworks across ministries and states.
● Promote API-based integration of databases (e.g., health, education, agriculture) for seamless pub-
lic service delivery.
● Ensure regular updates and validation of public datasets.

Invest in Capacity Building and Data Literacy

● Introduce training programs for civil servants on data ethics, security, and analytics under Mission
Karmayogi.
● Include digital and data literacy in school and college curricula to build informed digital citizens.
● Appoint data stewards and chief data officers at major departments and ministries.

Ensure Ethical Use of AI and Big Data

● Draft and enforce an AI ethics framework focusing on algorithmic transparency, non-discrimination,
and fairness.
● Conduct independent audits of automated decision-making systems, especially in welfare and
law enforcement.

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Promote International Cooperation and Data Diplomacy

● Push for a global consensus on cross-border data flows, digital sovereignty, and trusted data
governance frameworks.
● Align with global norms (e.g., OECD, G20, DFFT) while ensuring national strategic interests.

Strengthen Citizen Participation and Rights

● L aunch awareness campaigns on digital rights and grievance redressal mechanisms.
● Design citizen-centric consent frameworks with multilingual, accessible formats.
● Enable real-time dashboards for public tracking of data usage in government schemes.

Digital Personal Data Protection (DPDP) Act, 2023:

Applicability
● Applies to:
○ Digital personal data processed in India.
○ Data collected abroad but processed in India if it involves Indian citizens.
● Covers both public and private entities, including foreign companies dealing with Indian users’
data.

Consent-Based Data Processing

● Personal data can only be processed after obtaining explicit, informed, and freely given con-
sent.
● Consent must be clear, specific, and limited to the stated purpose.
● Provision for “Consent Managers” to help users manage permissions.

Rights of Data Principals (Users) - Individuals (termed as data principals) are

granted the following rights:
● Right to access personal data processed by any entity.
● Right to correction and erasure of personal data.
● Right to withdraw consent at any time.
● Right to grievance redressal through a structured mechanism.

Obligations of Data Fiduciaries (Entities Collecting Data)

● Must ensure data security, purpose limitation, and data minimization.
● Obligated to notify data breaches to the Data Protection Board and users.\
● Significant Data Fiduciaries (like large platforms) have enhanced obligations:
○ Conduct Data Protection Impact Assessments (DPIA).
○ Appoint Data Protection Officers (DPOs).

Establishment of the Data Protection Board of India

● A central adjudicatory body with powers to:
○ Investigate breaches
○ Impose penalties
○ Handle grievance redressal
● Board decisions are appealable to the Telecom Disputes Settlement and Appellate Tribunal
(TDSAT)

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Cross-Border Data Transfers

● Permitted to countries notified by the central government.
● No blanket data localization requirement, but national interest and safeguards apply

Penalties for Non-Compliance

● Heavy penalties for violations:
○ Up to ₹250 crore for data breaches.
○ Up to ₹200 crore for failure to fulfill obligations under the Act.
○ Graded penalty framework based on severity and intent.

Exemptions
● Government can exempt agencies in the interest of:
○ Sovereignty and integrity
○ Security of the state
○ Public order, research, and journalistic purposes

Data Retention and Deletion

● Data must be deleted after the purpose is fulfilled, unless required by law.
● Fiduciaries must ensure data is not retained indefinitely or misused.

Children’s Data
● Fiduciaries must obtain verifiable parental consent for processing data of children (<18 years).
● Prohibition on tracking, behavioral monitoring, or targeted advertising to children.

E-governance for panchayats

India has set an ambitious target to become a USD 5 trillion economy in the next few years, however, it can only be
achieved by transforming our villages into self-sustaining centres of economic development, with a technology-driv-
en Digital Local Governance framework.

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NEED OF DIGITAL LOCAL GOVERNANCE IN PANCHAYATI

RAJ INSTITUTIONS (PRI’S)
Improved Transparency and Accountability
● Digitization ensures real-time monitoring of funds, schemes, and decisions at the Gram Panchayat
level.
● Reduces chances of corruption, ghost beneficiaries, and misallocation of resources.
● Eg- e-Gram Swaraj portal tracks financial and planning details of panchayats.

Efficient Delivery of Government Schemes

● Digital platforms help PRIs track beneficiaries, verify eligibility, and disburse benefits directly
(DBT).
● Ensures faster and accurate implementation of rural development programs like MGNREGA,
PMAY-G, SBM-G.

Data-Driven Decision Making

● Access to local demographic, socio-economic, and infrastructure data enables evidence-based
planning.
● Helps in resource prioritization and performance benchmarking.

Enhanced Citizen Participation

● Digital tools promote online grievance redressal, participatory budgeting, and feedback on ser-
vices.
● Empowers rural citizens to engage with governance processes actively.

Effective Record Management

● Digitized records (land, birth/death, assets, social audits) reduce paperwork and streamline admin-
istration.
● Improves coordination among departments and facilitates e-verification.

Efficient Financial Management

● Online accounting systems help in real-time tracking of grants, expenditures, and audit compli-
ance.
● Supports fiscal decentralization and timely fund utilization.
● Eg- PFMS (Public Financial Management System), AuditOnline for PRI audits.

Capacity Building and Skill Enhancement

● P romotes use of e-learning portals and digital training for panchayat officials.
● Increases awareness of their roles, rights, and responsibilities.

Bridging the Rural-Urban Digital Divide

● Equips rural governance institutions with tools to access e-governance schemes, bridging the digi-
tal inclusion gap.
● Promotes “Minimum Government, Maximum Governance” at the grassroots level.

Alignment with Digital India and SDGs

● S upports Digital India mission objectives: infrastructure, digital services, and digital literacy.
● Enables local tracking of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) at the panchayat level.

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Major Issues
• Poor Digital Infrastructure - Many gram panchayats still lack reliable internet connectivity, power supply, and basic
IT infrastructure. Affects the functionality of online portals and real-time service delivery.

• Low Digital Literacy Among PRI Functionaries - Leads to underutilization or misuse of platforms like e-GramSwaraj,
PFMS, or AuditOnline.

• Fragmented and Siloed Platforms - Multiple portals (e.g., e-GramSwaraj, GeoMGNREGA, AwasSoft) lack interoper-
ability and data integration. Creates redundancy, inefficiencies, and user confusion.

• Poor Data Quality and Non-Standardization - Inaccurate or outdated data entry by field-level staff compromises
planning, audits, and transparency. Absence of real-time updates and cross-verification mechanisms.

• Resistance to Change - PRI officials often show reluctance toward digital adoption due to fear of accountability,
exposure of irregularities, or attachment to manual systems.

• Inadequate Technical Support - Lack of on-ground IT support teams in rural areas to troubleshoot system issues,
hardware breakdowns, or training needs. Delays data entry and disrupts service continuity.

• Data Security and Privacy Concerns - Weak security protocols in local systems may expose sensitive personal,
financial, and land data to breaches or misuse.

• Delayed Fund Flows and System Downtime - Centralized systems like PFMS often face processing lags and server
issues, delaying payment for schemes like MGNREGA.

• Lack of Legal and Policy Clarity - No specific digital governance legislation for PRIs; ambiguity in responsibilities,
data ownership, and accountability. Digital rules often outpace field-level readiness and local bylaws.

• Budget Constraints - Many gram panchayats operate on tight budgets, limiting their ability to invest in hardware,
training, or cybersecurity. Funding is often scheme-specific and not flexible for overall digitization.

Steps Taken
Common Services Centers (CSCs)
• Part of the Digital India initiative, CSCs are physical digital access points set up at the village level (often within
panchayat buildings).

• Provide a wide range of government-to-citizen (G2C) and business-to-citizen (B2C) services including:

1. Aadhaar, PAN, voter registration

2. Bill payments, insurance, banking (via DigiPay)

3. Online certificates, telemedicine, and educational services

• Over 5 lakh CSCs are operational, ensuring digital inclusion and last-mile service delivery.

e-Gram Swaraj Portal (2020) - Developed by the Ministry of Panchayati Raj.

• Acts as a unified digital platform for planning, budgeting, implementation, and monitoring of Gram Panchayat De-
velopment Plans (GPDP).

• Includes real-time data on schemes, fund utilization, and project status.

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AuditOnline - Integrated with e-Gram Swaraj.

• Enables online auditing of panchayat accounts to enhance financial transparency.

• Facilitates social audits, internal checks, and public disclosure of financial statements.

Public Financial Management System (PFMS) -

• Used to digitally track fund flow from central to grassroots levels. Ensures real-time DBT payments for MGNREGA,
PMAY-G, and other rural schemes through PRIs.

• Gram Manchitra (Geo-MGNREGA Integration) - GIS-based platform that allows visualization of assets created at
the village level. Helps in evidence-based planning and convergence of schemes with spatial accuracy.

ServicePlus Platform -
• Offers applications for issuing birth/death certificates, income certificates, and other essential documents.

Training and Capacity Building

• Programs under RGSA (Rashtriya Gram Swaraj Abhiyan) to train panchayat functionaries in:

1. e-Governance tools

2. Data entry

3. Digital finance and planning

• Use of e-Learning portals like PRIASoft and eGramSwaraj LMS.

Digital Infrastructure under BharatNet -

• Provides high-speed internet connectivity to over 2.1 lakh Gram Panchayats.

• Mobile Applications for Field-Level Functionaries -

• Apps like mActionSoft, Janmanrega, and AwaasApp used for real-time reporting, geotagging, and beneficiary track-
ing by PRI staff.

Integration with Other e-Governance Platforms -

• PRIs linked with portals like:

1. Swamitva for digital property records

2. National Panchayat Awards portal

3. DISHA dashboard for monitoring development goals

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INTERNET SHUTDOWN
An Internet shutdown, according to Pulse Shutdown Tracker, is a deliberate interruption of Internet-based com-
munications that renders them inaccessible or unavailable for a certain population, area, or kind of access.

DATA
1. A
 ccording to a report by the US digital rights advocacy group Access Now, India accounted for 58% of all
documented shutdowns globally.
2. According to Top10VPN, India lost Rs 2,091 crore ($255.2 million) in the first half of 2023 because of internet
shutdowns.

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PROVISION FOR INTERNET SHUTDOWN

 urrently, the suspension of telecom services (including internet shutdowns) is governed by Temporary Sus-
1. C
pension of Telecom Services (Public Emergency & Public Safety) Rules, 2017, notified under the Indian
Telegraph Act, 1885.
2. The 2017 Rules provide for a temporary shutdown of telecom services in a region on grounds of public emer-
gency (up to 15 days at once). Such directions can be issued by the Secretary to the Government of India in
the Ministry of Home Affairs in case of a state government.
3. S ection 144 of the Code of Criminal Procedure: This provision gives power to district magistrates to issue
orders to stop nuisance that creates trouble or disrupts public peace.

ARGUMENTS FOR INTERNET SHUTDOWNS

1. C
 urbing Unrest: contain the spread of misinformation and rumours during tense situations, potentially miti-
gating violence. (e.g., Delhi riots)
2. C
 ombating Disinformation: Shutdowns are seen as a way to limit the circulation of misleading audio and
video content.
3.  ountering Terrorism: Governments may resort to internet shutdowns to disrupt communication channels
C
used by terrorist organisations. (e.g., Kashmir shutdown after Article 370 abrogation)
4.  imiting Incitement: Internet access cuts are implemented in some cases to prevent the misuse of data
L
services for mobilising violence. (e.g., Punjab shutdown targeting Khalistani elements)
5.  aintaining Exam Integrity: To prevent cheating, some authorities have shut down the internet during
M
exams.

CASCADING COSTS OF INTERNET SHUTDOWNS

1. E
 conomic Strain: A report by the Indian Council for Research on International Economic Relations (ICRIER)
estimated that India lost approximately $3 billion due to internet shutdowns in 2019​.
2. F undamental Rights Curtailed: Internet access restrictions violate citizens’ rights to free speech, expres-
sion, and movement under Article 19 and 21.
3. D  igital Divide Widens: Shutdowns contradict the Digital India initiative by hindering digital payments and
online services.
4. D  isruption of Essential Services - Shutdowns can impede access to telemedicine, online health services,
and digital education.
5. S  uppression of Protests: During the protests against the Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA) in 2019, inter-
net shutdowns in several Indian states were seen as a means to curb protest activities​
6. V  iolation of Human Rights: The United Nations has condemned internet shutdowns as a violation of human
rights, calling for them to be limited to exceptional circumstances​
7. L egal Challenges: The lack of clear legal frameworks governing internet shutdowns can lead to arbitrary and
disproportionate use by authorities. The Indian Supreme Court ruled in January 2020 that indefinite internet
shutdowns are unconstitutional and violate the right to freedom of speech and expression​
8. Impact on Daily Life - Communication Disruptions and shutdowns in online banking, digital payments, and
other financial services lead to economic inconveniences for individuals and businesses.
9. P  rivacy at Risk: Citizens seeking to bypass restrictions may resort to unreliable VPNs, jeopardising their
online security.
10. J ournalism Stifled: Reporters’ ability to gather information and report on local issues is hampered by inter-
net restrictions.

The Standing Committee on Communications and Information Technology identified several issues with the
2017 internet shutdown rules:
1. U nclear Rules: The process for lifting shutdowns and the definitions of “public emergency” and “public safe-
ty” are vague, leaving room for misuse.
2. M  isuse of Power: Shutdowns are used for non-emergency reasons like exam cheating and local crime con-
trol.
3. L ack of Transparency: There’s no central record of internet shutdowns, and the government avoids publicis-
ing orders as required by law.
4. Ignoring Court Orders: The government disregards Supreme Court rulings on internet access as a funda-

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mental right and the need for judicial review.

The Supreme Court case Anuradha Bhasin vs Union of India set guidelines for restricting internet access in India.
1. L imited Shutdowns: Internet shutdowns can only be temporary, not indefinite.
2. J ustification Needed: Shutdowns must be based on a public emergency or threat to public safety.
3. P  roportionality Matters: The restrictions should be the minimum needed to address the situation.
4. C  ourt Oversight: Orders suspending internet access are subject to judicial review.

MEASURES NEED TO BE IMPLEMENTED:

1. Parliamentary Standing Committee Recommendations:
a. DoT to lay down clear-cut principles of proportionality and procedure for lifting internet shutdown in
coordination with the Home Ministry.
b. A Centralised database of all internet shutdowns by the states can be maintained by DoT or MoHA.
c. Expansion of the review committee that reviews the order of telecom services suspension under the
Telecom Suspension Rules, 2017.
d. Important guidelines issued by the Supreme Court from time to time require formal recognition.
e. It will ensure compliance and raise awareness about critical Supreme Court decisions that affect
citizens rights and livelihoods.
2. S elective banning: Instead of complete internet shutdowns, certain websites, apps such as whatsapp can
be banned to allow access to other internet services.
3. R ole of internet companies: Internet companies should engage with the government to prevent misuse of
their platforms to prevent fake news etc.

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M-Governance
M-governance is a sub-domain of e-governance. It ensures that electronic services are available to people via mobile
technologies using devices such as mobile phones.

Significance
Expands Accessibility of Public Services
● Mobile governance bridges the digital divide, bringing government services to citizens in remote
and underserved areas.
● Increases access for those without broadband or computers but with basic mobile phones or smart-
phones.
● Eg- SMS-based updates for MGNREGA payments, Awas Yojana alerts.
Enables Anytime, Anywhere Governance - m-Governance makes services 24x7 available, eliminating the need for physical visits to
government offices. Reduces travel time, costs, and bureaucratic delays.

Promotes Citizen Engagement and Feedback - Citizens can easily lodge complaints, give feedback, and participate in governance
through mobile apps and SMS platforms. Eg- MyGov app, UMANG app, mParivahan, DigiLocker.

Enhances Transparency and Accountability - Mobile platforms offer real-time updates, alerts, and tracking of applications, griev-
ances, and welfare benefits. Reduces opportunities for corruption and manipulation.

Supports Inclusive Governance - Reaches women, differently-abled, and low-income groups who may not have access to comput-
ers or high-end digital tools. Encourages digital empowerment at the grassroots level.

Facilitates Direct Benefit Transfers (DBT) and Financial Inclusion - Integration with mobile banking, Aadhaar, and SMS alerts sup-
ports timely delivery of subsidies and pensions. Eg- mAadhaar, DigiPay, PM-KISAN mobile alerts

Improves Efficiency of Government Officials - Enables field officials to update data, geotag assets, and track scheme progress
using mobile apps. Eg- mActionSoft for MGNREGA geotagging, AwaasApp for housing verification.

Cost-Effective and Scalable - m-Governance is cheaper to implement and maintain compared to desktop/web infrastructure.
Easily scalable due to widespread mobile penetration (over 1.1 billion connections in India).

Challenges of m-governance
1. L
 imited Mobile Internet Access in Rural Areas - Poor mobile network coverage and inconsistent 4G/5G
access impact service reliability. Rural internet penetration is only ~42%, compared to over 110% in urban
India.
2. Digital Illiteracy and Language Barriers - Many citizens, especially the elderly and marginalized, lack digi-
tal literacy to navigate apps or use mobile services. Most platforms are not multilingual, making it difficult
for non-English speakers to engage.
3. D  evice Affordability and Battery Dependency - Smartphone ownership remains unequal across income
groups and gender. Feature phones have limited functionality and battery constraints in power-deficient
regions
4. F  ragmentation of Services - Multiple apps for different government schemes lead to confusion, redundan-
cy, and lack of integration.
5. Security and Privacy Concerns - Many apps and SMS services lack robust encryption, user authenti-
cation, or secure data handling practices. Increases risk of data breaches, financial fraud, and identity
theft.
6. C  apacity Gaps Among Field Officials delays updates, data entry, and real-time monitoring.
7. Institutional and Policy Gaps - Absence of clear guidelines on app standards, data ownership, and in-
teroperability with existing e-Governance systems.
8. S  ervice Downtime and Poor User Experience - Apps and platforms often experience technical glitches,
slow loading, or server downtime. Poor UI/UX design limits adoption and continued usage.
9. L  ow User Trust in Government Mobile Platforms - Skepticism due to past failures, low reliability, or lack
of grievance redressal mechanisms. Citizens often prefer traditional offline methods over unfamiliar apps.

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Examples
1. U
 MANG (Unified Mobile Application for New-age Governance) - Offers over 2,000 services from central,
state, and local governments. Accessible via mobile app, web, and SMS.
2. DigiLocker - Provides a secure cloud-based platform to store documents such as driving licences, vehicle
registration certificates, and educational certificates.
3. Aarogya Setu - Uses Bluetooth and GPS to track interactions and provide alerts about potential COVID-19
exposure. Offers information on testing centres and guidelines.
4. MyGov - Allows citizens to share ideas, participate in discussions, and provide feedback on government
policies and initiatives
5. Kisan Suvidha - Offers weather
updates, market prices, agricul-
tural advice, and dealer informa-
tion.
6. B harat Interface for Money
(BHIM) - Allows users to make
instant bank-to-bank payments
and pay utility bills via their mo-
bile phones.
7. Mobile Seva - Offers SMS, IVRS,
and mobile app-based services
for various government depart-
ments.
8. Swachh Bharat Mission Mobile
App - Allows citizens to report
cleanliness issues and track the
progress of cleanliness drives.
9. RTA m-Wallet - Allows users to
store digital copies of driving
licences, vehicle registration
certificates, and insurance doc-
uments.

Way Forward
Enhance Rural Mobile and Internet Infrastructure
● E xpand 4G/5G mobile coverage and improve network reliability in remote and tribal regions.
● Accelerate BharatNet Phase-II implementation to support mobile backhaul connectivity.

Develop Unified, Multilingual m-Governance Platforms

● Integrate services into a single, citizen-friendly app with regional language support and voice-
based assistance.
● Use platforms like UMANG as centralized mobile governance hubs for all state and central services.

Invest in Digital Literacy and Awareness Campaigns

● S cale up programs like Internet Saathi, PMGDISHA, and school-level digital education.
● Launch m-Gov awareness drives at panchayat, anganwadi, and school levels using VLEs and CSCs.

Ensure Data Privacy and Secure Mobile Platforms

● Enforce robust data protection guidelines for mobile apps under the Digital Personal Data Pro-
tection Act, 2023.
● Implement security audits and 2-factor authentication for m-Governance platforms.

Strengthen Technical Support and Offline Functionality

● E quip frontline workers and CSC operators with technical training and troubleshooting support.
● Ensure that m-Gov apps have offline features with automatic sync when internet is available.

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Promote Public Participation and Feedback Loops

● E nable real-time citizen feedback through WhatsApp governance bots, IVRS, and mobile polls.
● Incentivize use through SMS updates, rewards for reporting service gaps, or grievance resolution.

Institutionalize Monitoring and Evaluation of m-Governance

● E stablish m-Governance performance indices at central and state levels.
● Include metrics such as uptime, responsiveness, satisfaction scores, and adoption rates.

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CHAPTER 3

Non-governmental
Organisations (NGOs)

Previous Year Questions 

[2024] Public charitable trusts have the potential to make India’s development more inclusive as they relate to certain vital
public issues. Comment.

[2023] Discuss the contribution of civil society groups for women’s effective and meaningful participation and represen-
tation in state legislatures in India.

[2022] Do you agree with the view that increasing dependence on donor agencies for development reduces the impor-
tance of community participation in the development process? Justify your answer.

[2021] Can Civil Society and Non-Governmental Organisations present an alternative model of public service delivery to
benefit the common citizen? Discuss the challenges of this alternative model.

Answer Writing Framework 

INTRODUCTION
1. D
 efinition + connecting statement
2. C
 ontext or data - Over 3 Million NGOs
3. C
 an also start with Quote

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MAIN BODY
1. D
 iagrammatic representation to highlight its functions
2. F
 ollow TEMPORAL and STAKEHOLDER approach
1. T
 EMPORAL

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2. S
 TAKEHOLDER

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3. F
 or Challenges - PIES

4. T
 he brief way forward using global best practices, legal reforms, and effective regulation

CONCLUSION
1. L ink with democracy or highlight significance in ‘NEW GOVERNANCE’ or in GOOD GOVERNANCE
The UN Department of Public Information (DPI) defines the NGO as “a not-for-profit, voluntary citizen’s group that is
organized on a local, national or international level to address issues in support of the public good.”

“NGOs are legally constituted organizations, operate independently from the government and are generally considered to
be/ (non-state, non-profit oriented groups who pursue purposes of public interest.” - J. Mathew and J. Verghese, 2011

“NGOs contribute to building resilient societies by empowering individuals and communities, promoting civic engage-
ment, and fostering social cohesion.” - Muhammad Yunus

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Historical evolution of NGOs: 

• P re-independence: Social Welfare and constructive work (inspired by
Gandhian philosophy) very much in line with the independence movement.
Eg- Servants of India Society, founded by Gopal Krishna Gokhale.
• 1950-70: Social Welfare, Government funded and managed. Eg- Khadi
Industries. Most of the development works rested with NGOs as Five
Year’s development plans came into existence.
• 1970-90: NGOs started showing why government programs were not
helping the poor and marginalized, and proposed a new development
model, which involved people’s participation. NGOs now handle various
programs like education, healthcare, water, sanitation, and more. Many of
these models later influenced government policies. Eg- Self-Employed
Women’s Association (SEWA), founded in 1972.
• Post LPG to Present: Govt. Organisations and NGO partnerships got
a boost. NGOs are now more focused on SHGs, micro-credit, and liveli-
hoods. Participation of NGOs is ensured in policy-making and program
implementation. Example - Mazdoor Kisan Shakti Sangathan (MKSS),
which played a pivotal role in the RTI movement.

Types of NGOs: 
Types of NGOs Development work
Activist NGOs These serve as policy critics and watchdogs that hold the government to account.
Eg- Narmada Bachao Andolan.
Social Partner NGOs Assist the government with delivery of its objectives by supplementing capacity in
training, development and support. Eg- Oxfam.
Research and Development NGO These work in the areas of research, innovation and programme design. Eg- Centre
for Science and Environment (CSE).
Service Provider NGOs These are normally contracted by the government to assist in the delivery of its
programs. Eg- Habitat for Humanity.
Humanitarian NGOs These normally provide material or logistical assistance for humanitarian purposes
like saving lives, alleviating suffering and maintaining human dignity. Eg- Internation-
al Rescue Committee (IRC)
Entrepreneurial NGOs The role of these NGOs is to provide a vehicle for social entrepreneurs to operate
with legitimacy. Eg- Ashoka

Constitutional and Legal Provisions: 

1. C
 onstitutional Provisions:
1. A
 rticle 19(1)(c) on the right to form associations
2. A
 rticle 43 - The State should endeavor to promote coop-
eratives in rural areas
3. Schedule 7: Concurrent List in Entry 28 mentions
Charities and charitable institutions, charitable and
religious endowments, and religious institutions.
2. L egal Provisions:
1. F oreign Contribution (Regulation) Act (FCRA),
2010: The law makes sure that those who receive foreign
donations use them for their intended purpose.
2. Indian NGOs come under 3 segments:
• S ocieties: Societies have to register under the Societies
Registration Act,1860.
• T rusts: Private trusts are registered under the central gov-
ernment’s Indian Trusts Act, 1882, and public ones are
registered under the state legislation concerned.
• C ompanies: They are set up according to section 8 of
the Companies Act, 2013.

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Significance: 
1. B
 ridge Between Government and Citizens - NGOs act as intermediaries, translating policies into grassroots
action and voicing the concerns of marginalized communities. Enhance the reach and responsiveness of
government schemes. Eg- PRADAN helps tribal women access livelihood and government entitlements
2. P
 olicymaking: According to the Observer Research Foundation (ORF)report, NGOs were actively involved in over
70% of major policy public consultations in India between 2018-2020, showcasing their significant participation in
policymaking.
3. Implementation: ASER data shows NGOs in India boosted primary school enrolment by 30% and improved learn-
ing outcomes by 15%, demonstrating their impact on education policy implementation.
4. F
 eedback: NGOs help in tracking the effectiveness of schemes, identifying leakages, and conducting inde-
pendent audits. Eg- CHRI (Commonwealth Human Rights Initiative) monitors police accountability and access to
justice.
5. G
 overnment Accountability: NGOs act as watchdogs, ensuring that governments uphold constitutional values
and citizen rights. Use tools like PILs, RTI, and mass mobilization to bring systemic change. Eg- Association for
Democratic Reforms (ADR) ensure government accountability through advocacy, litigation, and data-driven meth-
ods.
6. C
 apacity Building and Awareness Generation - Train Panchayati Raj members, SHGs, youth, and local bodies
in rights awareness, digital literacy, and institutional processes. Spread legal literacy, voter awareness, and
promote behavioral change. Eg- MKCL and SEWA.
7. A
 dministration: NGOs act as a bridge between the government and the people and serve as implementers, cata-
lysts, and partners. Eg- Akshaya Patra Foundation in implementing Mid Day Meal scheme.
8. P
 eople’s participation: Their role ensures that development is inclusive, with everyone having an equal opportu-
nity to participate. Eg- Mazdoor Kisan Shakti Sangathan (MKSS) pioneered social audits and the Right to Informa-
tion movement in Rajasthan.
9. W
 omen’s empowerment: Organisations like Sewa (over 2.1 million members), Sathin, Eklavya, and Disha etc. are
recognized for their efforts in raising awareness and taking action on women’s issues as part of their development
initiatives.
10. R
 ights advocacy and legal reforms: NGOs› advocacy has influenced major policy reforms, like amending the
Forest Rights Act (2006) to strengthen forest-dweller rights.
11. D
 evelopmental Functions -

12. T
 ransnational organizations: Eg- Doctors Without Borders demonstrates global impact through rapid crisis
response, impartiality, resource efficiency, and advocacy, greatly enhancing global healthcare access and crisis
relief efforts.

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Issues: 
1. O
 rganizational Issues
1. L imited Capacity: NGOs often struggle with maintaining skilled staff due to low salaries and limited
professional development opportunities, and high turnover rates.
2. Impact Measurement: The lack of robust systems to evaluate the effectiveness of their work hinders NGOs’
ability to showcase their impact. According to a study by Dasra, a philanthropy foundation, only about 15% of
Indian NGOs have proper impact measurement tools in place.
3. A
 survey by Indian Institute of Corporate Affairs (IICA) found that around 67% of small and medium-sized
NGOs in India face resource challenges like limited funding, technical expertise, and infrastructure.
4. A
 report by the Harvard Kennedy School in 2018 highlighted governance as a critical challenge for NGOs
globally, noting that weak governance structures lead to strategic misalignment and operational inefficiencies.
Eg- the majority of NGOs in India don›t have Board for governance.
2. R
 egulatory Issues
1. R
 egulatory Burdens: stricter laws like amendments to the FCRA and the Prevention of Money Laundering Act
make it challenging for NGOs to access foreign funds. According to data from the Ministry of Home Affairs
(MHA), over 19,000 NGOs lost their FCRA licenses between 2011 and 2020.
2. India does not have a single, complete registry for NGOs, resulting in major gaps in available data. Out of 3
million NGOs in the country, only about 175,000 of are registered on Niti Aayog’s Darpan portal.
3. F
 inancial Issues
1. F
 unding Constraints: Unpredictable funding cycles and stringent donor conditions impact financial
sustainability. According to the India NGO sector report by KPMG, more than 50% of NGOs face difficulties in
obtaining consistent funding.
2. O
 verdependence on government funding curtails their ability to hold the government and administration
accountable.
3. C
 ompetition for Resources: There is stiff competition for limited funding, which often leads to duplicated
efforts. A report by NITI Aayog noted that the high density of NGOs in certain regions leads to competition
rather than collaboration, reducing overall sector efficiency.
4. S
 ecurity:
1. A
 s per the Intelligence Bureau report, foreign-funded NGOs acting as instruments for the foreign policy
goals of Western governments have led to a reduction in GDP growth by 2-3%.
2. C
 BI has informed that less than 10% of registered NGOs filed their audited accounts (to the registrar of societies).
Also, NGOs, except those substantially financed by the government, are outside the purview of the RTI Act.
5. L ack of Transparency and Accountability: The Transparency International report highlighted concerns about
corruption and mismanagement in Indian NGOs, affecting their international credibility.
6. C
 ultural Clash: Some people feel that NGOs interfere with long-standing traditions and cultures, which can lead
to large-scale protests. Eg- the ban on Jallikattu following a court case filed by PETA.

Reasons for the Marginalization of NGOs in

the Developmental Process 
1. R
 esource Mobilization Theory: NGOs in India often struggle with resource constraints, which limit their
operational capabilities and impact.
2. F
 raming Theory: In the context of social movement theory, framing involves the construction of a social reality
through language and media. Negative framing in media lead to marginalization by reducing public trust and
support.
3. R
 egulatory Challenges: The regulatory environment in India can be quite stringent for NGOs, particularly
concerning foreign funding. Eg- Over 6,000 NGOs lost FCRA registration between 2015 and 2023 due to non-
compliance or perceived misuse of funds.

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4. P
 olitical Environment: NGOs that engage in advocacy or work on sensitive issues such as human rights,
environmental protection, or land rights often find themselves at odds with government policies. This leads to
political backlash, including scrutiny, restrictions, and sometimes outright hostility. Eg- Amnesty International
5. F
 inancial Constraints: Many NGOs rely heavily on external funding, grants and donations which makes them
vulnerable to financial instability.
6. P
 ublic Perception and Trust Issues: instances of corruption and mismanagement within certain NGOs taint the
overall perception of these organizations. This erodes public trust and leads to decreased support both in terms of
funding and volunteer participation. Eg- Srijan NGO in Bihar
7. C
 ompetition with Government and Private Sector: NGOs often compete with government programs and private
sector initiatives that have more resources at their disposal. This marginalizes smaller NGOs and reduces their
impact, particularly in rural and underprivileged areas.
8. L ack of Professionalism: While many NGOs are highly professional, others may lack the organizational structure,
skilled manpower, and management practices needed to be effective. This hinder their ability to deliver services
and achieve their objectives.
9. L ack of Transparency and Accountability within NGOs - Some are shell organizations misusing the NGO label
for tax exemptions or personal gain.

10. M
 arginal Role in Policy Making - NGOs are often excluded from formal policy consultations. Government
programs prefer bureaucratic or contractor-driven models over civil society partnerships
11. F
 ragmentation and Lack of Coordination - The NGO sector in India is highly fragmented, with duplication of
efforts and competition for funding. Absence of strong federations or collective advocacy reduces their collective
voice.
12. U
 rban Bias in NGO Operations - Many large NGOs operate mainly in metros and state capitals, leaving rural
and tribal areas underserved or overlooked.

Government steps: 
1. N
 ational policy on the voluntary sector-2007: This policy is a commitment to increase, enable, and empower the
voluntary sector so that it can contribute to the social, cultural, and economic advancement of the people of India.
1. O
 bjectives:
1. T
 o create an enabling environment for voluntary organizations (VOs) that stimulates
their enterprise and effectiveness, and safeguards their autonomy.
2. T
 o enable VOs to legitimately mobilize necessary financial resources from India and
abroad.
3. T
 o identify systems by which the government may work together with VOs, based on
the principle of mutual trust and respect and with shared responsibility.
4. To encourage VOs to adopt transparent and accountable systems of governance
and management.
2. F
 oreign Contribution Regulation Act (FCRA), 2010 and Amendments (2020)
• Objective: Regulate foreign funding to NGOs and prevent misuse for anti-national activities.
• Key Provisions:
• Mandatory FCRA registration for NGOs receiving foreign funds.
• Prohibits sub-granting of funds to other NGOs (post-2020 amendment).
• Limits administrative expenses to 20% of foreign contributions.
• Mandatory Aadhaar of office bearers and operation of a single SBI account in Delhi
for FCRA funds.
• Impact: Over 6,000 NGOs lost FCRA licenses between 2015 and 2023 due to non-compliance.
3. N
 ITI Aayog’s NGO-DARPAN Portal
• Objective: Promote transparency and build a central database of NGOs.

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• Features:
• Unique ID issued to each NGO.
• Required for receiving government grants.
• Displays key info like PAN, registration details, and area of work.
• Impact: Over 1.5 lakh NGOs registered (as of 2024), improving traceability.
4. M
 andatory Filing and Audit Requirements
• NGOs must file annual returns, income-expenditure statements, and utilization certificates with relevant
ministries or the FCRA division.
• Non-compliance leads to suspension, blacklisting, or cancellation of grants/licenses.
5. Income Tax Regulations for Charitable Trusts/NGOs
• NGOs must register under Sections 12A and 80G of the Income Tax Act to avail tax exemptions.
• Re-registration made mandatory every 5 years (from 2020) to ensure compliance.

NGO Funding: 
54% of NGOs have less than three months› worth of reserve funds.

1. N
 eed:
1. O
 perational Sustainability - Funding is essential to cover core operational costs such as staff salaries, rent,
transportation, and technology.
2. S
 calability and Expansion of Impact - Funding enables NGOs to replicate successful models in multiple
regions and scale up outreach. Eg- Teach For India expanded from a few schools in Mumbai to 7+ cities with
the help of philanthropic funding.
3. Innovation and Experimentation - Flexible funding supports innovation, pilot projects, and risk-taking,
encouraging development of low-cost, scalable solutions for marginalized communities. Eg- ARMMAN’s
mHealth model for maternal care
4. M
 onitoring, Evaluation, and Transparency - Proper funding allows NGOs to invest in impact assessments,
audits, and transparent reporting systems.
5. C
 apacity Building and Training - Enables training of field staff, community mobilizers, and local leaders
in digital tools, legal rights, education, health and governance. Helps in professionalizing the sector and
improving service quality.
6. L everaging Government Partnerships - Funding empowers NGOs to match or complement government
support, especially in health, education, and rural development.
7. C
 risis Response and Relief Work - Immediate funding is vital for disaster relief, pandemic response, and
humanitarian assistance. Eg- During COVID-19, NGOs like Goonj, Akshaya Patra, and others provided food
and essentials using emergency donor funds.
8. A
 dvocacy and Rights-Based Work - NGOs working on human rights, gender justice, environmental pro-
tection, or legal awareness need funding for independent operations, legal support, and campaigns. These
areas often do not receive government grants and rely on civil society funding.
2. Issues:
1. S
 tringent FCRA Regulations - The Foreign Contribution Regulation Act (FCRA), especially after the
2020 amendments, has made it difficult for NGOs to receive and utilize foreign funds.
2. L ack of Unrestricted Core Funding - Most grants (foreign or CSR) are project-based, offering little support
for core expenses like salaries, infrastructure, admin, and research. Many NGOs operate with skeletal staff,
high attrition, and unstable operations.
3. O
 verdependence on Foreign Contributions due to the limited domestic philanthropic base. Any global
economic or political shift impacts funding availability.
4. R
 egulatory Uncertainty and Bureaucratic Delays - Delays in FCRA registration, renewal, and fund ap-
provals are common. Changing compliance rules, ambiguous interpretation of «national interest», and lack of
redressal mechanisms create unpredictability.

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5. Inadequate Domestic Funding Mechanisms - Tax exemptions under 80G and 12A exist but are often
complex and offer limited incentive to individual donors.
6. S
 tate Suspicion and Political Sensitivity = NGOs working on human rights, environmental activism, tribal
rights, etc., are often perceived as “anti-development” or politically motivated. This leads to surveillance,
fund blockages, and public mistrust. Eg- Greenpeace India and Amnesty International faced major restric-
tions and fund freezing due to national security concerns.
7. C
 SR Skew Toward Certain Sectors - Underfunded areas like legal aid, gender justice, governance, and
advocacy receive minimal attention.
8. L ack of Financial Transparency in Some NGOs - Cases of misappropriation or weak financial governance
within NGOs have eroded trust.
9. D
 onor-Driven Program Priorities - Funding often comes with preset agendas, reducing NGO autonomy and
community-led innovation.
10. L imited Access to Capacity Building Funds - There is a funding gap for technology upgrades, training,
M&E, and impact measurement, especially for grassroots NGOs. Restricts their ability to attract, retain
talent and scale operations.

NGO and CSR: 

Section 135 of the Companies Act compels profitable companies to allocate a minimum of 2% of their pre-tax net
profits to development endeavors, encouraging partnerships with Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs). This collabo-
ration strengthens the roles of NGOs in non-state governance, promoting development through citizenry-private partner-
ships.

Benefits:
1. Increased Funding and Resources which can be used to support and expand their projects and operations. Eg-
Smile Foundation receives more than 80% of its funding from CSR support
2. E
 nhanced Visibility and Credibility: Collaboration with reputable companies can increase an NGO›s visibility and
lend credibility to its efforts, attracting more donations and support from other sources.
3. A
 ccess to Expertise, Technology, and infrastructure that can significantly improve efficiency and effectiveness.
Eg- NGOs Goonj has partnered with firms providing logistics and supply chain expertise, helping them streamline
the distribution of resources during disaster relief efforts.
4. C
 SR partnerships are often designed to be sustainable, aiming to create long-term social value rather than one-
off charitable contributions. This approach helps NGOs plan and execute long-term strategies effectively. Eg- a
collaboration between Godrej and WWF India
5. N
 etworking and Advocacy Support: Through CSR programs, NGOs can tap into a broader network of industry
leaders and influencers, which can be invaluable for advocacy and spreading their message.
6. E
 mployee Engagement: CSR initiatives often encourage employee involvement through volunteering, which can
provide NGOs with additional manpower and expertise and raise awareness.

Issues:
1. B
 ureaucratic Compliance and Registration Hurdles - NGOs must be registered with the MCA21 portal, and
under Section 12A & 80G of the Income Tax Act to receive CSR funds. Complex and time-consuming registration
procedures deter smaller or grassroots NGOs.
2. O
 ver-Regulation and Legal Ambiguity
• Multiple overlapping regulations (e.g., FCRA, Companies Act, Income Tax Act) create compliance fatigue.
• Confusion about what qualifies as eligible CSR activity under Schedule VII of the Companies Act hampers
NGO access.
3. P
 reference for Large, Urban NGOs - Grassroots or tribal-area NGOs are overlooked due to lack of scale or
professional polish. Eg- 70%+ of CSR funds are absorbed by top 300 NGOs
4. P
 roject-Based, Short-Term Funding - Most CSR partnerships are project-specific with tight timelines, lacking
support for core operational costs, capacity building, or institutional sustainability.

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5. L ow Transparency and Evaluation from Corporate Side - Many corporates lack robust due diligence, impact
assessment, and feedback mechanisms, leading to misalignment and disputes with NGOs.
6. D
 elayed Disbursement and Payment - Procedural delays in fund release due to internal audits, legal vetting, or
board approvals disrupt NGO operations.
7. M
 isalignment of Goals leading to conflicts or ineffective partnerships where the projects do not fully support the
NGO›s mission or community needs.
8. L ack of Capacity to Attract CSR - Many NGOs lack proposal-writing, impact measurement, and reporting
skills, essential for competitive CSR partnerships.
9. G
 eographic and Sectoral Imbalance - Remote regions, conflict zones, and sensitive areas like legal aid or gender
rights receive minimal support. Less than 10% of CSR funds go to the NE and tribal belts.
10. L ack of Strategic Collaboration - CSR is often treated as compliance, not a long-term developmental partner-
ship. Results in fragmented, one-off projects with limited systemic impact.
11. D
 ependency and Sustainability: Reliance on CSR funding can make NGOs vulnerable to fluctuations in
corporate profits or changes in corporate strategy, which may lead to sudden reductions in funding.
While CSR has opened a vital funding stream for NGOs, its full potential is undermined by accessibility barriers, funding
rigidity, corporate dominance, and lack of institutional support. To make CSR transformative, India needs:
• S
 implified compliance
• S
 upport for small NGOs
• S
 trategic, long-term partnerships
• C
 ore funding support and inclusive CSR design

Role of donor organisations:

A donor organization is an entity, either governmental or non-governmental, that offers financial or material assistance for
charitable, developmental, or humanitarian causes.

Positives:
1. S
 upplementing the Resource Deficit (Resource Dependency Theory) - NGOs and state actors often rely on
external donors for funding innovative programs and scaling pilots. Eg- Gates Foundation’s role in polio eradication,
when domestic resources were limited.
2. C
 atalysts for Institutional Innovation (New Public Management - NPM) - Donors often introduce market-based,
outcome-focused, and tech-driven approaches aligned with the New Public Management paradigm. Eg- DFID-sup-
ported e-governance and administrative reforms in Odisha & Bihar.
3. E
 nablers of Participatory Governance (Governance Theory) - Donor-backed civil society organisations promote
bottom-up development, citizen participation, and social accountability. Eg- MKSS (supported by ActionAid and
Ford Foundation) mobilized citizens around RTI and social audits.
4. E
 vidence-Based Policymaking (Rational Choice and Policy Learning Models) - Donors fund research, pilot
models, and impact evaluations, enabling governments to adopt evidence-based decision-making. Eg- JPAL and
BMGF-funded RCTs on nutrition, education, and DBT helped shape India’s JAM trinity and nutrition strategy.
5. S
 trengthening State Capacity (Neo-Institutionalism) by supporting training, digital systems, MIS, and technical
assistance—essential for policy effectiveness. Eg- UNDP’s capacity building in SDG localization across pancha-
yats and state planning departments.
6. F
 illing Governance Gaps in Fragile Sectors - They bridge the “implementation deficit” in underserved or
conflict-prone regions. Eg- Oxfam and CARE India led humanitarian responses during Odisha cyclones and
COVID-19 migrant crisis.
7. P
 romoting Rights-Based Development and Empowerment - Donors help civil society organizations focus on eq-
uity, gender justice, minority rights, and democratic deepening. Aligns with Amartya Sen’s Capability Approach.
8. E
 nhancing Global-Local Policy Convergence - Donors facilitate alignment between domestic priorities and
global development goals (SDGs, climate action, health security). Eg- GIZ, UNDP, and World Bank supported India’s
National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC).

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9. B
 uilding Development Coalitions (Network Governance) - Donors operate within multi-stakeholder frameworks,
enabling collaboration across sectors, levels of government, academia, and civil society.

Donor Organisation Sector/Focus Area Key Contribution/Example

Bill & Melinda Gates Public Health & Nutri- Supported polio eradication, Mission Indradhanush, nutri-
Foundation tion tion RCTs

World Bank Sanitation & Urban Funded Swachh Bharat Mission, AMRUT, and urban water
Services projects

Azim Premji Founda- Education & Capacity Works with public school reform, teacher training in rural
tion Building India

UNDP Governance & Digital Supported Digital India, SDG localization, and e-gover-
Inclusion nance

DFID (now FCDO - UK) Governance & Poverty Funded police modernization, social protection pilots in
Alleviation Bihar & Odisha

USAID Health & Innovation Co-developed eVIN (vaccine tracking); supported TB & HIV
programs

Tata Trusts Rural Development & Strengthened ICDS, rural skilling, and cancer care models
Education

GIZ (Germany) Climate & Energy Effi- Supported renewable energy, energy audits, and sustain-
ciency able cities

Ford Foundation Rights & Social Justice Backed RTI movement, legal empowerment, and tribal land
rights

WaterAid Water, Sanitation, Hy- Implemented WASH projects in 11+ states via panchayat
giene (WASH) partnership

Negatives:
1. D
 ominant top-down approach where external organizations dictate priorities and goals instead of considering
local needs and perspectives.
2. F
 oreign Influence - Eg-Concerns were raised about World Vision India allegedly promoting religious conversion
using foreign funds.
3. E
 rosion of state responsibility: The increasing reliance on donor support for social welfare initiatives undermines
the constitutional responsibility of states as outlined in the Directive Principles of State Policy.
4. D
 ependency Theory: International aid can create a cycle of dependency among recipient nations. The aid leads to
reliance on foreign funds rather than fostering domestic growth and self-sufficiency.
5. H
 umanitarian Imperialism: aid is used as a tool for extending the influence and control over recipient countries.
6. S
 overeignty and National Security Concerns - Eg-Ford Foundation and Greenpeace faced restrictions over
“anti-national” activities.
7. M
 ismatch with Local Priorities - Donor-driven agendas often emphasize global concerns (e.g., climate action) over
local priorities (e.g., clean cooking fuel).
8. O
 verregulation under FCRA and Compliance Burden - Stringent norms under the Foreign Contribution Regu-
lation Act (FCRA) hamper donor-NGO collaboration. Over 6,000 NGOs lost FCRA licenses between 2015–2023.
9. F
 unding Fragmentation and Duplication - Absence of a centralized donor registry or convergence framework
leads to overlapping projects and inefficient resource use.
10. C
 onditionality and External Influence - Funding often comes with preset themes, consultants, or KPIs, limit-

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ing local innovation or adaptability.

11. T
 ransparency and Accountability Gaps - Not all donor-backed projects have clear monitoring frameworks or
open reporting mechanisms. Limits public scrutiny and impact evaluation.

Global best Practices

Country/Institution Best Practice Key Features

United Kingdom (UK) Charity Commission Independent regulatory body; maintains a public register of
Model charities; mandates annual reporting, impact statements,
and financial disclosures.
United States (USA) 501(c)(3) Status with IRS NGOs must publicly disclose Form 990 with detailed
Oversight financials; strict donor tax rules; foundations subject to
payout obligations.
European Union (EU) Financial Transparency Discloses all EU funding to NGOs; accessible online; in-
System (FTS) cludes project objectives, budgets, and beneficiaries.

Australia Australian Charities and Tiered reporting system (small, medium, large); centralized
Not-for-profits Commis- charity register; code of conduct for fundraising.
sion (ACNC)

OECD/DAC Guide- Donor Aid Transparency Promotes use of IATI (International Aid Transparency
lines Framework Initiative) standards; NGOs encouraged to publish in
machine-readable formats.

GlobalGiving & Give- Impact-Linked NGO Rat- Crowdsourced reviews and M&E-based NGO rating for
Well ing & Donor Confidence credibility and fund traceability.
Scores

FCRA(Amendment) 2020: 
1. T
 his amendment introduced following changes:
1. R
 eduction in use of foreign contributions for administrative purposes: NGOs can only use 20% (earlier
50%) of funds for administrative requirements.
2. T
 ransfer of foreign contribution: The amendment prohibits the transfer of foreign contributions to any other
person and also forbids sub-granting by NGOs to smaller NGOs.
3. P
 ublic servants: It adds public servants to the prohibition list for receiving foreign contributions.
4. F
 CRA account restrictions: FCRA accounts can only be opened in a designated branch of SBI in New Delhi.
5. A
 adhaar card usage: Aadhaar card details of all functionaries and office bearers are mandatory for the regis-
tration of NGOs.
2. R
 ationale:
1. M
 onitor the misuse of funds and strengthen compliance mechanisms.
2. E
 nhance transparency and prevent misappropriation and mis-utilization of foreign contributions.
3. T
 o curb illicit financial activities such as terror financing and money laundering.
4. R
 oot out NGOs that are working against internal security and national interest.
3. Issues associated with the recent amendments:
1. A
 gainst constitutional rights: This amendment infringes over constitutionally guaranteed rights to free
speech [19(1)(a)] and freedom of association [19(1)(c)].
2. C
 ap on administrative expenses: A 20% cap on administrative expenses can limit the recruitment of experts
and talented human resources and curtail the efficient functioning of NGOs.

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3. Impact collaborative work among NGOs in different sectors: NGOs will no longer be able to transfer foreign
funds to small NGOs working at a grassroots level.
4. Impact on geographical reach of NGOs: The restriction on the transfer of foreign contributions may also
need to decline in the geographical reach of NGOs.
5. Incompatible with international laws: The UNHRC resolution on protecting human rights says that no law
should criminalize or delegitimize activities in defense of human rights on account of the origin of funding.
6. A
 n additional cost of compliance: Around 93% of FCRA NGOs registered outside Delhi, and they now have
to open a bank account in the capital.
7. Over-regulation of NGOs: Over-regulation would result in a decrease in foreign donations, leading to the
closing down of NGOs. Eg- Amnesty International India had to halt its operations due to the freezing of its
bank accounts.

Examples of NGOs working

in different sectors-
1. Health –
1. P
 ratham Education Foundation: Improves healthcare access and outcomes for underserved Indian
communities.
2. S
 mile Foundation: Provides healthcare services to disadvantaged children and families in India.
2. Education -
1. A
 kanksha Foundation: Bridges the education gap for underprivileged children in India.
2. T
 each For India: Ensures educational equity and access for all Indian children through teacher recruitment
and training.
3. L egal Reforms –
1. C
 ommon Cause India: Advocate for transparency and good governance through legal reforms.
2. H
 uman Rights Law Network (HRLN): Provide legal aid and advocacy for marginalized communities.
4. E
 lectoral Reforms –
1. A
 ssociation for Democratic Reforms (ADR): Focuses on electoral reforms, transparency, and accountability
in the Indian political system.
2. N
 ational Election Watch (NEW): A coalition of NGOs working to improve electoral processes and governance
in India.
5. S
 killing –
1. N
 ational Skill Development Corporation (NSDC): Enhance employability through skill development pro-
grams.
2. N
 irmaan Organization: Empower youth with skills for sustainable livelihoods.
6. W
 omen Empowerment –
1. S
 elf-Employed Women’s Association (SEWA): Empower women in the informal sector through collective
action (SEWA has over 2.1 million members).
2. Breakthrough: Promote gender equality and combat violence against women.
7. R
 ural Development –
1. P
 RADAN (Professional Assistance for Development Action): Focuses on sustainable rural development
through capacity building.
2. G
 ram Vikas: Improve rural livelihoods and access to basic amenities.
8. E
 nvironment –
1. W
 orld Wide Fund for Nature (WWF): Works to conserve nature, reduce human impact on the environment,

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and promote sustainable practices globally.

2. G
 reenpeace India: Campaign for ecological conservation and sustainable development.
9. C
 hild Rights –
1. C
 RY (Child Rights and You): Ensure the rights and well-being of children in India.
2. S
 ave the Children India: Protect children from exploitation and provide education and healthcare.
10. Tribals –
1. V
 anashakti: advocates for tribal rights, environmental conservation, and sustainable development in India,
emphasizing land and forest protection.
2. V
 anavasi Kalyan Ashram: Work for the welfare and development of tribal communities.
11. T
 ransgenders and LGBTQ –
1. N
 az Foundation: Advocate for LGBTQ rights and inclusivity.
2. H
 umsafar Trust: Provide support and advocacy for the LGBTQ community.
12. M
 inorities –
1. U
 nited Christian Forum (UCF): Advocates for Christian minority rights in India.
2. M
 aulana Azad Education Foundation: Empowers Indian minorities, especially Muslims, through education.

Way forward: 
1. 2
 nd ARC: enact a law to set up an independent National Accreditation Council- to provide for the system of
accreditation of voluntary organizations that seek funding from government agencies.
2. V
 ijay Kumar Committee Recommendations: ‘Light regulation’ of NGO
1. N
 odal body: To oversee the various interfaces between NGOs and government and the NITI Aayog be vested
with the power.
2. Less physical interface: Between NGOs and public officials acting under the IT Act and FCRA, along with
reduction in mutual distrust and scope for misuse.
3. A separate law for voluntary agencies: This would enable effective and efficient regulation of voluntary
agencies, engaging in activities of a charitable or “public good” nature.
3. G
 reater coordination between the Ministry of Finance and MHA in monitoring and regulating illicit and unac-
counted funds.
4. E
 stablishing a governing board enhances NGO governance, and through capacity building and training, NGOs can
develop essential skills internally to effectively tackle future challenges.
5. S
 implify and Streamline Regulatory Framework
• Rationalize overlapping laws (FCRA, IT Act, CSR guidelines) to reduce compliance burden.
• Single-window digital platform for NGO registration, fund tracking, and license renewals.
6. S
 trengthen NGO-DARPAN and Public Disclosure Norms
• Mandate real-time updates on the NGO-DARPAN portal for funding received, donor names, and usage reports.
• Display audited financials and impact assessments for public transparency.
7. F
 CRA Reform with Balanced Oversight - Amend FCRA to:
• Allow sub-granting to smaller grassroots NGOs.
• Set realistic compliance timelines.
• Enable appeal or redressal mechanism in case of license cancellations.
8. E
 ncourage Domestic Philanthropy and CSR Inclusion
• Offer tax incentives for individual donations to verified NGOs (especially in Tier-II/III areas).
• Broaden CSR Schedule VII to include funding for:

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• Institutional capacity building

• Rights-based work
• Legal and digital empowerment
9. B
 uild a Centralized NGO Monitoring Dashboard - Use data analytics and GIS tagging to track: Fund disburs-
al, Project outcomes, Geographic spread of donor-NGO activity
10. P
 romote NGO Financial Literacy and Capacity Building
• Launch training modules for small and rural NGOs on: Financial reporting, Digital compliance, Proposal writing
• Conduct regular workshops in partnership with NITI Aayog and ICAI.
11. F
 oster Trust-Based Donor-NGO Partnerships
• Shift from transactional project grants to flexible, long-term funding models.
• Encourage co-creation of programs, not just outsourcing of CSR mandates.
12. Independent Audit and Grievance Mechanism - Set up an autonomous NGO Regulatory Authority under
NITI Aayog for: Third-party audits, Ethical code enforcement and Dispute resolution between donors and NGOs
13. D
 igital Traceability and Blockchain Integration - Pilot blockchain-based fund traceability systems for
high-value NGO projects.
14. P
 ublic Engagement and Rating Framework - Launch a public rating system for NGOs based on verified
impact, transparency, and community feedback.

NGOs are “integral cogs in the wheel of good governance”. A balanced partnership between genuine NGOs and the
government is crucial for India’s progress.

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CHAPTER 4

Pressure
Groups

Previous Year Questions 

[2023] Discuss the contribution of civil society groups for women’s effective and meaningful participation and represen-
tation in state legislatures in India.

[2021] “Pressure groups play a vital role in influencing public policy making in India.” Explain how the business associa-
tions contribute to public policies.

[2017] How do pressure groups influence the Indian political process? Do you agree with this view that informal pressure
groups have emerged as powerful than formal pressure groups in recent years?

Answer Writing Framework

INTRODUCTION
1. D
 efinition + connecting statement
2. C
 ontext or data - Farmer Protest
3. C
 an also start with Quote

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MAIN BODY
1. D
 iagrammatic representation to highlight its types
2. U
 se PIES for role

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Use PIES for issues

• The brief way forward using global best practices, legal reforms, and effective regulation

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CONCLUSION
1. L ink with democracy or highlight significance in ‘NEW GOVERNANCE’ or in GOOD GOVERNANCE

Pressure Group is any group in society that, through political action, seeks to achieve changes that it regards as desir-
able or to prevent changes that it regards as undesirable.

David Truman describes them as “Pressure groups are attitude groups that make certain claims upon other groups in the
society.”

W. J. M. Mackenzie defined them as ‘organized groups possessing both formal structure and real common interests in so
far as they influence the decisions of public bodies’.

Rajni Kothari - pressure groups have been agents of modernization, reservoirs of leadership.

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Evolution of Pressure Groups in India 

Time Period Focus Areas Examples of Pressure Groups

Pre-Independence Political interests, social reforms Indian National Congress (INC), Brahmo Samaj,
Era (abolition of caste discrimination, Arya Samaj
promotion of education)
Post-Independence Workers’ rights, agricultural policies, All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC), Indian
Era (1947-1960s) land reforms, rural development National Trade Union Congress (INTUC)
1970s and 1980s Environmental protection, gender Chipko Movement, Self-Employed Women’s
equality, women’s empowerment Association (SEWA)

1990s Economic policies, business inter- Confederation of Indian Industry (CII), Fed-
ests, social justice, civil liberties eration of Indian Chambers of Commerce
& Industry (FICCI), People’s Union for Civil
Liberties (PUCL), National Alliance of People’s
Movements (NAPM)
2000s Industry standards, IT policies, trans- National Association of Software and Service
parency, accountability Companies (NASSCOM), National Campaign
for People’s Right to Information (NCPRI)
2010s to Present Anti-corruption, environmental India Against Corruption (IAC), Center for
protection, climate change, digital Science and Environment (CSE), Fridays for
advocacy Future India

CHARACTERISTICS OF PRESSURE
GROUPS: 
Characteristic Description Example/Insight

1. Non-political, Aim to influence policy, not ac- FICCI lobbies for industry reforms without entering
Goal-Oriented quire power or contest elections. electoral politics.
2. Organized Struc- Most have formal or semi-formal AIKS (All India Kisan Sabha) has a structured rural
ture organization and leadership. network.

3. Issue or Inter- Represent specific causes or Narmada Bachao Andolan (promotional), Trade
est-Based communities—sectional or promo- Unions (sectional).
tional.

4. Indirect Policy Influence governance via lobby- RTI campaigns, PILs, and policy feedback loops.
Influence ing, protests, media—not through
elections.
5. Extra-Constitu- Not mentioned in the Constitution Operate under Article 19(1)(c) – right to association.
tional Status but vital for democratic participa-
tion.
6. Adaptive and Dy- Change tactics and goals as per IAC movement evolved into Aam Aadmi Party.
namic socio-political context.

7. Diverse Represen- Represent various sectors—farm- Dalit Panthers (caste-based), NSUI (students), CII
tation ers, students, caste, industry, etc. (industry).

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8. Media and Digital Use traditional and social media Internet Freedom Foundation uses online petitions
Engagement to mobilize opinion and support. and campaigns.

9. Voluntary Member- Based on shared interests, not Membership in NGOs or unions is usually open and
ship coercive or state-controlled. interest-based.

10. Democratic Link- Act as a bridge between citizens Amplify marginal voices and lobby for inclusive
age Function and government; promote plural- policies.
ism.

Types 
Theory Types of Pres- Description Examples
sure Groups
Insider-Outsider Insider Groups Have direct access to policymak- Confederation of Indian Industry
Theory ers and are often consulted by the (CII)
government on relevant issues.
They are typically well-established
and have formal channels of com-
munication.

Outsider Lack direct access to policymak- Extinction Rebellion, India

Groups ers and rely on public campaigns, Against Corruption
media, and public opinion to influ-
ence policy decisions. They may
engage in protests and demon-
strations.
Functional Represen- Functional Represent the interests of specific educational associations (e.g.,
tation Theory Groups functions or roles within society, All India Federation of Teachers
such as agriculture, industry, or Organizations)
education.
Associational Formally organized with a struc- Trade unions (e.g., Indian Nation-
Groups tured membership and leadership. al Trade Union Congress)
They have official recognition and
operate within established legal
and political frameworks.

Non-Associa- Informal and loosely organized, Local community groups, sponta-

tional Groups often based on common interests neous protest movements, social
or identity rather than formal media-based advocacy groups
membership. They may emerge
spontaneously in response to
specific issues.

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Elite Theory Elite Groups Consist of influential individuals High-profile business leaders,
or organizations with significant influential NGOs, major industry
resources and connections. They associations
exert substantial influence on pol-
icy due to their status and access
to power.

Mass Groups Comprise large numbers of individ- Large-scale protest movements,

uals who come together to advo- community organizations, mass
cate for common causes. They rely petition campaigns
on mass mobilization and grass-
roots support to exert influence.

Other Anomic Formed spontaneously in reaction Social Movements

Groups to specific events, Lack formal
structure, Short-lived, disband
after the issue is resolved

Theoritical perspective on pressure groups 

Theory Relevance to Pressure Groups Key Thinkers/Examples

Pluralist The- Pressure groups are legitimate actors Robert Dahl, David Truman; e.g., FICCI vs Trade
ory that compete to influence policy in a Unions
democracy.
Elite Theory Pressure groups give an illusion C. Wright Mills; CSR-driven NGOs vs grassroots
of participation, but elites domi- voices
nate outcomes.
Marxist The- Only bourgeois pressure Karl Marx; Trade union struggles in capitalist econo-
ory groups succeed; working-class de- mies
mands are suppressed.
Corporatist Pressure groups (like business cham- Otto von Bismarck; NITI Aayog consultations with
Theory bers or national unions) become state FICCI
partners.
New Social Issue-based pressure groups (e.g., Claus Offe; Narmada Bachao Andolan, Greenpeace
Movement climate, gender, LGBTQ+) are central to
Theory governance.
Network Pressure groups form part of policy net- R.A.W. Rhodes; RTI activists, citizen forums, NITI
Governance works, shaping rules collaboratively. partners
Theory

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Examples of pressure Groups 

Category Pressure Groups

Political Reforms Association for Democratic Reforms (ADR), Election Watch, National Campaign for Elec-
toral Reforms, Common Cause, Forum for Democratic Reforms
Economic Reforms Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FICCI), Confederation of
Indian Industry (CII), Associated Chambers of Commerce and Industry of India (ASSO-
CHAM), National Association of Software and Service Companies (NASSCOM), PHD
Chamber of Commerce and Industry
Social Reforms PUCL (People’s Union for Civil Liberties), MKSS (Mazdoor Kisan Shakti Sangathan),
National Alliance of People’s Movements (NAPM), National Campaign for People’s Right
to Information (NCPRI), Ekta Parishad
Institutional Indian Administrative Service (IAS) Association, Indian Police Service (IPS) Association,
Indian Foreign Service (IFS) Association
Labour Unions All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC), Indian National Trade Union Congress (INTUC),
Bharatiya Mazdoor Sangh (BMS), Centre of Indian Trade Unions (CITU), Hind Mazdoor
Sabha (HMS)
Environmental Centre for Science and Environment (CSE), Greenpeace India, Environmentalist Foun-
dation of India (EFI), Wildlife Protection Society of India (WPSI), TERI (The Energy and
Resources Institute)
Religious Vishwa Hindu Parishad (VHP), All India Muslim Personal Law Board (AIMPLB), Akhil
Bharatiya Hindu Mahasabha, Christian Council of India, Sikh Gurdwara Prabandhak
Committee (SGPC)
Education All India Federation of University and College Teachers’ Organisations (AIFUCTO), Na-
tional Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) Advocacy Groups, National
Coalition for Education (NCE), Bharat Shiksha Andolan, Save Education Committee
Health Public Health Foundation of India (PHFI), Indian Medical Association (IMA), Medico
Friend Circle, Society for Community Health Awareness, Research and Action (SOCHA-
RA), Health Equity Network India
Women National Commission for Women (NCW), SEWA (Self-Employed Women’s Association),
All India Democratic Women’s Association (AIDWA), Women’s Rights Initiative, Women
Power Connect
Children Child Rights and You (CRY), Bachpan Bachao Andolan (BBA), Save the Children India,
Smile Foundation, Pratham

Global Pressure Amnesty International, Greenpeace India, Human Rights Watch India, Transparency
Groups International India, World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) India

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Techniques Used By Pressure Groups 

Category Technique Description Examples

Direct Tech- Lobbying Direct interaction with legislators, Confederation of Indian Industry
niques presenting research, providing ex- (CII) lobbied for reforms in the GST
pert testimony regime.
Litigation Using the legal system like filing Greenpeace India filed petitions
lawsuits, and amicus curiae briefs against coal mining projects in
to challenge existing laws or regula- forest areas.
tions.
Electioneering Supporting candidates or parties Farmer unions backing political
that align with the group’s interests, candidates who support their cause
often through endorsements or
financial contributions.
Direct Action Engaging in activities that directly India Against Corruption
confront or challenge policies or (IAC): large-scale protests for Jan
practices, often through demonstra- Lokpal Bill.
tions, Protests, sit-ins, or strikes.
Petitions Online petitions, formal submissions Change.org: Collected over 1 lakh
to the government signatures collected for banning
single-use plastics”
Negotiation Policy negotiations, agreements with Bharatiya Kisan Union
government officials (BKU): Negotiated with the
government on farm laws.
Indirect Tech- Public Cam- Raising awareness and generat- Fridays for Future India: Organized
niques paigns ing public support through media school students strike across India
campaigns, advertising, and public for climate action
relations.
Advocacy and Publishing reports, conducting sem- Amnesty International In-
Education inars, and public lectures to inform dia: Campaigns on human rights
and educate the public and policy- violations.
makers
Coalition Build- Alliances with other NGOs, commu- People’s Climate Movement In-
ing nity groups, and industry associa- dia: Coalition for climate action.
tions to strengthen advocacy efforts
and pool resources.
Grassroots Mobi- Door-to-door canvassing and Chipko Movement: Mobilized local
lization community organizing to encourage villagers to protect trees from being
members and supporters to partici- cut down.
pate in advocacy activities.
Research and Producing Policy briefs, research Center for Science and Environ-
Reports reports, and white papers to inform ment (CSE): Published reports on
and persuade policymakers and the alarming levels of pollution in Indian
public. cities
Media Relations Utilizing media outlets (Press releas- PETA India campaign against animal
es, interviews, op-eds) to dissemi- testing in cosmetics
nate the group’s message.
Public Consulta- Participating in government con- Mazdoor Kisan Shakti Sangathan
tions sultations and public hearings to (MKSS): Advocated for the RTI Act.
influence policy development.

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Illegal and Unethical Means

Used by Pressure Groups 
Technique Description Real Examples

Bribery Offering money or gifts to policymakers to Nira Radia Case

influence their decisions.

Coercion Using threats or force to influence policy- Sand Mining Mafia

makers or competitors.
Vandalism Damaging property to intimidate or send a Instances of public property being vandalized
message. during Jallikattu Protests
Illegal Blockades Preventing access to buildings or areas ille- Farmers’ Protests (2020-2021)
gally to force attention to a cause.
Misinformation Spreading false or misleading information to Social Media Manipulation: Allegations
sway public opinion or policy. against various political parties using IT cells
to spread misinformation during elections.

Intimidation Using fear tactics to influence the behavior Maruti Suzuki Plant Violence (2012): Trade
of individuals or groups. union workers were accused of violence and
intimidation during a labor dispute.

Political parties and pressure groups 

Criteria Political Parties Pressure Groups

Primary Objective Seek to gain and maintain polit- Seek to influence public policy and decision-making
ical power by contesting elec- without seeking direct political power.
tions.
Method of Influence Participate in elections, form Use lobbying, advocacy, public campaigns, and other
governments, and implement methods to influence policymakers.
policies.
Function Interest Aggregation Interest Articulation
Broad or Narrow Have broad policy agendas cover- Focus on specific issues or interests, such as envi-
Focus ing a wide range of issues. ronmental protection, labor rights, etc.
Membership Have formal memberships, with Membership is often based on shared interests or
individuals joining based on ideol- specific causes rather than broad ideologies.
ogy or policy preferences.
Structure Typically have a hierarchical Can vary widely in structure; may have formal or
structure with a defined leader- informal organizational structures.
ship and internal democracy.
Accountability Accountable to the public Accountable primarily to their members and support-
through elections and internal ers.
party mechanisms.
Public Participation Encourage public participation Mobilize public opinion and encourage participation
through voting, party member- through campaigns, protests, and lobbying.
ship, and activism.

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POSITIVE ROLE OF PRESSURE GROUPS IN

A DEMOCRACY: 
Positive Role Description Example

Interest Articula- Express and channel the specific Bharatiya Kisan Union (BKU): Represents farmers’
tion interests and demands of their interests and advocates for agricultural policies.
members to policymakers.
Policy Advocacy Advocate for policy changes and SEWA, CII, MKSS, FICCI etc.
and Influence reforms through various means
including lobbying and public
campaigns.
Policy Influence Seek to influence government CII lobbies for business-friendly policies and econom-
policies and legislation to reflect ic reforms.
the interests of their members.
Grievance redressal various Parents associations writing to the PM to can-
mechanism cel offline board exams, protests by Farmer groups
aggrieved by passage of Farm reform laws etc.
Monitoring Govern- Monitor government actions and Pratham’s ASER report on rural education, ADR re-
ment Actions hold them accountable for their port and case on electoral bond lead to scrapping of
policies and decisions. scheme by supreme court
Future political Act as a training platform for Delhi Chief Minister Arvind Kejriwal (earlier part of
leadership future political leaders, promoting IAC campaign), Jignesh Mevani (Dalit leader from Gu-
multiparty democracy. jarat), Hardik Patel (Led Patidar agitation), Kanhaiya
Kumar etc.
Advocacy for Eco- Advocate for policy changes that CII and FICCI
nomic Reforms benefit economic development
and fair practices.
Providing Expertise Offer specialized knowledge to National Institute of Public Finance and Policy
and Information policymakers, aiding in informed (NIPFP) provides expertise on fiscal policies.
economic decision-making.
Public Awareness Raise awareness and educate the India Against Corruption (IAC) created consciousness
and Education public and policymakers about about corruption.
specific social issues.
Representation and Represent the interests and Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA): Mobilizes support
Mobilization concerns of specific groups in so- through public protests against large dam projects
ciety and mobilize public opinion
and grassroots support for their
causes.
Enhancing Partici- Encourage public engagement SEWA
pation and participation in the demo-
cratic process.
Coalition Building Form alliances with other groups National Alliance of People’s Movements (NAPM)
to strengthen their advocacy
efforts.
Increase social co- Since people get a ‘safety-valve’ India Against Corruption movement, MeToo Move-
hesion and political outlet for individual and collective ment
stability grievances and demands.
Service Provision Provide services and support to SEWA provides support services to women in the
their members or the communi- informal sector.
ties they represent.

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Targeting ills of By speaking against the wrong in Centre for Social Justice (CSJ) - Legal advocacy
society the country. and support for marginalized communities, including
women, Dalits, and Adivasis.
Research and De- Conduct research and develop- Centre for Science and Environment
velopment ment activities to inform policy (CSE): Publishes reports on environmental issues to
and public understanding. inform and educate.
Legal Action and Use litigation to challenge poli- Centre for Public Interest Litigation (CPIL)
Litigation cies or protect rights, ensuring
laws are just and fair.
Advocacy for Legal Campaigned for and participated Association for Democratic Reforms (ADR) has en-
Reforms in new legislations such as RTE, abled crucial electoral reforms.
MGNREGA, Domestic Violence
Act (2005), Food Security Act,
Prevention of Sexual Harassment
of Women at Workplace Ac
Environmental Ad- Advocate for policies that protect
vocacy the environment and promote
sustainability.
Monitoring Environ- Monitor and ensure compliance Centre for Science and Environment (CSE)
mental Policies with environmental regulations
and policies.

Issues and Shortcomings of Pressure

Groups 
Negative Role Description

Increase Political Industry groups often dominate policy outcomes compared to less resourceful groups.
Inequality
Exert ‘Behind the Pressure groups may wield influence through non-transparent and covert means, affect-
Scenes’ Influence ing policy without public scrutiny.

Eg- tobacco lobby delayed anti-tobacco legislation through direct influence on lawmak-
ers.

The 2G spectrum scam, where telecom companies gained spectrum licenses through
corruption.
Exercise Non-Legiti- Pressure groups exercise considerable influence without being elected or accountable,
mate Power bypassing parliamentary procedures.

Lead to the Tyranny A small, vocal minority can dominate policy discussions and outcomes, overshadowing
of the Minority the majority’s interests.
Narrow Selfish Inter- Indian pressure groups often focus on religious, regional, and ethnic issues, overshadow-
ests ing socio-economic interests. Eg- RSS, Bajrang Dal
Misuse of Power Pressure groups may become tools for political interests, serving political agendas rather
than advocating independently. Eg- Trade Unions aligned with Political Parties
Instability Lack of autonomous existence and stability, with shifting loyalties based on political
situations.

Eg- Naxalite movement

Mushroom Growth The short lifespan of many pressure groups due to lack of resources, leading to a prolifer-
ation of short-lived groups without sustainable impact.

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Impact on Interna- Pressure groups can influence a country’s actions in the international arena.
tional Relations

Hardship to the Direct actions like strikes and blockades by pressure groups can cause community-wide
Common Man hardships.
Nexus and Corrup- Use of illegal methods such as bribery and under-the-table deals to influence policymak-
tion ers.
Heterogeneity and Diverse pressure groups politicize issues, leading to fragmented and polarized policy
Politicization discussions.

Eg- Farmers’ protests of 2020-21 with differing demands complicated negotiations.

Non-Transparent Lack of transparency in funding and activities of pressure groups makes it difficult to
Operations track their influence.
Impediment to De- Pressure groups can stall development projects due to vested interests, affecting nation-
velopment al progress.

Eg- Anti-Kudankulam protests

Impediment to So- Resistance from pressure groups can hinder social and economic reforms.
cial and Economic
Reforms Eg- Pharmaceutical lobbies resisting generic drug policies

Way Forward 
1. P
 rof. Anand Chakravarty- GOI should show greater accommodation towards pressure groups (pressure groups
were banned under ULPA). The government should accommodate them to better address alienation and seces-
sionist trends.

2. L
 egal Recognition and Registration
• Mandatory Registration: Pressure groups, especially those involved in political advocacy, should be registered
under a defined legal framework (e.g., like the Companies Act or Societies Registration Act).
• U
 niform Guidelines: Introduce a central registry or authority to oversee registration, classify types of
pressure groups (e.g. industry, civil society, environmental), and assign unique identification numbers.

3. F
 inancial Transparency
• Mandatory Disclosure of Funding: Require all pressure groups to disclose sources of funding, including
foreign contributions, with annual auditing by certified bodies.
• Cap on Donations: Introduce limits on corporate or foreign donations to prevent undue influence over policy-
making.
• Public Access: Funding and expenditure reports should be made available on a public platform for scrutiny.

4. R
 egulation of Lobbying
• Lobbying Legislation: Enact a comprehensive “Lobbying Regulation Act” similar to those in the USA or EU to:
• Define what constitutes lobbying.
• Mandate disclosure of lobbying activities, beneficiaries, and costs involved.
• Register lobbyists and establish a code of conduct.

5. E
 thical Code of Conduct
• Voluntary Code: Encourage pressure groups to adopt a voluntary code of ethics and principles of non-parti-
sanship, transparency, and accountability.
• Government Framework: The government may publish model guidelines or charters for responsible advocacy
behavior.

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6. O
 versight and Monitoring
• Independent Oversight Body: Establish an autonomous body (e.g., a Public Interest Advocacy Commission) to:
• Monitor compliance.
• Handle grievances and complaints.
• Penalize non-compliance.

7. C
 ollaboration with Government Institutions
• Involve recognized pressure groups in public consultations and policy review processes, thereby bring-
ing transparency and inclusiveness.
• Develop structured platforms for dialogue between the government and pressure groups.

8. C
 urbing Misuse and Political Surrogacy - Ensure pressure groups do not become surrogate
wings of political parties. Stringent checks on their activities, political endorsements, and affiliations must
be imposed.

Pressure groups’ proactive engagement is vital for building a vibrant, resilient, and prosperous India by its centenary of
independence.

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CHAPTER 5

Self Help Groups

Previous Year Questions 

[2021] Can the vicious cycle of gender inequality, poverty and malnutrition be broken through microfinancing of women
SHGs? Explain with examples.

[2020] “Micro-Finance as an anti-poverty vaccine, is aimed at asset creation and income security of the rural poor in India”.
Evaluate the role of Self Help Groups in achieving the twin objectives along with empowering women in rural India.

[2017] ‘The emergence of Self Help Groups(SHGs) in contemporary times points to the slow but steady withdrawal of the
state from developmental activities’. Examine the role of the SHGs in developmental activities and the measures taken by
the Government of India to promote the SHGs.
[2015] The Self-Help Group (SHG) Bank Linkage Programme (SBLP), which is India›s own innovation, has proved to be one
of the most effective poverty alleviation and women empowerment programmes. Elucidate.

[2014] The penetration of Self Help Groups (SHGs) in rural areas in promoting participation in development programmes
is facing socio-cultural hurdles. Examine.

[2013] The legitimacy and accountability of Self Help Groups (SHGs) and their patrons, the micro-finance outfits, need
systematic assessment and scrutiny for the sustained success of the concept. Discuss.

Quotes 
“Millions of women in our hamlets know what unemployment means... Give them ac-
cess to economic activities and they will have access to power and self- confidence to
which they hitherto have been strangers.” Mahatma Gandhi in Young India (1930).

PM Narendra Modi- Self Help Groups need to turn into Nation Help Groups.

Down To Earth Managing Editor Richard Mahapatra: “In a male-dominated society,

where women play significant but never-recognised roles, being a member of an SHG
has become a badge of honor and an assertion of a new identity of power.”

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Self Help Group is defined as a “self-governed, peer controlled information group of people with similar socio-economic
background and having a desire to collectively perform common purpose.”

These groups are informal, homogeneous collectives formed with the aims of eradicating poverty, achieving zero unem-
ployment, and promoting sustainable development.

Evolution of Self-Help Groups [SHGs] in India

1. T
 he evolution of SHGs in India as a tool for empowerment parallels the history of the development sector in the
country.
2. T
 he concept of SHGs as an organized means for poverty eradication emerged during the 7th Five Year Plan
(1985-90). The formation of SHGs for savings and credit, and their linkage to commercial banks, was initiated
by MYRADA (Mysore Resettlement and Development Agency), an NGO, in the mid-1980s.
3. R
 eserve Bank of India (RBI) issued a circular in 1992 to link about 500 groups under the NABARD-SHG bank link-
age pilot program. This initiative led to the mainstreaming of SHGs into the financial landscape, particularly within
the Indian banking system.
4. A
 s part of poverty alleviation measures, the Government of India launched the Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar
Yojna (SGSY) in April 1999, emphasizing SHG formation, social mobilization, and economic activation through
micro-credit finance.
5. T
 he NRLM, now rebranded as the Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana-National Rural Liveli-
hoods Mission (DAY-NRLM), remains a flagship program aimed at reducing rural poverty by
enabling sustainable livelihoods through SHGs. This mission focuses on building and nurturing
SHGs, improving their access to financial services, and enhancing their livelihood opportunities.

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DATA

Total numbers of 1.2 Crore SHGs in India, 88% of them all-women, almost 100 million women as members; 14
SHGs and mem- SHGs per village
bers
According to data cited in the Economic Survey 2022-2023, SHG-BLP covers 142 million
families with saving deposits of Rs 47,240 crore.
Annual financial The collective efforts of poor women in SHGs have resulted in an annual financial turnover of
turnover Rs. 100,000 crores ($17 billion), surpassing many multinational corporations in India.
Government The government, through the National Rural Livelihood Mission [NRLM], has given them a
support capitalization support of ₹10,200 crore, and these SHGs have also earned bank credit of
over ₹2.9 lakh crore.

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Gross NPA and Gross NPA rate for women-led SHGs is around 4.9 percent, which is half the rate of NPAs in
repayment banks.

SHGs’ bank repayment is more than 96 percent, underscoring their credit discipline and
reliability,” says the Economic Survey 2022-2023.
Regional status Penetration of SHGs in Rural Areas Faces Socio-Cultural Obstacles:

1. T
 ill March 2024, the southern states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala,
and Tamil Nadu accounted for 71% of the related SHGs.

2. P
 oorly performing states include those with a high poverty rate, such as UP
and Bihar.
Achievements 1. T
 oday, approximately 94 million poor individuals are connected with banks through 7.5
million SHGs, accessing collateral-free credit.

2. A
 round 60% of the households covered under SHGs reported an increase in assets.

3. A
 bout 42% of the households studied were below their state-specific poverty line in
the pre-SHG enrolment stage; it came down to 22%.

4. N
 RLM has scaled up the SHG model across 28 States and 6 Union Territories of the
country, reaching more than 67 million women. The women have saved $1.4 billion and
leveraged a further $37 billion from commercial banks.
Bank linkages The number of SHGs credit linked has grown at a CAGR of 10.8 percent during the last ten
years (FY13 to FY22), while credit disbursement per SHG has grown at a CAGR of 5.7 per
cent during the same period,” notes the Economic Survey 2022-2023.

IMPORTANT CASE STUDIES

Organization Description Key Focus Data/Impact
Mahila Arthik Vikas Women’s Develop- Economic empower- Formed over 1,14,000 SHGs with a total
Mahamandal (MA- ment Corporation in ment through SHGs, loan amount of ₹2,122 crore with loan
VIM) Maharashtra. training, credit facili- repayment rate of 98%.
ties, and support for
income-generating
activities.
Kudumbashree Government of - State-supported pov- Completed 25 years in 2023.
Kerala’s poverty erty eradication and
eradication and women empowerment The organisation currently has 306,551
women empower- program. NHGs, 19,470 ADSs and 1070 CDSs.
ment program.
- SHGs called Neigh-
bourhood Groups
(NHGs).

- Activities: micro-
credit, farming, food
processing, tailoring.
Bhagini Nivedita Rural development Formation of SHGs, So far, the organization has established
Gramin Vigyan Ni- organization pro- training, financial more than 2000 SHGs.
ketan (BNGVN) moting women’s services, and technical
empowerment and support. Building a ‘Gram Nidhi’ or village fund
sustainable liveli- along with a revolving fund for lending
hoods. money to the needy farmers.

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Bandhan-Konnagar NGO focused on Microfinance services, Bandhan-Konnagar, has been working

poverty alleviation training, and livelihood with the Government of Bihar’s JEEViKA
through SHGs. support for marginal- since 2018 to support the expansion of
ized women. Satat Jeevikoparjan Yojana (SJY). SJY is
Acquired the status on track to reach 200,000 women-head-
of Non-Banking ed households by 2024 across Bihar.
Financial Company
(NBFC) in 2009

Women SHGs in Joint efforts to Opening Millet Shakti

Odisha (Millets empower women Caffes to sell millet
Mission) entrepreneurs and products.
promote millet con-
sumption.
Asha Deep Founda- Works in health- Social development Implemented over 25 programs, reaching
tion care, education, and initiatives targeting thousands of underprivileged individuals.
income generation women, children, elder-
for underprivileged ly, disabled, and poor.
groups.
PRADAN - Profes- New Delhi-based In 1987, PRADAN program to link SHGs with banks is the
sional Assistance organization work- pioneered the model world’s largest microfinance movement
for Development ing in rural India for of organizing women with 625,000 women having their bank
Action women and under- into self-help groups accounts for their businesses.
privileged groups. (SHG) as an approach
to mobilize poor com-
munities and improve
their livelihoods.
The Nudge Institute Bengaluru-based Under the accelerator and incubator programme, SHGs get
NGO aiming to access to funds, donors, and a chance to be mentored by an es-
reduce poverty teemed group of mentors
through skill devel-
opment and employ-
ment opportunities.
Buzz Women Empowers women Training, mentoring, and resource access for women entrepreneurs.
entrepreneurs in
India.
Association for NGO based in Mad- Formation of SHGs, Formed over 1,500 SHGs, provided mi-
Sustainable Com- uranthakam, Tamil healthcare, and educa- croloans and healthcare support to rural
munity Develop- Nadu, committed tion support. families.
ment (ASSCOD) to sustainable rural
development.

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HOW SELF HELP GROUP ORGANIZED AND

FUNCTIONS: 

Formation of SHGs
1. D
 etermining a Need: SHGs often form in areas with significant socioeconomic challenges such as poverty, and
limited access to healthcare, education, and financial resources.
2. M
 obilization: Local leaders, NGOs, or government organizations mobilize individuals by raising awareness about
the benefits of forming SHGs.
3. F
 ormation: Interested individuals voluntarily come together to form a SHG, typically comprising 10-20 members.
They elect officers such as a president, secretary, and treasurer, and establish guidelines emphasizing cooperation
and shared accountability.
4. S
 avings and Credit Activities: Members contribute to a communal fund during meetings, which serves as a
source of microcredit.

Operational Structure of SHGs

1. S
 ize of the SHG: The ideal size is 10-20 members, allowing active participation and avoiding the need for formal
registration.

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2. M
 embership: Typically, one person per family can join an SHG to maximize family representation. Groups are usu-
ally single-gender, with women’s groups generally performing better in terms of savings and loan utilization.
3. C
 ommon Factors for Membership: Members are usually from very poor households, reliant on moneylenders,
with low per capita income, limited land holdings, and facing common living challenges like inadequate housing and
lack of safe drinking water.

Functioning of SHGs
1. M
 eetings: SHGs meet regularly, ideally weekly or at least monthly.
2. R
 ecord Keeping: Books such as minute books, savings and loan registers, and individual passbooks are kept up to
date, often with help from educated individuals within the community or an appointed animator.
3. F
 inancial Activities: Members contribute to savings at each meeting, ensuring a steady fund for internal lending.
4. Income-generating activities: such as small-scale farming, handicrafts, and trading. Loans from the SHG support
these ventures, improving members’ economic prospects.
5. C
 apacity Building: SHGs invest in capacity-building initiatives, including training and workshops on financial liter-
acy, skill development, and personal hygiene.
6. O
 rganizational Structure:
1. A
 n SHG typically includes members from similar socio-economic backgrounds who support each other in
solving common problems.
2. A
 n animator or facilitator, often a local community-minded individual, helps form the group, promotes savings,
and facilitates access to banking services.
3. A
 fter six months, the SHG can approach banks for loans to start small businesses, which are repaid from
business profits.

Features of SHGs 
1. S
 hared Experience: Members
share a common challenge or
experience, creating a sense of
community and understanding.

2. P
 eer Support: Members support
and encourage each other,
providing a sense of belonging
and connection.
3. S
 elf-Help: Members take
an active role in their own
recovery or growth, with the
group providing a supportive
environment.
4. V
 olunteer Leadership: Group
leaders are often volunteers
who have experienced similar
challenges, providing a sense of
empathy and understanding.
5. A
 utonomy: Self-help groups are often independent and self-governing, allowing members to make decisions and
take ownership.
6. Inclusivity: Self-help groups are typically open to anyone who shares the common experience, creating a sense of
inclusivity and acceptance.
7. C
 onfidentiality: Members› privacy is respected, creating a safe space for sharing and support.
8. E
 mpowerment: Self-help groups aim to empower members to take control of their lives, make positive changes,
and develop coping strategies.

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9. E
 ducation: Many self-help groups provide education and resources to help members better understand their chal-
lenges and develop effective coping strategies.
10. S
 upportive Environment: Self-help groups strive to create a supportive, non-judgmental environment where
members feel comfortable sharing their experiences and receiving support.

Role of Self Help Groups during COVID-19

1. P
 roduction and Distribution of Essential Items
Over 19 million masks produced by 20,000 SHGs across 27 states. Over 100,000 litres of sanitizer and
nearly 50,000 litres of hand wash were produced. Decentralized production enabled wide distribution
without complex logistics.

2. C
 ommunity Kitchens
SHGs set up over 10,000 community kitchens to feed stranded workers, the poor, and the vulnerable. In
Kerala, Kudumbashree network managed several kitchens due to their extensive catering experience. In
Jharkhand, SHGs identified hunger pockets to assist district administrations.

3. R
 aising Awareness
SHGs helped curb rumors and misinformation via vast WhatsApp networks. Kudumbashree in Kerala led
the government’s “Break the Chain” campaign, promoting hand hygiene and social distancing. In Bihar,
Jeevika SHG platform disseminated information on handwashing, quarantine, and self-isolation through
various media.

4. P
 roviding Banking and Pension Services
SHG women as banking correspondents (bank sakhis) provided essential banking services. Continued
doorstep banking, and pension distribution, and facilitated direct benefit transfers (DBT).

The Mahila Arthik Vikas Mahamandal (MAVIM) and the numerous women SHGs operating under it played
a crucial role in combating the socio-economic impact of the pandemic in rural Maharashtra. These women
even contributed approximately ₹11 lakh to the Chief Minister’s Relief Fund through a MAVIM-driven donation
campaign.

Prerna, an SHG in Uttar Pradesh, has attempted to communicate messages on social distancing by street art
and wall paintings. A few SHGs in Jharkhand have opened a 24x7 helpline called Didi, which provides verified
information to migrant laborers on evacuation and return processes to their hometowns in Jharkhand.

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Advantages of Self-Help Groups (SHGs) 

1. S
 ocial Advantages

1. S
 ocial Integrity, Social Mobilization, and Eradicating social evils: SHGs promote collective efforts to com-
bat social issues like dowry and alcoholism, fostering a sense of community and mutual support.
2. G
 ender Equity through Economic Empowerment: These groups empower women by developing leadership
skills, giving them financial independence, and higher decision-making power in family matters, and enabling
more active participation in local governance and elections. Eg- Kudumbashree in Kerala.
3. V
 oice to Marginalized Sections: SHGs ensure social justice by involving marginalized communities in devel-
opment schemes. Eg. SUPPORT: Hazaribag, Jharkhand-based SUPPORT focuses on rural development and
livelihood through self-help initiatives.
4. R
 ole Model: Successful SHGs, such as Lijjat Papad, serve as inspiration and resources for other community
development initiatives, leading to the establishment of numerous household industries.
5. C
 ollective Identity: SHGs foster a sense of solidarity, trust, and cooperation among members.
2. E
 conomic and financial:
1. R
 esource Mobilization: SHGs effectively mobilize underutilized community resources, enhancing overall
development.
2. A
 lternate Source of Income: By supporting the establishment of micro-businesses, SHGs reduce depen-
dence on agriculture. SHG also promotes mortgage-free micro-loans.
3. F
 inancial Inclusion and Financial Literacy: The SHG-Bank linkage program by NABARD has facilitated
easier credit access, reducing reliance on traditional moneylenders.
4. C
 ulture Of Saving - An IFMR study conducted by the Ministry of Rural Development found that women
aided by SHGs were 10% more likely to save on a regular basis, resulting in economic empowerment, while
working towards a better future for the next generation.
5. C
 redit Discipline: SHGs have a high repayment rate, building trust between banks and marginalized commu-
nities.
6. C
 ollective Bargaining: SHGs help members negotiate better prices and terms for inputs and outputs in
markets.
7. C
 apacity Building and Skill Development - SHGs provide exposure to training in skill development, digi-
tal literacy, and financial literacy.
8. M
 arket Linkages and Entrepreneurial Growth - SHGs are being onboarded to platforms like GeM and Flip-
kart Samarth, offering access to national markets.

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3. P
 olitical- Administrative:
1. L eadership Development and political participation, knowledge of administration, mobility: Eg - Pramila
Bisnoi a SHG leader from odisha was nominated as a candidate for a lok sabha constituency.
2. P
 ressure Groups: SHGs empower women to raise awareness and advocate for issues such as dowry,
alcoholism, menstrual hygiene, and sanitation, influencing policy decisions.
3. C
 heck on Corrupt Practices: SHGs improve the efficiency of government schemes and reduce corruption
through social audits.
4. C
 hanges in Consumption Patterns Leading to Positive Impact on Housing and Health: Improved nutrition,
housing, and health, particularly for women and children.
5. R
 esilience in Crises: SHGs played a key role during COVID-19, producing masks, distributing food, and support-
ing local administration.

CHALLENGES FACED BY SELF-HELP GROUPS (SHGs)

1. P
 olicy-Level Challenges
• Many SHGs lack convergence with other rural development schemes — leading to fragmented benefits.
• Limited Autonomy under Centralized Structures - Excessive top-down control by government agencies or
NGOs often leads to SHGs becoming implementing arms of welfare schemes, rather than autonomous bodies.
 oor Monitoring & Evaluation - According to the Ministry of Rural Development (2022 report), only 40% of
• P
SHGs under DAY-NRLM have undergone proper grading and review.
2. E
 conomic & Financial Challenges
• Credit Linkage Gaps - As per NABARD Status Report (2021–22), over 30% of SHGs remain unlinked to
formal financial institutions due to lack of documentation or poor bank outreach. Credit rationing by banks due
to concerns over repayment capacity or low financial literacy.
• Lack of Capital for Scaling - SHG-run micro-enterprises face a “missing middle” finance trap — they
outgrow microcredit but cannot access medium-scale loans.
• Most SHGs operate with revolving funds of ₹10,000–₹15,000 only, insufficient for expansion.
• Poor Financial Management - Irregular bookkeeping, misappropriation of funds, and lack of audit systems
result in low creditworthiness.
3. O
 rganisational and Structural Issues
• Weak Internal Governance - Many SHGs suffer from irregular meetings, poor attendance, and lack of rota-
tion in leadership roles. Often, office bearers dominate decisions, undermining democratic functioning.
• L
 ack of Federation Strength - SHGs are often isolated and lack federated structures (like Cluster Level
Federations), which limits bargaining power and access to larger markets or schemes.
• O
 ver-dependence on NGOs - Excessive reliance on NGOs for facilitation leads to external dependence,
especially when project funding ends.
4. S
 ocial & Gender-Based Challenges
• Patriarchal Resistance - In many regions, especially in North India, SHGs face male resistance or are viewed
as token collectives rather than serious economic actors.
• Elite Capture - Dominance of upper-caste or influential women in leadership roles limits inclusivity, espe-
cially for SC/ST and minority women.
• D
 ouble Burden on Women - Women face a dual burden of domestic chores and SHG responsibilities, limiting
consistent participation
• Politicization: Political affiliations and interference cause conflicts within SHGs.
5. T
 echnical & Capacity Challenges
• Low Digital & Financial Literacy - A 2022 UNDP study found that only 12% of SHG members in Bihar and
Odisha could independently operate digital banking apps.
• Lack of exposure to e-commerce or digital marketing tools hinders SHG-led businesses.
• Inadequate Skill Training - Training is often generic, not tailored to local market demand. Skill saturation in
common trades (like tailoring or papad-making) leads to low income generation and market crowding.

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6. M
 arketing & Market Access Issues
• No Market Linkage Framework - SHG products often remain confined to local haats or melas, with little
exposure to organized retail or digital platforms.
• Branding and Quality Challenges - Poor packaging, inconsistent quality, and lack of certification limit
product scalability. Absence of a unified SHG brand identity restricts consumer trust and market reach.
7. S
 ustainability Challenges
• High Dormancy Rate - Studies (e.g., IRMA Research, 2023) suggest that 20–25% of SHGs become inac-
tive within 3–4 years due to internal conflicts or migration of members.
• L
 ack of Long-Term Vision - Many SHGs do not evolve beyond thrift and credit activities and fail to transition
into livelihood clusters or producer collectives.

Government measures to promote self-help groups

1. D
 eendayal Antyodaya Yojana – National Rural Livelihoods Mission (DAY-NRLM)- Launched in 2011 under the
Ministry of Rural Development
• Core Objective: To eliminate rural poverty through promotion of SHGs and federated institutions.
• Key Features:
• Universal promotion of women SHGs.
• Bank Linkage facilitation.
• Community Resource Persons (CRPs) for SHG training.
• Vulnerable Inclusion Plan to reach out to the most excluded.
• Impact:
• Over 87 lakh SHGs formed under DAY-NRLM (MoRD 2023 data).
• Enhanced focus on financial inclusion, livelihoods, and digital empowerment.
2. S
 HG–Bank Linkage Programme (SBLP) – by NABARD (1992) - To link informal SHGs with the formal banking sector.
• Support Provided:
• Collateral-free loans up to ₹20 lakhs.
• Interest subvention for prompt repayment (especially in priority districts).
• Grading of SHGs to assess creditworthiness.
• Achievements:
• C
 umulative credit disbursal of over ₹1.5 lakh crore.
 ver 6.2 crore women directly linked to formal finance.
• O

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3. Interest Subvention Scheme for Women

SHGs - Offers 7% interest subsidy on bank
loans; an additional 3% subvention for timely
repayment.

4. C
 apacity Building and Skill Training Initia-
tives
• RSETIs (Rural Self-Employment Training
Institutes) - Run by banks and supported
by MoRD. Provide free residential train-
ing to SHG members in various trades.
• S
 tart-Up Village Entrepreneurship
Programme (SVEP) - Component of
DAY-NRLM for incubation and cred-
it support to SHG entrepreneurs.
Targets non-farm sector enterprises in
rural areas.

5. P
 romotion of SHG Federations - En-
couragement of Village Organisations
(VOs) and Cluster Level Federations (CLFs).
Federations play a vital role in: Monitoring
SHGs, Managing Community Investment
Funds (CIF), Providing training, marketing,
and credit support.
6. M
 arket Access and Branding Initiatives
• e
 SARAS Portal & Saras Melas - Developed
by the MoRD to help SHG members sell
products online and through fairs. Saras
Aajeevika Fairs organized nationwide to
promote SHG goods and crafts.
• Onboarding on e-commerce platforms
- MoUs signed with Flipkart Samarth,
Amazon Saheli, GeM, etc., to help SHGs
sell their products digitally.
7. R
 ole in Welfare Scheme Implementation
• Swachh Bharat Mission: SHGs play a role in awareness, toilet construction, and behavioral change.
• Poshan Abhiyan: SHGs involved in community nutrition education and delivery.
• PDS and Mid-Day Meals: SHGs manage supply chains and kitchens in several states.
8. S
 tate-Specific Models
• Kudumbashree (Kerala) - State-level poverty eradication mission with over 4.5 million women in SHGs.
Integrated into local governance, microfinance, and social justice programs.
• Mission Shakti (Odisha) - Supports over 7 lakh women SHGs. Focus on digital empowerment, marketing,
and producer groups.
• MAVIM (Maharashtra) - Provides institutional support, training, and credit linkage for SHGs. Targets margin-
alized rural and tribal women.
9. T
 he “Lakhpati Didi” initiative is a recent program launched by the Indian government aimed at empowering rural
women by transforming them into successful entrepreneurs.
1. T
 he initiative focuses on Self Help Groups (SHGs) and aims to elevate the income of these women to at least
₹1 lakh per annum.
2. T
 his program provides training, financial support, and market linkages to help SHG women start and grow
their businesses, thereby improving their economic status and contributing to rural development.

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WAY FORWARD FOR STRENGTHENING SELF HELP

GROUP(SHGs)
Policy and Institutional Reforms
1. E
 nhance Autonomy and Governance
• Promote Self-Regulation: Encourage SHGs to develop their own by-laws and governance structures to foster
ownership and sustainability.
• Strengthen Federated Structures: Support the formation of Cluster Level Federations (CLFs) and Village
Organizations (VOs) to provide higher-level support and resources .
2. Inclusive Policy Frameworks
• Target Marginalized Groups: Design policies that specifically include women, minorities, and differently-abled
individuals to ensure equitable participation.
• Convergence with Other Schemes: Align SHG initiatives with other government programs like MGNREGA and
PMAY for comprehensive development.

Financial Inclusion and Economic Empowerment

3. E
 xpand Credit Access
• Simplify Bank Linkages: Streamline procedures for SHGs to access bank credit, reducing bureaucratic hur-
dles.
• I nterest Subvention Schemes: Implement subsidies on interest rates to make borrowing more affordable for
SHG members .
4. D
 iversify Livelihood Opportunities
• Skill Development Programs: Offer training in diverse trades beyond traditional activities to open new income
avenues.
• Market Linkages: Facilitate connections between SHGs and larger markets to ensure fair prices and demand
for their products.

Capacity Building and Skill Development

5. T
 ailored Training Programs
• Need-Based Modules: Develop training that addresses the specific needs of SHG members, including financial
literacy and digital skills.
• Use of Technology: Leverage digital platforms for training delivery to reach a wider audience efficiently.
6. L eadership Development
• Mentorship Programs: Pair experienced SHG leaders with new members to build leadership skills.
• Exposure Visits: Organize visits to successful SHGs to learn best practices and innovative approaches.

Market Linkages and Digital Integration

7. E
 -Commerce Platforms
• Online Marketplaces: Assist SHGs in listing their products on e-commerce sites to expand their customer
base.
• Digital Marketing Training: Educate members on online marketing strategies to enhance visibility and sales.
8. D
 igital Record-Keeping
• Financial Management Tools: Introduce user-friendly software for maintaining transparent financial records.
• Mobile Applications: Develop apps tailored for SHG operations to streamline processes and communication.

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Social Empowerment and Community Engagement

9. Inclusive Participation
• Representation of Marginalized Groups: Ensure that SHGs are inclusive of all community members, promot-
ing equity and social justice.
• C
 ommunity Awareness Programs: Conduct campaigns on health, education, and rights to empower SHG
members and their communities.
10. C
 ollective Action Initiatives
• C
 ommunity Projects: Encourage SHGs to undertake projects that benefit the wider community, fostering unity
and purpose.
• Advocacy Training: Equip members with skills to advocate for their rights and needs effectively.

Monitoring and Evaluation

11. R
 egular Assessments
• Performance Metrics: Establish clear indicators to measure SHG effectiveness and impact.
• F
 eedback Mechanisms: Create channels for members to provide input, ensuring programs remain responsive
to their needs.
12. T
 ransparency and Accountability
• Audit Systems: Implement regular audits to maintain financial integrity.
• Public Reporting: Share performance reports with stakeholders to build trust and credibility

MICROFINANCE INSTITUTIONS 
Microfinance Institutions (MFIs) are financial entities that provide small loans (microcredit) and other financial services
such as savings, insurance, and remittances to low-income individuals or groups, especially in rural and semi-urban
areas, who lack access to traditional banking.

Types
Type Characteristics

NBFC-MFIs Non-Banking Financial Companies registered with RBI (e.g., SKS, Spandana).

NGOs Trusts and societies working on financial inclusion (e.g., SEWA).

SHG-Bank Linkage Promoted by NABARD — links Self-Help Groups with banks.

Model
Cooperative MFIs Member-owned financial institutions.

Small Finance Banks Offer microloans as part of their lending operations (e.g., Ujjivan, Equitas).

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Regulator: Reserve Bank of India (RBI) is the primary regula-

tor for NBFC-MFIs.
Key Milestones:
• M
 alegam Committee Report (2011): Laid down important guidelines to address issues of over-indebtedness and
unethical recovery practices.
• R
 BI’s Comprehensive Regulatory Framework (March 2022):
Introduced a uniform regulatory framework for all microfinance loans irrespective of the lender (NBFCs, banks,
cooperatives, etc.)

Key Norms (Post-2022 Framework):

• Cap on interest rate removed; focus shifted to transparency.
• Household-level indebtedness cap: Monthly loan repayments should not exceed 50% of household income.
• All loans up to ₹3 lakh for households with annual income up to ₹3 lakh are classified as microfinance loans.

Relationship with SHG

1. C
 omplementary Roles
1. S
 HGs as a Foundation: Self Help Groups (SHGs) form the grassroots foundation of financial inclusion by
bringing together rural women to pool savings and provide small loans to each other. This fosters a culture of
savings and credit discipline.
2. M
 FIs as Financial Catalysts: Microfinance Institutions (MFIs) build on this foundation by providing larg-
er-scale financial services that SHGs alone might not be able to offer. MFIs offer microloans, insurance, and
savings products, which enhance the financial capabilities of SHG members.

2. F
 inancial Linkages
1. C
 redit Access: MFIs like SKS Microfinance (now Bharat Financial Inclusion) extend loans to SHGs for group
members to start or expand businesses.
2. B
 ank Linkages: Many MFIs also facilitate linkages between SHGs and formal banking institutions. MFIs help
by providing credit history and ensuring the credibility of SHGs.
3. C
 apacity Building
1. T
 raining and Development: MFIs often provide financial literacy programs, business training, and capaci-
ty-building workshops to SHG members.

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2. T
 echnical Assistance: MFIs offer technical assistance to SHGs in areas such as bookkeeping, financial plan-
ning, and market access.
4. M
 utual Benefits
1. E
 nhanced Reach for MFIs: By working with SHGs, MFIs can extend their reach into rural areas more
effectively. SHGs, being community-based organizations, have deep-rooted local networks that MFIs can tap
into.
2. Increased Financial Stability for SHGs: Access to MFI services helps SHGs achieve greater financial
stability and resilience. The additional funding and services enable SHGs to undertake larger and more
profitable ventures, thereby improving their economic status.
5. E
 xamples of Successful Integration
1. K
 udumbashree in Kerala: This SHG network collaborates with multiple MFIs to provide comprehensive
financial services to its members. The integration has enabled Kudumbashree to run successful micro-enter-
prises and community projects.
2. J eevika in Bihar: Bihar›s rural livelihoods program works closely with MFIs to provide credit and financial
services to SHG members. This partnership has significantly improved the income and livelihoods of rural
women.

Significance of MFIs
1. S
 ocial Benefits
1. P
 romote Women Entrepreneurs: Nearly 99% of microfinance loans in India are provided to women from
low-income households.
2. R
 ural Development: 76% of the loan portfolio is in rural areas, providing credit to the poor without a formal
mortgage and avoiding local moneylenders.
3. A
 nti-Poverty Vaccine: Microfinance helps with asset creation and income security.
4. S
 elf-Esteem: Access to finance generates self-esteem among the poor.
5. M
 ultiplier Effect: Improves economic conditions, reducing poverty and hunger, and enhances education
opportunities for children.
2. E
 conomic Benefits
1. D
 evelopment of Secondary and Tertiary Sectors: 64% of MFI loans go to manufacturing, trade, and
services.
2. F
 inancial Inclusion: MFIs have grown to attract investors, with some becoming universal banks e.g., Bandhan
MFI started with Rs. 2 lakh in 2001 and reached a market capitalization of 100000 crore
3. F
 inancial Discipline: Non-performing assets have remained under 1% despite external shocks.
3. O
 ther Benefits
1. F
 ewer Regulatory Hassles: Many MFIs prefer to remain NBFCs to avoid regulatory complexities.
2. Indirect Benefits: Successful entrepreneurs create jobs and improve community welfare.

Issues Related to Microfinance Institutions (MFIs)

1. IL&FS Crisis: The crisis led to tightened liquidity conditions, affecting the funding profile of NBFC-MFIs.
2. H
 igher Interest Rates: MFIs charge higher interest rates (12-30%) compared to commercial banks (8-12%).
3. O
 ver-dependence on the Banking Sector: Approximately 80% of MFI funding comes from banks, primarily private
banks that charge high interest rates and offer short-term loans.
4. L ack of Financial Literacy: Financial literacy in India is very low, with about 76% of the population lacking an un-
derstanding of basic financial concepts.
5. R
 egulatory Issues: The RBI regulates MFIs, but the unique nature of the microfinance industry requires different
regulatory frameworks than those for traditional banks.

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6. Inappropriate Models: Most MFIs follow the Self-Help Group (SHG) or Joint Liability Group (JLG) models. Often,
the selection of the model is not based on scientific criteria, affecting the long-term sustainability of MFIs and
increasing the risk burden on the poorer sections beyond their capacity to bear.
7. G
 eneral issues:
1. Inability to Generate Funds: MFIs struggle to raise sufficient funds through private equity investments.
Though NBFCs can raise funds, MFIs are restricted from taking public deposits.
2. W
 eak Governance: Many MFIs are unwilling to adopt corporate structures, leading to a lack of transparency
and difficulty attracting capital.
3. R
 egional Imbalance: There is a 68% concentration of loan portfolios in East and North-East and South re-
gions, with the highest concentration in West Bengal followed by Tamil Nadu.
4. L ow Digital Infrastructure: MFIs largely serve rural and semi-urban areas where digital infrastructure is poor,
affecting their operational efficiency.
5. M
 ultiple Borrowings: Clients often take multiple loans, leading to high repayment burdens.
6. L oan Design: MFIs typically offer fixed-income loans without considering the specific needs of the client’s
business.
7. L ack of Borrower Credit History: It is difficult for small lenders to establish the credit history of rural borrow-
ers, complicating risk assessment.
8. Issues Related to Borrowers
1. L ack of Information: Credit information systems do not focus on small, rural borrowers, leading to information
asymmetry.
2. L oans for Conspicuous Consumption: Some loans are used for non-income generating purposes, leading to
debt traps.
9. L ocalized Distress: Environmental events like floods in Kerala and socio-political events in Assam have caused
localized distress.

Suggestions to Improve the Working of Microfinance In-

stitutions (MFIs)
1. E
 nhanced Supervision and Separate Regulatory Authority
1. Implement field supervision of MFIs to monitor ground realities and assess operational efficiency.
2. E
 stablish a separate regulatory authority to ensure smooth functioning and mitigate political influence, akin to
the development of Regional and Rural Banks (RRBs) since 1975.
2. Incentivizing Rural Penetration: Offer incentives to MFIs for opening branches in unbanked villages to increase
rural outreach.
3. Improving Services and Technology Adoption
1. E
 ncourage MFIs to offer a comprehensive range of products to clients, adopt transparent pricing, and imple-
ment technology for uniformity and efficiency.
2. U
 se technology to enhance access to credit, especially in rural areas, and to establish credit histories for
better risk assessment.
4. A
 ddressing Funding Challenges: Explore alternative funding sources such as outside equity investments, portfo-
lio buyouts, and securitization of loans to address funding challenges beyond the few large MFIs currently utilizing
these options.
5. S
 trengthening Credit and Debt Collection Processes
1. E
 nhance credit check and debt collection processes, and educate villagers about available financial products
and their potential consequences.
2. Implement scorecards to monitor the social impact of loans on clients and ensure loans are used for their
stated purposes.
6. D
 iversifying Lending Institutions: Address the demand and supply gap by diversifying lending institutions and
encouraging greater participation from private banks.

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7. R
 ole of Local and Leading Banks: Include leading banks in district-wise economic opportunities and resource
mapping to support MFI operations and improve credit flow.
Case Study: Dedicated Regulator in Bolivia: Bolivia has empowered a financial regulatory authority to develop and govern
the MFI sector, ensuring better management and support for MFIs.

SHG and PRIs 

Interlinkages and Synergy
1. S
 hared Objectives:
1. E
 mpowerment and Development: SHGs focus on economic self-reliance through savings and credit, while
PRIs provide political empowerment by enabling women to participate in local governance.
2. C
 ommunity Participation and Participatory Development. SHGs mobilize women at the grassroots level,
creating a foundation for broader community engagement, which complements the democratic ethos of PRIs.
2. C
 omplementary Roles:
1. T
 raining Grounds: SHGs serve as a training ground for women, building their confidence, leadership, and or-
ganizational skills. These skills are transferable to PRI roles, where women can leverage their SHG experience
to participate effectively in governance.
2. R
 esource Mobilization: SHGs can mobilize resources for local projects, which PRIs can utilize for community
development. This creates a synergy where SHGs support the financial and human resource needs of PRIs.
3. Institutional Support:
1. C
 apacity Building: Many state programs focus on building the capacities of SHGs to prepare women for
leadership roles in PRIs.
2. P
 olicy Integration: Policies that integrate SHGs into the PRI framework, such as including SHG members in
PRI standing committees, enhance coordination and mutual support.
4. E
 nhanced Women’s Participation:
1. Increased Representation: Women active in SHGs are more likely to contest elections and participate in
PRIs, leading to higher representation of women in local governance.
2. Improved Decision-Making: The practical experience gained in SHGs empowers women to contribute more
effectively to PRI decision-making processes, leading to more inclusive and responsive governance.
5. Improved Governance:
1. C
 ommunity Insights: SHG members bring valuable insights and ground-level knowledge to PRIs, enhancing
the relevance and effectiveness of local governance initiatives.
2. A
 ccountability and Transparency: Active participation of SHG members in PRIs promotes greater account-
ability and transparency in governance, as these women are often more attuned to the needs and priorities of
their communities.

Challenges
1. C
 ompetition for Resources:
1. R
 esource Allocation: Limited resources at the local level can lead to competition between SHGs and PRIs,
hindering cooperation and creating conflicts.
2. A
 dministrative Space: PRIs and SHGs may vie for administrative space and control over local development
activities, leading to tensions.
2. P
 roxy Representation:
1. M
 ale Dominance: In some cases, women in both SHGs and PRIs act as proxies for their male relatives, limit-
ing their actual empowerment and decision-making power. This undermines the objectives of both initiatives.
2. S
 ocio-Cultural Barriers: Deep-rooted socio-cultural norms and resistance from male-dominated structures
can hinder the effective participation of women in both SHGs and PRIs.

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3. L ack of Awareness and Training and Capacity Gaps: Inadequate training and awareness about their roles and
responsibilities can limit the effectiveness of women in PRIs. This can be particularly challenging for those transi-
tioning from SHGs to PRIs without proper capacity-building support.

Way Forward
1. Institutional Linkages:
1. F
 ormal Integration: Establish formal mechanisms to integrate SHGs and PRIs. For example, statutory inclu-
sion of SHG members in PRI standing committees can enhance cooperation and leverage the strengths of
both institutions.
2. C
 ollaborative Platforms: Create platforms for regular interaction and collaboration between SHGs and PRIs
to address common issues and align their activities for community benefit.
2. C
 apacity Building:
1. C
 omprehensive Training: Implement comprehensive training programs for SHG members on governance,
legal rights, and leadership to prepare them for active roles in PRIs.
2. C
 ontinuous Support: Provide ongoing support and mentorship to women in SHGs and PRIs to help them
navigate challenges and build their capacities.
3. P
 olicy and Legal Framework:
1. S
 upportive Policies: Develop policies that support the integration and mutual reinforcement of SHGs and
PRIs. Ensure that resource allocation and administrative functions are aligned to avoid competition.
2. L egal Safeguards: Implement legal safeguards to prevent proxy representation and ensure genuine empower-
ment of women in both SHGs and PRIs.
4. A
 wareness Campaigns:
1. S
 ocio-Cultural Change: Conduct awareness campaigns to challenge socio-cultural norms that restrict wom-
en’s participation. Promote the benefits of women’s active involvement in both SHGs and PRIs.
2. C
 ommunity Engagement: Engage communities in discussions about the roles and contributions of women in
governance and economic activities to build broader support.

Examples of Successful Integration

1. K
 udumbashree in Kerala:
1. E
 mpowerment through SHGs: Kudumbashree has successfully integrated SHGs with local gover-
nance structures, empowering women and enhancing their participation in PRIs.
2. C
 ommunity Development: The network supports various community development initiatives, lever-
aging the strengths of both SHGs and PRIs.
2. A
 ndhra Pradesh Integration: integrating SHG members into the standing committees of PRIs to create a
symbiotic relationship that enhances the functioning of both processes.

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CHAPTER 6

Civil
Services

PYQs 
[2024] The Doctrine of Democratic Governance makes it necessary that the public perception of the integrity and
commitment of civil servants becomes absolutely positive. Discuss

[2020] “Institutional quality is a crucial driver of economic performance”. In this context suggest reforms in Civil Service
for strengthening democracy. 10

[2017] Initially Civil Services in India were designed to achieve the goals of neutrality and effectiveness, which seems to
be lacking in the present context. Do you agree with the view that drastic reforms are required in Civil Services. Comment

Answer writing framework

Introduction
• Start with a quote of Sardar Patel
• C
 onsidered as the ‘steel frame’ of the country by Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel, civil services form the backbone of
smooth administrative functioning of the country.
• C
 ivil services determine the growth and development paradigm of a nation – book ‘Why Nations Fail’ by James Rob-
inson.

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Main Body
• Add flow chart or circular diagram on features

• For role in Democracy - Temporal Approach

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• For Good Governance - Pillars of good governance

• For relations with government and citizens - Stakeholder

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• Issues - PIES Approach

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• Mention Committee Recommendations for Way Forward

• Add global best practices in bracket

1. Singapore›s KPI-based performance appraisal system
2. Canada›s ethics commissioner overseeing conflict of interest
3. France›s École Nationale d›Administration (ENA) training system

Conclusion
• T
 o ensure our ‘rusted steel frame’ transforms to ‘trusted steel frame’, Surinder Nath Committee and Hota Committee
recommendations to modernize them is required.

Quotes 
“…you will not have a united India, if you have not a good all-India service which has the independence of mind, to speak
out its mind, which has the sense of security…this Constitution is meant to be worked by a ring of service which will keep
the country intact.” - Sardar Patel, in the Constituent Assembly in 1949.

“We need government servants with commitments to the development of the country and personal involvement in the
tasks”. - Indira Gandhi

Constitutional Provisions

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Part XIV: Services under the Union and the States

Article Description Details

Article Regulation of Recruit- Empowers both Parliament and state legislatures to regulate recruit-
309 ment and Service Con- ment and service conditions in public services.
ditions
Article 310 Doctrine of Pleasure Civil servants hold their posts at the pleasure of the President or the
state governors, implying they can be removed at will.
Article 311 Safeguards against Protects civil servants from being dismissed or demoted by a lower
Dismissal authority than the one that appointed them, and ensures a fair inquiry
process before any disciplinary action.
Article 312 Creation of New All India Enables the Rajya Sabha, with a two-thirds majority, to initiate the cre-
Services ation of new All India services, including recruitment and service rules.
Articles Public Service Commis- Establish and detail the functions of the Union and State Public Ser-
315 to 322 sions vice Commissions, which oversee recruitment and conduct examina-
tions.
Article Administrative Tribunals Allows for the establishment of administrative tribunals to resolve dis-
323A putes related to recruitment and service conditions in public services.

Role of Civil Services in a Democracy

Function Explanation Examples

1. Policy Implemen- Civil servants execute legislative intent, MGNREGA, PMAY, DBT schemes; “Perma-
tation turning constitutional vision into admin- nent Executive”, Weberian rationality
istrative reality. As per Weber’s model,
bureaucracy ensures rational-legal au-
thority in governance.
2. Upholding Rule of They ensure uniform application of RTI Act, Election Commission support; Ad-
Law laws and constitutional principles, ministrative Law, Rule of Law
defending democratic fairness and legal
certainty.
3. Political Neutrali- Civil services maintain institutional mem- “Steel Frame of India”, functioning during
ty & Continuity ory and operational continuity across regime changes
political regimes, ensuring non-partisan
governance.
4. Expert Policy Ad- They assist ministers with evidence-based COVID-19 planning, Economic Survey
vice & Data Use recommendations, using data analytics inputs; Epistemic Democracy, Policy feed-
and research to draft and refine policies – back loop
a key facet of technocratic-democratic
synergy.
5. Social Justice & Civil services operationalize affirmative SC/ST schemes, Mission Shakti; Social
Inclusion action, welfare policies, and promote par- Equity Theory, Targeted delivery
ticipatory governance, narrowing the
social equity gap.
6. Crisis Manage- During emergencies, civil servants serve Cyclone relief, COVID lockdown han-
ment & Disaster as crisis managers, ensuring coordina- dling; Resilience Framework, NDMA
Response tion, public trust, and relief – core to state integration
legitimacy.

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7. Citizen-Centric Promote transparency, efficiency, and re- CPGRAMS, Jan Sunwai, Sevottam; Good
Governance sponsiveness via RTI, grievance redressal, Governance, New Public Management
citizen charters – key to “responsive bu-
reaucracy” in democratic states.
8. Upholding Dem- Civil servants act as guardians of secu- Enforcing model code of conduct; Demo-
ocratic Values & larism, federalism, and constitutional cratic consolidation, Neutral civil service
Norms morality, especially in conflict zones and
sensitive periods.
9. Administrative Through regulatory bodies and tribunals, ITAT, CAT, CCI decisions; Administrative
Adjudication civil services act as quasi-judicial author- Justice, Natural Justice
ities, ensuring access to justice where
courts are inaccessible.
10. Diplomacy & Through the Indian Foreign Service and G20 diplomacy, UN missions; Soft Pow-
International Repre- multilateral negotiations, civil servants rep- er, Multilateralism, IFS
sentation resent India’s democratic ethos and soft
power on global platforms.

Evolution role of bureaucracy

Decade Key Developments
1947-1960s Nation Building - Led by Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, focusing on democratic socialism, with initiatives
in industrialization, agrarian reforms and infrastructure.
1967 Democratization of Bureaucracy - Post-1967 assembly elections, increased inclusion of backward castes in
civil services was initiated, marking the beginning of a more inclusive bureaucracy.

1970s-1980s Committed Bureaucracy - During Indira Gandhi’s tenure, especially the Emergency (1975-1977), bureaucrats
were expected to align closely with ruling party ideologies.

1990s Economic Liberalization - Introduction of economic reforms under P.V. Narasimha Rao and then Finance
Minister Manmohan Singh in 1991, leading to the dismantling of the License Raj and a shift towards a market-
driven economy with reduced bureaucratic control.

2000s onwards Globalization and IT Revolution - Focus on e-governance and transparency, the Right to Information Act
(2005) was introduced, enhancing bureaucratic accountability.

Theories on Bureaucracy
Theory Description Key Points Examples
Weber’s Bureau- Max Weber’s theory emphasizes a Emphasizes formal rules Indian Civil Services
cratic Theory structured, hierarchical organization and procedures
governed by clear rules and roles.
Hierarchical structure

Merit-based recruitment

New Public Man- Advocates for the use of private Decentralization UK Government:
age ent (NPM) sector management techniques in the Performance-based
public sector to improve efficiency Performance measurement evaluations and
and service delivery. Market-oriented reforms outsourcing in public
services​

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Theory Description Key Points Examples

Public Value Emphasizes the creation of value Focus on outcomes
Theory for the public through public sector
initiatives and services. Stakeholder engagement

Value creation
Scientific Man- Frederick Taylor’s theory focuses Work specialization Production lines in
agement Theory on improving economic efficiency manufacturing, such
through systematic management. Standardized tasks as those pioneered by
Efficiency and productivity Henry Ford .
focus
Human Relations Elton Mayo’s theory stresses the Focus on employee morale Modern HR practices
Theory importance of social factors and em- emphasizing team
ployee well-being in productivity. Importance of group dy- building and employee
namics satisfaction .
Impact of social relation-
ships
Systems Theory Views organizations as complex sys- Interdependence of subsys- Healthcare System:
tems with interrelated parts working tems Departments (radiolo-
towards a common goal. gy, surgery, pharmacy)
Emphasis on feedback collaborate for patient
loops care​
Adaptability and flexibility
Contingency Argues that there is no one best Adaptability to the environ- Organizations adapt-
Theory way to organize; instead, the optimal ment ing their structures
course depends on the internal and to changing market
external situation. Fit between organization conditions .
and context

Emphasis on situational
variables
Public Choice Applies economic principles to Rational behavior of indi- Policy-making influ-
Theory political science, focusing on self-in- viduals enced by voter behav-
terest and incentives in public sector ior and lobbying .
decision-making. Self-interest in public deci-
sions

Market-like efficiency in
public sector
Principal-Agent Focuses on the relationship between Information asymmetry Use of performance
Theory principals (e.g., citizens) and agents evaluations and audits
(e.g., bureaucrats), emphasizing ac- Monitoring and incentives in public administra-
countability and control mechanisms. Aligning interests of princi- tion .
pals and agents

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Bureaucracy and Democracy

Bureaucracy and democracy are two crucial elements of governance. Democracy allows the public to elect their leaders,
whereas bureaucracy involves competent officials appointed through merit to implement government policies.

Positive Co-relation between Civil Services and Democracy

Aspect Democracy Bureaucracy

Foundation of Gover- Governance system elected by and Essential administrative machinery needed to imple-
nance accountable to the people. ment policies.
Implementation of Pol- Enacts laws and policies through elect- Executes laws and policies, ensuring efficient delivery
icies ed representatives based on public of services; corrects errors and avoids waste.
opinion and needs.

Continuity and Change in Facilitates change and adaptation Provides stability and continuity across different
Governance through elections and public opinion. government terms, functioning irrespective of election
outcomes.
Socio-Economic Devel- Driven by public needs and demands, Manages essential resources and infrastructure de-
opment focusing on inclusive socio-economic velopment; sets developmental goals for key sectors.
growth.
Protection of Rights Provides a framework for the protec- In turbulent times, services like the police maintain
tion of fundamental rights through order and protect citizens’ rights as per the law.
legislation and judiciary.

Adaptability vs. Consis- Encourages adaptability and respon- Prioritizes consistency and regularity, which may
tency siveness to current needs and circum- resist rapid changes needed in governance.
stances.
Governance Style Promotes participation, consen- May exhibit a traditional, sometimes authoritarian
sus-making, and accommodates approach to enforcing rules and regulations.
diverse viewpoints.

Post-Liberalization Role Supports entrepreneurship, private Acts as a facilitator and regulator, focusing on core
sector growth, and economic reforms public sectors and supporting global economic inte-
like ‘Ease of Doing Business’. gration.

Citizen-Centric Gover- Focuses on inclusivity, transparency, Adapting to more decentralized and citizen-focused
nance and accountability, empowering citi- approaches, treating civil society and private sectors
zens through rights awareness. as partners.

Demanding Governance Citizens actively participate and de- Faces increasing demands for accountability and
mand higher standards of governance transparency as citizens become more rights-aware.
and service delivery.

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How bureaucracy undermines democracy

Aspect Description Examples

Lack of Account- Bureaucrats are often not directly Reports of bureaucrats delaying responses or pro-
ability accountable to the public, leading to viding incomplete information under the Right to
a disconnect between public inter- Information Act​
ests and bureaucratic actions.
Opaque Deci- Bureaucratic processes can be com- Rafale Deal: Lack of transparency in defense pro-
sion-Making plex and non-transparent, making it curement processes.
difficult for the public to understand
and scrutinize decisions.
Resistance to Bureaucracies can be resistant to E-Governance Initiatives: Resistance to adopting
Change change, adhering strictly to estab- e-governance in rural administration due to adher-
lished rules and procedures, even ence to traditional methods​
when they are outdated or ineffi-
cient.
Centralization of Bureaucracies often centralize pow- Centralized Handling of COVID-19 Relief
Power er, reducing the influence of local
and regional authorities and limiting
grassroots participation.
Inefficiency and Bureaucratic inefficiency and Environmental Clearances: Delays in project ap-
Red Tape excessive red tape can delay the provals due to bureaucratic red tape​
implementation of policies, frustrat-
ing public expectations and trust in
government.
Self-Interest and Bureaucrats may pursue personal or 2G Spectrum Scandal: Corruption in telecom li-
Corruption institutional self-interests, leading cense allocation undermined public trust​
to corruption and misuse of power,
which undermines public trust.
Overlapping Conflicts and overlaps between MoEFCC and State Agencies: Delays in project
Jurisdiction different bureaucratic agencies approvals due to overlapping responsibilities​​.
can lead to inefficiency and lack of
coordination, hindering effective
governance.
Lack of Public Bureaucracies often operate with Limited public consultation in land acquisition pro-
Engagement limited input from the public, reduc- cesses leading to protests and legal challenges​
ing citizen engagement and partici-
pation in governance processes.

Major Issues in Ensuring Accountability

of Civil Servants in India
1. O
 paque Performance Appraisal System
• The Annual Performance Appraisal Report (APAR) lacks transparency, objectivity, and timely feedback.
• Often reduced to a formality with inflated ratings and no tangible linkage to promotion or penalties.
2. A
 bsence of Outcome-Based Evaluation
• Accountability is input- or process-driven, not result-oriented.
• Officers are rarely assessed based on service delivery quality, citizen satisfaction, or developmental out-
comes.
3. P
 olitical Interference and Arbitrary Transfers - Frequent transfers for non-compliance with political directions
dilute functional autonomy and accountability. Officers become risk-averse or complicit, weakening institu-
tional integrity.

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4. W
 eak Disciplinary Mechanisms
• Rule 14 disciplinary proceedings under CCS (Conduct) Rules are time-consuming, bureaucratic, and rarely
result in conviction.
• Punitive action against delinquent officers is rare, leading to a culture of impunity.
5. L ack of Citizen Feedback and Social Accountability - Public grievance redress mechanisms (like CP-
GRAMS) often lack follow-through, escalation, and transparency. Sevottam Model and e-Samiksha aimed to
institutionalize service delivery accountability, but with limited scale
6. G
 eneralist Approach in Specialized Roles
• Officers without domain expertise are posted to technical ministries, hampering performance and enabling
blame-shifting.
• Lack of specialization reduces measurable accountability in complex policy environments (e.g., health,
climate).
7. P
 rotection Under Article 311 & Section 197 of CrPC
• Civil servants enjoy protection from summary dismissal and prosecution without prior sanction, making
punitive accountability harder.
• While these safeguards prevent political vendetta, they also delay justice in genuine misconduct cases.
8. N
 o Linkage Between Learning and Accountability
• Despite reforms like Mission Karmayogi, there’s no institutional connection between training, upskilling,
and performance accountability.
• Learning outcomes are not linked with performance appraisals or promotions.
9. U
 nderutilization of Technology for Tracking Performance - Limited use of real-time dashboards, MIS systems,
or e-HRMS analytics to monitor service quality and field-level responsiveness.

All India Services 

The All-India Services (AIS), comprising the Indian Administrative Service (IAS), Indian Police Service (IPS), and Indian
Forest Service (IFS), are crucial to maintaining India’s federal structure as outlined in Article 312 of the Constitution.

These prestigious services operate under the dual control of the state governments, to which the officers are assigned,
and the central government,which oversees their recruitment, appointment, and training.

Significance of All-India Services:

Significance Description Examples

National Integra- Promotes a unified administrative IAS and IPS officers serve in various states, helping to
tion framework across states, foster- integrate regional governance with national policies​.
ing national unity and coherence.

Central-State Co- Facilitates seamless cooperation IPS officers ensure coordinated law enforcement
ordination between the central and state efforts between state police forces and central agen-
governments, ensuring aligned cies, maintaining internal security​​.
policy implementation.

Uniformity inAd- Ensures standardized administra- IFS officers apply uniform forestry policies, ensuring
ministration tive practices and policies across consistent forest management practices nationwide​.
the country, reducing regional
disparities.
Merit-based Ad- Maintains high standards of gov- UPSC’s strict selection criteria for IAS, IPS, and IFS
ministration ernance through rigorous, mer- ensure that only the most capable individuals are
it-based selection and promotion recruited for top administrative roles​​.
processes.

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Professional Exper- Offers diverse administrative IAS officers gain experience by serving in various roles
tise experience to officers, enhancing such as district magistrates, state secretaries, and
their ability to manage complex central government officials​.
governance issues.

Effective Policy Provides continuity and consis- IAS officers implement central schemes like MGNRE-
Implementation tency in the execution of national GA and PDS uniformly across states, ensuring broad
and state policies, enhancing reach and effectiveness​​.
governance efficiency.

Challenges Facing All-India Services

Challenge Description

Hangover of the Past Authoritarian Structure: The AIS was created during British rule and has retained a
hierarchical, authoritarian structure​
Against Federalism AIS officers are seen as agents of the central government, often clashing with state
autonomy.
Although AIS responsibilities are shared between the center and states, they are
listed under the Union List (Entry 70), which emphasizes central control and sparks
debate over the formation of new AIS and its implications for state autonomy and
finances.
Assigning about 50% of AIS positions to officers from outside the state can create
tensions with state services and local political leaders.
The requirement for state consent for central deputation has been removed, leading
to increased tensions over the deployment of AIS officers between the center and
states.
No Familiarity Cultural Disconnect: AIS officers from different states may struggle to understand
local problems and contexts, leading to ineffective governance.

Lack of Specialization Jack of All Trades: IAS officers being generalists are often unable to provide special-
ized expertise required for certain administrative roles​
Unequal Representation Over-representation: States like Punjab, UP, Bihar, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh
have more representation, while others have less​
Financial Burden High salary and maintenance costs of AIS officers put a financial strain on state
governments.
Procedure Over Orien- Focus on procedural compliance rather than outcome-oriented governance leads to
tation inefficiency.
Lack of Separation of The mixing of policy-making, implementation, and regulatory functions leads to ineffi-
Functions ciencies.
Departmental Fragmen- Ministry Proliferation: Overlapping and fragmented functions across numerous min-
tation istries lead to inefficiencies and confusion
Hierarchy and Delays Hierarchical nature of AIS leads to delays, corruption, and lack of accountability.
Coordination Issues Poor coordination among different departments and ministries leads to policy imple-
mentation failures.

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Way Forward
Sarkaria Commission Recommendations:

1. C
 ontinued Relevance: AIS are as essential today as when the Constitution was framed.
2. S
 trengthening AIS: Enhance AIS through improvements in selection, training, deployment, develop-
ment, and promotion policies.
3. S
 hift to Specialization: Move from generalist to specialist roles in public administration.
4. M
 andatory Union Service: All AIS officers, both direct recruits and promoted, should serve a minimum
period with the Union Government, with specific deputation requirements.
5. R
 egular Consultations: Establish regular consultations on AIS management between Union and State
Governments.
6. A
 dvisory Council: Create an Advisory Council for Personnel Administration of AIS, composed of senior
officers, to regularly address issues and suggest solutions.
7. N
 ew AIS Branches: Encourage the formation of Indian Service of Engineers, Indian Medical and Health
Service, and an AIS for Education.

Cadre-based Civil Service 

Cadre refers to a small, trained group forming the basic unit of an organization. In All India Services (AIS), candidates are
assigned to cadres based on their preferences, merit, and availability.

Each Indian state constitutes a separate cadre, with exceptions like Assam-Meghalaya, Manipur-Tripura, and Arunachal
Pradesh-Goa-Mizoram-Union Territories (AGMUT), which are joint cadres. Cadres determine where officers will serve
throughout their careers.

Significance of Cadre-Based Services

1. A
 dministrative Continuity and Stability - Officers serve long tenures in the same cadre/state. Promotes institu-
tional memory and stable policy implementation.
2. In-depth Local Knowledge - Officers gain deep understanding of state-specific socio-cultural, economic, and
political contexts. Enhances effective and contextual governance.
3. S
 trengthens Federalism - Balances central control with state autonomy in cadre management. Supports coop-
erative federalism.
4. P
 romotes National Integration - Encourages inter-state bonding and pan-India service ethos.
5. S
 pecialization within Geography - Officers become experts in regional issues (e.g., flood control in Assam,
drought in Rajasthan). Increases domain-specific governance efficiency.
6. D
 ecentralized Personnel Management - State governments manage postings, transfers, and responsibilities
within the cadre. Enhances administrative flexibility at local levels.
7. M
 erit-Based and Rule-Governed Structure - Reduces risk of arbitrary appointments. Follows rule-based hierar-
chy, protecting bureaucratic neutrality.
8. C
 risis Management Efficiency - Familiarity with local terrain and administration helps in disaster response and
law-and-order management.
9. P
 erformance Monitoring and Accountability - Long-term tenure enables consistent monitoring through
APARs and other evaluation tools. Promotes measurable governance outcomes.

Issues
1. R
 ecent Issues
1. H
 istorically, 25-30 percent of state cadre officers were on central deputation, but currently, less than 10 per-
cent serve in central ministries.
2. O
 fficers often prefer state postings due to better service conditions.

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3. T
 his shortage of officers affects the central government’s ability to effectively make and implement policies.
1. P
 rovincialization and Erosion of All-India Character - Over time, officers have become deeply embedded in their
state cadres, leading to a focus on local issues and diminishing the intended all-India perspective.
2. C
 ollusion with Local Political Interests - Such relationships may result in favoritism, nepotism, and resistance to
central policies.
3. Inequitable Cadre Strength Distribution - Disparities exist in cadre sizes relative to state populations; for in-
stance, Uttar Pradesh’s IAS cadre is 40% smaller than required, while Sikkim’s is 15% larger.
4. R
 esistance to Cross-Cadre Mobility - Officers often prefer to remain within their home cadres, limiting exposure
to diverse administrative environments and hindering the sharing of innovative practices.
5. F
 requent and Arbitrary Transfers - Transfers are sometimes used as tools for political leverage, disrupting
administrative continuity and morale.
6. L ack of Domain Expertise - The generalist nature of the IAS leads to officers heading specialized departments
without relevant technical knowledge, affecting policy implementation.
7. R
 esistance to Reform and Innovation - A culture of status quo and aversion to change hampers the adoption of
modern administrative practices and technologies.
8. C
 hallenges in Implementing Lateral Entry - While lateral entry can infuse fresh expertise, it faces resistance from
within the services due to concerns over career progression and service parity.

Lateral Entry 
Lateral entry into Civil Services allows qualified candidates to join the bureaucracy directly at senior positions, skipping
the usual entry process.

Benefits of Lateral Entry

1. Infusion of Specialized Expertise - ARC 2nd Report emphasized the need for “domain experts in policy formu-
lation.” Lateral entrants bring technical depth and subject-matter expertise, enabling better policy design and
execution.
2. P
 romotes Competitive Federalism in Governance - Lateral entry introduces a competitive spirit and perfor-
mance orientation in traditionally tenure-based civil services. Encourages merit over seniority, fostering adminis-
trative dynamism.
3. A
 ddresses Talent Gaps at Higher Levels - A significant number of Joint Secretary-level posts remain va-
cant due to promotion delays or cadre gaps. Lateral entrants bridge the manpower shortage at the top echelons
of the government.
4. E
 nhances Policy Innovation - Lateral entrants bring Policy entrepreneurship, disruptive innovation, external
visioning, fresh perspectives, and evidence-based approaches. Helps overcome the status quo bias of career
civil servants.
5. C
 atalyst for Bureaucratic Reforms - ARC II and the Surendra Nath Committee highlighted the need to open mid-
career civil services to outside talent. Breaks the monopoly of All India Services and injects accountability.
6. F
 osters Public-Private Synergy - Brings in best practices from private sector, academia, NGOs, and multilat-
eral institutions. Encourages cross-sectoral collaboration and blurs rigid boundaries between state and market
expertise. Eg- US Senior Executive Service (SES) integrates both career and political appointees.
7. R
 educes Bureaucratic Rigidity - Lateral entry weakens bureaucratic inertia by challenging the closed-loop pro-
motion culture. Brings Administrative agility, dynamic policymaking, open-access bureaucracy
8. B
 oosts Citizen-Centric Governance - Eg- Lateral entrants from social sector NGOs into NITI Aayog brought on-
ground experience in tribal and rural development.

Issues
1. W
 orld Bank Report on Civil Services Reform (2016): Cautioned that entry without cultural immer-
sion often results in “limited systemic impact.”

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2. B
 ypassing UPSC: UPSC, a constitutional body, ensures a credible selection process. Some experts
argue that lateral entry bypasses this, raising constitutional concerns.
3. N
 ot a Comprehensive Solution: Lateral entry is seen as a short-term fix for a systemic problem. Major
overhauls in the bureaucracy are needed instead.
4. U
 nattractive Offers: Recruitment terms often aren’t lucrative enough to attract top talent. Recent
initiatives offer only 3-year terms with lower pay compared to the private sector.
5. R
 isk of Privatization: There are fears that lateral entry could lead to privatization, diluting the govern-
ment’s socialist and welfare roles.
6. T
 ransparency in Recruitment: Ensuring recruits remain independent and maintaining a transparent
selection process is crucial to avoid politicization.
7. T
 hreat to IAS Morale: Many IAS officers see lateral entry as a threat to their authority and morale,
potentially disrupting the current hierarchy.
8. Inadequate Training and Orientation limit their ability to function seamlessly in the government
ecosystem.
9. F
 ragmentation of Administrative Cohesion Parallel - systems of career officers and contractual
specialists may lead to two-tier bureaucracy with coordination breakdowns, conflicting interests,
and turf wars. OECD countries emphasize whole-of-government approach, not segmented staffing.
10. L ack of Field Experience and Grassroots Exposure - lateral entrants come from corporate or
academic backgrounds with limited understanding of on-ground realities (e.g., rural poverty, land
conflict, tribal rights). This affects policy practicality and the ability to manage crises at the field
level.
11. N
 o Clear Career Path or Accountability Framework - Lateral entrants often serve on contractu-
al terms (3-5 years), with unclear performance metrics. This creates insecurity for the en-
trant and ambiguity for the system regarding deliverables, promotions, or exit.
12. C
 ultural and Institutional Mismatch - Friction can arise due to perceived elitism, lack of adminis-
trative grounding, or differences in work ethos.
13. L ack of Transparent Selection Process - ARC II recommended a Civil Services Board for unbiased
selection but no such autonomous body oversees lateral entries today.
14. E
 nd of Neutral Civil Service: lateral entry could end the neutral and impartial nature of the civil ser-
vice, leading to the induction of political loyalists and ‘spoils system’

Way Forward
1. Institutionalize the Selection Process - Establish an independent Lateral Entry Commission or
Panel under UPSC or Civil Services Board for recruitment. Eg- UK Civil Service Commission and US
OPM (Office of Personnel Management)
2. D
 esign a Structured Induction and Training Module - Mandate a foundational training pro-
gram (e.g., condensed version of LBSNAA Phase I) focusing on: Constitution & governance, Public
administration ethics, e-Governance and GFR rules
3. D
 efine Career Path and Performance Metrics
• Offer contractual positions with possible extensions based on Key Performance Indicators (KPIs).
• Design a dual career track with parallel promotion pathways for lateral recruits and career civil servants.
• Adopt Singapore’s Civil Service Performance Appraisal system (PRP model).
4. E
 nsure Role Clarity and Integration
• Clearly outline job roles, deliverables, reporting hierarchy, and collaboration protocols with career officers to
avoid turf conflicts.
• Encourage a “whole-of-government” mindset, not segmented silos.
5. D
 evelop a Feedback and Impact Audit Mechanism
• Create an annual evaluation dashboard for lateral entrants.
• Use independent third-party impact audits to assess outcomes and course-correct policies.

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• Adopt OECD’s SIGMA indicators on civil service reform.

6. B
 roaden the Talent Pool
• Extend lateral entry to state governments, technical missions, NITI Aayog-style bodies, and district-level
innovations.
• Tap into diaspora talent, retired defence officers, academia, and civil society leaders.
7. P
 romote Lateral Exit Too
• Allow talented officers from within the services to move out temporarily into think tanks, private sector, or
international bodies, and return with broader perspective.
• Eg- France’s “Pantouflage” system allows temporary exit and re-entry for civil servants.

Civil Service Board

The Supreme Court in T.S.R. Subramanian & Ors. Vs UoI & Ors, directed the Centre, State Governments and the Union
Territories to constitute Civil Services Boards with high ranking serving officers, who are specialists in their respective
fields, to guide and advise the State Government on all service matters, which would ensure good governance, transpar-
ency and accountability in Governmental functions.

Civil Services Board is already in existence at the Centre for making appointments to posts covered under Central Staff-
ing Scheme.

Authority Limits: Recommendations by CSB can be overridden by the political executive, provided reasons are docu-
mented.

Recruitment and Promotions: Responsible for entry-level recruitment and managing promotions up to the Joint Secre-
tary level.

Transfer Regulations: Members of the CSB cannot be transferred before completing a two-year tenure unless the board
reviews and approves such recommendations.

Final Authority: Despite the CSB’s advisory role, the Chief Minister holds the ultimate decision-making power.

Functions of Civil Services Board:

1. A
 ppointments and Transfers: The CSB makes recommendations for the appointment, transfer, and
posting of civil servants, particularly at senior levels. This ensures that these decisions are made trans-
parently and based on merit.
2. C
 areer Progression: It oversees the career progression of officers, including promotions and other
career development initiatives.
3. D
 isciplinary Matters: The board addresses disciplinary issues and ensures that civil servants adhere
to ethical and professional standards.
4. P
 olicy Formulation: It plays a role in formulating policies related to the management of civil services,
ensuring that these policies are aligned with the broader goals of governance.
5. P
 erformance Evaluation: The CSB is involved in evaluating the performance of civil servants, which is
crucial for promotions and other career advancements.

Potential Impact of a Functional CSB:

1. O
 n Governance:
1. S
 tability and Protection: CSB ensures stable tenure for civil servants, shielding them from
political pressures and boosting public trust in administration.
2. E
 ffective Policy Implementation: It enables civil servants to meet professional goals and act as
efficient agents of public policy.
3. G
 ood Governance: Promotes good governance, transparency, and accountability, leading to
better service delivery.
4. R
 educes Malpractices: Minimizes corruption, nepotism, and favoritism in civil servant transfers,
which are often influenced by political interests rather than public good.

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5. S
 upports Social Initiatives: Facilitates the prioritization and implementation of social and eco-
nomic policies for the benefit of the poor and marginalized communities.
2. O
 n Civil Services:
1. P
 rofessionalism and Efficiency: CSBs comprising experts from various fields can enhance the
professionalism and efficiency of governmental operations.
2. P
 reservation of Civil Service Principles: Ensures neutrality, impartiality, and anonymity.
3. Improved Relationships: Facilitates better cooperation among ministers, legislators, and civil
servants, vital for effective governance.

Negative Impact
1. F
 ixed Tenure:
1. R
 educed Accountability: Fixed tenures can make bureaucrats less accountable to elected officials, poten-
tially leading to overstepping of authority.
2. P
 olitical Influence: Political executives may feel their influence is diminished, as CSB controls transfer recom-
mendations, affecting the ability to address urgent public matters and development planning.
2. L ack of Autonomy - Hota Committee has criticized state CSBs for acting more as a rubber stamp for Chief
Minister’s decisions rather than as an independent body.
3. L imited Scope and Authority - The CSB can only recommend transfers and postings, but the final decision rests
with the political executive, limiting the board’s impact​
4. Inconsistent Implementation - There is variability in how different states implement CSB guidelines, leading to
inconsistencies in administration.
5. L ack of Accountability Mechanisms - Absence of a formal review process for CSB decisions allows for potential
biases and lack of transparency​

Steps taken by government 

Reform Initiative Key Features / Objectives Benefits
Mission Karmayogi (2020, Competency-based capacity build- Skill enhancement, performance-driven,
DoPT & CBC) ing, iGOT platform, role-based train- agile governance
ing, digital learning journeys

Lateral Entry (2018, DoPT Induction of domain experts at se- Specialization, innovation infusion, policy
via UPSC) nior levels from outside government expertise
Minimum Government, Streamlining ministries, reducing red Efficiency, lean bureaucracy, out-
Maximum Governance tape, promoting e-governance come-based delivery
(2014, GoI)
SPARROW (2014, DoPT) Transparent, timely online appraisal Accountability, real-time tracking, merit
system for officers recognition
360-Degree Feedback Empanelment based on peer, subor- Holistic evaluation, leadership insight,
(2015, Cabinet Secretar- dinate, and stakeholder feedback integrity check
iat)
LBSNAA Curriculum New training modules on ethics, Value-based training, real-world orientation,
Overhaul (2020, LBSNAA innovation, participatory governance empathy
& DoPT)
e-Governance Tools Digitized personnel records, griev- Transparency, responsiveness, digital gov-
(2014–ongoing, DARPG & ance redressal, paperless file move- ernance
NIC) ment
National Recruitment Common eligibility test for non-ga- Recruitment reform, access equity, stan-
Agency (2020, DoPT) zetted posts dardization

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Good Governance Cam- File digitization, grievance disposal, Administrative hygiene, grievance redressal,
paigns (2021, MoPPG&P) office cleanliness drives service delivery
Centralized Transfer Transparent, criteria-based postings Stability, fairness, depoliticization
Policy Proposals (Ongoing, and transfer mechanisms
DoPT)

Way Forward 
1. Institutionalize Fixed Tenure for Key Posts
• Implement minimum fixed tenure (2–3 years) to prevent arbitrary transfers.
• Adopt Civil Services Boards as recommended by Second ARC and Hota Committee (2004).
2. A
 dopt Role-Based HR Management
• Move from seniority to role- and competency-based postings, in line with Mission Karmayogi.
• Follow UK’s Civil Service Capability Plan for mapping skills to roles.
3. S
 trengthen Lateral and Intra-sectoral Entry
• Institutionalize transparent, merit-based lateral entry, and allow lateral movement across ministries/
states.
• Inspired by US Senior Executive Service and Singapore’s Administrative Service model.
4. D
 igitize and Modernize Bureaucratic Systems
• Expand e-HRMS, SPARROW, e-Office, and integrate AI/data analytics for service delivery and personnel
tracking.
• Reflects Estonia’s e-Governance model for seamless and efficient state functioning.
5. O
 verhaul Recruitment and Induction
• Strengthen UPSC’s domain-specific selection mechanisms and align training with real-world challenges.
• Incorporate case-based learning, field immersions, and ethical reasoning in LBSNAA curriculum.
6. M
 ake Performance Appraisals Transparent & Quantifiable
• Link Annual Performance Appraisal Reports (APARs) with key performance indicators (KPIs).
• Include 360° feedback with safeguards, as followed in OECD nations.
7. E
 ncourage Specialization and Mid-Career Upskilling
• Establish domain-based vertical career tracks (e.g., Health, Energy, Urban Governance).
• Emulate France’s ENA model which promotes elite specialization with cross-functional exposure.
8. S
 trengthen Ethics and Integrity Systems
• Institutionalize Ethics Commissioners, mandatory asset disclosures, and conflict-of-interest protocols.
• Adopt elements of Canada’s Values and Ethics Code for Public Sector.
9. E
 nable Decentralized and Citizen-Centric Governance
• Devolve more powers to district and municipal levels, with capacity support for field officers.
• Reflects Brazil’s participatory budgeting and Kenya’s devolved service model.

Committee / Commis- Year Key Recommendations

sion
Second Administrative 2005– - Fixed tenure for postings to prevent arbitrary transfers. - Shift to role-
Reforms Commission 2009 based recruitment and training. - Introduction of lateral entry at
(ARC) senior levels. - Revamp performance appraisal using 360° feedback. -
Strengthen ethics frameworks and integrity institutions.

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Hota Committee 2004 - Transparent and merit-based promotions. - Introduction of fixed

tenure for field postings. - Performance-based incentives and reward
systems. - Emphasis on training, e-governance, and citizen-centricity.
Surendra Nath Commit- 2003 - Revamp of performance appraisal and disciplinary procedures. -
tee Allow inter-service and inter-cadre mobility. - Suggestion to unify
Group A services under a common framework.
Satish Chandra Commit- 1989 - Suggested probation reforms and emphasis on foundation training
tee quality. - Recommended changes in UPSC interview evaluation to reduce
subjectivity.

Y.K. Alagh Committee 2001 - Proposed a streamlined and domain-specific selection process for
(on Civil Services Exam) technical and specialized services. - Suggested removal of optional sub-
jects in Mains (partially implemented).
National Commission 2000 - Proposed creation of National Civil Services Authority for cadre
to Review the Work- planning and HR policy. - Emphasized political neutrality and ethical
ing of the Constitution integrity in services.
(NCRWC)

Supreme Court Directives

In 2013, the Supreme Court issued directives to shield civil servants from political interference and prevent their frequent
reassignment by political leaders. These guidelines were outlined in T.S.R. Subramanian vs. Union of India case.

1. A
 ctions Based on Written Directives: Civil servants, especially those in the IAS and other All India
Services, must base decisions solely on written communications to ensure accountability.
2. F
 ormation of Civil Services Board (CSB): Establish a Civil Services Board, led by the Cabinet Secre-
tary nationally and chief secretaries at the state level, to manage IAS, IFS, and IPS officer transfers and
postings. Overrides by political executives require written justification.
3. C
 ivil Services Act Legislation: Advocate for the passage of a Civil Services Act under Article 309 to
officially set up and delineate the functions of the CSB.
4. F
 ixed Minimum Tenures: Implement guaranteed fixed tenures for civil servants to promote job stability
and minimize arbitrary reassignments.
5. A
 uthority for Group ‘B’ Officer Transfers: Transfer responsibilities for Group ‘B’ officers are to be
assigned to heads of departments, aiming to reduce extensive political interference.
6. R
 eduction of Political Interference: Restrict ministerial involvement in civil servant transfers and
postings strictly to the chief minister, aiming to lessen undue political influence.

Mission Karmayogi: National Programme

for Civil Services Capacity Building (NPCSCB)
Launched in September 2020, Mission Karmayogi is a transformative reform initiative by the Government of India
aimed at building a future-ready, competent, and citizen-centric civil service.

Feature Description
iGOT Karmayogi Platform A digital, AI-enabled learning platform offering customized and continuous
learning modules.
Role-Based Training Moves from seniority-based to role-based capacity building across services
and hierarchies.
Competency Framework Focus on Behavioral, Functional, and Domain competencies aligned to job
roles.
Annual Capacity Building Each ministry/department to define training goals linked to performance and
Plans (CBPs) service delivery.

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Public-Private Collaboration Allows participation of public training institutes, private entities, universi-
ties, and experts.
Performance-Linked Learning Learning outcomes linked with career progression, evaluations, and service
quality.
Capacity Building Commis- Independent body to monitor and guide implementation, standards, and eco-
sion (CBC) system alignment.

Benefits
Dimension Benefit

Efficiency & Productivity Builds a professional, adaptive, and tech-savvy civil service aligned to
governance needs.
Inclusiveness Extends structured training beyond elite IAS/IPS to all Group A to C officials.

Customization Enables individual learning pathways based on roles, grades, and prior
experience.
Transparency & Equity Reduces subjectivity and promotes merit-based, standardized competency
growth.
Governance Moderniza- Embeds e-learning, data analytics, and global best practices into HR
tion management.
Alignment with Global Echoes practices from UK, Singapore, and OECD countries on public sector
Trends reform.

Challenges in Implementation
Challenge Area Details
Digital Divide Lower-level staff and rural offices lack IT access, devices, or digital literacy

Mindset Resistance Bureaucratic inertia and fear of evaluation may lead to low acceptance or passive
participation.
Capacity Gaps in Minis- Many departments lack HR wings or training capacity to formulate Annual
tries Capacity Plans.
Integration with Existing Need to align Karmayogi with existing institutions like LBSNAA, ISTM, and state
Systems ATIs.
Monitoring & Evaluation Absence of a robust impact evaluation framework for learning outcomes and
Issues governance results.
Risk of Over-centralization Excessive reliance on central platforms may undermine state-specific flexibility.

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Police Reforms in India

India’s police system is largely governed by the Police Act of 1861, a colonial-era law designed to enforce control rather
than enable democratic policing. Despite several committees and court orders, police reforms remain incomplete, often
due to political resistance and institutional inertia.

Major Issues in Indian Policing

Issue Details

Political Interference Frequent transfers, pressure in investigations, and misuse of police for partisan
purposes.
Lack of Functional Autonomy No fixed tenure for key posts like DGP/SP; control by executive affects neutral-
ity.
Poor Infrastructure & Staffing India has only ~150 police personnel per 1 lakh population (UN norm: 222).

Undertraining & Outdated Low investment in training; over-reliance on third-degree methods due to lack
Methods of skills.
Corruption & Lack of Account- Absence of internal checks, external oversight, and grievance redress mecha-
ability nisms.
Overburdened Force One officer handling multiple roles — investigation, law and order, VIP security,
etc.
Inadequate Training and Hu- Police training remains outdated, militaristic, and focused on hierarchy rather
man Rights Sensitization than community policing or legal literacy.

Sensitization on gender, minorities, mental health, and ethical standards is

grossly insufficient.
Generalist Cadre in Special- Lack of technical and forensic expertise leads to poor investigation and low
ized Domains conviction rates.

Specialists in cybercrime, financial fraud, and forensics are either missing or

underutilized.
Colonial Mindset Focus on control, not community service or human rights.

Public Trust Deficit Widespread perception of corruption, brutality, and inefficiency has eroded
public faith in the police.

Fear-driven policing undermines efforts at community partnership and

proactive policing.

Major Impediments in Police Reforms in India

1. Inconsistent Implementation Across States - Policing is a State Subject (Entry 2, State List), leading to frag-
mented and non-uniform reforms.
2. P
 olitical Resistance and Executive Control
• Transfers, postings, and promotions are often manipulated for political ends, making governments unwilling
to cede control.
• Reforms such as fixed tenure and independent police boards, as mandated by the Prakash Singh judgment
(2006), are either diluted or not implemented.
3. C
 olonial Legacy of the Police Act, 1861
• The 1861 Act focuses on law and order maintenance, not citizen service or human rights.
• Despite recommendations for its repeal, a modern, people-centric national police law has not been enacted.
4. L ack of Political Will
• Police reforms often involve curbing discretionary powers of politicians — hence, there is reluctance to
implement real changes.

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• Prakash Singh directives have seen partial or symbolic compliance by most states.
5. B
 ureaucratic Apathy and Status Quoism
• Civil servants often resist reforms that reduce their control over policing, especially in terms of postings and
budget allocations.
• There is no performance-based accountability system for police leadership.
6. Insufficient Financial Resources
• Many states underfund police modernization, leading to poor infrastructure, outdated weaponry, and staff
shortages.
• Funds under the Police Modernisation Scheme are often underutilized or diverted.
• As per BPR&D (2022): India spends less than 1% of its total budget on police services.
7. A
 bsence of Independent Oversight Mechanisms
• Recommendations for Police Complaints Authorities (PCAs) have not been implemented in most states.
• In existing PCAs, lack of independence, resources, and follow-up makes them ineffective.
8. J udicial Delays in Enforcing Reforms
• Despite repeated Supreme Court orders, states have not been held accountable for non-compliance.
• There is no statutory penalty or contempt enforcement mechanism for states failing to implement reforms.

Major Police Reform Committees & Recommendations

Committee Key Recommendations
National Police Commission Insulated police from political pressure, transparent recruitment, performance
(1977–81) review.
Ribeiro Committee (1998) Set up Police Complaint Authorities, separation of law and order from investi-
gation.
Padmanabhaiah Committee Modernization, community policing, fixed tenures, performance-based promo-
(2000) tions.

Malimath Committee (2003) Revamp of criminal justice system, victim rights, better coordination with
judiciary.
Solomon Committee (2005) Operational freedom for police and improved investigation standards.

Supreme Court’s Landmark Directives (2006 – Prakash Singh v. Union

of India)
Directive Purpose
Set up State Security Commission To shield police from political interference.
Ensure Fixed Tenure for DGPs and SPs To prevent arbitrary transfers and promote autonomy.

Establish Police Establishment Board For postings, transfers, promotions within police.

Separate Investigation from Law & To improve investigation quality.

Order
Create Police Complaints Authority For redressal of citizen complaints against police misconduct.

Set up National Security Commission For appointments and policy-making at the central level.

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Reform Measures Taken So Far

• Model Police Act (2006) – Drafted by MHA but not adopted uniformly by states.
• S
 MART Policing (2014) – Announced by PM Modi: Strict and Sensitive, Modern and Mobile, Alert and Account-
able, Reliable and Responsive, Tech-savvy and Trained.
• CCTNS & ICJS – Digitization of crime and investigation data under Crime and Criminal Tracking Network System.
• Police Modernization Schemes – Central assistance for weapons, vehicles, communication tech.
• Bureau of Police Research & Development (BPR&D) – Capacity-building and innovation research.

Global Best Practices

Country Best Practice
UK Independent Police Complaints Commission; Community Policing; democratic oversight.

Japan Koban system for local engagement and trust-building.

USA Internal Affairs units and body-worn cameras for accountability.
Singapore Highly trained, merit-based recruitment with performance audits.

Steps Taken at State Level for Police Reforms

State Reform Measures

Kerala Introduced Janamaithri Suraksha Project – a community policing model for building police-
public trust.

Tamil Nadu Set up a State Police Accountability Commission; use of body cameras in some urban police
stations.

Rajasthan Implemented fixed tenure policy for SHOs and SPs; Smart police station models in Jaipur and
Ajmer.

Telangana Adopted integrated command and control centres, real-time surveillance; digitization of FIR
system.

Karnataka Introduced the Namma 100 emergency response system; expanded beat policing and patrol
digitization.

Examples
Case Details

Tuticorin Custodial Deaths (2020, Father-son duo Jayaraj and Bennix died in custody after alleged
TN) torture; triggered national outrage.

Uttar Pradesh Fake Encounter Cases Numerous allegations of “encounter killings”, especially under an-
ti-gang operations; SC monitored cases.
Stan Swamy Case (2020, Jharkhand/ Arrested under UAPA; denied bail multiple times despite health issues;
Maharashtra) died in judicial custody.
Sattankulam Incident (Tamil Nadu) Magistrate refused to record custodial injuries; exposed lack of ac-
countability in lower judiciary-police linkage.
West Bengal (2018) 21 custodial deaths reported in NHRC’s annual report; many linked to
illegal detention and non-registration of FIRs.

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Way Forward
1. E
 nact a Unified Modern Police Act replacing the Police Act of 1861.
2. E
 nsure full compliance with SC’s Prakash Singh directives across all states.
3. E
 stablish Independent Police Complaint Authorities at both state and district levels.
4. Invest in Technology & Forensic Infrastructure for better investigations.
5. E
 nhance Training and Human Rights Sensitization, especially at lower levels.
6. P
 romote Community Policing for trust-building and proactive engagement.
7. D
 epoliticize Police Appointments and Transfers through statutory reforms.
8. Implement Performance-Linked Career Progression based on professionalism and outcomes.
India’s police system needs urgent and sustained reforms to become a citizen-centric, rights-respecting, professional
force.

Prison Reforms in India

India’s prison system is primarily governed by the Prisons Act, 1894 — a colonial legislation focused more on
punishment and control than on rehabilitation. Although prison administration is a State subject under Entry 4 of the
State List, there is growing national consensus on the need for uniform, humane, and rights-based prison reforms.

Major Issues in the Indian Prison System

Issue Details

Overcrowding Prisons house over 130% of their capacity; majority of inmates are undertrials
(77%).
Poor Living Conditions Inadequate hygiene, ventilation, sanitation, and medical facilities violate human
dignity.
Understaffing Shortage of prison staff, especially trained correctional officers and psycholo-
gists.
Lack of Legal Aid Undertrials often languish due to lack of access to lawyers or fast-track
courts.
Custodial Violence Cases of torture, suicides, and unnatural deaths are recurring, with limited
accountability.
Inadequate Rehabilitation Focus remains on confinement, not on education, skills, or reintegration of
prisoners.
Gender Insensitivity Women inmates lack access to female staff, healthcare, maternity care, and
child facilities.
Outdated Laws and Non-uni- The Prisons Act, 1894 is obsolete; reforms vary drastically across states.
formity

Key Committees and Recommendations

Committee Key Recommendations

Justice Mulla Committee (1983) Shift focus from punishment to rehabilitation; creation of All India Prison
Service.

Justice Krishna Iyer Committee Emphasized human rights of prisoners; called for legal aid and
(1987) independent oversight.

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Second Administrative Reforms Professional training of prison staff, modern infrastructure, alternatives
Commission (2007) to imprisonment.

Ministry of Home Affairs Model Pris- Uniform prison rules, inmate classification, grievance redress, skill train-
on Manual (2016) ing.

Landmark Judicial Interventions

Case Judgment / Impact

Sunil Batra v. Delhi Admin Recognized prisoners’ rights under Article 21; banned solitary confinement
(1978) without review.
Hussainara Khatoon v. Bihar Undertrial detention beyond reasonable period violates Article 21.
(1979)
DK Basu v. State of WB (1997) Issued guidelines to prevent custodial torture and deaths.
Inhuman Conditions in 1382 SC directed all states to submit prison reform plans and improve basic
Prisons (2016) facilities.

Recent Reform Measures

• Model Prison Manual, 2016: Uniform standards for prison governance (adopted partially by some states).
• E-Prisons Project (MHA): Digitization of inmate records, grievance redress, legal aid, etc.
• Legal Aid Clinics in Prisons: Established in collaboration with NALSA.
• Open Prisons: Introduced in states like Rajasthan and Kerala to promote low-risk inmate reintegration.
• Skill Development Programs: Collaboration with NSDC for vocational training inside prisons.
• Fast-track courts: To address the undertrial burden (e.g., Faster Bail Disposal Schemes).

Global Best Practices for Prison Reforms

Country Best Practice
Norway Emphasis on rehabilitation and open prisons (e.g., Bastoy Prison).

Germany Inmates are trained in jobs and given leave to work outside during day.

UK Independent Prison Inspectorate and mandatory mental health support.

South Africa “Ubuntu” model promotes restorative justice and community reintegration.

Way Forward for Prison Reforms in India

1. E
 nact a New National Prison Law to replace the Prisons Act, 1894 with a human rights-based framework.
2. R
 educe Undertrial Population by promoting bail reform, plea bargaining, and fast-track courts.
3. Improve Prison Infrastructure and Staffing, especially for women, mentally ill, and juvenile inmates.
4. Institutionalize Independent Oversight with Prison Visiting Boards and Lok Adalats.
5. F
 ocus on Rehabilitation through education, vocational training, therapy, and post-release support.
6. A
 dopt Uniform Implementation of Model Prison Manual across all states.
7. U
 se Technology (AI, digital tracking, grievance apps) for transparency and efficiency.
8. E
 ncourage Community-Based Alternatives like probation, parole, and restorative justice.
Prison reforms in India are essential for upholding the constitutional promise of dignity, justice, and reformation. Mov-
ing from a punitive to reformative approach will enable prisons to serve not as jails, but as correctional institutions.

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Custodial Torture in India

Custodial torture refers to physical or psychological abuse inflicted by police or prison officials on a person in cus-
tody, often to extract confessions, intimidate, or punish without due process.

Key Data and Trends

• N
 ational Human Rights Commission (NHRC) Report (2020–21): Over 1,500 custodial deaths reported annually
in India (including police and judicial custody).
• I ndia Justice Report (2022): Despite legal safeguards, only ~30% of custodial deaths result in FIRs, and convic-
tion rate remains abysmally low.
• N
 ational Campaign Against Torture (NCAT): Documented 125 deaths in police custody in 2021 alone, often
from beatings, suffocation, and neglect.

Legal and Constitutional Framework

Provision Safeguard Offered
Article 21 (Right to Life) No person shall be deprived of life or personal liberty except by procedure established
by law.
Article 22(1) Right to be informed of grounds of arrest and to consult a legal practitioner.
Section 41D of CrPC Right to meet an advocate during interrogation.
Section 176(1A) of Mandatory magisterial inquiry into custodial death or rape.
CrPC
Indian Evidence Act, Confession to police is inadmissible unless made in front of a magistrate.
Sec 25
DK Basu Guidelines Supreme Court mandated 11 procedural safeguards for arrest and detention.
(1997)

Landmark Cases
Case Key Outcome

DK Basu v. State of West Bengal Laid down procedural safeguards for arrest and custodial protection.
(1997)
Joginder Kumar v. State of UP (1994) Emphasized that arrest is not mandatory in all cases; must be justified.

Nilabati Behera v. State of Orissa Compensation awarded for custodial death; affirmed State liability.
(1993)
Prakash Kadam v. Ramprasad Vish- SC warned that encounter killings are “nothing but cold-blooded
wanath (2011) murder.”
Deva Pardhi Case (May 2025) The Supreme Court transferred the investigation of the custodial death
of 25-year-old tribal man Deva Pardhi in Madhya Pradesh to the Central
Bureau of Investigation (CBI).

Notable Cases of Custodial Torture

• J ayaraj and Bennix (2020, Tamil Nadu): Father-son duo died after brutal police torture in Sathankulam. Led to
mass protests and NHRC intervention.
• S
 tan Swamy Case (2020): 84-year-old tribal rights activist denied medical bail, died in judicial custody. Raised
global concerns on prison neglect.
• G
 ujarat Fake Encounter Cases: Allegations of staged encounters; SC ordered CBI probe in multiple cases
including Sohrabuddin Sheikh.

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Root Causes of Custodial Torture

1. Impunity and Lack of Accountability
• No mandatory prosecution unless sanctioned under Section 197 of CrPC.
• Absence of effective Police Complaints Authorities (PCAs) in most states.
2. O
 ver-Reliance on Confessional Evidence
• Police often prioritize confession over investigation, due to pressure to solve cases quickly.
• Weak forensic infrastructure and limited use of scientific methods encourage coercive tactics.
3. P
 oor Training and Lack of Sensitization
• Police training often lacks human rights education, ethical interrogation, and legal safeguards awareness.
• Emphasis on hierarchy and physical coercion persists from colonial policing mindset.
4. P
 olitical Pressure and Performance Metrics
• Officers face pressure from political masters and superiors to produce quick results in high-profile cases.
• Promotions and transfers are often linked to “efficiency” rather than due process compliance.
5. Inadequate Legal Safeguards and Delays
• Though laws like CrPC Section 41D and SC’s DK Basu Guidelines exist, they are poorly enforced.
• Judicial delay in bail and trial forces undertrials into prolonged and harsh custody.
6. L ack of Independent Monitoring and Oversight
• CCTV surveillance, though mandated by SC (2020), is either non-functional or poorly monitored.
• Magisterial inquiries into deaths or torture are often delayed or superficial.
7. O
 verburdened and Understaffed Police Force
• Excessive workloads, long hours, and manpower shortages lead to frustration and shortcuts, including coer-
cion.
• India has 152 police per lakh population against the UN norm of 222.
8. S
 ystemic Bias and Social Prejudice
• Marginalized groups — Dalits, minorities, tribals, and the poor — are more vulnerable to torture and illegal
detention.
• Discriminatory attitudes within law enforcement exacerbate abuse.
9. C
 ustody as a Tool of Intimidation
• Custody is often used to harass, extract bribes, or intimidate dissenters, rather than investigate legally.
• Use of remand custody without legal representation increases vulnerability.
10. N
 on-Ratification of UN Convention Against Torture (UNCAT)
• India signed but has not ratified UNCAT (1997), hence has no binding domestic anti-torture law.
• Prevention of Torture Bill (2010) lapsed in Parliament and remains pending.

International Context
Treaty / Principle Status

UN Convention Against Torture India has signed (1997) but not ratified it.
(UNCAT)

Paris Principles (1991) Call for independent national human rights bodies – only partially complied
with.

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 X-FACTOR NOTES FOR UPSC MAINS 2025

Way Forward
1. E
 nact Anti-Torture Legislation - Pass the long-pending Prevention of Torture Bill to criminalize custodial torture
explicitly.
2. E
 nsure Independent Investigation - Strengthen PCA and NHRC, and allow CBI or judiciary-led probes into
custodial violence.
3. P
 olice and Prison Reforms - Implement SC’s Prakash Singh guidelines, recruit more staff, and improve training
on rights and ethics.
4. Implement Supreme Court Guidelines: Ensure strict adherence to the D.K. Basu guidelines, including mandatory
CCTV installation in all police stations and custodial facilities.
5. F
 ast-track Judicial Review - Ensure time-bound inquiry and prosecution of custodial torture cases.
6. R
 atify UNCAT - Align with global human rights standards and enhance India’s international credibility.
Custodial torture is not just a law-and-order issue — it is a human rights crisis that undermines constitutional values. To
transform police and prison institutions from instruments of coercion to agents of justice, legal reform, political will, and
citizen vigilance are urgently required.

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