Seven Steps to Mastering Business Analysis 2nd

Edition Jamie Champagne pdf download

https://textbookfull.com/product/seven-steps-to-mastering-
business-analysis-2nd-edition-jamie-champagne/

Download more ebook instantly today - get yours now at textbookfull.com

We believe these products will be a great fit for you. Click
the link to download now, or visit textbookfull.com
to discover even more!

Seven Steps to Mastering Business Analysis: The

Essentials (Business Analysis Professional Development)
Second Edition Champagne

https://textbookfull.com/product/seven-steps-to-mastering-
business-analysis-the-essentials-business-analysis-professional-
development-second-edition-champagne/

Baby Steps Seven Brothers 4 1st Edition Catherine

Lievens

https://textbookfull.com/product/baby-steps-seven-brothers-4-1st-
edition-catherine-lievens/

The Student’s Guide to Social Neuroscience 2nd Edition

Jamie Ward

https://textbookfull.com/product/the-students-guide-to-social-
neuroscience-2nd-edition-jamie-ward/

Seven Databases in Seven Weeks A Guide to Modern

Databases and the NoSQL Movement 2nd Edition Luc
Perkins

https://textbookfull.com/product/seven-databases-in-seven-weeks-
a-guide-to-modern-databases-and-the-nosql-movement-2nd-edition-
luc-perkins/
A pocket guide to college success 2nd Edition Jamie H.
Shushan

https://textbookfull.com/product/a-pocket-guide-to-college-
success-2nd-edition-jamie-h-shushan/

Digital Analytics for Marketing (Mastering Business

Analytics) 2nd Edition A. Karim Feroz

https://textbookfull.com/product/digital-analytics-for-marketing-
mastering-business-analytics-2nd-edition-a-karim-feroz/

10 Steps to Successful Coaching 2nd Edition Sophie

Oberstein

https://textbookfull.com/product/10-steps-to-successful-
coaching-2nd-edition-sophie-oberstein/

Purchased by the Duke Seven Omegas for Seven Alphas

Book 2 2nd Edition Vivian Murdoch

https://textbookfull.com/product/purchased-by-the-duke-seven-
omegas-for-seven-alphas-book-2-2nd-edition-vivian-murdoch/

Mastering Microsoft Dynamics 365 Business Central: The

complete guide for designing, 2nd Edition Stefano
Demiliani

https://textbookfull.com/product/mastering-microsoft-
dynamics-365-business-central-the-complete-guide-for-
designing-2nd-edition-stefano-demiliani/
Copyright © 2020 by J. Ross Publishing

ISBN-13: 978-1-60427-160-7

Printed and bound in the U.S.A. Printed on acid-free paper.

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Champagne, Jamie, 1982– author. |
Title: Seven steps to mastering business analysis : the essentials / by Jamie Champagne.
Description: 2nd Edition. | Plantation : J. Ross Publishing, 2019. | Revised edition of Seven
steps to mastering business analysis, c2009. | Includes bibliographical references and
index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019033993 (print) | LCCN 2019033994 (ebook) | ISBN 9781604271607
(paperback) | ISBN 9781604278156 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Business analysts. | Business planning. | Organizational effectiveness.
Classification: LCC HD69.B87 C37 2019 (print) | LCC HD69.B87 (ebook) | DDC 658.4/01
—dc22
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019033993
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019033994

This publication contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded
sources. Reprinted material is used with permission, and sources are indicated. Reasonable
effort has been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the
publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the
consequences of their use.
All rights reserved. Neither this publication nor any part thereof may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of
the publisher.
The copyright owner’s consent does not extend to copying for general distribution for
promotion, for creating new works, or for resale. Specific permission must be obtained from
J. Ross Publishing for such purposes.
Direct all inquiries to J. Ross Publishing, Inc., 300 S. Pine Island Rd., Suite 305,
Plantation, FL 33324.
Phone: (954) 727-9333
Fax: (561) 892-0700
Web: www.jrosspub.com
 Titles in the
Business Analysis Professional
Development Series

This series is for those interested in developing a career in business analysis.

Each book within the series will help practitioners develop the knowledge,
skills, competencies, and capabilities needed to master the typical business
analysis career path. These instructional texts are designed for use in
professional training, continuing education courses, and self-learning.

Successful Business Analysis Consulting: Strategies and Tips for Going It Alone
by Karl Wiegers

Mastering Business Analysis Standard Practices: Seven Steps to the Next Level
of Competency
by Kelley Bruns and Billie Johnson

Mastering Business Analysis Standard Practices Workbook

by Kelley Bruns and Billie Johnson

Seven Steps to Mastering Business Analysis, 2nd Edition

by Jamie Champagne

Mastering Business Analysis Versatility: Seven Steps to Develop Advanced

Competencies and Capabilities
by Gina Schmidt
Agile Business Analysis: Enabling Continuous Improvement of Requirements,
Project Scope, and Agile Project Results
by Kevin Aguanno and Ori Schibi
 CONTENTS

Preface
Acknowledgments
About the International Institute of Business Analysis™
About the Author
WAV™ Page

1 Your First Step—Understand Business Analysis: the

Role and the Work Involved
What Is Business Analysis?
Business Analysis’s Relationship to IT
The Role of the BA
BA Traits
History of Business Analysis
Where Do BAs Come From?
Where Do BAs Report?
What Makes a Great BA?
BA Suitability Questionnaire
BA Career Progression
Key Business Analysis Terms/Concepts
What Is a Requirement?
Core Requirements Components
 Why Document Requirements?
Why Do Requirements Need to Be Detailed?
What Is a Project?
What Is a Product?
What Is a Solution?
What Is a Deliverable?
System Versus Technology
It Depends
Business Analysis Certification
Business Analysis Foundational Material
Summary of Key Points
Bibliography
Additional Reading and References

2 Your Second Step—Know Your Audience

Establish Trust with Your Stakeholders
With Whom Does the BA Work?
Business Executives
Product Owners
Project Sponsor
PM
Other Business Analysis Professionals
SMEs and Users
Quality Assurance Analyst
Usability Professionals
Scrum Master
Solution Architects
 IT Developers and Various IT SMEs
Testers
Trainers
Vendors and External Consultants
Customers
Stakeholder Analysis
Balancing Stakeholder Needs
Understanding the Political Environment
Working with Dispersed Teams
Physical Distance
Time Zone Differences
Nationality and Cultural Differences
Language Differences
Using Team Collaboration Tools
Summary of Key Points
Bibliography
Additional Reading and References

3 Your Third Step—Know Your Project

Why Has the Organization Decided to Fund this Project?
Business Case Development
Project Initiated Because of a Problem
Project Initiated to Eliminate Costs (Jobs)
Project Initiated by Outside Regulation
Project Initiated by an Opportunity
Projects for Marketing or Advertising
Projects to Align Business Processes
 Projects to Deliver Organizational Strategy
Strategic Planning
Portfolio and Program Management
How Does Your Project Relate to Others?
Enterprise Architecture
Business Architecture
Information Architecture
Technology Architecture
Communicating Strategic Plans
Project Identification
Project Initiation
Initiation
Approach or Methodology
Statement of Purpose
Objectives
Problems/Opportunities
Stakeholders
Business Risks
Items Out of Scope
Assumptions
Scope of the Business Value
Context of the Change
Revisit Scope Frequently
Summary of Key Points
Bibliography
Additional Reading and References

4 Your Fourth Step—Know Your Business Environment

How Does a BA Learn About the Enterprise?
Read the Organization’s Marketing Materials
Read the Organization’s Financial Reports
Review the Corporate Strategic Plan
Seeing Things from the Business and Customer Perspective
How a BA Learns the Business and Customers: Elicitation Techniques
Technique: Document Analysis
Technique: Observation
Technique: Interviews
Technique: Context Diagrams
Technique: Surveys and Questionnaires
Technique: Facilitated Sessions
Technique: Focus Groups
Technique: Competitive and Market Analysis
Technique: Collaboration Games
Technique: Job and Persona Analysis
Technique: Process Modeling
Learn the Current (As-Is) System
What Is a Business Process?
Describing a Process
Formality of the Capture and Use of Business Processes
Seeing Things from the Top and from the Bottom
Implementation Planning
Summary of Key Points
Bibliography
Additional Reading and References
5 Your Fifth Step—Know Your Technical Environment
Why Does a Business Analyst Need to Understand the Technical
Environment?
Understand Technology but Do Not Talk like a Technologist
What Does a Business Analyst Need to Know About Technology?
Software Development and Programming Terminology
Software Development Methodologies
An Organization’s Formal Methodology
An Organization’s Informal Standards
Technical Architecture
Key Technology Terms
Working with IT
Summary of Key Points
Bibliography
Additional Reading and References

6 Your Sixth Step—Know Your Requirements Analysis

Techniques
Beginning Your Requirements Analysis
Planning Requirements Analysis Work
Business Analysis Governance
Technique: Estimation
Categorizing Requirements
Developing a System for Organizing Requirements
Business Requirements
Solution Requirements
Technical Requirements
 Transition Requirements
Categorization of Requirements on Iterative or Incremental Projects
Categorization of Requirements on Agile or Adaptive Projects
Analysis Techniques and Presentation Formats
Technique: Traceability Matrices
Technique: Process Modeling and Analysis
Technique: Functional Decomposition
Technique: Business Rules Analysis
Technique: Decision Modeling and Analysis
Technique: Glossary
Technique: Data Requirements and Analysis
Technique: Use Cases and Scenarios
Technique: Interface Analysis
Technique: Prototypes
Technique: User Stories and Backlogs
Technique: Storyboarding
Choosing the Appropriate Techniques
“As-Is” Versus “To-Be” Analysis
Packaging Requirements
How Formally Should Requirements Be Documented?
What Is a Requirements Package?
Characteristics of Excellent Requirements
Getting Sign-Off
Requirements Tools, Repositories, and Management
Summary of Key Points
Bibliography
Additional Reading and References
7 Your Seventh Step—Increase Your Value
Build Your Foundation
Skill: Planning Your Start
Technique: BA Assessments, Lessons Learned, and Retrospectives
Skill: Think Analytically
Skill: Try New Techniques
Technique: Brainstorming
Skill: Systems Thinking
Value Your Time
Skill: Prioritization
Technique: Time Boxing and Grouping
Skill: Understand the 80/20 Rule
Build Your Relationships and Communication Skills
Skill: Build Strong Relationships
Skill: Ask the Right Questions
Skill: Listen Actively
Skill: Write Effectively
Skill: Design Excellent Presentations
Skill: Facilitate and Build Consensus
Skill: Conduct Effective Meetings
Skill: Conduct Requirements Reviews
Sharpen Your Analysis Skills
Technique: Avoid Analysis Paralysis
Skill: Clear Statements of Situations
Skill: Make Recommendations for Solutions
Skill: Provide Objective Analysis
Skill: Be Able to Accept Feedback
Start Adding Value
Technique: Creating a BA Task List
Summary of Key Points
Bibliography
Additional Reading and References
 PREFACE

THE PURPOSE OF THIS BOOK

The purpose of this book is to introduce both the practice and profession of
business analysis with the practical applications, skill sets, and techniques
needed to drive value in organizations both today and tomorrow. Business
analysis has grown from its beginnings solely focused on supporting
information technology (IT) development to enterprise levels of strategic
importance. The goal of business analysis centers on providing value; yet in
today’s organizations the opportunities are almost limitless as to where these
key analysis skills can drive value from individuals and teams. So whether
you are called a business analyst (BA) in your official title or are looking for
ways to be more successful in your projects, product development, and
strategic planning, this book shows you where those opportunities are and
what approaches you can take to ensure value delivery.
While the role of BA has become more popular in today’s rapidly
changing technology world, many other roles continue to utilize key analysis
skills—such as project managers (PMs), systems engineers, solution
architects, and systems analysts who utilize these skill sets and techniques
often. However, the demands of the modern organization of flexibility,
adaptability, and innovation mean that many other areas of business are
requiring these valuable skills—such as product development, marketing,
financial and risk analysis, strategic planning, and even community
engagements and nonprofit efforts. This book not only focuses on the role,
but emphasizes these key skill sets that are used throughout organizations.
 The amount of materials—blogs, templates, videos, etc.—that are
available today to anyone searching for information regarding business
analysis and the profession is almost overwhelming—especially for someone
who wants to start a business analysis career. This book gives you a
definition of business analysis and its importance to any organization so that
you will have a place to start and essential techniques and skill sets to focus
on. This book does go further in explaining the evolution of the role of BAs
and how your skills will grow. It also describes some of the evolving
techniques needed for tomorrow’s changing business environment, as well
as the career path options you may take. Regardless of the perspectives that
resonate the most with you, the essential items covered here are meant to be
applicable throughout your business analysis career and provide you with a
solid foundation to always come back to throughout your endeavors.

INTENDED AUDIENCE
This book is intended for anyone who plans to, is already performing, or has
found themselves thrust into the wonderful world of business analysis.
While many people who hold the title of BA will be able to leverage this
book as the foundation of key concepts to support their analysis work, the
content and structure applies such that anyone who is doing analysis work
and seeking to deliver greater value from current and future efforts in their
organization can leverage these essential concepts.
Also, those managers who find themselves leading a team of analysts
who seek to deliver results will better understand what can be expected from
analysis work, along with the ideal career growth path for those maturing
analysts. This book will help them define the BA role and to realize the
distinction between junior levels, mid-levels, and senior levels of business
analysis performance. It will also lend itself to helping define the expected
responsibilities of anyone who will hold a title of analyst in an organization.
 A theme that will be highlighted throughout this book is both the
profession of business analysis and the practice. The titled role of BA may
come and go and shift and alter with the same fluid dynamics of the
constantly changing world around us, yet the essential skill sets presented
here will remain valuable for years to come. The most successful BAs today
are going beyond simply asking why and following through to ensure and
validate the delivery of value. This book provides key concepts that remain
the fundamental skills that all analysts should grasp while walking you
through how to grow and expand your reach in business analysis.

HOW IS THE BOOK ORGANIZED?

This book is divided into seven chapters—each representing a step toward
mastering the essentials of business analysis work. Each chapter, or step,
covers a significant skill area for the successful business analysis
professional. The chapters do not need to be read in order, though, and can
be quickly referenced based on the activity being performed.

Chapter 1: Your First Step—Understand Business Analysis: the Role

and the Work Involved
Chapter 2: Your Second Step—Know Your Audience
Chapter 3: Your Third Step—Know Your Project
Chapter 4: Your Fourth Step—Know Your Business Environment
Chapter 5: Your Fifth Step—Know Your Technical Environment
Chapter 6: Your Sixth Step—Know Your Requirements Analysis
Techniques
Chapter 7: Your Seventh Step—Increase Your Value

The seven chapters serve as the essential building blocks upon which novice
analysts may begin to master their business analysis work. This book has
been created so that aspiring BAs can start from the beginning and work
their way through each chapter sequentially. This gives junior BAs the entire
picture of business analysis today and identifies the key areas where they
need to begin working to grow their skills. Practicing BAs or those who have
been doing analysis work for some time might find it more beneficial to
simply jump right into the chapter of interest for their current situation. The
chapters are independent such that if you are having a hard time articulating
your role to management, you might read through Chapter 1 and utilize
some of the concepts in your discussions. If you are working with a large
stakeholder group that you have never worked with before, then the
discussion in Chapter 2 on stakeholder groups and how to approach them
might be most beneficial. Chapter 3 will be most helpful to those
transitioning to organizations where project management and PMOs are
more mature in organizing project work. Chapter 4 is very helpful for those
BAs who have resided traditionally in IT roles, while those BAs who come
from the business perspective may benefit from spending some time in
Chapter 5 in order to understand why they need to know about technology
in today’s analysis world. The techniques in Chapter 6 are beneficial to all
analysts and can help remind those seasoned veterans of the foundational
concepts that make the techniques work—the concepts that we too often
forget when in the middle of working with excited stakeholders. Chapter 7 is
a must-read for all analysts. Since we often spend so much of our time
helping organizations add value, we sometimes fail to measure (and
therefore improve) our own performance. Our quality of work will never get
better if we always use the same approach and/or refuse to seriously measure
how we do things.
Chapter 1, Understand Business Analysis: the Role and the Work Involved,
introduces you to business analysis and the definition of the BA role. It
explains the relationship to technology roles while also highlighting how the
role has evolved in organizations. As an introduction to those seeking to
learn more about the role and possibly pursue the profession, this chapter
presents questions for you to consider when deciding whether or not the
role is right for you. You will read about the potential career progressions
that a BA may take and delve into the key terms that BAs use to drive value
on a daily basis.
Chapter 2, Know Your Audience, then brings in all of those people that
the BA will find themselves working with on their change efforts. What’s
important here is that the chapter focuses on the similarities and
relationships that a BA will have with the PM and also the considerations
when there is only one person to fulfill both roles—as is too often the case,
unfortunately. This chapter also highlights the definition of subject matter
experts (SMEs) and when they may or may not truly be an expert, along
with what a BA can do to best work with an SME in any situation. Once you
know whom you will be working with, you then need to consider how you
are going to work with them. Teams today are often physically separated and
typically have cultural and language differences that must be taken into
account in order to deliver successful change efforts.
Chapter 3, Know Your Project, dives right in with understanding business
cases that drive the decisions to start projects. Since many BAs conduct
project-based work, understanding both why and how those projects are
initiated is important in order to be successful. Significant here to the BA’s
success is how they align their work with different architectures (enterprise,
information, technology) of the organization to achieve maximum value
from any change effort. This chapter then goes through all of the
considerations for a project’s initiation so that whether or not there is a PM
assigned to manage the project, you will start the effort headed in the right
direction for success.
Chapter 4, Know Your Business Environment, details the business analysis
world by taking a look at how to understand the business environment,
beginning with some useful elicitation techniques. The elicitation techniques
highlight traditional approaches such as reviewing documentation,
observation, and interviews while also introducing you to more modern
approaches that include context diagrams, collaboration games, and
personas. This chapter also discusses the thought process that a BA should
have when it comes to understanding business processes. All of these
techniques are key tools and approaches that a BA needs to have in their
toolbox to help implement successful change initiatives.
Chapter 5, Know Your Technical Environment, focuses on the importance
of technology even if your BA role is no longer found in the IT department.
Almost every activity performed in an organization utilizes or relies on
technology in one shape or form. A BA can be more effective in identifying
needs and offering possible solutions when they understand key technology
areas from hardware and software to data, usability, and testing. The
emphasis here is not to become a programmer, but rather to emphasize how
the more you know about any given area, the more helpful a team member
you can be in adding value. This chapter also explains the different
methodologies in use today that are no longer constrained to the technical
teams, but apply to project-based work across organizations. Knowing these
and their differences is crucial to a BA when planning and defining your
approach to analysis work.
Chapter 6, Know Your Requirements Analysis Techniques, details the
analysis techniques that are needed to deliver quality requirements.
Categorization of requirements, both on traditional and agile or adaptive
methodologies, is provided to remind the BA that the work of requirements
is to enable the delivery of value. The rest of the chapter contains
information that BAs will want to keep handy since it walks them through a
variety of the most common and powerful analysis techniques and
presentation formats.
Chapter 7, Increase Your Value, then balances the hard technical analysis
skills with the softer personal skills and qualities that a BA should possess in
order to be an effective analyst. Time and relationship management
techniques coupled with strong communication skills are explained to
highlight how valuable these traits are toward successfully helping
organizations deliver valuable change. However, to be an effective analyst,
your own personal growth needs to be considered. This chapter addresses
your own analysis planning and improvement plans so that you will
continue to grow and thrive in your business analysis role.

HOW TO USE THIS BOOK

Each chapter is a valuable step on your path to mastering business analysis.
Mastering each concept presented helps you build the foundation that is
required to be successful when working with organizations to deliver value.
If you are just starting out, you should begin with the first chapter and
work your way through the sections until the terms become quite
comfortable. You should not move on to the next chapter until you can
easily explain the concepts presented in Chapter 1 to a colleague. Then you
should proceed through each subsequent chapter in the same manner. This
will give you the foundation required to build and grow your business
analysis skills such that you are mastering the business analysis work daily in
your organization’s change efforts. If you are a senior BA who has years of
practice under your belt, this book should be used to refresh your skill set in
order to move your career forward.
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This book would not have come about without the support of an amazing
community, trusted colleagues, and a wonderful family. The fantastic
business analysis community, whom I have met through conferences and
events around the world and in my own Hawaiian backyard, is the reason I
am able to write about this topic and have been lucky enough to make a
career out of it. I am fortunate enough that there are far more amazing
people in this growing community than there is space to thank them all; but
know that every single one of you are extremely appreciated and I am truly
grateful.
I must give special thanks to Dr. Paul G. Schempp for mentoring and
guiding me on this journey—encouraging and motivating me to constantly
do bigger and better things.
And, of course, grateful appreciation goes to my husband for supporting
me in this endeavor and to little baby bubbles who was kind enough to listen
to my constant dictation and review sessions.
 ABOUT THE INTERNATIONAL
INSTITUTE OF BUSINESS ANALYSIS™

The International Institute of Business Analysis™ (IIBA®) is a professional

association dedicated to supporting lifetime learning opportunities for
business and professional success. Through a global network, the IIBA
connects with over 29,000 Members, more than 300 Corporate Members,
and 120 Chapters. As the recognized voice of the business analysis
community, IIBA supports the recognition of the profession and discipline
and works to maintain the global standard for the practice and certifications.
The IIBA multi-level competency-based core BA certification program
recognizes Business Analysis Professionals knowledge and skills and
supports their lifelong business analysis career progression. Each level
includes its own eligibility requirements and competency-based assessment
(i.e., exam) and is aligned to A Guide to the Business Analysis Body of
Knowledge® (BABOK® Guide).

For more information, visit iiba.org.

IIBA®, the IIBA® logo, BABOK®, and Business Analysis Body of Knowledge®
are registered trademarks owned by the International Institute of Business
Analysis in one or more countries. CCBA® and CBAP ® are registered
certification marks owned by International Institute of Business Analysis.
Certified Business Analysis Professional™, Certification of Capability in
Business Analysis™, Entry Certificate in Business Analysis™, ECBA™,
Endorsed Education Provider™, EEP™ and the EEP logo are trademarks
owned by the International Institute of Business Analysis.
 ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Jamie Champagne goes beyond her passionate BA title and truly embodies
business analysis to add value to those around her every day. An
accomplished speaker and trainer, she enjoys sharing with others ways to
improve their analysis skill sets and defining metrics to demonstrate
measurable results. Her company, Champagne Collaborations, collaborates
with and brings powerful insights to growing organizations and
entrepreneurs, helping them and their teams reach the next level of success.
Jamie’s background in information technology, business analysis, project
management, process improvement, and knowledge management has given
her the opportunity to work across industries with organizations around the
world.
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
 102 POOR ALPHABETS. Words, on the contrary, in which th
occurs are Saxon, and had to be pronounced by the Normans as well
as they could. To judge from the spelling of MSS., they would seem
to have pronounced d instead of th. The same applies to words
containing wh, originally hv, or ght, originally ht; asin who, which, or
bought, light, right. All these are truly Saxon, and the Scotch dialect
preserves the original guttural sound of ἢ before tf. The O Tyi-herero
has neither / nor /,nor the sibilants srz. The pronunciation is lisping,
in consequence of the custom of the Va-herero of having their upper
front teeth partly filed off, and four lower teeth knocked out. It is
perhaps due to this that the O . Tyi-herero has two sounds similar to
those of the hard and soft th and dh in English (written s, z).* There
are languages that throw away certain letters which to us would
seem almost indispensable, and there are others in which even the
normal distinctions between guttural, dental, and labial contact are
not yet clearly perceived. We are so accustomed to look upon pa and
ma as the most natural articulations, that we can hardly imagine a
language without them. We have been told over and over again that
the names for father and mother in all languages are derived from
the first ery of recognition which an infant can articulate, and that it
could at that early age articulate none but those formed by the mere
opening or closing — of the lips. It is a fact, nevertheless, that the
Mohawks, of whom I knew an interesting specimen at Oxford, never,
either as infants or as grown-up people, articulate with their lips.
They have nop, ὦ, m,/, v, w—no labials of any kind; and although
their own * Sir G. Grey’s Library, i. 167.
 POOR ALPHABETS. 163 name Mohawk would seem to bear
witness against this, that name is not a word of their own language,
but was given to them by their neighbours. Nor are they the only
people who always keep their mouths open and abstain from
articulating labials.* They share this peculiarity with five other tribes,
who together form the so-called six nations, Mohawks, Senekas,
Onandagos, Oneidas, Cayugas, and Tuscaroras. ‘The Hurons likewise
have no labials, and there are other languages in America with a
similar deficiency.f The gutturals are seldom absent altogether; in
some, as in the Semitic family, they are most prominent, and
represented by a numerous array of letters. Several languages do
not distinguish between & and g; some have only ἄς, others g only.
The sound of g as in gone, of 2 as in jet, and of z as in zone, which
are often heard in Kafir, have no place in the Sechuana alphabet.{
There are a few dialects mentioned by Bindseil as entirely destitute
of gutturals, for instance, that of the Society Islands.$ It was unfor*
Brosses, Formation Mécanique des Langues, i. p. 220: ‘La Hontan
ajoute qu’aucune nation du Canada ne fait usage de la lettre f, que
les Hurons, ἃ qui elles manquent toutes quatre (B, P, M, F), ne
ferment jamais les lévres.’ F and s are wanting in Rarotongan. Hale,
p. 232. 7 See Bindseil, Abhandlungen, p. 368. The Mixtecalanguage
has no p, 6, f; the Mexican no ὦ, v, f; the Totonaca no ὦ, v, f ; the
Kaigani (Haidah) and Thlinkit no ὁ, p, f (Pott, He. ἢ. ii. 63); the
Hottentot no f or v (Sir G. Grey’s Library, i. p. 5) ; the languages of
Australia no f or σ᾽ (ibid. ii. 1, 2). Many of the statements of Bindseil
as to the presence and absence of certain letters in certain
languages, require to be re-examined, as they chiefly rest on
Adelung’s Mithridates. 1 Bindseil, /. 6. 344. Mithridates, i. 632, 637.
§ Appleyard, p. 50.. M 2
 164 POOR ALPHABETS. tunate that one of the first English
names which the natives of these islands had to pronounce was that
of Captain Cook,whom they could only call Tute. Besides the
Tahitian, the Hawaian and Samoan * are likewise ‘said to be without
gutturals. In these dialects, however, the & is indicated by a hiatus
or catching of the breath, as al’? for alihi,’a’no for kakano.t The
dentals seem to exist in every language.{ The d, however, is never
used in Chinese, norin Mexican, Peruvian, and several other
American dialects,§ and the ἢ is absent in the language of the
Hurons || and of some otherAmerican tribes. Thesis absent in the
Australian dialects 4 and in several of the Polynesian languages,
where its place is taken by h.** Thus in Tongan we find hahake for
sasake; in the New Zealand dialect heke for seke. In Rarotongan the
s is entirely lost, as in ae for sae. When the A stands for an original
s, it has a peculiar hissing sound which some have represented by
sh, others by zh, others by #e or fh’, or simply 6. Thus the word
hongi, from the Samoan songi, meaning to salute by pressing noses,
has been spelt by different * Hale, p. 232. + To avoid confusion, it
may be stated that throughout Polynesia, with the exception of
Samoa, all the principal groups of islands are known to the people of
the other groups by the name of their largest island. Thus the
Sandwich dslands are termed Hawaii; the Marquesas, Nukuhiva; the
Society Islands, Tahiti ; the Gambier Group, Mangareva ; the
Friendly Islands, Tonga ; the Navigator Islands, Samoa (all), see
Hale, pp. 4, 120; the Hervey Islands, Rarotonga; the Low or
Dangerous Archipelago, Paumotu; Bowditch Island is Fakaafo. t
Bindseil, 1. 6. p. 358. § Bindseil, /. c. p. 365. | Bindseil, 2. ὁ. p. 334.
4 Sir George Grey’s Library, ii. 1, 3. ** Hale, ἰ. c. p. 232.
 vay’ 4 bh εν Piece Fae LE COLI DOO ἐσ" CLE eo POOR
ALPHABETS. 165 writers, shongi, ehongi, heongi, h’ongt and zongi.
* But even keeping on more familiar ground, we find that so perfect
a language as Sanskrit has no /, no soft sibilants, no short ¢ and 0;
Greek has no y, no w, no f, no soft sibilants; Latin likewise has no
soft sibilants, no 3, ᾧ, y. English is deficient in guttural breathings
like the German ach and ich. High German has no w like the English
w in wind, no th, dh, ch, 7. While Sanskrit has no f, Arabichasno p.
F'is absent not only in those dialects which have no labial articulation
at all, but we look for it in vain in Finnish (despite of its name, which
was given it by its neighbours), in Lithuanian, 7 in the Gipsy
languages, in Tamil, Mongolian, some of the Tataric dialects,
Burmese, &c. § It is well known that 7 is felt to be a letter difficult to
pronounce not only by individuals but by whole nations. No Chinese
who speaks the classical language of the empire ever pronounces
that letter. They say Ki li sse tu instead of Christ ; Hulopa instead of
Europe; Ya me li ka instead of America. Hence neither Mandarin nor
Sericum can be Chinese words: the former is the Sk. mantrin,
counsellor; the latter derived from Seres, a name given to the
Chinese by their neighbours. || It is likewise absent in the language
of the Hurons, the Mexicans, the Othomi, and other American
dialects; in the Kafir language,{] and * Hale, J. c. pp. 122, 234. 7
Pott, Etymologische Forsehungen, ii. 62. t ‘F does not occur in any
genuine Sclavonie word.’—Briicke Grundziige, p. 34. § Bindseil, p.
289. || Pott, Deutsche Morgenlindische Gesellschaft, xii. 458. 4
Boyce’s Grammar of the Kafir Language, ed. Davis, 1863, Ρ. vii. The
r exists in the Sechuana. The Kafirs pronounce ἔ
 1908 ALPHABETIC STATISTICS. in several of the
Polynesian* tongues. In the Polynesian tongues the name of Christ
is Kalazsz, but also Karaita and Keriso. R frequently alternates with /,
but 7 again is a sound unknown in Zend, and in the Cuneiform
Inscriptions,¢ in Japanese (at least some of its dialects) and in
several American and African tongues. It would be interesting to
prepare more extensive statistics as to the presence and absence of
certain letters in certain languages; nay, a mere counting of
consonants and vowels in the alphabets of each nation might yield
curious results. I shall only mention a few :— Hindustani, which
admits Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic, and Turkish words, has 48
consonants, of which 13 are classical Sanskrit aspirates, nasals, and
sibilants, and 14 Arabic letters. Sanskrit has 37 consonants, or if we
count the Vedic l and lh, 39. Turkish, which admits Persian and
Arabic words, has 82 consonants, of which only 25 are really Turkish.
Persian,. which admits Arabic words, has 31 consonants, of which 22
are really Persian, the rest Arabic. Arabic has 28 consonants. instead
of r in foreign words ; they have, however, the guttural trills. Cf.
Appleyard, The Kafir Language, p. 49. * The dialects of New
Zealand, Rarotonga, Mangareva, Paumota, Tahiti, and Nukuhiva have
στ; those of Fakaafo, Samoa, Tonga, and Hawai, have 1.—See Hale,
/. δ. p. 232. t See Sir H. Rawlinson, Behistun, p. 146. Spiegel, Parsi
Grammatik, p. 34. 1 Bindseil, p. 318 ; Pott, 1. ὁ. xii. 453.
 ; IMPERFECT ARTICULATION. 167 - The Kajir (Zulu) has 26
consonants, besides the clicks. Hebrew has 23 consonants. English
has 20 consonants. Greek has 17 consonants, of which 3 are
compound. Latin has 17 consonants, of which 1 is compound. |
Mongolian has 17 or 18 consonants. Finnish has 11. Polynesian has
10 native consonantal sounds; no dialect has more—many have
less.* Some Australian languages have 8, with three variations.T The
Melanesian languages are richer in consonants. The poorest, the
Duauru, has 12; others 13, 14 and more consonants. ὦ But what is
even more curious than the absence or presence of certain letters in
certain languages or families of languages, is the inability of some
races to distinguish, either in hearing or speaking, between some of
the most normal letters of our alphabet. No two consonants would
seem to be more distinct than kandt. Nevertheless, in the language
of the Sandwich Islands these two sounds run into one, and it seems
impossible for a foreigner to say whether what he hears is a guttural
or a dental. The same word is written by Protestant missionaries
with £, by French missionaries with ¢ It takes months of patient
labour to teach a Hawaian youth the difference between ὦ and ¢, g
and d,/ andr. The same word * Cf. Hale, p. 231; Von der Gabelentz,
Abhandlungen der Philologisch-Historischen Classe der Kéniglich
Sachsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, vol. iii. p. 253. Leipzig,
1861. 7 Hale, p. 482. t See Von der Gabelentz, /. c.
 «ἀχνὰ. 168 IMPERFECT ARTICULATION. varies in Hawaian
dialects as much as koki and hoi, kela and tea.* In adopting the
English word steel, the Hawaians have rejected the s, because they
never pronounce two consonants together; they have added a final
a, because they never end a syllable with a consonant, and they
have changed ¢ into k.f Thus steel has become kila. Such a
confusion between two prominent consonants like & and ¢ would
destroy the very life of a language like English. The distinction
between carry and tarry, car seid tar, key and tea, neck and net,
would be lost. Yet the Hawaian language struggles successfully
against these disadvantages, and has stood the test of being used
for a translation of the Bible, without being found wanting.
Physiologically we can only account for this confusion by inefficient
articulation, the tongue striking the palate bluntly half-way between
the ᾧ and the ¢ points, and thus producing sometimes more of a
dental, sometimes more of a palatal noise. But it is curious to
observe that, according to high authority, something of the same
kind is supposed to take place in English and in French.t Weare told
by careful observers that the lower classes in Canada habitually
confound ¢ and k, and say mékier, moikié, for métier and moitie.
Webster goes so far as to maintain, in the Introduction to his English
Dictionary, that in English the letters cl are pronounced as if written
i; clear, clean, * The Polynesian, October 1862. + Buschmann, Iles
Marg. p. 103 ; Pott, Etym. F. ii. 138. ‘In Hawaian the natives make
no distinction between ¢ and &, and the missionaries have adopted
the latter, though improperly (as the element is really the ἘΜΌΝ ὃ),
in the written Ἰδηρτιδρθ."---Hale, vii. p. 234. 1 Students Manual of
the English Language (Marsh and Smith), p. 349.
 κα Ἢ mR Aa ee ee hea Fg ee ema ee Fa tal 4 ῶῷ, δον το,
IMPERFECT ARTICULATION. 169 he says are pronounced dear,
tlean; gl is pronounced dl; glory is pronounced dlory. Now Webster is
a great authority on such matters, and although I doubt whether
anyone really says dlory instead of glory, his remark shows, at all
events, that even with a wellmastered tongue and a well-disciplined
ear there is some difficulty in distinguishing between guttural and
dental contact. How difficult it is to catch the exact sound of a
foreign language may be seen from the following anecdote. An
American gentleman, long resident in Constantinople, writes:—‘
There is only one word in all my letters which I am certain (however
they may be written) of not having spelt wrong, and that is the word
bactshtasch, which signifies a present. I have heard it so often, and
my ear is so accustomed to the sound, and my tongue to the
pronunciation, that I am now certain I am not wrong the hundredth
part of a whisper or a lisp. There is no other word in the Turkish so
well impressed on my mind, and so well remembered. Whatever else
I have written, bactshtasch! my earliest acquaintance-in the Turkish
language, I shall never forget you.’ The word intended is Bakhshish.
* The Chinese word which French scholars spell eu, is rendered by
different writers él, eulh, eull, r’l, γ᾽], urh, rhl. These are all meant, I
believe, to represent the same sound, the sound of a word which at
Canton is pronounced 7, in Annamitic #7, in Japanese nz. Ὁ *
Constantinople and its Environs, by an American long resident, New
York, 1835, ii. p: 151; quoted by Marsh, Lect. Second Series, p. 87. {
Léon de Rosny, La Cochinchine, p. 294.
 170 IMPERFECT ARTICULATION. If we consider that r is in
many languages a guttural, and / a dental, we may place in the
same category of wavering pronunciation as ὦ and ἡ, the confusion
between these two letters, 7 and /, a confusion remarked not only in
the Polynesian, but likewise in the African languages. Speaking of
the Setshuana dialects, Dr. Bleek remarks: ‘ One is justified to
consider r in these dialects as a sort of floating letter, and rather
intermediate between ὦ and 7, than a decided 7 sound.’ * Some
faint traces of this confusion between 7 and / may be discovered
even in the classical languages, though here they are the exception,
not the rule. There can be no doubt that the two Latin derivatives
aris and alis are one and the same. If we derive Saturnalis from
Saturnus, and secularis from seculum, normalis from norma,
regularis from regula, astralis from astrum, stellaris from stella, it is
clear that the suffix in allis the same. Yet there is some kind of rule
which determines whether alis or aris is to be preferred. Ifthe body
of the words contains an J, the Roman preferred the termination
aris; hence secularis, regularis, stellaris, the only exceptions being
that / is preserved (1) when there is also an 7 in the body of the
word, and this 7 closer to the termination than the /; hence pluralis,
lateralis; (2) when the ὦ forms part of a compound consonant, as
fluvialis, glacialis. ἢ Occasional changes of / into r are to be found in
almost every language, e.g. lavender, i.e. lavendula; colonel,
pronounced curnel (Old French, coronel ; Spanish, coronel);
rossignole=lusciniola; cceruleus * Sir G. Grey’s Library, vol. i. p. 135.
+ Cf. Pott, Etymologische Forschungen, 1st edit. ii. 97, where some
exceptions, such as /egalis, letalis, are explained.
 IMPERFECT ARTICULATION. 171 from celum; kephalargia
and léthargia, but dtalgia, all from dilgos, pain. The Wallachian dor,
desire, is supposed to be the same word as the Italian duolo, pain.
In apdtre, chapitre, esclandre, the same change of / into 7 has taken
place. * On the other hand r appears as ὦ in Italian albero= arbor;
celebro=cerebrum; mercoledi, Mercuru dies ; pellegrino,
pilerim=peregrinus ; autel=altare. ἡ In the Dravidian: family of
languages the change of / into r, and more frequently of r into /, is
very common. ὦ Instances of an utter inability to distinguish
between two articulate sounds are, however, of rare occurrence, and
they are but seldom found in languages which have received a high
amount of literary cultivation. What I am speaking of here is not
merely change of consonants, one consonant being preferred in one,
another in another dialect, or one being fixed in one noun, another
in another. This is a subject we shall have to consider presently.
What I wished to point out is more than that ; it is a confusion
between two consonants in one and the same language, in one and
the same word. I can only explain it by comparing it to that kind of
colour-blindness when people are unable to distinguish between blue
and red, a colour-blindness quite distinct from that which makes
blue to seem red, or yellow green. It frequently happens that
individuals are unable to pronounce certain letters. Many persons
cannot pronounce the l, and say 7 or even ἢ instead ; grass and
crouds instead of glass and clouds; ritten instead of little. * Diez,
Vergleichende Grammatik, i. p. 189. Tt Diez 1. 6. i. p. 209. t
Caldwell, Dravidian Grammar, p. 120.
 172 IMPERFECT ARTICULATION. Others change 7 to d,
dound instead of round; others change / to d, dong instead of long.
Children, too, for some time substitute dentals for gutturals,
speaking of tat instead of cat, tiss instead of kiss. It is difficult to say
whether their tongue is more at fault or their ear. In these cases,
however, a real substitution takes place; we who are listening hear
one letter instead of another, but we do not hear as it were two
letters at once, or something between the two. The only analogy to
this remarkable imperfection peculiar to uncultivated dialects may be
discovered in languages where, as in Modern German, the soft and
hard consonants become almost, if not entirely, undistinguishable.
But there is still a great difference between actually confounding the
places of contact as the Hawaians do in & and ¢, and merely
confounding the different efforts with which consonants, belonging
to the same organic class, ought to be uttered, a defect very
common in some parts of Germany and elsewhere. This confusion
between two consonants in the same dialect is a characteristic, I
believe, of the lower stages of human speech, and reminds us of the
absence of articulation in the lower stages of the animal world. Quite
distinct from this is another process which is going on in all
languages, and in the more highly developed even more than in the
less developed, the process of phonetic diversification, whether we
call it growth or decay. This process will form the principal subject of
our sixth Lecture, and we shall see that, if properly defined and
understood, it forms the basis of all scientific etymology. Wherever
we look at language, we find that it changes. But what makes
language change? We
 PHONETIC CHANGE. 173 are considering at present only
the outside, the phonetic body of language, and are not concerned
with the changes of meaning, which, as you know, are sometimes
very violent. At present we only ask, how is it that one and the same
word assumes different forms in different dialects, and we
intentionally apply the name of dialect not only to Scotch as
compared with English, but to French as compared with Italian, to
Latin as compared with Greek, to Old Irish as compared with
Sanskrit. These are all dialects; they are all members of the same
family, varieties of the same type, and each variety may, under
favouring circumstances, become a species. How then is it, we ask,
that the numeral four is four in English, guatuor in Latin, cethir in
Old Irish, chatvar in Sanskrit, keturi in Lithuanian, tettares in Greek,
pisyres in Holic, fidvor in Gothic, ον in Old High-German, quatre in
French, patru in Wallachian ? Are all these varieties due to accident,
or are they according to law; and, if according to law, how is that
law to be explained ? I shall waste no time, in order to show that
these changes are not the result of mere accident. This has been
proved so many times, that we may, I believe, take it now for
granted. I shall only quote one passage from the Rev. J. W.
Appleyard’s excellent work, ‘The Kafir Language,’ in order to show
that even in the changes of languages sometimes called barbarous
and illiterate, law and order prevail (p. 50) :— ‘The chief difference
between Kafir and Sechuana roots consists in the consonantal
changes which they have undergone, according to the habit or taste
of the respective tribes. None of these changes, however,
 174 τ PHONETIC CHANGE. appear to be arbitrary, but, on
the contrary, are regulated by a uniform system of variation. The
vowels are also subject to the same kind of change; and, in some
instances, roots have undergone abbreviation by the omission of a
letter or syllable.’ Then follows a table of vowel and consonantal
changes in Kafir and Sechuana, after which the author continues: ‘
By comparing the above consonantal changes with § 42, it will be
seen that many of them are between letters of the same organ, the
Kafir preferring the flat sounds (ὁ, ὦ, g, v, z), and the Sechuana, the
sharp ones (9, ¢, k, f, s). It will be observed, also, that when the
former are preceded by the nasal m or n, these are dropped before
the latter. There is sometimes, again, an interchange between
dentals and linguals ; and there are, occasionally, other changes
which cannot be so easily accounted for, unless we suppose that
intermediate changes may be found in other dialects . . . . It will
thus be seen that roots which appear totally different the one from
the other, are in fact the very same, or rather, of the same origin.
Thus no one, at first sight, would imagine that the Sechuana reka
and the Kafir tonga, or the Kafir pila and the Sechuana isera, were
mere variations of the same root. Yeta knowledge of the manner in
which consonants and vowels change between the two languages
shows that such is the case. As corroborative of this, it may be
further observed, that one of the consonants in the above and other
Sechuana words sometimes returns in the process of derivation to
the original one, as it is found in the Kafir root. For example, the
reflective form of reka is iteka, and not ireka; whilst the noun, which
is derived from the verb tsera is botselo, and not botsero.’
 PHONETIC CHANGE. 175 The change of th into ἢ is by
many people considered a very violent change, so much so that
Burnouf’s ingenious identifi- Fig. 27. cation of Thraétona with | .
Feridun, of which more hereafter, was objected to on that ground.
But we have only to look at the diagrams of th and καὶ to convince
ourselves that the slightest movement of the lower lip towards the
upper teeth would change the ea sound of th into f,* so that (the
dotted outline is th.) in English, ‘ nothing,’ as pronounced vulgarly,
sound sometimes like ‘ nuffing.’ : Few people, if any, would doubt
any longer that _ the changes of letters take place according to
certain phonetic laws, though scholars may differ as to the exact
application of these laws. But what has not yet been fully explained
is the nature of these phonetic laws which regulate the changes of
words. Why should letters change? Why should we, in modern
English, say lord instead of hléford, lady instead of hlefdige? Why
should the French say pére and mére, instead of pater and mater? I
believe the laws which regulate these changes are entirely based on
physiological grounds, and admit of no other explanation
whatsoever. It is not sufficient to say that / and r, or d and r, or 8
and 7, or & and ¢, are interchangeable. We want to know why they
are interchangeable, * See M. M. On Veda and Zendavesta, p. 32.
Arendt, Beitrage zur Vergleichenden Sprachforschung, i. p. 425.
 176 CAUSES OF PHONETIC CHANGE. or rather, to use more
exact language, we want to know why the same word, which a
Hindu pronounces with an initial d, is pronounced by a Roman with
an initial ἰ, and so on. It must be possible to explain this
physiologically, and to show, by means of diagrams, what takes
place, when, instead of a ὦ an J, instead of an f a th is heard. And
here we must, from the very beginning, distinguish between two
processes, which, though they may take place at the same time, are
nevertheless totally distinct. There is one class of phonetic changes
which take place in one and the same language, or in dialects of one
family of speech, and which are neither more nor less than the result
of laziness. Every letter requires more or less of muscular exertion.
There is a manly, sharp, and definite articulation, and there is an
effeminate, vague, and indistinct utterance. The one requires a will,
the other is a mere laisser-aller. The principal cause of phonetic
degeneracy in language is when people shrink from the effort of
articulating each consonant and vowel; when they attempt to
economize their breath and their muscular energy. It is perfectly true
that, for practical purposes, the shorter and easier a word, the
better, as long as it conveys its meaning distinctly. Most Greek and
Latin words are twice as long as they need be, and I do not mean to
find fault with the Romance nations, for having simplified the labour
of speaking. I only state the cause of what we must call phonetic
decay, however advantageous in some respects ; and I consider that
cause to be neither more nor less than want of muscular energy. If
the provincial of Gaul came to say pére instead of pater, it was
simply because he shrank from the trouble of ee. ee ea oe
 MUSCULAR RELAXATION. 177 lifting his tongue, and
pushing it against his teeth. Pere required less strain on the will, and
less expenditure of breath: hence it took the place of pater. So in
English, nzght requires less expenditure of muscular energy than
ndght or Nacht, as pronounced in Scotland and in Germany ; and
hence, as people always buy in the cheapest market, nzght found
more customers than the more expensive terms. Nearly all the
changes that have taken place in the transition from Anglo-Saxon to
modern English belong to this class. Thus :— A.S. hafoc became
hawk A.S. nawiht became nought » deg ‘4 day » ΠΤ ,, lord Seon -ς
fair » hilefdige ,, lady - pecganr © ,, say » selig Ἢ silly » sprecan ,,
speak » buton ᾿ but » folgian ον follow » heafod a head - morgen’ ,,
morrow » nose-pyrel ,, nostril » cyning ,, king » Wif-man ,, woman »
weéorold ,, world* » LHofor-wic ,, York The same takes place in
Latin or French words naturalized in English. Thus:— Scutarius
escuier = squire Historia histoire = story Egyptianus Egyptian =
gipsy Extraneus_ estrangier = stranger * Old High-German wér-
alt=seculum, i.e. Menschenalter, Cf. vér-vulf, lycanthropus, werewolf,
wihrwolf, loup-garrou(1) ; were-gild, manngeld, ransom. Cf. Grimm,
Deutsche Grammatik, ii. 480. { Is hAlaford, as Grimm supposes, an
abbreviation of Alafweard, and hlefdige of hlefweardige, meaning
loaf-ward? The compound h/af-ord, source of bread, is somewhat
strange, considering by whom and for whom it was formed. But
hAlaf-weard does not occur in Anglo-Saxon documents. See Lectures
on the Science of Language, 4th. ed., vol. i. p. 216. N
 178 MUSCULAR RELAXATION: Hydropsis τος = dropsy
Capitulum chapitre = chapter Dominicella demoiselle = damsel
Paralysis paralysie = palsy Sacristanus sacristain = sexton There are,
however, some words in English which, if compared with their
originals in Anglo-Saxon, seem to have added to their bulk, and thus
to violate the general principle of simplification. Thus A.S. thunor is
in English thunder. Yet here, too, the change is due to laziness. It
requires more exertion to withdraw the tongue from the teeth
without allowing the opening of the dental contact to be heard than
to slur from 7 on to d, and then only to the following vowel. The
same expedient was found out by other languages. Thus, the Greek
said dndres, instead of dneres; ambrosia, instead of amrosia.* The
French genre is more difficult to pronounce than gendre; hence the
English gender, with its anomalous d. Similar instances in English
are, to slumber=A.S. slumerian; embers= A.S. emyrie;
cinders=cineres; humble=humilis. It was the custom of grammarians
to ascribe these and similar changes to euphony, or a desire to make
words agreeable to the ear. Greek, for instance, it was said, abhors
two aspirates at the beginning of two successive syllables, because
the repeated aspiration would offend delicate ears. If a verb in
Greek, beginning with an aspirate, has to be reduplicated, the first
syllable takes the tenuis instead of the aspirate. Thus thé in Greek *
In Greek p cannot stand before ἃ and p, nor ἃ before p, nor v before
any liquid. Hence μεσημ(ε)ρίατεεμεσημβρία ; yappoo= γαμβρός ;
ἥμαρτον = ἤμβροτον ; μορτος Ξε βροτός. See Mehlhorn, Griechische
Grammatik, p. 54. In Tamil nr is pronounced ndr Caldwell, Dravidian
Grammar, p. 138.
 MUSCULAR RELAXATION. 179 forms tithémi, as dhé in
Sanskrit dadhdmi. If this was done for the sake of euphony, it would
be difficult to account for many words in Greek far more
inharmonious than thithémi. Such words as χθών, chthon, earth,
φθόγγος, phthéggos, vowel, beginning with two aspirates, were
surely more objectionable than thithémi would have been. There is
nothing to offend our ears in the Latin fefelli,* from fallo, or in the
Gothic reduplicated perfect hathald, from haldan, which in English is
contracted into held, the A.S. being hedld, instead of hehold; or
even in the Gothic fazfahum, we caught, from fahan, to catch.f
There is nothing fearful in the sound of fearful, though both syllables
begin with an f. But if it be objected that all these letters in Latin and
Gothic are mere breaths, while the Greek x, 3, > are real aspirates,
we have in German such words as Pfropfenzieher, which to German
ears is anything but an unpleasant sound. I believe the secret of this
so-called abhorrence in Greek is nothing but laziness. An aspirate
requires great effort, though we are hardly aware of it, beginning
from the abdo- ᾿ * It should be remarked that the Latin f, though not
an aspirated tenuis like φ, but a labial flatus, seems to have had a
very harsh sound. Quintilian, when regretting the absence in Latin of
Greek ¢ and v, says, ‘ Que si nostris literis (f et τ) scribantur, surdum
quiddam et barbarum efficient, et velut in locum earum succedent
tristes et horride quibus Grecia caret. Nam et illa que est sexta
nostratium (7) pene non humana voce, vel omnino non voce potius,
inter discrimina dentium efflanda est; que etiam cum vocalem
proxima accipit, quassa quodammods, utique quoties aliquam
consonantem frangit, ut in hoc ipso frangit, multo fit horridior ’ (xii.
10).—Cf. Bindseil, p. 287. t Pres. Perf. Sing. Perf. Plur. Part. Perf.
Pass. G. haita haihait haihaitum haitan A.S. hatan héht (hét) héton
haten O.E. hate hight highten hoten, hoot, hight N 2
 180 DIALECTIC. VARIATION. minal muscles and ending in
the muscles that open the glottis to its widest extent. It was in order
to economize this muscular energy that the tenuis was substituted
for the aspirate, though, of course, in cases only where it could be
done without destroying the significancy of language. Euphony is a
very vague and unscientific term. Each nation considers its own
language, each tribe its own dialect, euphonic ; and there are but
few languages which please our ear when heard for the first time. To
my ear knight does not sound better than Knecht, though it may do
so to an English ear, but there can be no doubt that it requires less
effort to pronounce the English knight than the German Knecht. But
from this, the most important class of phonetic changes, we must
distinguish others which arise from a less intelligible source. When
we find that, instead of Latin pater, the Gothic tribes pronounced
fadar, it ' would be unfair to charge the Goths with want of muscular
energy. On the contrary, the aspirated f requires more effort than
the mere tenuis; and the d, which between two vowels was most
likely sounded like the soft th in English, was by no means less
troublesome than the ¢ Again, if we find in Sanskrit gharma, heat,
with the guttural aspirate, in Greek thermdés with the dental
aspirate, in Latin formus, adj.,* with the labial aspirate, we cannot
charge any one of these three dialects with effeminacy, but we must
look for another cause that could have produced these changes.
That cause I call Dialectic Growth; and I feel strongly inclined to
ascribe the phonetic diversity which we observe between Sanskrit,
Greek, * Festus states, ‘forcipes dicuntur quod his forma id est calida
— capiuntur.’ . ι :
 DIALECTIC VARIATION. 181 and Latin, to a previous state
of language, in which, as in the Polynesian dialects, the two or three
principal points of consonantal contact were not yet felt as definitely
separated from each other. There is nothing to show that in
thermés, Greek ever had a guttural initial, and to say that Sanskrit
gh becomes Greek th is in reality saying very little. No letter ever
becomes.. People pronounce letters, and they either pronounce
them properly or improperly. Ifthe Greek pronounced th in thermés
properly, without any intention of pronouncing gh, then the th,
instead of gh, requires another explanation, and I cannot find a
better one than the. one just suggested. When we find three
dialects, like Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin, exhibiting the same word
with guttural, dental, and labial initials, we gain but little if we say
that Greek is a modification of Sanskrit, or Latin of Greek. No Greek
ever took the Sanskrit word and modified it; but all three received it
from a common source, in which its articulation was as yet so vague
as to lend itself to these various interpretations. Though we do not
find in Greek the same confusion between guttural and dental
contact which exists in the Hawaian language, it is by no means
uncommon to find one Greek dialect preferring the dental* when
another prefers the guttural ; nor do I see how this fact could be
explained unless we assume that in an earlier state of the Greek
dialects the pronunciation fluctuated or hesitated between £ and ἐ. ‘
No Polynesian dialect,’ says Mr. Hale, ‘makes any distinction between
the sounds of ὦ and p, d and ¢, g and &, / and r,orvand τῷ. Thel,
moreover, is frequently sounded _ ™ Doric, πόκα, ὅκα, ἄλλοκα, for
πότε, ὅτε, ἄλλοτε ; Doric, dvdgoc; LEolic, yrégoc ; Doric δᾶ for γῆ.
 182 DIALECTIC VARIATION. like d, and ¢ like k.’* If
colonies started to-morrow from the Hawaian Islands, the same
which took place thousands of years ago, when the Hindus, Greeks,
and Romans left their common home, would take place again. One
colony would elaborate the indistinct, halfguttural, half-dental
articulation of their ancestors into a pure guttural; another into a
pure dental; a third into a labiale The Romans who settled in Dacia,
where their language still lives in the modern Wallachian, are said to
have changed every qu, if followed by a, into p. They pronounce
agua as apa; equa as epa.t Are we to suppose that the Italian
colonists of Dacia said aqua as long as they stayed on Italian soil,
and changed agua into apa as soon as they reached the Danube ?
Or may we not rather appeal to the fragments of the ancient dialects
of Italy, as preserved in the Oscan and Umbrian inscriptions, which
show that in different parts of Italy certain words were from the
beginning fixed differently, thus justifying the assumption that the
legions which settled in Dacia came from localities in which these
Latin gu’s had always been pronounced as p’s?{ It will sound to
classical scholars almost like blasphemy to explain the phenomena in
the language of Homer and Horace, by supposing for both a
background like that of the Polynesian dialects of the present day.
Comparative philologists, too, will rather admit what * Hale,
Polynesian Grammar, p. 233. ~ The Macedonian (Kutzo-Wallachian)
changes pectus into heptu, pectine into keptine. Cf. Pott, Etym. F. ii.
49. Of the - Tegeza dialects, the northern entirely drops the p, the
southern, in all grammatical terminations, either elide it or change it
into k. Cf. Sir G. Grey’s Library, i. p. 159. t The Oscans said pomtis
instead of guingue. See Mommsen, Unteritalische Dialecte, p. 289.
 PHONETIC PECULIARITIES. 183 is called a degeneracy of
gutturals sinking down to dentals and labials, than look for analogies
to the Sandwich Islands. Yet the most important point is, that we
should have clear conceptions of the words we are using, and I
confess that, without certain at- tenuating circumstances, I cannot
conceive of a real ἢ degenerating into ator p. I can conceive
different definite sounds arising out of one indefinite sound; and
those who have visited the Polynesian islands describe the fact as
taking place at the present day. What then takes place to-day can
have taken place thousands of years ago; and if we see the same
word beginning in Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin, with 4, ἐ, or p, it would
be sheer timidity to shrink from the conclusion that there was a time
in which that word was pronounced less distinctly; in short, in the
same manner as the £. and ¢ in Hawaian. There is, no doubt, this
other point to be considered, that each man has his phonetic
idiosyncrasies, and that what holds good of individuals, holds good
of families, tribes, and nations. We saw that individuals and whole
nations are destitute of certain consonants, and this defect is
generally made up on the other hand by a decided predilection for
some other class of consonants. The West Africans, being poor in
dentals and labials, - arerich in gutturals. Now if an individual, or a
family, or a tribe cannot pronounce a certain letter, nothing remains
but to substitute some other letter as nearly allied to it as possible.
The Romans were destitute of a dental aspirate like the th of the
Greeks, or the dh of the Hindus. Hence, where that letter existed in
the language of their common ancestors, the Romans had either to
give up the aspiration and pronounce @, or to take the nearest
consonantal contact and pro 
 a ee sa ee ΥΥ. ᾿ 184 PHONETIC PECULIARITIES. nounce f.
Hence fwmus instead of Sk. dhima, Greek thymos. It is exactly the
same as what took place in English. The modern English
pronunciation, owing, no doubt, to Norman influences, lost the
guttural ch, as heard in the German lachen. The Saxons had it, and
wrote and pronounced Aleahtor. It is now replaced by the
corresponding labial letter, namely, /, thus giving us laughter for
hleahtor, enough for genugq, ἄς. If we find one tribe pronounce 7,
the other /,* we can hardly accuse either of effeminacy, but must
appeal to some phonetic idiosyncrasy, something in fact
corresponding to what is called colour-blindness in another organ of
sense. These idiosyncrasies have to . be carefully studied, for each
language has its own, and it would by no means follow that because
a Latin jf or even 6 corresponds to a Sanskrit dh, therefore every dh
in every language may lapse into f and ὦ. Greek has a strong
objection to words ending in consonants; in fact, it allows but three
consonants, and all of them semi-vowels, to be heard as finals. We
only find. n, 7, and 8, seldom £, ending Greek words. The Roman
had no such scruples. His words end with a guttural tenuis, such as
hic, nunc; with a dental tenuis, such as sunt, est; and he only avoids
a final labial tenuis which certainly is not melodious. We can hardly
imagine Virgil, in his hexameters, uttering such words as lump,
trump, or stump. Such tendencies or dispositions, peculiar to each
nation, must exercise considerable influence on the phonetic
structure of a language, particularly if we consider that in the Aryan
family the grammatical life-blood throbs chiefly in the final letters.
These idiosyncrasies, however, are quite inadequate * Pott, Etym.
Forsch. ii. 59.
 le Se = | Ἧι τομῶν ana ἀπ a ace αχα PHONETIC
PECULIARITIES. . 185 to explain why the Latin coguo should, in
Greek, appear as péptd. Latin is not deficient in labial, nor Greek in
guttural sounds. Nor could we honestly say that the gutturals in
Latin were gradually ground down to labials in Greek. Such forms
are dialectic varieties, and it is, I believe, of the greatest importance,
for the purposes of accurate reasoning, that these dialectic varieties
should be kept distinct, as much as possible, from phonetic
corruptions. I say, as much as possible, for in some cases I know it
is difficult to draw a line between the two. Physiologically speaking, I
should say that the phonetic corruptions are always the result of
muscular effeminacy, though it may happen, as in the case of
thunder, that ‘lazy people take the most pains.’ All cases of phonetic
corruption can be clearly represented by anatomical diagrams. Thus
the Latin clamare requires complete contact between root of tongue
and soft palate, which contact is merged by sudden transition into
the dental position of the tongue with a vibration of its lateral edges.
In Italian , ἘΠΕ A this lateral vibration of the (& tongue is dropped,
or rather is replaced by the slightest possible approach of the tongue
towards the palate, which follows almost involuntarily on the
opening of the guttural contact, producing chiamare, instead of
clamare. The Spaniard slurs over the initial guttural contact
altogether; he thinks he has * This diagram was drawn by Professor
Richard Owen.
 186 - PHONETIC CORRUPTION, pronounced it, though his
tongue has never risen, and he glides at once into the / vibration,
the opening of which is followed by the same sticky sound which we
observed in Italian. What applies to the Romance applies equally to
the Teutonic languages. The old Saxons said enzht, enif, and cneow.
Now, the guttural contact is slurred over, and we only hear knight,
knife, knee. The old Saxons said hledpan, with a distinct initial
aspiration; that aspiration is given up in to leap. Wherever we find
an initial wh, as in who, which, whate, there stood originally in A.S.
hw, the aspirate being distinctly pronounced. That aspirate, though it
is still heard in correct pronunciation, is fast disappearing in the
language of the people except in the north, where it is clearly
sounded before, not after, the _w. In the interrogative pronoun who,
however, no trace of the w remains except in spelling, and in the
interrogative adverb, how, it has ceased to be written (A.S. hwi, hu,
Goth. hvaiva). In whole, on the contrary, the w is written, but simply
by false analogy. The A.S. word is Adal, without a w, and the good
sense of the people has not allowed itself to be betrayed into a false
pronunciation in spite of the false spelling enforced by its
schoolmasters. Words beginning with more than one consonant are
most liable to phonetic corruption. It certainly requires an effort to
pronounce distinctly two or three consonants at the beginning
without intervening vowels, and we could easily understand that one
of these consonants should be slurred over and be allowed to drop.
But if it is the tendency of language to facilitate pronunciation, we
must not shirk the question how it came to pass that such
troublesome forms were ever framed and sanctioned.
Welcome to our website – the ideal destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. With a mission to inspire endlessly, we offer a
vast collection of books, ranging from classic literary works to
specialized publications, self-development books, and children's
literature. Each book is a new journey of discovery, expanding
knowledge and enriching the soul of the reade

Our website is not just a platform for buying books, but a bridge
connecting readers to the timeless values of culture and wisdom. With
an elegant, user-friendly interface and an intelligent search system,
we are committed to providing a quick and convenient shopping
experience. Additionally, our special promotions and home delivery
services ensure that you save time and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and

personal growth!

textbookfull.com