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Lecture Notes on Dermatology 8th Edition Robin
Graham-Brown Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Robin Graham-Brown, Tony Burns
ISBN(s): 9780632064946, 0632064943
Edition: 8
File Details: PDF, 41.08 MB
Year: 2002
Language: english
ROBIN GRAHAM-BROWN
BSc, MB BS (Lond), FRCP
Consultant Dermatologist
The Leicester Royal Infirmary, Leicestev, and Honorary Senior Lecturer in Dermatology,
University of Leicester School oJMedicine

TONY BURNS
MB BS (Lond), FRCP
Emeritus Consultant Dermatologist
The Leicester Royal Infirmary, Leicester

Eighth Edition

Blackwell
Publishing
To all medical students, and t o our children:
James, Matthew, John Joseph and David.
C3 1965, 1969, 1973, 1977, 1983, 1990, 1996, 2002 by Blackwell Science Ltd
a Blackwell Publishing Company

Editorial Offices:
Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford O X 4 2DQ, U K
Tel: +44 (0) 1865 776868
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o r transmitted, in any form o r by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording o r
otherwise, except as permitted by the U K Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the
prior permission of the publisher.

First published 1965 Fourth edition 1977 Seventh edition 1996 Reprinted 2003, 2004, 2005
Second edition 1969 Fifth edition 1983 Reprinted 2001
Third edition 1973 Sixth edition 1990 Eighth edition 2002

Library o f Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Graham-Brown, R. A. C. (Robin A. C.)
Lecture notes on dermatology.+th ed./Robin Graham-Brown. Tony Burns.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 0-632-06494-3 (pbk.)
I. Dermatology-Outlines, syllabi, etc. 2. Skin-Diseases-Outlines, syllabi, etc.
[DNLM: l. Skin Diseases. W R 140 G742L 20021 1. Title: Dermatology.
II. Burns, Tony, FRCP. Ill. Title.
RL74.3.G73 2002
6 1 6.5--dc2 I 2001008761

lSBN 0-632-06494-3

A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library.

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Printed and bound by Replika Press Pvt. Ltd, India

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Contents

Preface, iv
Acknowledgements, v

Structure and Function o f the Skin, Hair and Nails, I

Approach t o the Diagnosis of Dermatological Disease, 9
Bacterial and Viral Infections, 17
Fungal Infections, 28
Ectoparasite Infections, 37
Acne, Acneiform Eruptions and Rosacea, 48
Eczema, 58
Psoriasis, 67
Benign and Malignant SkinTumours, 77
Naevi, 94
Inherited Disorders, 102
Pigmentary Disorders, 1 09
Disorders o f the Hair and Nails, I 14
Bullous Disorders, 122
Miscellaneous Erythematous and Papulosquamous Disorders and
Light-induced Skin Diseases, 130
Vascular Disorders, 14 1
Connective Tissue Disorders, 148
Pruritus, 156
Systemic Disease and the Skin, 16 1
Skin and the Psyche, 169
Cutaneous Drug Reactions, 174
Treatment o f Skin Disease, 180

Index, 185
iii
In this, the eighth edition of Lecture Notes on Dermatology, we have updated the text
with particular regard t o advances in treatment. Numerous tables of salient points
provide ready reference but, as in previous editions, we have attempted t o create a
'user-friendly' readability.
W e hope that the book will be of value not only t o medical students, but also t o
general practitioners, and nurses involved in the care of dermatology patients. W e
also hope that exposure t o Lecture Notes on Dermatology will prompt a deeper
interest in this important medical specialty.

Robin Graham-Brown
Tony Burns
Acknowledgements

We would like to thank Drs lmrich Sarkany and Charles Calnan, under whose guid-
ance we both learned dermatology, and we are grateful to them for some of the
illustrations.We are also grateful t o our students, who remind us constantly of the
importance of clarity in communication. Finally, we thank the staff at Blackwell
Publishingwho have helped us through the editingand production stages.
This page intentionally left blank
 Structure and Function of
the Skin, Hair and Nails

Skinstructurc,l Functions ofthe skin, 6

Skin,skin is o wonderful thing, (basal layer), move progressively towards the

Keeps the outside out and the inside in. skin surface, and as they ascend they undergo a
I t is essential t o have some baclqround lknowl- process lknown as 'terminal differentiation' t o
edgeofthe normal structure and function of any produce the surface layer of cells (stratum
organ before you can hope t o understand the corneum). Components o f the internal skele-
abnormal. Skin is the icing on the anatomical ton of all cells include so-called 'intermediate
cale, it is the decorative wrapping paper, and filaments' which, in epithelia1 cells, are com-
without it not only would we all look rather posed of a group of fibrous proteins lknown
unappealing, but a variety o f unpleasant physio- as lkeratins, each of which is the product of a
logical phenomena would bring about our separate gene. Mutations in these genes are
demise.You have probably never contemplated responsible for certain sldn diseases. During
your sldn a great deal, except in the throes of differentiation, keratin filaments in the corneo-
narcissistic admiration, o r when it has been cytes aggregate under the influenceof filoggriha
blemished by some disorder, but hopefully by process lknown as lkeratinization, and bundles of
the end of this first chapter you will have been filaments form a complex intracellular networlc
persuaded that it is quite a remarkable organ, embedded in an amorphous protein matrix
and that you are lucky t o be on such intimate derived from the keratohyalin granules of the
terms with it. granular layer.
A cell ralkes approximately 8-10 w e e l ~t o
pass from the basal layer t o the surface of the
Skin structure epidermis (epidermal transit time), and loss of
cells from the surface is matched by production
The skin is composed of t w o layers, the epider- in the basal layer so that epidermal thickness is
mis and the dermis.The epidermis, which is the constant.This balance is maintained by growth
outer layer, and its appendages (hair, nails, seba- stimulators and growth inhibitors such as epi-
ceous glands and sweat glands), are derived dermal growth factor (EGF) and transforming
from the embryonic ectoderm.The dermis is of growth factors alpha and beta.The cells on the
mesodermal origin. surface of the skin (squames o r corneocytes),
which constitute thestratum corneum, are ker-
The epidermis atinized dead cells that are gradually abraded by
The epidermis is a stratified squamous epithe- daily wear and tear. If you batheafter a period of
lium, with several well-defined layers. The several days' avoidance of water (a house with-
principal cell type i s lknown as a'leratinocyte'. out central heating in mid-winter, somewhere
Keratinocyter, which are produced by cell in the Northern Hemisphere, i s ideal for this
division in the deepest layer of the epidermis experiment), you will note that as you towel
I
2 Chapter I :Structure and Function of the Skin, Hair and Nails

Fig. 1.1The epidermis.

yourself you are rubbing off small balls of kera- rate, and persist through the full thickness of the
tin -which has built up because of your insani- epidermis. The main stimulus t o melanin pro-
tary habits.When a plaster cast is removed from duction is ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Melanin
a fractured limb after several weeks in situ there protects the cell nuclei in the epidermis from
is usually a thick layer of surface keratin, the the harmful effects of UV radiation. A sun tan is
removal of which provides hours of absorbing a natural protective mechanism, not a cosmetic
occupational therapy. boon! Skin neoplasia is extremely uncommon in
Look at the layers more closely (Fig. I.I).The dark-skinned races because their skin is pro-
basal layer is composed of columnar cells which tected from UV damage by the large amounts of
are anchored t o a basement membrane-a mul- melanin i t contains.This is not the case in the
tilayered structure from which anchoring fibrils pale, pimply lager-swilling advert for British
extend into the superficial dermis. Interspersed manhood who dashes onto the beach in Ibiza
among the basal cells are melanocytes-large and flash-fries himself t o lobster thermidor on
dendritic cells derived from the neural crest- day one of his annual holiday.
which are responsible for melanin pigment The prickle cell layer acquires its name from
production. Melanocytes contain cytoplasmic the spiky appearance produced by intercellular
organelles called melanosomes, in which bridges (desmosomes) that connect adjacent
melanin is synthesized from tyrosine. The cells. Scattered throughout the prickle cell layer
melanosomes migrate along the dendrites of are Langerhans' cells. These dendritic cells are
the melanocytes, and are transferred t o the probably modified macrophages, which origin-
keratinocytes in the prickle cell layer. In white ate in the bone marrow and migrate t o the epi-
people the melanosomes are grouped together dermis.They are the first line of immunological
in membrane-bound 'melanosome complexes', defence against environmental antigens, and are
and they gradually degenerate as the ker- responsible for the uptake of such antigens and
atinocytes move towards the surface of the their presentation t o immunocompetent lym-
skin. In black people, the skin contains the same phocytes so that an immune response can be
number of melanocytes as that of white people, mounted.
but the melanosomes are larger, remain sepa- Above the prickle cell layer is the granular
 Skin structure 3

layer, which is composed of flattened cells con- Apocrine sweat glands .

taining numerous darkly staining particles Apocrine sweat glands are found principally in
known as keratohyalin granules. Also present in the axillae and anogenital region. Specialized
the cytoplasm of cells in the granular layer are apocrine glands include the wax glands of the
organelles known as lamellar granules (Odland ear and the milk glands of the breast. Apocrine
bodies). These contain lipids and enzymes, and glands are also composed of a secretory coil
they discharge their contents into the intercel- and a duct, but the duct opens into a hair follicle,
lular spaces between the cells of the granular not directly onto the surface of the skin. Apo-
layer and stratum corneum-providing the crine glands produce an oily secretion contain-
equivalent of 'mortar' between the cellular ing protein, carbohydrate, ammonia and lipid.
'bricks', and contributingt o the barrier function These glands become active at puberty, and
of the epidermis. secretion is controlled by adrenergic nerve
The cells of the stratum corneum are flat- fibres. Pungent axillary body odour (axillary
tened, keratinized cells which are devoid of bromhidrosis) is the result of the action of bac-
nuclei and cytoplasmic organelles. Adjacent teria on apocrine secretions. In some animals
cells overlap at their margins, and this locking apocrine secretions are important sexual at-
together of cells, together with intercellular tractants, but the average human armpit pro-
lipid, forms a very effective barrier.The stratum vides a different type of overwhelming olfactory
corneum varies in thickness according t o the experience.
region of the body. It is thickest on the palms of
the hands and soles of the feet. Hair
Hairs grow out of tubular invaginations of the
Epidermal appendages epidermis known as follicles, and a hair follicle
The eccrine and apocrine sweat glands, the hair and its associated sebaceous glands are referred
and sebaceous glands, and the nails, constitute t o as a 'pilosebaceous unit'. There are three
the epidermal appendages. types of hair: fine, soft lanugo hair is present in
utero and is shed by the eighth month of fetal life;
Eccrine sweat glands vellus hair is the fine downy hair which covers
Eccrine sweat glands are important in body most of the body except those areas occupied
temperature regulation. A human has between by terminal hair; thick and pigmented term-
two and three million eccrine sweat glands cov- inal hair occurs on the scalp, eyebrows and
ering almost all the body surface.They are par- eyelashes before puberty-after puberty, under
ticularly numerous on the palms of the hands the influence of androgens, secondary sexual
and soles of the feet. Each consists of a secret- terminal hair develops from vellus hair in the
ory coil deep in the dermis, and a duct that con- axillae and pubic region, and on the trunk and
veys the sweat t o the surface. Eccrine glands limbs in men. O n the scalp, the reverse occurs
secrete water, electrolytes, lactate, urea and in male-pattern balding-terminal hair becomes
ammonia.The secretory coil produces isotonic vellus hair under the influence of androgens. In
sweat, but sodium chloride is reabsorbed in the men, terminal hair on the body usually increases
duct so that sweat reachingthe surface is hypo- in amount as middle age arrives, and hairy ears
tonic. Patients sufferingfrom cystic fibrosis have are a puzzling accompaniment of advancing
defective resorption of sodium chloride, and years. One struggles t o think of any biological
rapidly become salt depleted in a hot environ- advantage that hairyears might confer.
ment. Eccrine sweat glands are innervated by Hair follicles extend into the dermis at an
the sympathetic nervous system, but the neuro- angle (Fig. 1.2). Asmall bundle of smooth muscle
transmitter is acetylcholine. fibres, the arrector pili muscle, is attached t o
the side of the follicle.
Arrector pili muscles are supplied by adren-
4 Chapter I: Structure and Function of the Skin, Hair and Nails

Fig. 1.2 The structure of the

skin.

ergic nerves, and are responsible for the erec-

tion of hairs in the cold o r during emotional
stress ('goose flesh', 'goose pimples', horripila-
tion). The duct of the sebaceous gland enters
the follicle just above the point of attachment of
the arrector pili muscle. A t the lower end of the
follicle is the hair bulb, part of which, the hair
matrix, is a zone of rapidly dividing cells which is
responsible for the formation of the hair shaft.
Hair pigment is produced by melanocytes in the
hair bulb. Cells produced in the hair bulb be-
come densely packed, elongated and arranged
parallel t o the long axis of the hair shaft. They
gradually become keratinized as they ascend in Fig. 1.3 The structure of hair.
the hair follicle.
The main part of each hair fibre is the cortex,
which is composed of keratinized spindle- tical in cross-section and Mongoloid hair is
shaped cells (Fig. 1.3).Terminal hairs have a cen- circular.
tral core known as the medulla, consisting of The growth of each hair is cyclical -periods
specialized cells which contain air spaces. Cov- of active growth alternate with resting phases.
ering the cortex is the cuticle, a thin layer of cells After each period of active growth (anagen)
which overlap like the tiles on a roof, with the the? is a short transitional phase (catagen), fol-
free margins ofthe cells pointing towards the tip lowed by a resting phase (telogen), after which
of the hair. The cross-sectional shape of hair the follicle reactivates, a new hair is produced,
varies with body site and race. Negroid hair is and the old hair is shed. The duration of these
distinctly oval in cross-section, and pubic, beard cyclical phases depends on the age of the indi-
and eyelash hairs have an oval cross-section in all vidual and the location of the follicle on the
racial types. Caucasoid hair is moderately ellip- body.The duration of anagen in a scalp follicle is
 Skin structure 5

genetically determined, and ranges from 2 t o glands are part of the pilosebaceous unit, and
more than 5 years.This is why some women can their lipid-rich product (sebum) flows through a
grow hair down t o their ankles, whereas most duct into the hair follicle. They are holocrine
have a much shorter maximum length. Scalp hair glands -sebum is produced by disintegration of
catagen lasts about 2 weeks and telogen from 3 glandular cells rather than an active secretory
t o 4 months.The daily growth rate of scalp hair process. Modified sebaceous glands which open
is approximately 0.45 mm. The activity of each directly on the surface are found on the eyelids,
follicle is independent of that of its neighbours, lips, nipples, glans penis and prepuce, and the
which is fortunate, because if follicular activity buccal mucosa (Fordyce spots).
was synchronized, as it is in some animals, we Sebaceous glands are prominent at birth,
would be subject t o periodic moults, thus under the influence of maternal hormones, but
adding another dimension t o life's rich tapestry. atrophy soon after, and do not enlarge again
A t any one time approximately 85% of scalp until puberty. Enlargement of the glands and
hairs are in anagen, I % in catagen and 14% in sebum production at puberty are stimulated by
telogen. The average number of hairs shed androgens. Growth hormone and thyroid hor-
daily is 100. In areas other than the scalp anagen mones also affect sebum production.
is relatively short-this is also fortunate, be-
cause if it was not so, we would all be kept Nails
busy clipping eyebrows, eyelashes and nether A nail is a transparent plate of keratin derived
regions. from an invagination of epidermis on the dor-
It is a myth that shaving increases the rate of sum of the terminal phalanx of a digit (Fig. 1.4).
growth of hair and that it encourages the devel- The nail plate is the product of cell division in the
opment of'thicker' hair; nor does hair continue nail matrix, which lies deep t o the proximal nail
growing after death-shrinkage of soft tissues fold, but is partly visible as the pale 'half-moon'
around the hair produces this illusion. (lunula) at the base of the nail. The nail plate is
Human hair colour is produced by two types firmly adherent t o the underlying nail bed.The
of melanin-eumelanins in black and brown cuticle is an extension of the horny layer of the
hair, and phaeomelanins in auburn and blond
hair.
Greying of hair is the result of a decrease in
tyrosinase activity in the melanocytes of the hair
bulb. The age of onset of greying is genetically
determined, but other factors may be involved
such as auto-immunity-premature greying of
the hair is a recognized association of perni-
cious anaemia.The phenomenon of'going white
overnight', usually attributed t o a severe fright,
is physically impossible. It is, however, possible
t o 'go white' over a period of a few days as a re-
sult of selective loss of remaining pigmented
hairs in someone who has extensive grey hair-
this occurs in one type of alopecia areata.

Sebaceous glands
Sebaceous glands are found everywhere on the
skin apart from the hands and feet.They are par-
ticularly numerous and prominent on the head
and neck, the chest, and the back. Sebaceous Fig.1.4 The nail.
6 Chapter I: Structure and Function ofthe Skin, Hair and Nails

proximal nail fold onto the nail plate. I t forms a mediators such as histamine, prostaglandins.
seal between the nail plate and proximal nail leul<otrienes and eosinophil and neutrophii
fold, preventing penetration of extraneous chemotactic factors. Macrophages are phago-
material. cytic cells that originate in the bone marrow,
Nail growth is continuous throughout life, and they act as scavengers of cell debris and
but is more rapid in youth than in old age.The extracellular material.
average rate of growth of fingernails is approxi- The dermis is also richly supplied with
mately I mm per week, and the time taken for a blood vessels, iymphatics, nerves and sensory
fingernail t o grow from matrix t o free edge is receptors.
about 6 months. Nails on the dominant hand Beneath the dermis, a layer of subcutaneous
grow slightly more rapidly than those on the fat separates the skin from underlying fasciaand
non-dominant hand.Toenails grow at one-third muscle.
the rateoffingernails,and taleabout 18 months
t o grow from matrixto free edge. Dermatoglyphics
Many factors affect nail growth rate. It is ln- Fingerprints, the characteristic elevated ridge
creased in psoriasis, and may be speeded up in patterns on the fingertips of humans, are unique
the presence of inflammatory change around t o each individual.The fingers and toes, and the
the nail. A severe systemic upset can produce a palms and soles, are covered with a system of
sudden slowing of nail growth, causing a trans- ridges which form patterns.The term'dermato-
verse groove in each nail plate.These grooves, glyphics' is applied t o the configuration of the
Iknown as Beau's lines, subsequently become ridges. If you look closely at your hands you will
visible as the nails grow out. Nail growth may see these tiny ridges, which are separate from
also be considerably slowed in the digits of a the skin creases. O n the tips ofthe fingers there
limb immobilized in plaster. are three basic patterns: arches, loops and
whorls (Fig. I.S).The loops are subdivided into
The dermis ulnar o r radial, depending on whether the loop
The dermis is a layer of connective tissue lying is open t o the ulnar o r radial side ofthe hand.A
beneath the epidermis, and forms the bull< of triangular intersection of these ridges is known
the skin.The dermis and epidermis interdigitate as a triradius,and these triradii are notonly pre-
via downward epidermal projections (rete sent on fingertips, but also at the base of each
ridges), and upward dermal projections (dermal finger, and usually on the proximal part of the
papillae) (Fig. I .2).The main feature of the der- palm.
mis is a nenvorkofinrerlacingfibres, mostly col- N o t only are the ridge patterns of finger-
lagen, but with some elastin.These fibres give prints useful for the identification and convic-
the dermis great strength and elasticity. The tion of those who covet their neighbours'
collagen and elastin fibres, which are protein, goods, but characteristic dermatoglyphic ab-
are embedded in a ground substance of mu- normalities frequently accompany many chro-
copolysaccharides(glycosaminoglycans). mosomal aberrations.
The main cellular elements of the dermis are
fibrobiasts, mast cells and macrophages. Fibro-
blasts synthesize the connectivetissue matrix of
the dermis, and are usually found in close prox-
imitytocollagenandelarrin fibres. Mastcellsare Skin is like wax paper that holds everythingin
specialized secretory cells present throughout without dripping. ( A r t Linkletter, A Child's
the dermis, but they are more numerous Garden ofMisinformotion, 1965)
.
around blood vessels and appendaner.
, - They It is obvious from the complex structure of the
contain granules whose contents include skin that it is not there simply t o hold all the
 Functions of the skin 7

Fig. 1.5 Dermatoglyphics: (a)

arch; (b)loop; (c)whorl.

other bits of the body together. Some of the organ and plays an important role in host
functions of skin are as follows: defence. N o t only Langerhans' cells but also
keratinocytes prepare external antigens for
presentation t o T lymphocytes, which then
mount an immune response.
The protective effect of melanin against UV
* Prevents loss ofessentialbody fluids damage has already been mentioned.
* Protects againstentryoftoxic The skin is a vital part of the body's tem-
environmental chemicals and perature regulation system. The body core
microorganisms temperature is regulated by a temperature-
* Immunolagicalfunctions sensitive area in the hypothalamus, and this is

-
* Protects against damage from Wradiation
Regulates bodytemperature
* Synthesis afvitaminD
influenced by the temperature of the blood
which perfuses it. The response of the skin t o
* Important in sexual attraction and social cold is vasoconstriction and a marked reduction
~

interaction in blood flow, decreasing transfer of heat t o

~ . . ~~ ~ ~ . . ... the body surface.The response t o heat is vaso-
dilatation, an increase in skin blood flow and
In the absence of a stratum corneum we loss of heat t o the environment. Perspiration
would lose significant amounts of water t o the helps t o cool the body by evaporation of sweat.
environment, and rapidly become dehydrated. These thermoregulatoryfunctions are impaired
The stratum corneum, with its overlapping cells in certain skin disease-patients suffering
and intercellular lipid, blocks diffusion of water from exfoliative dermatitis (erythroderma) ra-
into the environment. If it is removed by strip- diate heat t o their environment because their
ping with tape, water loss t o the environment skin blood flow is considerably increased
increases I0-fold o r more. and they are unable t o control this by vasocon-
The stratum corneum is also quite an effec- striction. In a cold environment their central
tive barrier t o the penetration of external core temperature drops, in spite of producing
agents. However, this barrier capacity is consid- metabolic heat by shivering, and they may die of
erably reduced if the stratum corneum is hy- hypothermia.
drated, o r its lipid content is reduced by the use Vitamin D (cholecalciferol) is produced in the
of lipid solvents. The structural integrity of the skin by the action of UV light on dehydrocholes-
stratum corneum also protects against invasion terol. In those whose diets are deficient in vita-
by microorganisms. min D this extra source of the vitamin can be
The skin is an immunologically competent important.
8 Chapter I : Structure and Function of the Skin, Hair and Nails

The skin is also a huge sensory receptor, per- In addition t o all these mechanistic functions,
ceivingheat, cold, pain, light touch and pressure, the skin plays an essential aesthetic role in social
and even tickle. As you are probably still grap- interaction and sexual attraction.
pling with the conundrum of the biological sig- Hence, you can see that your skin is doing
nificance of hairy ears in the elderly male, t r y a good job. Apart from looking pleasant, i t is
switching your thoughts t o the benefits of tickly saving you from becoming a cold, UV-damaged,
armpits! brittle-boned, desiccated'prune'.
 Approach to the Diagnosis
ofDevmatological Disease

Introduction, 9 Dermatological diagnosis,9 Investigation,l 2

The value o i a diagnosis, 9 Examination,11 Conclusion, 16

Baglivi hassoid, "The patient is the doctor's

best text-book':That"'text-boak"however, hos
to be intmducedtothe student and those who
effect the introductions are not always wise.
(Dannie Abse. Doctors andpotients)
-Provides a workinglabel which will be
recognizedby others
* Implies some commonalitywith other
The dermatologist's art is giving a disease a long patientswith thesamediseasestateor
Greek name . . . and then o topicalsteroid. condition:in aetiology;pathology;clinical
(Anon)
-
features;responsiveness to treatment
Offers a prognosis and informationabout
contaaon orheredity
* Gives access to treatment modalities
Introduction

Dermatology is essentially a specialty where

clinical information is at the forefront of the
Dermatological diagnosis
diagnostic process, and it is important for any
aspiringclinicianto realizethat, before prescrib- That which we calla rose.
ing treatment or offering prognostic informa- by any other bame wouldsmellassweet
(Shal~espeare, Romeo ondjuliet)
tion about a patient's problem, he o r she must
Aspiring dermatologists must begin by becom-
first make a diagnosis. This chapter is about
ingfamiliarwith the diagnostic labels used in the
reaching a diagnosis in a patient with a skin
disorder. description and classification of sldn disease.
This can seem daunting, but remember that
diagnostic labels in medicine are bound by
The value of a diagnosis convention and rooted in history: the nomen-
clature of disease, and its signs and symptoms.
The facts on which a clinician makes a diagnosis has emerged from hundreds of years of classif-
cation and categorization.Therc is nothing spe-
must always come first and foremost from the
cial about dermatology, except perhaps in the
patient and there is no substitute for talking t o
degree t o which subtle clinical variations areaf-
and examining patiencs.This is especially true of
fol-ded separate names.The fact that diagnostic
skin disease.
terms often bear no relationship to modern
A diagnosis is a short statement about a dis-
thinldng is not of itself imporrant. An apple is
ease state o r condition.
still an apple, even if we don't lknow who first
called it that o r why!
10 Chapter 2: Diagnosis of Dermatological Disease

Therefore, as in any other branch of medi-

cine, the diagnostic terminology in dermatology I nmw
* Not onlysystemicmedicationbut also topical;
I
has t o be learned.This is not as hard as it may
many patientsapplymultiplecreamsand
at first seem. In the same way as a visitor t o
ointments: topicals maybe medicinal 1
Mars would have t o become familiar with what
things on Mars were called, the dermatological
tyro who pays attention rapidly becomes ac- Topical medication mayalsobeself-
quainted with commoner skin diseases (e.g. administeredaspartofa'cosmetic'regimen
eczema, psoriasis o r warts). In time, he o r she
will also begin t o recognize rarer disorders and
less 'classical' variants of commoner ones. There are also specific features of dermato-
However, this remains a dynamic process which logical histories t o watch out for.
involves seeing, reading, asking and learning-
always with the eyes, ears and mind open! Symptoms
Patients with skin disease talk about symptoms,
The steps t o making a especially itching, which you may not have met
dermatological diagnosis before.You will have t o learn t o assess and quan-
In principle there is nothing difficult about tify these.You will soon get used t o this. For ex-
dermatological diagnosis. The process of iden- ample, a severe itch will keep patients awake
tifying skin diseases consists of taking a history, o r stop them from concentrating at work o r
examining the patient, and performing inves- school.
tigations where necessary. In practice many
dermatologists will ask questions afler a quick Patients9language
look t o assess the problem, and also during the Be careful about terms which patients use t o
formal examination. However, we should con- describe their skin problems. In Leicestershire,
sider the elements of the process separately. where the authors work, weals are often called
A dermatological history contains most of 'blisters' and it is easy t o be misled. Always ask
the questions you will be used t o asking: onset the patient t o describe precisely what he o r she
and duration, fluctuation, nature of symptoms, means by a specific term.
past history. There are some differences, how-
ever, which are largely in the emphasis placed on Quality of life
certain aspects, shown as follows: It may be helpful t o assess the impact of the
problem on the patient's normal daily activities
and self-image: work, school, sleep, self-
confidence, personal relationships.

Past history Patient preconceptions

Shauldinclude generalproblems, such as ! Patients often have their own ideas about the

-
~

* Diabetes andTB cause of skin problems and will readily offer

Pastskinproblems j them! For example, washing powder is almost
* Significant ailergies !
universally considered t o be a major cause of
Family history
~
rashes, and injuries t o be triggers of skin tu-
* Some disorders are infectious: others have mours. Never ignore what you are told but take
strong genetic backgrounds care t o sieve the information in the light of your
findings.

-
Occupation andhobbies
The skinis frequently affectedby materials
encountered atwork and in the home
Watch out, too, for the very high expecta-
tions of many patients. They know that visible
evidence is there for all t o see: dermatology
 Examination II

often truly requires a'spot'diagnosis! Everyone fundamental elements of a good dermatological

from the patient and hislher relatives t o the examination are:
local greengrocer can see the problem and ex- I Site andlor distribution ofche problem.
press their opinion. 2 Characteristics of individual lesion(+
3 Examination of 'secondary' sites.
4 'Special' techniques.
Examination Unfortunately, names and terms can appear
t o get in the way of learning in dermatology.
The next step is t o examine the patient. Wise Indeed this seems t o be one reason why many
counsels maintain that you should always exam- cliniciansclaim that dermatology is amysterious
ineapatlentfrom head t o foot. In realitythis can and impenetrable mixture of mumbo-jumbo
be hard on both patient and doctor, especially if and strange potions.There is really no need for
the problem is a solitary wart on the thumb! this attitude: the terms In use have developed
However, as a genera rule, and especially with for good reasons. They provide a degree of
inflammatory dermatoses and conditions with precision and a framework for diagnosis and
several lesions, it is Importantto havean overall decision making. Try t o familiarize yourself
look at the sites involved.You may also find the with them, and t o apply them correctly. They
unexpected, such as melanomas and other skin will provide the building-blocks with which you
cancers. will go on t o make dermatological diagnoses.
Inspect and palpaie the lesion@) o r rash (it So, in theearly days,describeeverythingyousee
may help t o use a magnifying hand lens). The in these terms as fir as possible.

1 Sic+) and/ordis~bution.Thiscanbevey rough, andtodistinguishcrust(dried

~ helpful: for example, psoriasis has a serum)from scale (hyperkeratosis);some
redilection forknees,elbows,scalp and lower assessmentofscale canbe helpfu1,e.g.
rack; eczemafavaurs the Remresinchildren; 'silvey'in psoriasis
tcneoccurs predaminantlyon the face and * The texhlre-superficial?deep?Useyour
rppermnkbasal cell carcinomas are more fingerfipsonthesurface; assess thedepth
:ommon on the head and neck and position in orbeneath the skin;lift
! Characteristics of individual lesion(s): scaleorcrusttoseewhatisundemeath;
* Thetype.Somesimplepreliminay trytomake thelesionblanchwith
readingis essential.UseTable 2.1forthe pressure
most common and important terms and 3 Secondaly sites. Look for additional
their definitions features which may assist in diagnosis.Good
* The size,shape, outlineand border. Sire examples of this include:
isbestmeosured,rathherthanbeinga * The nails in psoriasis
comparison with peas, oranges or coins of
the realm. Lesionsmay be various shapes.
e.g. round, oval.annular, linearor'irregular';
-- The fingers and wrist sin scabies
The toe-webs in fungalinfections
Themouthinlichen planus
straightedgesand anglesmaysuggest 4 'Special' techniques. These will be covered
external factors.Theborder is well defined in the appropriate chapters, but there are
inpsoriasis, but blurredinmost patches of s0metlicks.e.g.:

-eczema
Thecolaurltisalwaysuseful tonotethe
colour: red,purple.brawn. slate-black.etc.
* Scrapingapsoriatic plaque for capillay
bleeding
* The Nikolskysigninblisteringdiseases
* Surface features (Table 2.1).It is helpful to * 'Diascopy'in suspected cutaneous
assesswhetherthesurfaceissmoothor tuberculosis
 I2 Chapter 2: Diagnosis of Dermatological Disease

Table 2.1 'Types and characteristics oflesions.

-
* M a d e : a flat, circumscribed area of skin discoloration
Papule: acircumscribedelwatianoftheskinlessthan0.5mindiameter
* Nodule: acircumscribedvisiblearpalpablelump,largerthan0.5cm
Plaque: acircumscribed, disc-shaped, elevated area ofskin:
'small'Qcm in diameter

- 'large' > 2 min diameter

Vesicle: a smallvisiblecollection offluid ~~essthan0.5cmindiameter)

--
* Bulk a largevisiblecollection offluid(over0.scm)
Pustule: avisibleaccumulationofpus
Ulcer: a loss of epidermis (often with loss ofunderlyingdermis and subcutis as well)
* Weal: a circumscribed. elevated areaofcutaneous oedema

--
Surface characteestic'es
Scale: visible and palpable flakes due to aggregation andlor abnormalities ofshed epidermal cells
Crust: accumulateddriedexudate,e.g.semm

-
* Horn: an elevatedprojectionofkeratin
Excoriation: asecondary,superficiaI ulceration.due to scratching
* Maceration: an appearance ofsurface softeningdue to constantwetting
Lichenification:aflat-toppedthickeningofthe skin often secondaryto scratching.
~ ~ ~~ ~ ~~ ~~~ ~~ ~ ~

I t is fair t o say that in inflammatory der- These situations are covered later in the appro-
matosesacomplication is havingtodecide which priate chapters.The advances in modern genet-
lesion or lesions to select for this descriptive ics, too, mean that blood (or other tissues) can
process. Skin diseases are dynamic. Some le- be analysed for evidence of specific defects.
sions in any rash will be very early, some very Sometimes clinical tindings alone will not pro-
late, and some at various intermediate evolu- duce a satisfactory working diagnosis, o r fur-
tionary stages. ther information is required in order t o plan
Try t o examine as many patients as you can: optimal management.
frequent exposure t o skin diseases develops an A number of important techniques are avail-
ability t o recognize those lesions which provide able t o provide further information. Some of
the most useful diagnostic information, these, such as appropriate blood tests and
This diagnostic process willgradually become swabs for bacteriology and virology, should be
one that you will perform increasingly easily and familiar from other branches of medicine, and
confidently as experience develops. are fully covered in other introductory text-
books. Others, however, are more specific t o
dermatological investigation. Common, useful
investigations in sldn diseases include the
following:
Inevitably, history and examination alone will Blood tests-for underlying systemic
not always provide all the information required. abnormalities and, increasingly, for genetic
Thereare some sldn disorders in which further analysis.
investigation is nearly always necessary: either Swabs and other samples-for infections.
t o confirm a diagnosis with important prognos- Wood's light-some disorderslfeatures are
tic o r therapeutic implications (e.g. blistering easier t o see.
disorders), o r t o seek an underlying, associated Skin scrapes o r nail clippings-microscopy
systemic disorder (e.g. in generalized pruritus). and mycological culture.
 Investigation 13

Skin biopsy- histopathology; electron cytodiagnosis of suspected viral blisters and

microscopy; immunopathology; D N A pheno- pemphigus, using a 'Tzanck preparation', which
typing. enables material t o be examined directly in the
Patch tests -for evidence of contact allergy. clinic.

Wood's light Skin biopsy

This is a nickel oxide-filtered ultraviolet light Skin biopsy is a very important technique in the
source, used t o highlight three features of skin diagnosis of many skin disorders. In some, it is
disease: critical t o have confirmation of a clinical diagno-
I Certain organisms which cause scalp ring- sis before embarking on treatment. Good
worm produce green fluorescence (useful in examples of this are skin cancers, bullous
initial diagnosis and helpful in assessingtherapy). disorders, and infections such as tuberculosis
2 The organism responsible for erythrasma and leprosy. In others it is necessary t o take a
fluoresces coral-pink. biopsy because clinical information alone has
3 Some pigmentary disorders are more clearly not provided all the answers.
visible-particularly the pale patches of There are two methods commonly used
tuberous sclerosis, and cafe-au-lait marks of t o obtain a skin sample for laboratory
neurofi bromatosis. examination:
Wood's light can also be used t o induce I lncisionallexcisionaI biopsy.
fluorescence in the urine in some of the 2 Punch biopsy.
porphyrias. Specimens obtained by either technique
may be sent for conventional histopathology-
Scrapings/clippings normally fixed immediately in formal-saline-
Material from the skin, hair o r nails can be ex- andlor other specialized examinations, for
amined directly under the microscope andlor example for D N A phenotyping of specific cells
sent for culture.This is particularly useful in sus- o r for viral DNA. For immunopathology the
pected fungal infection, o r in a search for scabies skin is usually snap frozen but for electron
mites (see Chapters 4 & 5). Scraping lightly at microscopy skin is best fixed in glutaraldehyde.
the epidermis will lift scales from the surface of Always check the details with the
the suspicious area. laboratory before you start.
The scales are placed on a microscope slide,
covered with 1 0% potassium hydroxide (KOH) IncisionaVexcisionaIbiopsy
and a coverslip. After a few minutes t o dissolve This provides good-sized samples (which can be
some ofthe epidermal cell membranes, they can divided for different purposes if required) and
be examined. I t is helpful t o add some Parker can be used t o remove quite large lesions (see
Quink ink if an infection with Malassezia (the Figs 2.1 & 2.2):
cause of pityriasis versicolor) is suspected. I Administer local anaesthetic. Usually
Nail clippings can also be treated this way, but 1-2% lidocaine (lignocaine); addition of
need stronger solutions of KOH, o r longer t o I : I0000 adrenaline (epinephrine) helps reduce
dissolve. bleeding, but never use on fingers and toes.
Microscopy of hair may also provide informa- 2 For incisional (diagnostic) biopsy. Make
tion about fungal infections, may reveal struc- two cuts forming an ellipse; ensure that the
tural hair shaft abnormalities in certain genetic specimen is taken across the edge of the lesion,
disorders, and can be useful in distinguishing retaining a margin of normal perilesional skin
some causes of excessive hair loss (see Chapter (Fig. 2. l a). For complete excision. Widen
13). the ellipse around the whole lesion (Fig. 2.1 b);
Scrapelsmear preparations are also used as a ensure that the excision edge is cut vertically
diagnostic aid by some dermatologists for the and does not slant in towards the tumour,
Other documents randomly have
different content
 PACKING HERRINGS.

The particular fishing industry which has bulked largest in

literature, and which was pursued after a systematic fashion, is, or
rather was, that of the Dutch, for Holland does not at present make
her mark so largely on the waters as she was wont to do, being at
present far surpassed in fishing enterprise by Scotland and other
countries. The particular fish coveted by the Dutch people was the
herring, and I have recently had the pleasure of examining a set of
engravings procured in Amsterdam, that convey a graphic idea of
the great importance that was attached by the Dutch themselves to
their herring-fishery. This series of sixteen peculiarly Dutch plates
begins at the beginning of the fishery, as is indeed proper it should,
by showing us a party busy at a seaside cottage knitting the herring
nets; one or two busses are seen in the distance busy at work. We
are then shown, on the banks of one of the numerous Dutch canals,
a lot of quaint-looking coopers engaged in preparing the barrels,
while next in order comes a representation of the preparing and
victualing of the buss, which is surrounded by small boats, and
crowded with an active population all engaged in getting the vessel
ready for sea—barrels of provisions, breadths of netting, and various
necessaries, are being got on board. Then follow plates, of which
the foregoing is a specimen, showing us the equipment of various
other kinds of boats, which again are succeeded by a view of the
busses among the shoals of herring, the big mast struck, most of the
sails furled, and the men busy hauling in the nets, which are of
course, as is fitting in a picture, laden with fish. Various other boats
are also shown at work, as the great hoy, a one-masted vessel, that
is apparently furnished with a seine-net, and the great double shore
or sea-boar, which is an open boat. Then we have the herring-buss
coming gallantly into the harbour, with its sails all set and its flags all
flying—its hull deep in the water, which seems to frolic lovingly
round its prow as if glad at its safe return. Next, of course, there is a
scene on the shore, where the pompous-looking curer and his
servants are seen congratulating each other amid the bustle of
surrounding commerce and labour; dealers, too, are figured in these
engravings, with their wheelbarrows drawn by dogs of unmistakable
Dutch build, and there are also to be seen in the picture many other
elements of that industry peculiar to all fishing towns, whether
ancient or modern.
The next scene of this fishing panorama is the herring banquet or
feast, where the king, or mayhap the rich owner of a fleet of busses,
sits grandly at table, with his wife and daughter, attended by a butler
and a black footman, partaking of the first fruits of the fishery. After
this follows a view of the fishmarket, with portraits of the fishwives,
and altogether thoroughly indicative of their peculiar way of doing
business, which is always the same, whether the scene be laid in
ancient Holland or in modern Billingsgate. Next comes a picture of
the various buyers of the commodity on their way home, of course
by the side of a canal, with their purchases of deep-sea, shore,
state, and red herrings. The next scene of the series is a smoking-
house, partially obscured by wreaths of smoke, where the herrings
are being red-ed; and the series is appropriately wound up with a
tableau representing the important process of repairing the
damaged nets—the whole conveying a really graphic, although not
very artistic, delineation of this highly characteristic Dutch industry. A
few plates illustrative of the whale-fisheries of Holland are appended
to the series I have been describing—for whale-fishing in the seas of
Greenland was also in those days one of the industries of the
hardworking Dutch.
The old saying that Amsterdam was built on herring bones
frequently used to symbolise the fishing power of Holland. It is
thought that the industry of the Dutch people was first drawn to the
value of the sea fisheries by the settlement of some Scottish
fishermen in their country. I cannot vouch for the truth of this
statement as to the Scottish emigration, but I believe it was a
Fleming who first discovered the virtues of pickled herrings, and it is
also known that the capture of the herring was a chief industry on
the sea-board of all the Low Countries, and it is likewise instructive
to learn that at a time when our own fisheries were very much
undeveloped the Dutch people found our seas to be a mine of gold,
so productive were they in fish, and so famous did the Dutch cure of
herrings become. We are not called on, however, to credit all the
stories of miraculous draughts taken, and store of wealth garnered
up, by the plodding Hollanders. We must bear in mind that when the
Dutch began to fish the seas as a field of industry were nearly virgin,
and that that people had at one time this great source of wealth all
to themselves. At that particular period, likewise, there was no limit
to the supply, the fishermen having but to dip their nets in the water
in order to have them filled. No wonder, therefore, that the fisheries
of Holland grew into a prominent industry, and became at one time
the one absorbing hobby of the nation. Busses in large fleets were
fitted out and manned, till in time the Dutch came to be reputed as
the greatest fishers in the world. But great as was the fishing
industry of those days in Holland, and industrious as the Dutch
undoubtedly were, it is evident that there has been a considerable
amount of exaggeration as to the results, more especially in regard
to the enormous quantities of fish that are said to have been
captured and cured. But whatever this total might be was not of
great consequence. The mere quantity of fish caught is perhaps,
although a considerable one, the smallest of the many benefits
conferred on a nation by an energetic pursuit of its fisheries. The
fishermen must have boats, and these must be fitted with sails,
rigging, etc.; and, moreover, the boats must be manned by an
efficient crew; then the curing and sale of the fish give employment
to a large number of people as well; whilst the articles of cure—as
salt, barrels, etc.—must of necessity be largely provided, and are all
of them the result of some kind of trained industry: and all these
varied circumstances of demand combine to feed the particular
industrial pursuit I am describing. And the fisheries provide, besides,
a grand nursery for seamen, which is, perhaps, in a country like
ours, having a powerful navy, the greatest of all the benefits
conferred.
I have taken the pains to collate as many of the figures of the
Dutch fishery as I could collect during an industrious search, and I
find that, in the zenith of its prosperity, after the proclamation of the
independence of the States of Holland, three thousand boats were
employed in her own bays, while sixteen hundred herring busses
fished industriously in British waters, while eight hundred larger
vessels prosecuted the cod and whale fisheries at remote distances.
In the year 1603 we are informed that the Dutch sold herrings to the
amount of £4,759,000, besides what they themselves consumed. We
are also told that in 1618 they had twelve thousand vessels engaged
in this branch of the fishery, and that these ships employed about
two hundred thousand men. It must have been a splendid sight, on
every 24th of June, to witness the departure of the great fleet from
the Texel; and as most of the Dutch people were more or less
interested in the prosperity of the fishery, either as labourers or
employers of labour, there would be no lack of spectators on these
occasions. The Wick herring drave of twelve hundred boats is, as I
will by and by endeavour to show, an industrial sight of no common
kind, but it must give way before the picturesque fleet of Holland, as
it sailed away from the Texel about three hundred years ago.
Long before the organisation of the Dutch fisheries there existed a
quaint colony of Italian fisher people on the borders of a more poetic
water than the Zuyder Zee. I allude to the eel-breeders of
Comacchio on the Adriatic. This particular fishing industry is of very
considerable antiquity, as we have well-authenticated statistics of its
produce, extending back over three centuries. The lagoons of
Comacchio afford a curious example of what may be done by design
and labour. This place was at one time a great unproductive swamp,
about one hundred and forty miles in circumference, accessible to
the waves of the sea, where eels, leeches, and the other inhabitants
of such watery regions, sported about unmolested by the hand of
man; and its inhabitants—the descendants of those who first
populated its various islands—isolated from the surrounding
civilisation, and devoid of ambition, have long been contented with
their obscure lot, and have even remained to this day without
establishing any direct communication with surrounding countries.
The precise date at which the great lagoon of Comacchio was
formed into a fish-pond is not known, but so early as the year 1229
the inhabitants of the place—a community of fishers as quaint,
superstitious, and peculiar as those of Buckie on the Moray Firth, or
any other ancient Scottish fishing port—proclaimed Prince Azzo
d’Este Lord of Comacchio; and from the time of this appointment the
place grew in prosperity, and the fisheries from that date began to
assume an organisation and design which had not before that time
been their characteristic. The waters of the lagoon were dyked out
from those of the Adriatic, and a series of canals and pools were
formed suitable for the requirements of the peculiar fishery carried
on at the place, all of which operations were greatly facilitated by
the Reno and Volano mouths of the Po forming the side boundaries
of the great swamp; and, as a chief feature of the place, the
marvellous fish labyrinth celebrated by Tasso still exists. Without
being technical, we may state that the principal entrances to the
various divisions of the great pond—and it is divided into a great
many stations—are from the two rivers. A number of these
entrances have been constructed in the natural embankments which
dyke out the waters of the lagoon. Bridges have also been built over
all these trenches by the munificence of various Popes, and very
strong flood-gates, worked by a crank and screw, are attached to
each, so as to regulate the migration of the fish and the entrance
and exit of the waters. A very minute account of all the varied
hydraulic apparatus of Comacchio would only weary the reader; but
I may state generally, and I speak on the authority of M. Coste, that
these flood-gates place at the service of the fish-cultivators about
twenty currents, which allow the salt waters of the lagoon to mingle
with the fresh waters of the river. Then, again, the waters of the
Adriatic are admitted to the lagoon by means of the Grand Palotta
Canal, which extends from the port of Magnavacca right through the
great body of the waters, with branches stretching to the chief
fishing stations which dot the surface of this inland sea, so that
there are about a hundred mouths always ready to vomit into the
lagoon the salt water of the Adriatic.
The entire industry of this unique place is founded on a knowledge
of the natural history of the particular fish which is so largely
cultivated there—viz. the eel. Being a migratory fish, the eel is
admirably adapted for cultivation, and being also very prolific and of
tolerably rapid growth it can be speedily turned into a source of
great profit. About the end of the sixteenth century we know that
the annual income derived from eel-breeding in the lagoons was
close upon £12,000—a very large sum of money at that period. No
recent statistics have been made public as to the money derived
from the eels of Comacchio, but I have reason to know that the sum
has not in any sense diminished during late years.
 A DIVISION OF COMACCHIO.

A. Canal Palotta.
H. Second compartment.
B. Entrance from the canal.
I. Chamber of second compartment.
C. Canal for the passage of boats.
K. Third compartment.
C´. Sluices for closing canal.
L L L. Chambers of third
D. First compartment of the
compartment.
labyrinth.
M. Wickerwork baskets for keeping
E. Outer basin.
fish alive.
F. Antechamber of the first
N. Boat with instruments of fishing.
compartment.
O. Dwelling-house.
G. Chamber of the first
P. Storehouse.
compartment.

The inhabitants of Comacchio seem to have a very correct idea of

the natural history of this rather mysterious fish. They know exactly
the time when the animal breeds, which, as well as the question
how it breeds, has in Britain been long a source of controversy, as I
have already shown; and these shrewd people know very well when
the fry may be expected to leave the sea and perform their montee.
They can measure the numbers, or rather estimate the quantity, of
young fish as they ascend into the lagoon, and consequently are in a
position to know what the produce will eventually be, as also the
amount of food necessary to be provided, for the fish-farmers of
Comacchio do not expect to fatten their animals out of nothing.
However, they go about this in a very economic way, for the same
water that grows the fish also grows the food on which they are fed.
This is chiefly the aquadelle, a tiny little fish which is contained in
the lakes in great numbers, and which, in its turn, finds food in the
insect and vegetable world of the lagoons. Other fish are bred as
well as the eel—viz. mullet, plaice, etc. On the 2d day of February
the year of Comacchio may be said to begin, for at that time the
montee commences, when may be seen ascending up the Reno and
Volano mouths of the Po from the Adriatic a great series of wisps,
apparently composed of threads, but in reality young eels; and as
soon as one lot enters, the rest, with a sheeplike instinct, follow their
leader, and hundreds of thousands pass annually from the sea to the
waters of the lagoon, which can be so regulated as in places to be
either salt or fresh as required. Various operations connected with
the working of the fisheries keep the people in employment from the
time the entrance-sluices are closed, at the end of April, till the
commencement of the great harvest of eel-culture, which lasts from
the beginning of August till December. The manner of life of the
people of Comacchio will be found detailed under the title of “The
Fisher Folks” in another part of this volume. The engraving
represents one of the fishing-places of the lagoon.
No country has, taking into account size and population, been
more industrious on the seas than Scotland—the most productive
fishery of that country having been the herring. There is no
consecutive historical account of the progress of the herring-fishery.
The first really authentic notice we have of a trade in herrings is nine
hundred years old, when it is recorded that the Scots sold herrings
to the people of the Netherlands, and we have some indications that
even at that early period a considerable fishery for herrings existed
in Scotland; and even prior to this time Boethius alludes to
Inverlochy as an important seat of commerce, and persons of
intelligence consider that town to have been a resort of the French
and Spaniards for the purchase of herring and other fishes. The
pickling and drying of herrings for commerce were first carried on by
the Flemings. This mode of curing fish is said to have been
discovered by William Benkelen of Biervlet, near Sluys, who died in
1397, and whose memory was held in such veneration for that
service that the Emperor Charles V. and the Queen of Hungary made
a pilgrimage to his tomb. We have also incidental notices of the
herring-fishery in the records of the monastery of Evesham, so far
back as the year 709, and the tax levied on the capture of herrings
is noticed in the annals of the monastery of Barking as herring-silver.
The great fishery for herrings at Yarmouth dates from the earliest
Anglo-Saxon times, and at so early a period as the reign of Henry I.
it paid a tax of 10,000 fish to the king. We are told that the most
ancient records of the French herring-fishery are not earlier than the
year 1020, and we know that in 1088 the Duke of Normandy allowed
a fair to be held at Fecamp during the time of this fishery, the right
of holding it being granted to the Abbey of the Holy Trinity. The
Yarmouth fishery, even in these early times, was a great success—as
success was then understood. Edward III. did all he could to
encourage the fishery at that place. In 1357 he got his Parliament to
lay down a body of laws for the better regulation of the fisheries,
and the following year sixty lasts of herring were shipped at
Portsmouth for the use of his army and fleet in France. In 1635 a
patent was granted to Mr. Davis for gauging red-herrings, for which
Yarmouth was famed thus early, at a certain price per last; his duty
was, in fact, to denote the quality of the fish by affixing a certain
seal; this, so far as we know, is the first indication of the brand
system. His Majesty Charles II., being interested in the fisheries,
visited Yarmouth in company with the Duke of York and others of
the nobility, when he was handsomely entertained, and presented
with four golden herrings and a chain of considerable value.
Several of the kings of Scotland were zealous in aiding the
fisheries, but the death of James V. and the subsequent religious and
civil commotions put a stop for a time to the progress of this
particular branch of trade, as well as to every other industrial project
of his time. In 1602 his successor on the throne, James VI., resumed
the plans which had been chalked out by his grandfather. Practical
experiments were made in the art of fishing, fishing-towns were built
in the different parts of the Highlands, and persons well versed in
the practice were brought to teach the ignorant natives; but as the
Highlanders were jealous of these “interlopers,” very slow progress
was made; and, again, the course of improvement was interrupted
by the king’s accession to the throne of England and the union of the
two Crowns. During the remainder of James’s reign little progress
was made in the art of fishing, and we have to pass over the reign
of Charles I. and wait through the troublous times of the
Protectorate till we have Charles II. seated on the throne, before
much further encouragement is decreed to the fisheries. Charles II.
aided the advancement of this industrial pursuit by appointing a
Royal Council of Fishery, in order to the establishment of proper laws
and regulations for the encouragement of those engaged in this
branch of our commerce.
After this period the British trade in fish and the knowledge of the
arts of capture expanded rapidly. It is said, as I have already stated,
that during our early pursuit of the fishery the Dutch learned much
from us, and that, in fact, while we were away founding the
Greenland whale-fishery, the people of Holland came upon our seas
and robbed us of our fish, and so obtained a supremacy in the art
that lasted for many years. At any rate, whatever the Dutch
accomplished, we were particularly industrious in fishing. Our seas
were covered with busses of considerable tonnage—the average
being vessels of fifty tons, with a complement of fourteen men and a
master. The mode of fishing then was to sail with the ship into the
deep sea, and then, leaving the vessel as a rendezvous, take to the
small boats, and fish with them, returning to the large vessel to
carry on the cure. The same mode of fishing, with slight
modifications, is still pursued at Yarmouth and some other places in
England.
The following note of the cost of building and sailing one of the
old Scottish herring-busses will illustrate the fishery of the last
century:—
 Expenses of a Vessel of 60 Tons Burden fitted out for the Herring-
Fishery.
To shipbuilder’s account for hull £345 0 0
To joiners’ account 21 10 0
To blockmaker’s account (paint, etc.) 18 0 0
To rope-work account (sails, etc.) 160 0 0
To smith’s account (anchors, etc.) 22 10 0
To spars, 3 fishing-boats, compasses, etc. 56 0 0
Cost of Vessel (forward) £623 0 0
Outfit.
To 462 bushels of salt 45 0 0
To 32 lasts herring barrels 80 0 0
To 15,000 square yards netting 78 5 0
To buoys, etc. 8 4 0
To provisions for 14 men for 3 months 42 10 0
To spirits for men when at work 5 0 0
To wages, 13 men at 27s. per month 52 13 0
To shipmaster’s wages 10 0 0
To custom-house clearing 0 15 0
Cost of Outfit £945 7 0

Supposing the above vessel to make one-half of her cargo of

herrings yearly, which has not been the case for seven years back on
an average, the state of account will stand as under:—
Voyage to Herring Fishers and Owners. Dr.
To one-half of salt carried out £22 10 0
To one-half of barrels used 48 0 0
To tear and wear on nets (one-third worn) 26 1 3
To provisions and spirits 47 10 0
To wages, including skipper 62 13 0
To tear and wear of rigging and vessel, 5 per cent per month 30 11 2
To insurance on £957 for 3 months at 2½ per cent 27 16 0
To interest on £957 for 3 months 11 18 0
To waste on salt, etc., at 10 per cent 3 10 0
To freight of herrings to Cork, at 2s. per barrel, 192 barrels 19 4 0
To duty on herrings in Ireland, at 1s. per barrel 9 12 0
£305 5 5
 Contra. Cr.
By 192 barrels herrings at 20s. £192 0 0
By debenture on herrings at 2s. 8d. 25 12 0
By bounty on 60 tons 90 0 0
307 12 0
Gain on home fishery £2 6 7
Extra Expenses on such Busses as go to the Irish Fishery—
To duty of 17¾ tons salt in Ireland £10 19 11
To duty on barrels 4 16 0
To fees on 3 boats at 42s. 6 6 0
22 1 11
Loss if upon Irish fishery £19 15 4

Much has also been written from time to time about the great
cod-fishery of Newfoundland: it has been the subject of innumerable
treatises, Acts of Parliament, and other negotiations, and various
travellers have illustrated the natural products and industrial
capabilities of these North American seas. The cod-fishery of
Newfoundland is undoubtedly one of the greatest fishing industries
the world has ever seen, and has been more or less worked for
three hundred and sixty years. Occasionally there is a whisper of the
cod grounds of Newfoundland being exhausted, and it would be no
wonder if they were, considering the enormous capture of that fish
that has constantly been going on during the period indicated, not
only by means of various shore fisheries, but by the active American
and French crews that are always on the grounds capturing and
curing. Since the time when the Red Indian lay over the rocks and
transfixed the codfish with his spear, till now, when thousands of
ships are spreading their sails in the bays and surrounding seas,
taking the fish with ingenious instruments of capture, myriads upon
myriads of valuable cod have been taken from the waters, although
to the ordinary eye the supply seems as abundant as it was a
century ago. When my readers learn that the great bank from
whence is obtained the chief supply of codfish is nearly six hundred
miles long and over two hundred miles in breadth, it will afford a
slight index to the vast total of our sea wealth and to the enormous
numbers of the finny population of this part of our seas, and the
population of which, before it was discovered, must have been
growing and gathering for centuries; but when it is further stated—
and this by way of index to the extent of this great food-wealth—
that Catholic countries alone give something like half a million
sterling every year for the produce of these North American seas,
the enormous money value of a well-regulated fishery must become
apparent even to the most superficial observer of facts and figures.
It is much to be regretted that we are not in possession of reliable
annual statistics of the fisheries of Newfoundland, but there are so
many conflicting interests connected with these fisheries as to
render it difficult to obtain accurate statistics. Mr. Hind, in his recent
work on Labrador, gives us a few figures about the fisheries of Nova
Scotia and Canada, for which we are thankful. From this work we
learn that the fish exported from Nova Scotia in 1860 reached the
large sum of $2,956,788, and that 3258 vessels were engaged in the
fishery; and Mr. Hind thinks that if we include the fish and fish-oil
consumed by the inhabitants, the present annual value of the
fisheries to British America must be above $15,000,000, and this
estimate even does not include much of the fish that goes directly to
Britain. The value of the Labrador fisheries alone has been estimated
at one million sterling per annum, and the total value of the fisheries
of the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the coast of Labrador may be set
down as four millions sterling per annum, and the Canadian
fisheries, Mr. Hind informs us, are yet in their infancy!
Another fishing industry which has bulked large in the annals of
the sea is the whale-fishery. At one time a goodly number of British
vessels were fitted out in order to follow this dangerous pursuit in
the Arctic Seas, and many a thrilling narrative has been founded on
the adventures of enterprising whalers. This fishery has fallen off
very much of late years, both as regards the pursuit of the right or
the Greenland whale, and also in the case of the sperm whale, the
capture of which used to be an “enterprise of great pith and
moment” in America, the head-quarters of the fishery being situated
at New Bedford. It is a good thing that the invention of gas has
superseded in a great measure our dependence on the whale; and
the discovery of other lubricants, vegetable and mineral, suitable for
machinery, has rendered us altogether independent of the Leviathan
of the deep. Although this particular fishing industry may almost be
said to be extinct, it was at one time of considerable importance, at
least to Scottish commerce.
To come down to the present time, it is pleasant to think that the
seas of Britain are crowded with many thousand boats, all gleaning
wealth from the bosom of the waters. As one particular branch of
sea industry becomes exhausted for the season another one begins.
In spring we have our white fisheries; in summer we have our
mackerel; in autumn we have the great herring-fishery; then in
winter we deal in pilchards and sprats and oysters; and all the year
round we trawl for flat fish or set pots for lobsters, or do some other
work of the fishing—in fact, we are continually day by day despoiling
the waters of their food treasures. When we exhaust the inshore
fisheries we proceed straightway to the deep waters. Hale and
strong fishermen sail hundreds of miles to the white-fishing grounds,
whilst old men potter about the shore, setting nets with which to
catch crabs, or ploughing the sand for prawns. At different places we
can note the specialities of the British fisheries. In Caithness-shire
we can follow the greatest herring-fleet in the world; at Cornwall,
again, we can view the pilchard-fishery; at Barking we can see the
cod-fleet; at Hull there is a wealth of trawlers; at Whitstable we can
make acquaintance with the oyster-dredgers; and at the quaint
fishing-ports on the Moray Firth, to be afterwards described, we can
witness the manufacture of “Finnan haddies,” as at Yarmouth we can
take part in the making of bloaters; and all round our coasts we can
see women and children industriously gathering shell-fish for bait, or
performing other functions connected with the industry of the sea—
repairing nets, baiting the lines, or hawking the fish, for the
fisherwomen are true helpmates to their husbands. At certain
seasons everything that can float in the water is called into
requisition—little cobbles, gigantic yawls, trig schooners, are all
required to aid in the gathering of the sea harvest. Thousands of
people are employed in this great industry; betokening that a vast
population have chosen to seek bread on the bosom of the great
deep.
Crossing the Channel we can see that the general sea fisheries of
France are also being prosecuted with great vigour, and at those
places which have railways to bear away the produce with
considerable profit. I am in possession of notes and statistics
pertaining to a large portion of the French seabord, giving plentiful
details of the modern fishing industry of that country; and the
fisheries of France are greatly noticed just now, in the hope of their
forming a splendid nursery for seamen, the improvement of the navy
being at present one of the dominant objects of the Emperor of the
French. The Marine Department, having this object in view, have
sagaciously broken through all the old protective laws incidental to
the fisheries, and now allow the fishermen to carry on their trade
very much as they please; trawling has therefore become pretty
general at all those ports which maintain railway communication with
the interior: thus at Dunkerque there are 60 trawlers; at Boulogne,
100; at Tourville, 109; at Treport, 53; at Calais, 84; with lesser
numbers at smaller ports, most of them being engaged in supplying
the wants of Paris with deep-sea fish; and as the coasts are provided
with excellent harbours of refuge, the trawlers follow their
avocations with regularity and success.
The modes of sea-fishing are so much alike in every country that
it is unnecessary for us to do more than just mention that the
French method of trawling is very similar to our own, about which I
will by and by have something to say. But there are details of fishing
industry connected with that pursuit on the French coasts that we
are not familiar with in Britain. The neighbouring peasantry, for
instance, come to the seaside and fish with nets which are called bas
parc; and these are spread out before the tide is full in order to
retain all the fish which are brought within their meshes. The
children of these land-fishers also work, although with smaller nets,
at these foreshore fisheries, while the wives poke about the sand for
shrimps and the smaller crustacea. These people thus not only
ensure a supply of food for themselves during winter, but also
contrive during summer to take as much fish as brings them in a
little store of money.
The perpetual industry carried on by the coast people on the
French foreshores is quite a sight, although it is a fish commerce of
a humble and primitive kind. Even the little children contrive to make
money by building fish-ponds, or erecting trenches, in which to
gather salt, or in some other little industry incidental to sea-shore
life. One occasionally encounters some abject creature groping
about the rocks to obtain the wherewithal to sustain life. To these
people all is fish that comes to hand; no creature, however slimy,
that creeps about is allowed to escape, so long as it can be
disguised by cookery into any kind of food for human beings. Some
of the people have old rickety boats patched up with still older
pieces of wood or leather, sails mended here and there, till it is
difficult to distinguish the original portion from those that have been
added to it; nets torn and darned till they are scarce able to hold a
fish; and yet that boat and that crippled machinery are the stock in
trade of perhaps two or three generations of a family, and the
concern may have been founded half a century ago by the
grandfather, who now sees around him a legion of hungry gamins
that it would take a fleet of boats to keep in food and raiment. The
moment the tide flows back, the foreshore is at once overrun with
an army of hungry people, who are eager to clutch whatever fishy
debris the receding water may have left; the little pools are eagerly,
nay hungrily, explored, and their contents grabbed with an anxiety
that pertains only to poverty. At some places of the coast, however,
a happier life is dawning on the people—the discovery of pisciculture
has led to a traffic in oysters that, as I will by and by show, is
surprising; indeed a new life has in consequence dawned on some
districts, and where at one time there was poverty and its attendant
squalor, there is now wealth and its handmaid prosperity.
On some parts of the French coasts, and it is proper to mention
this, the fishery is not of importance, although the fish are plentiful
enough. At Cancale, for instance, the fishermen have imposed on
themselves the restriction of only fishing twice a week. In Brittany,
at some of the fishing places, the people seem very poor and
miserable, and their boats look to be almost valueless, reminding
one of the state of matters at Fittie in the outskirts of Aberdeen. At
the isle of Groix, however, there is to be found a tolerably well-off
maritime and fishing community; at this place, where the men take
to the sea at an early age, there are about one hundred and thirty
fishing boats of from twenty to thirty tons each, of which the people
—i.e. the practical fishermen—are themselves the owners. At the
Sands of Olonne there is a most extensive sardine-fishery—the
capture of sprats, young herrings, and young pilchards, for curing as
sardines, yielding a considerable share of wealth, as a large number
of boats follow this branch of the business all the year round. There
are not less than 13,000 boats on the coast of Brittany devoted to
the sardine trade, and when it is considered that, according to
Mitchell, a sum of £80,000 is annually expended on cod and
mackerel roe for bait in this fishery, my readers will see that the total
value of the French fisheries must be very considerable. Experiments
in artificial breeding are now being made both with the white fish
and the crustaceans, and sanguine hopes are entertained of having
in a short time a plentiful supply of all kinds of shell and white fish,
and as regards those parts of the French coast which are at present
destitute of the power of conveyance, the apparition of a few
locomotives will no doubt work wonders in instigating a hearty
fishing enterprise.
In fact the industry of the French as regards the fisheries has
become of late years quite wonderful, and there is evidently more in
their eager pursuit of sea wealth than all at once meets the eye. No
finer naval men need be wished for any country than those that are
to be found in the French fishing luggers, and there can be no doubt
but that they are being trained with a view to the more perfect
manning of the French navy. At any rate the French people (?
government) have discovered the art of growing sailors, and
doubtless they will make the most of it, being able apparently to
grow them at a greatly cheaper rate than we can do. As regards the
French fisheries in the North Sea, I may mention that the flotilla
engaged in 1863, in that particular mine of industry, consisted of 285
ships, measuring 22,000 tons, and manned by nearly 4000 seamen
—the whole, both ships and men, being an increase over those of
the preceding year. This fleet left the shores of France between the
20th of March and the 12th of April, and shortly after these dates
arrived at Iceland. A very large number of codfish were taken, and
the report to the Minister of Marine says that the ships of war on the
station afforded help to eighty-three of the vessels, and that the
health of the crews was remarkably good during the whole season,
eighteen vessels only requiring the aid of the surgeon, and these
vessels had only two invalids each. This is instructive as showing the
care that is taken in the selection of healthy crews, and of the pains
of their Government to keep them healthy, and it must be admitted
that, so far as physique is concerned, the French seamen are fine-
looking fellows.
The commercial system established in France for bringing the
produce of the sea into the market is of a highly-elaborate and
intricate character. The direct consequence of this system is, that the
price of fish goes on increasing from its first removal from the shore
until it reaches the market. This fact cannot be better illustrated than
by tracing the fish from the moment they are landed on the quay by
the fishermen through various intermediate transactions until they
reach the hands of the fishmonger of Paris. The first agent into
whose hands they come is the ecoreur. The ecoreur is usually a
qualified man appointed by the owners of the vessels, the
municipality, or by an association termed the Société d’Ecorage. He
performs the functions of a wholesale agent between the fisherman
and the public. He is ready to take the fish out of the fisherman’s
hands as soon as they are landed. He buys the fish from the
fisherman, and pays him at once, deducting a percentage for his
own services. This percentage is sometimes 5, 4, or even as low as
3½ per cent. He undertakes the whole risk of selling the fish, and
suffers any loss that may be incurred by bad debts or bad sale, for
which he can make no claim whatever upon the owner of the boat.
The system of ecorage is universally adopted, as the fisherman
prefers ready money with a deduction of 5 per cent rather than
trouble himself with any repayment or run the risk of bad debts.
Passing from the ecoreur we come to the mareyeur—that is, the
merchant who buys the fish from the wholesale agent. He provides
baskets to hold the fish, packs them, and despatches them by
railway. He pays the carriage, the town-dues or duties, and the fees
to the market-crier. Should the fish not keep, and arrive in Paris in
bad condition, and be complained of by the police, he sustains the
loss. As regards the transport arrangements, the fish are usually
forwarded by the fast trains, and the rates are invariable, whatever
may be the quality of the fish. Thus, turbot and salmon are carried
at the same rate as monkfish, oysters, and crabs. On the northern
lines the rate is 37 cents per ton per kilometre; upon the Dieppe and
Nantes lines, 25 or 26 cents; which gives 85 or 96 francs as the
carriage of a ton of fish despatched from the principal ports of the
north—such as St. Valery-sur-Somme, Boulogne, Calais, and
Dunkerque—and 130 francs per ton on fish despatched from Nantes.
The fish, on their arrival in Paris, are subjected to a duty. For the
collection of this duty the fish are divided into two classes—viz., fine
fresh fish and ordinary fresh fish. The fine fish—which class includes
salmon, trout, turbot, sturgeon, tunny, brill, shad, mullet, roach,
sole, lobster, shrimp, and oyster—pay a duty of 10 per cent of the
market value. The duty upon the common fresh fish is 5 per cent.
This duty is paid after the sale, and is then of course duly entered in
the official register.
All the fish sent to Paris is sold through the agency of auctioneers
(facteurs à la criee) appointed by the town, who receive a
commission of 2 or 3 per cent. The auctioneer either sells to the
fishmonger or to the consumer.
It will be seen from the above statement that between the landing
of the fish by the fisherman and the purchase of it by the salesman
at Paris there is added to the price paid to the fisherman 5 per cent
for the ecorage; 90, 100, or 130 francs per ton for carriage; 10 or 5
per cent, with a double tithe of war, for town-dues; and 3 per cent
taken by the auctioneer—or, altogether, 18 or 13 per cent, besides
the war-tithe and the cost of transport. This is an estimate of the
indispensable expenses only, and does not include a number of
items—such as the profit which the mareyeur ought to make, the
cost of the baskets, carriage from the market to the railway, and
from the custom-house to the market in Paris; and, besides,
presumes that the merchant who buys in the market is the
consumer, which is seldom the case.
Many other considerations must be taken into account, as, for
instance, the quantity of fish not sold, or sold at a low price, the fish
which arrive in Paris in bad condition, and that quantity which never
leaves the fishing town.
Besides all this, if we bear in mind that the fish-despatcher tries to
repay himself for losses incurred, it need not astonish us that he
must put a high price upon the fish he sends to the market.
From these considerations it is evident, I think, that the high price
of fish is not owing to any scarcity in the supply, or that an increase
in the quantity brought to land will effectually reduce the price. Were
the fisherman to give his labour for nothing, and the merchant, or
rather commission-agent, who buys from him to seek no profit,
there is still enough in carriage, toll, and duties, to put a price on the
fish which would place it beyond the power of small purses to reach.
To reduce the price we must lessen these intermediate expenses,
and put the fisherman in direct communication with the Parisian
salesman. This might be possible by the establishment of
fishermen’s societies, directed by skilful business men.
I question very much, however, if the fishermen would agree to
such a plan, as they always prefer ready money and no risk. Another
suggestion is to unite the offices of ecoreur and mareyeur in one
person, or even, as is already done in some quarters, to combine
these two functions with the owner’s own special duties.
Undoubtedly, a much more effectual plan than either of these is a
reduction in the expenses of carriage and duties. The system of
transport is manifestly defective, inasmuch as the rate is a uniform
one for fine and ordinary fresh fish. The expenses of the carriage
compel the fisherman in many cases to retain the ordinary or inferior
qualities of fish and endeavour to make use of them otherwise than
for sale by employing them for the food of their own households,
feeding poultry, or manuring barren land. They in some instances
cut off the superfluous parts of the monkfish—the tail, fins, etc.—to
reduce the carriage weight; and although the fish thus mutilated
fetch a less price than they would otherwise bring, the depreciation
of the selling-price is more than counterbalanced by the reduction in
the freight.
It would be difficult to suggest a system which would at once
meet the wishes of the owners of boats, the fish-merchants, and the
railway directors. On the southern and western railway lines in
Ireland the fish are divided into classes. Turbot, sole, plaice, whiting,
eels, and shrimps, are charged two-thirds of the rate for salmon;
oysters, crabs, and lobsters, one-half; and herring and the common
fish one-third. In France, as I have already said, the rate is uniform.
The cost of transport depends upon the distance alone. The
Commercial Treaty has brought foreign fish more abundantly into the
market; but those coming from England, being gutted to make them
keep, have no longer the red gills by which the buyer distinguishes
fresh fish; and between a gutted fish and one with the gills intact
the purchaser never hesitates to choose the latter, without the
slightest regard to the place at which it has been caught. The fish-
carrier, again, tries, by cramming as many fish as possible into the
large baskets, to diminish the number of packages, and thus
destroys a number of his fish.
If there is little hope of a reduction of the railway tariffs, there is
still less chance, we think, of any reduction of the town-duties. They
are far too profitable to the city funds. The revenue derived by the
city of Paris from the sale of fish amounted, in 1858, to 894,214
francs; in 1859, to 928,925; and in 1860 it increased to 1,027,920
francs. This sum, however, only includes the dues levied upon fish
carried to the market. There is a separate and distinct duty upon fish
which arrive directly by railway to the consumer. In this case fine
fresh fish are subjected to a duty of 60 francs the 100 kilogrammes;
common fish, 15 francs; ordinary oysters, 5 francs; and Ostend
oysters, 15 francs per 100 kilogrammes. The exact revenue accruing
to the city from this source embraces these two duties; and in
estimating the full amount that the merchant must pay for bringing
fish into the town and selling it in the market, we must add to these
dues the expense of cartage, railway fare, the double tithe of war,
and the fees to the crier.
From the official records of the market sales, we find that for six
years there has been little difference in the price of fish. The tables
of 1852 and 1862 show that mussels, shrimps, mullets, and salmon,
are at the same price; lobsters, sprats, turbot, and shad, are a little
less; and mackerel, whiting, monkfish, sardines, sole, tunny, trout,
barbel, and flounder, are slightly raised. The prices vary so little that
any increase in the revenue must arise from an increased quantity
being brought into the market. Oysters, however, have increased
greatly in price, although the quantity has diminished.
 BILLINGSGATE.

But allowing the French people to cultivate to the very utmost—as

they especially do as regards the oyster—it is impossible they can
ever exceed, either in productive power or money value, the
fisheries of our own coasts. If, without the trouble of taking a long
journey, we desire to witness the results of the British fisheries, we
have only to repair to Billingsgate to find this particular industry
brought to a focus. At that piscatorial bourse we can see in the early
morning the produce of our most distant seas brought to our
greatest seat of population, sure of finding a ready and a profitable
market. The aldermanic turbot, the tempting sole, the gigantic
codfish, the valuable salmon, the cheap sprat, and the universal
herring, are all to be found during their different seasons in great
plenty at Billingsgate; and in the lower depths of the market
buildings countless quantities of shell-fish of all kinds, stored in
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