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How to Create a Magical Relationship The 3 Simple Ideas
that Will Instantaneously Transform Your Love Life 1st
Edition Ariel And Shya Kane Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Ariel and Shya Kane
ISBN(s): 0071601104
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 2.41 MB
Year: 2008
Language: english
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 Ipx!up!Dsfbuf!b!
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The 3 Simple Ideas That
Will Instantaneously
Transform Your Love Life

BSJFM!'!TIZB!LBOF

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Copyright © 2009 by ASK Productions, Inc. All rights reserved. Except as permitted under the
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For all those who have the courage,
even in the face of disappointment,
to keep going for their dreams.

՘
This page intentionally left blank
 Con t en ts

Preface ix
Acknowledgments xiii

1 Creating the Foundation for a

Magical Relationship 1
2 The Principles of Instantaneous Transformation 9
3 Discovering Your Relationship DNA 15
4 Recognizing Hidden Agendas 31
5 Don’t Tell Me What to Do! 45
6 Breaking the Cycle of Unfulfilling Relationships 57
7 You Are Not the Story of Your Life 69
8 The One Who Listens 81
9 The Gender War 97
10 Relationship Splitters 113
11 Sex and Intimacy 125
12 The Art of Listening 131
13 When to Get Out 153

An Interview with Ariel and Shya Kane 171

Index 181

vii
This page intentionally left blank
 Pr eface

After being married for almost a quarter of a century, our rela-

tionship still feels new, fresh, and more intimate than ever. But
there were times when it did not. When we first met, although
there was a strong attraction, we treated each other in ways
that were not conducive to creating a magical relationship. It
wasn’t that this was our intention; it was the only way we knew
how to relate. We both did things that we had seen others do,
relating as best we could. However, we were reluctant to look
at those aspects of our communication and interactions that we
considered to be negative. And if anything was amiss between
us, it was surely the other’s fault.
Over the years we have discovered what it takes to build a
healthy relationship and keep it alive, nonconfrontational, and
fun. We’ve also learned how to sustain and rekindle the fires of
love and passion.
In our first book, Working on Yourself Doesn’t Work, we actu-
ally created the basis for having magical relationships. That
book introduced our Three Principles of Instantaneous Trans-
formation, outlining the difference between transforming your
life and merely attempting to change those aspects with which
you are not satisfied. In How to Create a Magical Relationship, we
expand on these ideas and principles as they apply to rela-
tionships. In this book, you will find the secrets that we have
stumbled upon, learned, and discovered along the way that
have allowed us to move from being two individuals who were
attracted to one another to a couple with a vital marriage.

ix
x Preface

After years of passionate inquiry into how to have a satisfy-

ing life through the channels of school, faith, psychology, yoga,
meditation, and self-help courses, we were still at odds with
ourselves and each other, hungry for something we couldn’t
define. We originally blamed our dissatisfaction on goals we
had not yet met. But soon after we got our dream home on
Park Avenue in Manhattan, became increasingly successful in
our individual careers, and were surrounded by loving family
and friends, there came a point where we couldn’t deny that
something was still missing. It didn’t seem to matter how great
our life circumstances were, we still would lie in bed at night
thinking there had to be more to life than this.
We sold the apartment and virtually all of our possessions,
bought a couple of backpacks and supplies, and set off to find
ourselves. We only got as far as a meditation center in northern
Italy, where we immersed ourselves in furthering our quest for
self-realization. It was there that we spent the next two years
questioning and examining everything: our thoughts, our cul-
ture, our truths, and even if we should remain together.
The last workshop in which we participated there lasted six
months, twenty-four hours a day, seven days a week. When this
course was done, so were we. Realizing it was time to reenter
the real world, we returned to the United States. By now we had
spent the money from the apartment sale and maxed out our
credit cards. So we borrowed a car from Ariel’s parents, rented
a room in San Francisco, and looked at what to do next.
About this time, we were reading to each other from a book
about a seventeenth-century Zen master. One day, while walk-
ing up the hill from the beach, Shya realized that he was living
in a manner consistent with the self-realized state described in
that book. At that moment, he declared himself “done” working
on himself. It was a gutsy move. But within a day or two, the
impact of this new reality began to truly manifest itself. We
stopped bickering—really stopped. We discovered unplumbed
depths of compassion for ourselves and each other. We truly
 Preface xi

had spontaneously, instantaneously stopped working on our-

selves and each other.
Immediately, other people noticed something “different”
about us, a sense of peace and well-being. They felt better
just being in our presence. Soon folks asked us to come to
their businesses and talk with their families and friends. They
wanted us to describe the way in which we were living and
communicate our unique perspective. When we did, they
asked for more, and our workshops were born.
We have now spent more than two decades teaching our
transformational approach, which has a unique flavor and is
designed to address modern-day circumstances and complexi-
ties while resonating with the universal truths of the ages. And
through it all, we have seen over and over again that when
Instantaneous Transformation happens, it infuses all areas
of life with meaning, a sense of purpose, and well-being and
immediately impacts people’s ability to relate.
Whether we are talking about a love relationship or the
way in which you relate to friends, family, and co-workers, the
Principles of Instantaneous Transformation apply. They cross
cultural and gender boundaries, building a strong founda-
tion for real communication and genuine interactions to take
place.
How to Create a Magical Relationship is peppered with examples
from our personal experiences as a couple and as relationship
coaches. You will be transported into the midst of several of
our evening seminars for a firsthand look at how a transforma-
tional approach can support you in having the relationship of
your dreams.
In Chapter 1, “Creating the Foundation for a Magical Rela-
tionship,” we discuss the phenomenon of Instantaneous Transfor-
mation in depth so that you can begin to recognize it and support
it happening in your life. We outline our unique perspective that
will allow you to begin the process of having relationships that
are easier, more fun, and—yes—magical, too.
xii Preface

We will identify and explore the various corrosive ele-

ments that damage your ability to relate. These are the things
that unknowingly sour intimacy, curdling what was once sweet
and wholesome. Once you know of their existence, you can
discover how to avoid these pitfalls.
We will also explain the principles that have helped us
rejuvenate our flagging spirits and repair the wear and tear of
daily living. Some of these things you may already be doing
so naturally that you don’t recognize them for the powerful
relationship-building tools that they are. And then, when you
are off center and out of sorts with your partner, you may forget
or not realize that you can employ these tools as building blocks
to reconstruct a happy, healthy, loving way of relating. At the
end of many chapters, we have included simple exercises that
will support you in immediately translating the ideas presented
in this book from a concept into a practical experience.
Perhaps you are dating or are contemplating dating again.
We will share what that process was like for us and for the many
we have helped to move past simply dreaming about finding a
partner. We have worked with individuals who had given up
on ever having a romantic relationship. They have now found
their soul mates. When they applied the principles that we
detail in the following pages, even people in their fifties and
sixties who never had a working relationship before have found
love and lasting, exciting marriages. We have worked with oth-
ers who after being married for more than three decades have
rekindled the flames of love, romance, and passion after years
of merely tolerating each other.
Whether you have a love that burns brightly or are still
looking for that special someone, How to Create a Magical Rela-
tionship will help illuminate your path, allowing you to circum-
vent the barriers to intimacy so you can have a relationship that
far surpasses your dreams.
Enjoy the journey. We have . . . we still are.
 Ack now ledgm en ts

Our sincere thanks to all of the folks around the world in our
Transformational Community for your courage, support, and
partnership. You are our inspiration.
Those of you whose stories appear in this book (you
will know who you are, even though we have changed your
names!), thanks for being so honest, open, and revealing of
your life experiences. We also sincerely appreciate Amy Beth
Gideon for so graciously letting us reprint her article, “Why
Do I Worry About Silly, Silly Things?!”
We specifically thank all those who have helped proofread,
edit, promote, and produce this book in all its incarnations. You
have been so generous with your time, energy, and commit-
ment to excellence.

xiii
This page intentionally left blank
When you have the courage to see yourself honestly and
do not judge yourself for what you see, then your life will
transform and your relationships will transform along with it.
Instantaneous Transformation is like the philosopher’s stone
in alchemy that was purported to turn base metals into gold.
Instantaneous Transformation takes an ordinary, mundane
relationship and turns it into a magical one.
This page intentionally left blank
 1
Cr e ating the Foundation
for a M agic a l R el ationship

A s you begin reading this book, ask yourself why you

have picked it up. Is it because you have heard good things
about it? Were you attracted to the title or cover? Perhaps you
are stuck somewhere on your personal journey toward creating
a magical relationship. Or perhaps you are searching for tips
to fix your partner so that he or she is less irritating. Maybe
you are simply curious. Any reason is valid. To get the most
from all that How to Create a Magical Relationship has to offer, it is
important that you begin to know yourself.
Since you have picked up this book, chances are you are
interested in having relationships that are rewarding to you and
to the people with whom you relate. In the following pages,
you are likely to come across things that you do and have
done naturally all along that work well in your dealings with
others. You will also identify things that are impediments to
your ability to have a day-to-day sense of well-being. Both are
important.
The ideas presented in this book are a radical departure
from working on yourself or your relationship to bring about
positive change. This book is about discovering a new way of
seeing, a new way of looking at yourself, your life, and your
relationships. It will require you to learn a few very simple

1
2 How to Create a Magical Relationship

principles that can shift the way you relate and the way you
think about your life.
The two of us have found a far faster and more lasting
approach than that of picking on oneself and one’s partner and
making endless lists of resolutions designed to force ourselves
to behave in a more positive manner. We have discovered the
possibility of Instantaneous Transformation.

W H AT I S I N S TA N TA N E OU S
T R A N S FOR M AT I ON?
Instantaneous Transformation is a phenomenon that we will
be exploring over the course of this book. This is only the
initial foray into an explanation of this complex, yet simple,
happening.
Transformation is a shifting in the essence of something.
For example, a molecule of water turns from liquid to solid
at thirty-two degrees Fahrenheit. Even though its molecular
structure stays the same, ice does not resemble water because
it has transformed.
It is a shifting of the way you interact with life so that
mechanical, automatic, unaware behaviors cease to dominate
your choices. Transformation might be equated to a proactive
way of life but not in opposition to anything. Most people have
determined their lives either in agreement or opposition to
something they have experienced or to which they have been
exposed. With Instantaneous Transformation, the circumstances
of your life may stay the same, but the way you relate to those
circumstances radically shifts. Before
people’s lives transform, they blame
Transformation is sim-
their circumstances for how they feel.
ply a word we use to However, after transformation takes
describe what happens place, circumstances are no longer the
determining factor. It is a state where
when you discover how the mere seeing of a behavior pattern
to live in the moment. is enough to complete it.
 Creating the Foundation for a Magical Relationship 3

Instantaneous Transformation affects all aspects of a

person’s life, not merely one area. It is not produced by will or
a desire to transform. It happens to a person, and it happens
when a person lives life directly rather than thinking about
how to live life the “right” way. Transformation is the natural
outcome when you bring awareness to your life.

AWA R E N E S S
Our definition of awareness is a nonjudgmental seeing. It is an
objective, noncritical seeing or witnessing of the nature or
“isness” of any particular circumstance or situation. It is an
ongoing process in which you are bringing yourself back to
the moment rather than complaining silently about what you
perceive as wrong or what you would prefer.
Most of us have been taught that when we become aware
of something, we then have to do something to change or fix
what we discover. With Instantaneous Transformation, aware-
ness itself is often enough to facilitate resolution without doing
anything about what is seen.
You could equate it to walking through a large conference
hall with the lights turned off. If there were chairs and tables
strewn about and you attempted to cross the room directly,
you would undoubtedly stumble or fall. However, with light,
you could easily avoid all of the obstacles. Merely by illumi-
nating what is, those pitfalls that stand in the way of having a
harmonious relationship can be circumvented. This is accom-
plished not by rearranging the chairs or tables but by simply
bringing awareness to them.

An Anthropological Approach
Our approach is anthropological in nature. Rather than being
concerned with why people are the way they are, we are inter-
ested in seeing the mechanics and dynamics of how people
function. An anthropologist suspends judgment to study
cultures objectively—not as right or wrong, good or bad, or
Other documents randomly have
different content
surging upward in the lows, flowing outward under the isothermal
layer, descending in the highs, then flowing outward along the
earth’s surface toward the lows in a continuous cycle. Thus, chiefly is
maintained the vast and multifold circulation of the atmosphere over
the entire world.
In general the motion is of a vortical nature, by which is meant
that the masses of air as they flow along stream suffer more or less
change of orientation in space, the rotation at times being so slight
as to be undetectable, and again so marked as to excite wonder, as
in the whirlwind. Many of these atmospheric vortices, even though
varying in diameter from a few yards to hundreds of miles, resemble
in their behavior the gyrating column of water in a common circular
basin emptying through an orifice at its bottom. If the water is very
still when the drain opens, the column descends with imperceptible,
if any, rotation; but if the column has an initial whirl, or angular
velocity, this is magnified as the water approaches the axis of the
vortex, the tendency of the mass being to preserve its angular
momentum, or fly wheel property. A like action obtains in the great
atmospheric vortices, though here the motion far from the axis may
seem like a straight-blowing wind, rather than part of a vast whirl
covering thousands of square miles.
But even if all the air started directly for the axis of the ascending
column, like still water in a basin, it would promptly acquire vortex
motion, because it flows on the surface of a rotating sphere. The
deflection so produced is evidently greatest at the poles, and for
other places equals the polar value multiplied by the sine of the
latitude. The effect is similar to what occurs when a basin, rotating
about a vertical axis and carrying water with the same angular
velocity, is opened at the bottom. In this case the water at once
begins to gyrate within the basin, as the particles move toward its
axis.
With these preliminary generalities we may proceed to study the
more prominent movements in the atmosphere.
 CHAPTER XV
PERMANENT AND PERIODIC WINDS

The winds of the world are commonly classified as the permanent,

the periodic and the nonperiodic, according to their genesis and
character. Their chief features may be briefly outlined.
The most conspicuous and important aërial current on the globe is
the permanent double vortex playing between the equator and the
poles. The heated air of the equatorial belt, uplifted by expansion,
overflows beneath the isothermal layer toward the north and south,
thereby increasing the pressure in the higher latitudes sufficiently to
generate a surface inflow along the earth, and thus maintaining a
perpetual closed circulation which is felt all over the globe. The main
features of this motion have been determined mathematically by
Ferrel,[62] and summarized as follows:

“In the preceding part of this chapter it has been shown that,
if all parts of the atmosphere had the same temperature, there
would be a complete calm over all parts of the earth’s surface.
But that, in consequence of the difference of temperature
between the equatorial and polar regions of the globe, and the
consequent temperature gradient, there arise pressure gradients
and forces which give rise to and maintain a vertical circulation
of the atmosphere, with a motion of the air of the upper strata
of the atmosphere from the equator toward the poles, and a
counter current in the lower part from the poles toward the
equator, as represented by the arrows in the following figure,
and that this of course requires a gradual settling down of the
air from the higher to the lower strata in the middle and higher
latitudes and the reverse in the lower latitudes. It has also been
shown that in case the earth had no rotation on its axis, this
would be exclusively a vertical circulation in the planes of the
meridians without any east or west components of motion in
any part; but that, in consequence of the deflecting forces
arising from the earth’s rotation, the atmosphere at the earth’s
surface has also an east component of motion in the middle and
higher latitudes, and the reverse in the lower latitudes, and that
the velocities of the east components increase with increase of
elevation, so that at great altitudes they become very much
greater than those at the earth’s surface; while those of the
west components decrease with increase of altitude up to a
certain altitude, where they vanish and change signs and
become east velocities, now increasing with increase of altitude
to the top of the atmosphere.
“It has been further shown that the deflecting forces arising
from the east components of motion of each hemisphere from
the earth’s surface to the top of the atmosphere, in the middle
and higher latitudes and of the upper part of the atmosphere in
the lower latitudes, drives the atmosphere from the polar
regions toward the equator, while those arising from the west
components of motion in the lower part of the atmosphere in
the lower latitudes, having a contrary effect, but small in
comparison with the other on account of the weakness of these
forces near the equator, tend to drive the air a little from the
equator toward the poles. There is, therefore, a depression of
the isobaric surfaces at all altitudes in the polar regions,
especially in the southern hemisphere, a much smaller
depression in the equatorial regions, and a bulging up of the
isobaric surfaces in the vicinity of the parallel of 30° in the lower
part of the atmosphere, the maximum being nearer the equator
as the altitude increases, as represented in Fig. 45, but at high
altitudes there is a minimum of barometric pressure at the poles
and a maximum at the equator.
 Fig. 45.—General Circulation of the Atmosphere.

“In the accompanying figure the solid arrows in the interior

part represent the resultant motions of the winds (longer arrows
indicating greater velocities), in case of an earth with a
homogeneous surface over both hemispheres, in which the
motions would be symmetrical in both and the same at all
longitudes, and the equatorial and tropical calm belts would be
situated at equal distances from each pole. The dotted arrows
indicate the strong, almost eastern motion of the air at all
latitudes at some high altitude, as that of the cirrus clouds.
“The outline of the outer part of the figure represents an
isobaric surface high up where the bulging up near the parallel
of 30° disappears and the maximum pressure at the same
 altitude is transferred to the equator. For lower altitudes the
isobaric surfaces have a bulging up at the parallel of 30°, and a
slight depression at and near the equator. The arrows in this
part represent the polar and equatorial components of motion,
the former above and the latter below, except near the earth’s
surface on the polar sides of the tropical calm-belts, where
there is a polar component of motion arising from the air’s being
pressed out from under the belt of high pressure. This, perhaps,
does not extend beyond the polar circles, beyond which there
can be little motion in any direction, except from abnormal
disturbances.
“For reasons given in § 103, the actual mean position of the
equatorial and tropical calm-belts are not precisely as here
represented, but are all a little displaced toward the north pole,
and the polar depression of the isobaric surfaces is greater in
the southern than in the northern hemisphere.”

The conclusions from this approximate analysis are in the main

supported by observation, except as modified by the heterogeneity
of the earth’s surface. The sea-level distribution of barometric
pressure between the equator and poles, as found by Ross’ long
series of measurements, manifests a variation of about one inch of
mercury, with maxima at about 30° of latitude, north and south, as
required by Ferrel’s theory. As a further cause of the depression
toward the poles, may be mentioned the greater speed of the
permanent east wind with the consequent centrifugal lift in the
atmosphere.
As to the general easterly direction of the winds at middle and
higher latitudes, that is well known from observation of the motion
of clouds and of the air near the earth. At the cirrus level the velocity
in those latitudes is almost exactly eastward. But the flow in
longitude, illustrated by the outer arrows in Fig. 45, has not been
fully determined by observation. Moreover, as Ferrel himself showed,
the unequal heating of continents and oceans sets up gradients in
longitude, especially in the northern hemisphere, thus adding
considerable disturbance to the general circulation. To this agency
must be added also the latitudinal shifting of insolation, due to the
annual march of the sun across the equator, entailing an oscillatory
seasonal shift of the hot belt, and therefore of the twin-hemispheric
cycle of the atmosphere.
Some currents of the general and permanent circulation are
sufficiently prominent to have special names, such as the trade-
winds, the antitrade-winds, the prevailing westerlies, and, in the
lower latitudes, the calm belts, where the flow is exceptionally
feeble. All these currents have been known to sailors since early
times, and have been of considerable importance in marine
navigation. Eventually, perhaps, they may be of like importance in
aërial navigation.
The trade-winds are mild tropical surface currents of remarkably
steady speed and direction. Springing from the high-pressure belts
in either hemisphere, at about latitude 30°, they blow toward the
equator with increasing westerly trend. As shown in charts 46 and
47 for midwinter and midsummer, the trade winds cover a large
portion of the tropical zones in both oceans, and shift slightly in
latitude with the sun. They are separated at the heat equator by the
equatorial calm belts, or doldrums, and are bounded north and
south respectively by the calms of Cancer and of Capricorn.
Particularly interesting are the trade-winds blowing from Spain to the
West Indies, which favored Columbus on his westward voyage, and
which certain adventurous Germans have proposed using to
duplicate that memorable voyage, in air ships.
 Fig. 46.—Normal Wind Direction and Velocity for January and February.
(Köppen.)

The antitrade-winds, or counter trades, are lofty winds blowing

over and contrary to the trade winds. As some doubt regarding the
direction of these counter trades had existed, an expedition was sent
in 1905, by two distinguished meteorologists, Teisserenc de Bort of
France, and A. Lawrence Rotch of America, to explore the
atmosphere above the tropical Atlantic. Mr. Rotch has summarized
their measurements and conclusions as follows:[63]

“Pilot balloons, dispatched from the island of Teneriffe and St.

Vincent, were observed with theodolites at the ends of a base-
line, and in this way the heights at which the balloons changed
direction could be ascertained. Later the balloons were sent up
from the yacht itself, which steamed after them, measurements
being made of their angular elevation. The observations which
are plotted in Fig. 46 prove conclusively the existence of the
upper counter-trade. The courses of the balloons are
represented as if projected upon the surface of the sea and
show that the northeast trade-wind extended only to the height
of 3,200 or 4,000 meters, and then gradually turned into a
southerly current which, higher up, came from the southwest.
The width of the dotted band represents approximately the
varying velocity of the trade and counter-trade. Similar proofs of
 the northwest trade-wind, south of the equator were obtained
by the same expedition during the following year, but the above
suffices to show that it would be possible for an aëronaut in the
ordinary balloon to start from the African coast, or from some of
the islands in the trade-wind region, and, after drifting towards
the southwest, to rise a few miles into the current, which would
carry the balloon north and eventually northeast back to land.
Nevertheless, it does happen in certain atmospheric situations
over the tropical north Atlantic that the winds from the general
northwesterly direction prevail up to great heights without any
evidence of the return-trade. Near the equator the winds are
easterly up to the greatest heights which have been attained.”

Fig. 47.—Normal Wind Direction and Velocity for July and August. (Köppen.)
 Fig. 48.—Trade and Counter Trade-winds.

The prevailing westerlies are high-latitude surface winds of the

permanent circulation. In the southern hemisphere they are
particularly strong and steady owing to the comparatively unbroken
stretch of ocean. In the north also they are strong and persistent,
but variable in direction because of disturbances by local winds due
to unequal heating of tracts of land and sea. These features are well
illustrated in charts 47 and 48. Of particular interest in aëronautics is
the prevailing wind blowing from the United States to Europe, which
has been considered a suitable current for transoceanic balloon
voyages.[64]
The periodic winds are those whose gradient alternates annually
or daily, due to annual or daily fluctuations of temperature on
sloping or on heterogeneous parts of the globe. The annually
fluctuating winds due to alternate heating and cooling of continents,
or large land areas, bear the general name of monsoon. Among
diurnal winds the most prominent are the land-and-sea breezes, and
the mountain-and-valley breezes. Both kinds are practically available
in aëronautics; the monsoons for long-distance travel, the diurnal
winds for local use.
The general motive cause is the same for all periodic winds. When
any portion of the earth’s surface is periodically more heated above
its normal temperature, or average for the year, than the
neighboring region, the resulting abnormal temperature gradient
causes a periodic surface wind tending toward the excessively
heated place, and a counter wind above. That is, the cooler and
heavier column of air sinking and uplifting the lighter, results in a
lowering of the common center of gravity of the two columns of air,
and thus furnishes the driving power of the wind. For example, an
island or a peninsula may be considerably hotter by day and cooler
by night than the surrounding water; a continent may be much
hotter in summer and much colder in winter than the bordering
ocean. Thus during the hot period a moist wind blows landward;
during the cold period a dry wind blows seaward. If the land has
vast and lofty slopes the uprush of air during the hot period and the
downrush during the cool period may be very powerful. The currents
so produced by the aggregate of local agencies, including the
deviation caused by the earth’s rotation, combine with the general
circulation of the atmosphere to form the actual wind of the place.
Thus the periodic current may conspire with the general circulation,
or oppose it; may intensify, weaken or obliterate it; may overmaster,
reverse or mask it completely.
Of the various continental monsoons of the globe the most
powerful spring from the annual flux and reflux of the atmosphere
over the vast declivities and table-lands of Asia. Here the conditions
are especially favorable. As the sun approaches Cancer, the burning
deserts and high plateaus, combining their force with the draft on
the mountain sides, generate a continental uprush that sucks in all
the aërial currents of the surrounding seas, hurling them aloft to the
isothermal layer whence they radiate as the four winds of heaven;
for here at this season the planetary circulation is disrupted,
obliterated or reversed, appearing merely as a perturbation of the
monsoon at its height. In India the force is particularly effective.
Along the north the Himalayas stretch 1,300 miles in latitude, with
an average height of 18,000 feet and with sunburned areas on either
side. North of this range are the lofty plateaus of Thibet and
Cashmere, south of it the desert of Gobi and the borders of the
Indian Ocean. Over this watery tract from beyond the equatorial
line, from the isles of Oceanica and from the wintry plains of
Australia, the air flows in with accumulated strength, sweeping the
Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea in a continuous gale bearing up
the mountain slopes incredible floods of water. Over the Arabian Sea
in summer the gale is so steady and swift that no ordinary ship can
force a passage from Bombay to the Gulf of Aden. Above the Bay of
Bengal the moist south winds, converging between the coast and
headlands, pour cloud laden up the Himalayan slopes, precipitating
their whole vapor in prodigious torrents seldom seen elsewhere.
Khasia at this season sustains a Noachian deluge, the rain at times
falling nearly a yard deep in one day and night.[65] Quite
appropriately, therefore, the summer monsoon over India, especially
its component southwest wind from the Arabian Sea, and southerly
wind from the Bengal Bay and farther east, is called the wet
monsoon.
The winter monsoon of Asia, is the reverse of the summer one,
both in direction of gradient and in physical character. It is a cold
flood of air pouring from the frigid table-lands and wintry depths of
the desert, down the mountains and valleys in continual overflow on
all sides of the continent, and then far out over the sea, where it
reascends to complete its long cycle. In its descent all moisture
vanishes by heating, and no intensive temperature gradient occurs,
as in summer, to accelerate its gently modulated tide. In India the
winds from Cashmere and Thibet pour down the Himalayas toward
the Arabian Sea a clear current of air which unites with the trade-
wind, increasing its force, and forming the moderate winter
monsoon of that region, or as it is commonly called, from its lack of
moisture, the dry monsoon.
The kinematic character, and the extent of both summer and
winter currents, are well portrayed in charts 47 and 48 for all the
south and southeast of Asia. Across the islands of Japan, it will be
observed, the winds blow in opposite directions summer and winter.
In Siberia the monsoon winds trend along her great rivers and
valleys, generally northward in the winter and the reverse in the
summer, combining in both seasons with the prevailing westerlies,
due to the rotation of the earth.
All the other continents have their monsoons, though less
powerful than those of Asia. In the great desert of Sahara, for
example, there is an ascending hot current in the summer, causing a
strong indraught from the Atlantic and the Mediterranean; but this is
far less intense than if its action were fortified by lofty slopes and
table-lands. In winter when the Sahara cools to nearly the oceanic
temperature, little monsoon effect is perceptible, and the general
circulation continues unperturbed. In Australia the monsoon
influence is still feebler, owing to the limited extent of the country
and to the general lowness and flatness of the land. Over parts of
South America, the annual ebb and flow of the atmosphere is
considerable, particularly along the northeastern coast, and in the
whole Amazon Valley, whose aërial currents in general conspire with
the trade-winds, strengthening them materially in the southern
summer, though it is less in winter when the continental temperature
more nearly approximates that of the ocean. The monsoons of North
America have been described in some detail by Ferrel as follows:

“On the continent of North America we have monsoon

influences similar to those of Asia, but not nearly so strong,
because the extent of the continent, and consequently the
annual range of temperature, are not so great. They are, for the
most part, not sufficiently strong to completely overcome and
reverse the current of the general circulation of the atmosphere,
and so to produce a real monsoon, but they cause great
differences between the prevailing directions of the winter and
summer winds.
“In the summer the whole interior of the continent becomes
heated up to a temperature much above that of the oceans on
the same latitudes on each side—indeed, above that of the Gulf
of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean on its southern and
southwestern borders. The consequence is that the air over the
interior of the continent becomes more rare than over the
oceans, rises up and flows out in all directions above while the
barometric pressure is diminished, and the air from all sides,
from the Atlantic on the east to Pacific Ocean on the west, the
Gulf of Mexico on the south, and the polar sea on the north,
flows in below to supply its place. On the east the tendency to
flow in is not strong enough to counteract the general easterly
motion of the air at the earth’s surface in the middle latitudes,
and to cause a westerly current, but it simply retards the
general easterly current and gives rise to a greater prevalence
of easterly winds along the Atlantic sea-coast during the
summer season....
“In winter the thermal conditions over the continent are
reversed. The interior of the continent is now the coldest part,
and it is especially colder than the surrounding oceans at that
season. It has also very high plateaus and mountain ranges.
The air, therefore, of the lower strata, and especially those next
the earth’s surface, now tends to flow out in all directions to the
warmer oceans and the Gulf of Mexico, and especially to run
down the long slope of plateau from the Rocky Mountains into
the Mississippi Valley. The effect over the whole of the United
States east of the Rocky Mountains is to cause the winds, which
otherwise would be westerly and southwesterly, to become
generally northwesterly winds, instead of southerly and
southwesterly ones, as in summer. There is not a complete
monsoon effect, but simply a great change between summer
and winter in the prevailing directions of the winds. In Texas,
however, and farther east along the northern border of the Gulf,
the effect is somewhat that of a complete monsoon. In New
England and farther south in the Eastern States the monsoon
effect is to cause the prevailing winds to be from some point
north of west, instead of south of west as in summer.
“In summer, Central America and Mexico have a much higher
temperature than that of the adjacent tropical sea on the
southwest, and having high mountain ranges and elevated
plateaus, there is consequently a strong tendency to draw in air
from the southwest at this season, which not only entirely
counteracts the regular trade-winds of these latitudes, but even
reverses them and causes southwest winds. The effect is to
cause in midsummer a large area here, extending far westward,
of calms and irregular and light winds, mostly southwesterly
ones, and an apparent widening of the equatorial calm-belt at
this season so as to make its northern limit reach up, along the
coast, nearly to the parallel of 20°. The effect is similar to that
in the Atlantic west of the Gulf of Guinea and Liberia, except
that it here appears to be some greater, and causes a true
monsoon effect, since during the winter the regular
northeasterly trade-winds prevail, but strengthened by the
reverse thermal conditions of the winter season. On the eastern
side, and over the western end of the Gulf of Mexico, there is a
somewhat regular monsoon effect, the prevailing winds being
easterly, or blowing toward the land, during the summer, and
the reverse in winter.
“Along the west coast of North America in the middle latitudes
there is a strong monsoon influence; for the interior of the
continent becomes heated in summer to a much higher
temperature than that of the southwesterly ocean, and hence a
strong current is drawn in from this direction, at right angles to
the general trend of the coast which, combining with the
general southwesterly winds of these latitudes in the general
circulation of the atmosphere, causes the strong and steady
westerly and southwesterly winds of this region during the
 summer. Farther north, up toward Alaska, the summer monsoon
effect is combined with the current caused by the deflection of
the continent as well as the general easterly current of high
latitudes, so that the winds here are generally southerly, but still
have somewhat of a monsoon character, being southerly and
southwesterly in summer and easterly and southeasterly during
the winter.
“Along the northern coast of America, as along that of Siberia,
the monsoon tendency is to draw the air from the colder land to
the warmer ocean in winter, and the reverse in summer; and
these effects, combined with the general easterly motion of the
atmosphere in these latitudes, gives rise to prevailing
southwesterly winds in winter and northwesterly ones in
summer. The winter monsoon influence, however, is small here
—much more so than in Siberia, for the ocean contains so many
large islands that it has rather a continental than an oceanic
winter temperature; and besides, it has not the influence of a
warm current—such as the continuation of a part of the Gulf
Stream along the northern coast of Europe and Asia.”

Similar to the monsoons in essential nature are the diurnal winds

of seacoast and mountain side. They begin with the heating of the
land in the morning, attain their maximum intensity about mid
afternoon, or during the hottest of the day, and finally are reversed
at night. Besides being so much briefer than monsoons, they are
also in general feebler and less extensive. They may be quite
noticeable on calm days, especially in clear weather and in hot
climates; but usually they are masked or entirely overwhelmed
where other marked currents occur—currents due either to the
general circulation or monsoons, or other powerful disturbing
agencies.
In land-and-sea breezes, which usually extend not far inland,
there is a surface inflow of sea air during the forenoon and early
afternoon, balanced by an outflow of warm air above, rising from
the heated soil. After sundown this is reversed, the chilled air from
inland pouring out to sea, while overhead the warmer sea air is
forced landward at a higher level. These currents are strongest
where the diurnal range of temperature is greatest and where the
local topography is of suitable configuration. Particularly favorable
are steeply declining shores, narrow bays and inlets, girded by
mountains or lofty hills. During the day heated air ascends such
declivities with alacrity, like smoke through an inclined flue, while at
night, when cooled by radiation and contact with the soil, it rushes
torrentlike down the valleys and hillsides, passing out to sea, often
in sudden squalls that embarrass, or endanger, small sailing craft.
Circulatory currents like the above have sometimes been used by
aëronauts to carry them out to sea and back again to land at a
different level.
In like manner the mountain-and-valley winds may be used by the
skillful aëronaut. It is well known that these flow up the courses of
rivers, cañons and land slopes generally by day, but at night reverse
their course and pour down again with considerable force. For this
reason experienced hunters place their camp fires below tent in a
sloping valley. The strength of the breeze depends, of course, upon
the daily range of temperature, and the steepness and expanse of
the slope. Such winds are deftly used by the masters of soaring
flight, the great robber and scavenger birds, and no doubt may be
used by men in motorless aëroplanes, to gain elevation, and journey
great distances without expenditure of energy.
 CHAPTER XVI
CYCLONES, TORNADOES, WATERSPOUTS

Besides the periodic winds so far treated, there are prominent aërial
movements having no regular course or season. These are the
nonperiodic winds which so exercise or perplex the weather forecaster
and those who confide in him. In general such winds are of a temporary
character, arising from an unstable condition of the air in some locality, or
from unequal heating, either of which causes may generate, or briefly
sustain, an updraught, with its attendant gyration. Owing to the whirling
character of such ascending currents, they have received various
significant names, such as cyclone, tornado, whirlwind; the three terms
applying to vortices in decreasing order of magnitude. Each in turn may
be treated briefly.
The cyclone is a temporary large gyratory wind. It may last a few hours
or a few days. It may measure fifty to a hundred miles across, or it may
measure more than a thousand miles. On the weather map it is in general
marked by a group of closed isobars, showing a considerable pressure
gradient toward a small internal area where the pressure is a minimum.
To an observer looking about the earth’s surface and lower levels of the
atmosphere, the cyclone appears merely as an ordinary wind,
accompanied perhaps by rain or snow. It is not a swiftly rotating narrow
column, or cone of air, like a tornado or whirlwind, full of gyrating dust
and débris.
The motive power of a cyclone, though in general due to the buoyancy
of heated air, may spring from more than one set of conditions. Notice
has already been taken of vortices due to a hot column of air at lower
barometric pressure than its lateral environment. Take another case. If a
dry atmosphere is of uniform temperature and pressure at various levels,
but has a vertical temperature gradient a little greater than the normal
cooling of an ascending gas, a portion of air started upward in any casual
way becomes warmer than its lateral environment, and hence continues
to rise until the unstable condition due to abnormal temperature gradient
ceases. Again, while the surface stratum is in stable equilibrium, it may
happen that the second mile of air is abnormally hot, and the third mile
abnormally cold, and thus a vortex may occur in mid air, without
disturbing the face of the earth.
Whatever be the initial atmospheric condition causing the vertical
uprush, the nature of the resulting circulation is in general that of the
cyclone, illustrated, in part, by the whirling vortex of water in a basin. As
the current ascends, an indraught occurs in all the lower regions of air,
and an outflow in all directions above, sometimes at the height of a mile
or two, again in all the region next to the isothermal layer. As the earth
has at all places above the equator a component of rotation about the
vertical line, it follows that in northern latitudes all the air flowing toward
the vortex is in a whirl opposite in motion to the hands of a watch lying
face upward, and all the outflowing air above has a like angular motion,
but gradually diminishing until it is reversed. At the lower portion of the
vortex the air whirls inward and upward with increasing velocity, while
above, it whirls outward and upward, with waning velocity, thus moving in
a double-spiral path shaped like a cord wound on an hourglass. In the
constricted part, or neutral plane of the vortex, the air moves neither
outward nor inward, but spirals straight upward. To match the upflow, and
complete the closed circulation, there must be a downflow on the exterior
of the cyclone, and since the whirl is reversed in direction, this outer mass
of downflowing reverse-whirling air embracing the cyclone is called the
anticyclone.
Between the inner and outer vortex the air is comparatively calm and
the pressure is a maximum, with steepest gradient toward the center of
the cyclone. Also the air is calm just at the axis of the vortex, while for
some distance away its speed increases as the radius of its whirl, so that
the central mass rotates practically as a solid column, thus still further
lowering the pressure near the axis. This solidly rotating central column of
air is sometimes called the core of the vortex.
High above the center of the cyclone, where perhaps the air is sucked
downward, clarified by compression, then whirled outward, the sky is
usually clear, or thinly fogged, while without this central patch are heavy
clouds. The obscure or clear central part is called the “eye[66] of the
storm.” Through this the cirrus clouds may sometimes be seen high
above, either stationary or radiating away, if the vortex extends so high.
Sailors on the deck of a vessel passing through a cyclone have often
noticed the eye of the storm overhead, perhaps ten or twelve degrees in
diameter, and with special clearness in the tropics. To the white, feathery
cirrus clouds, scurrying away radially from the top of the vortex, they
have given the name “plumes of the storm,” or “mares’ tails.” In sailing
their vessel through the center of a cyclone, they have observed the
circulatory motion of the winds and clouds, and frequently have found the
deck covered or surrounded with cyclone sweepings, such as land and
water birds, insects, butterflies, etc., brought into the quiet core of the
vortex from the incurving winds beyond. Further details of the motion in a
cyclone vortex are given as follows by Ferrel, §178:

“In Fig. 49 is given a graphic representation of the resultant

motions and of the barometric pressures for both the surface of the
earth and for some level high up in the atmosphere and above the
neutral plane, where the motions in the vertical circulation are
outward from the center. The solid circles represent isobars at the
earth’s surface and the solid arrows the directions, and in some
measure, by their different lengths, the relative velocities of the wind.
The heavy circle represents the circle of greatest barometric pressure
at the earth’s surface, say 765 mm., while the pressure of the outer
border is 760 mm., and the dividing line between the cyclone and the
anticyclonic gyrations. Within this limit the pressure diminishes to the
center, and the gyrations are cyclonic, and the direction of the
resultant of motion inclines in toward the center, but beyond that
limit the gyrations are anticyclonic, and the direction of resultant
motion inclines toward the outer border of these gyrations. The
heavy dotted circle represents the circle of maximum pressure at
some high level, and is much nearer the center than that at the
earth’s surface. It is also the dividing line between the cyclonic and
anticyclonic gyrations at that level. The dotted arrows indicate the
directions and in some measure the relative velocities, of the wind at
this level. The arrows in the cyclonic part represent the direction of
the wind as declining outward, because the plane here considered is
supposed to be above the neutral plane, where the radial component
of motion is outward, but for any level below the neutral plane the
inclination is still inward. The arrows are shorter above in the cyclonic
part and longer in the anticyclonic part than they are at the earth’s
surface, since the cyclonic gyratory velocities decrease and the
anticyclonic increase with increase of altitude.

Fig. 49.—Velocity Diagram in Horizontal Section of a Cyclone.

“The upper part of the figure is a representation of a vertical

section of the air, very much exaggerated in altitude, in which the
solid curved line represents a section of an isobaric surface near the
earth’s surface, say of 740 mm. barometric pressure. The lowest part
corresponds with the center of the cyclone and the highest part with
the heavy circle in the lower part of the figure, and the steepest
gradients with the longest solid arrows, since the greater the gyratory
velocities at the earth’s surface the greater the gradients, though
they are not strictly proportional. The second dotted curved line from
the top represents a section of the isobaric surface of high altitudes,
in which the highest parts correspond with the heavy dotted circle
below, since the highest pressure at all altitudes is very nearly where
the cyclonic gyrations vanish and change to the anti-cyclonic. The
depression here is smaller because the cyclonic area is smaller, and
the gyratory velocities less, than at the earth’s surface. The upper
dotted line belongs to an isobaric surface still higher, where the
gyrations are supposed to be all anti-cyclonic, and here,
consequently, the greatest pressure is in the center, as indicated by
the curved line.
“As the interior of the whole cyclonic system is warmer than the
exterior, and consequently the air less dense, the distances between
the isobaric surfaces are necessarily greater in the interior than the
exterior part, and so, however much the isobaric surface at or near
the earth’s surface may be depressed by the cyclone gyration there,
at a considerable altitude, if the temperature difference is great
enough, it must become convex instead of concave.
“The track of any given particle of air in a cyclone, resulting from
the vertical and gyratory circulation, is that of a large converging and
ascending spiral in the lower part, but of a diverging and ascending
spiral in the upper strata of the atmosphere, and the nearer the
earth’s surface the more nearly horizontal is the motion, since the
vertical component gradually decreases and vanishes at the surface.
“The whole energy of the system by which the inertia of the air
and the frictional resistance are overcome and the motions
maintained, is in the greater interior temperature and the
temperature gradients, by which the circulation is maintained. This
being kept up, the deflections and gyrations are merely the result of
the modifying influence of the earth’s rotation, which is not a real
force, since it does not give rise to kinetic energy, but merely to
changes of direction.
 “It must be borne in mind that the preceding is a representation of
the motions and pressures of a cyclone resulting from perfectly
regular conditions, in an atmosphere otherwise undisturbed, and
having a uniform temperature, except so far as it is affected by the
temperature disturbance arising from the cyclonic conditions.
Accordingly results so regular are not to be found in Nature, but
generally only rough approximations to them.
“Since the wind inclines less and less toward the center of the
cyclone below the neutral plane and declines from the center above
it, the upper currents above this plane in a cyclone are always from a
direction, in the northern hemisphere, a little to the right of that of
the lower currents, when not affected by abnormal circumstances.”

Observation of cyclones in Nature very well confirms the leading

features set forth on theoretical grounds. If the vortex pass centrally over
an observatory there is noted first a high barometer and calm air,
attended perhaps by scurrying cirrus clouds; next a rapidly falling
pressure and increasing wind, with dark clouds and precipitation,
commonly accompanied by thunder and lightning; then the hushing of the
storm to a dead calm, and low barometer and thinning or clearing of the
clouds overhead; then a rising barometer with renewed winds in the
reverse direction, and finally subsiding winds, rising barometer and
clearing weather. These phenomena are the more definitely presented if
the whirl is strong while its travel along the earth is slow. But owing to
their progressive easterly motions, cyclones in the north have their moist
hot southern masses elevated, chilled and precipitated on their eastern
fronts and beyond, while their rear experiences the opposite action and is
called the clearing side. Conversely in the tropics the westerly moving
cyclones have cloudy and wet rears, because the easterly drift on high
carries the precipitating masses toward the rear. The general hygrometric
appearance of a centrally passing cyclone in middle latitude is thus
described by Ferrel, §207:

“In the regular progression of a cyclone in the middle latitudes

somewhat centrally over a place, the cloud and rain area of the front
part, extending far toward the east, first passes over, occupying a
half-day, or a day and more, and then the front part of the ring of
dense cloud with a heavy shower of rainfall. After this there are
 indications of a clearing up, and even the sun may break through the
cloud for an hour or two; but presently there is an apparent
gathering and thickening of the cloud and a second shower. This is at
the time of the passage of the rear side of the ring of denser cloud.
After this there is the final clearing up.”

Except for special conditions, cyclones are never stationary, but drift
along with the general march of the atmosphere, like dimpling eddies in a
stately flowing river. In general, therefore, their trend is westward in lower
latitudes, eastward in middle and higher latitudes, with a pace slow or
swift according to the prevailing current. Notably also they have a
poleward trend. Thus, if the path extends from tropic to temperate clime,
it is frequently concave toward the east and sensibly parabolic in form.
This is markedly true of those swift-whirling, small cyclones called
hurricanes,[67] and particularly those vigorous ones blowing past the West
Indies and the Philippines, and those that vex the Indian Ocean.
As to the speed of travel of cyclones, that may be judged, at least for
northern latitudes, from the accompanying table, taken from Loomis,[68]
and showing the average monthly rate of progression in miles per hour, of
cyclone centers over the United States, the Atlantic Ocean and Europe. In
general, beyond the tropics tall cyclones travel faster than short ones,
owing to the faster drift of the higher strata.
Atlantic Ocean
Month. United States. Europe.
Middle Latitudes.
January 33.8 17.4 17.4
February 34.2 19.5 18.0
March 31.5 19.7 17.5
April 27.5 19.4 16.2
May 25.5 16.6 14.7
June 24.4 17.5 15.8
July 24.6 15.8 14.2
August 22.6 16.3 14.0
September 24.7 17.2 17.3
October 27.6 18.7 19.0
November 29.9 20.0 18.6
December 33.4 18.3 17.9
 Year 28.4 18.0 16.7
To find the actual speed of the wind at a place, of course, the linear
velocities of whirl and of translation must be combined; or, vice versa, if
one of these be known it can be graphically subtracted from the observed
wind velocity to find the other. This combination of two wind components
to find their resultant, or, vice versa, can easily be done by laying off on
paper, arrows of suitable length and direction to represent the two known
velocities, placing the head of one arrow to the tail of the other, then
completing the triangle, and taking its third side to represent the required
wind velocity, in magnitude and direction. Obviously if the cyclone moves
eastward, whirling oppositely to the hands of a watch, the swiftest wind is
on its right side, which consequently is known as the dangerous side. In
the northern hemisphere, therefore, the rule for dodging a great
whirlwind is to run north, if that be practicable.
Stationary cyclones occur under favorable conditions. At least that
name has been applied to columns of hot air streaming up from a fixed
base, more or less circular. Every island in the ocean generates such a
vortex on a clear, hot summer day, since its temperature far exceeds that
of the surrounding water. All day long this uprush continues whatever be
the humidity. And if the soil slopes upward steeply, the vortex is so much
the stronger, particularly if the island be in a calm region. Above such a
tract the gulls and vultures, and possibly even man, might soar all day
without motive power. This condition and its interesting possibility deserve
investigation.
Cyclones may occur at any season, but in general they are most
abundant when the greatest temperature disturbances occur. The relative
frequency of tropical cyclones for various localities and for the twelve
months of the year is seen in the following table[69]:

The Yearly Periods of Cyclone Frequency in Several Seas

Arabian Bay of S. Indian China
Java Sea. Havana.
Sea. Bengal. Ocean. Sea.
No. of
years 234 139 40 ... 85 363
No. of
cyclones 70 115 53 12 214 355
 Piddington
Piddington
Authority. Chambers. Blanford. Thom and Schuck. Poey.
and Thom.
Reid.
Jan. 6 2 17 25 2 1
Feb. 4 0 25 42 0 2
Mar. 3 2 19 8 2 3
April 13 8 15 8 2 3
May 18 16 7 0 5 1
June 29 9 0 0 5 3
July 3 3 0 0 10 12
Aug. 3 4 0 0 19 27
Sept. 4 5 2 0 27 23
Oct. 6 27 2 0 16 17
Nov. 14 16 7 0 8 5
Dec. 3 8 6 17 3 2
The tornado is a slender cyclone or hurricane. It is usually but a few
yards or rods in diameter, and seldom exceeds one mile across its active
column, whereas a cyclone may cover an area of any size from fifty to
one or two thousand miles in diameter. Moreover, the cyclone requires for
its inception an extensive pressure gradient marked by closed isobars, and
once generated may last several days. A tornado per contra may spring
into action where the lateral pressure is uniform, spend its force in a few
moments, and leave a uniform barometric field in its wake. In shape the
tornado is usually of greater height than width. The cyclone is far-flung
laterally, but in height may not exceed the narrow tornado, since both
must terminate beneath the isothermal layer, and commonly do not
extend so high. Both vortices are caused by the ascensional force of hot
air. In both the air spirals in and upward at the bottom, out and upward at
the top, constantly cooling by expansion, and finally descends on the
outside to complete the closed circulation. In general the tornado is the
more violent and destructive, though limited to a brief and narrow path.
More aptly, perhaps, the tornado may be called a slender hurricane of
brief duration; both of them being small cyclones, or aërial vortices, of
minor size and concentrated intensity. The relation of the tornado and
cyclone has been defined as follows, by Professor Moore:
 “The cyclone is a horizontally revolving disk of air of probably 1,000
miles in diameter, while the tornado is a revolving mass of air of only
about 1,000 yards in diameter, and is simply an incident of the
cyclone, nearly always occurring in its southeast quadrant. The
cyclone may cause moderate or high winds through a vast expanse of
territory, while the tornado, with a vortical motion almost
unmeasurable, always leaves a trail of destruction in an area
infinitesimal in comparison with the area covered by the cyclone.”

Two initial conditions seem essential to the genesis of a substantial

tornado. In the first place, the atmosphere of its immediate locality must
have appreciable gyration. Of course, in all extra equatorial regions the air
has some incipient whirl due to the earth’s rotation, and this whirl is
magnified as the fluid is sucked into the vortex. But the magnification may
be slight owing to the brief lateral displacement of the air feeding the
tornado. If, however, the fluid be drawn from a considerable distance, and
have from local conditions some additional whirl superadded to that due
to the earth’s rotation, the gyratory flow in the medium near the vortical
axis may be very swift. On the other hand, the additional whirl, due to
local conditions, may tend to neutralize that due to the earth’s
component, thereby leaving a very feeble gyration, if any. But in general
the rotation of tornadoes is observed to be in the direction of the earth’s
component; to the left north of the equator, to the right south of it. This
observation is doubtless the more striking because when the accidental
local spin conspires with the permanent terrestrial one, the resultant whirl
is intensified, while in the opposite case it is so enfeebled as to attract
scant, if any attention.
In the second place, the genesis of a tornado requires unstable
equilibrium in the local atmosphere. This instability, as in cyclones, may
arise from abnormal temperature gradation. Thus, if along any vertical the
temperature falls more than six degrees Centigrade for one thousand
meters ascent, a mass of air started upward will continue to rise, since it
cools less rapidly than the environing medium. In this way there will
ensue a continuous uprush of air so long as the unstable state endures;
and the action may be very vigorous if a large stratum of air is greatly
heated before it disrupts into the cold upper layers. In general, the loftier
the tornado the more violent it is, just as the taller flue generates the
stronger draft with the same temperature gradient.
 Dynamically, the tornado may be treated as a rotating pillar of air in
which each mass of fluid fairly retains its angular momentum. This means
that for any mass of the whirling air the radius of its path, multiplied by
its circular speed, remains a constant product; in other words, the velocity
of whirl varies inversely as the radius. Accordingly, the circular velocity is
exceedingly rapid where the radius is very small. Now, when any mass
runs round a circle its centrifugal force is known to be directly as the
square of the speed of its centroid and inversely as the radius. But by the
above assumption the speed itself is inversely as the radius. Hence, the
centrifugal force varies inversely as the cube of the radius of the inflowing
mass of air. This centrifugal force, acting on the inner layers of air of the
rotating column, must be supported by the pressure against them exerted
by the outer layers as they pass inward. Thus there is a strong barometric
gradient from the remote still air toward the swiftly whirling parts of the
vortex.
It follows from the above argument that inside a tornado the
barometric pressure may be much below the normal; and it is easy to see
that if a barometer, starting from some point on the tornado base, be
moved vertically upward it must show a declining pressure, but if moved
upward and outward it may be made to show a constant pressure all the
way to the upper portion of the vortex. The instrument would thus travel
along an isobaric, bell-shaped surface opening upward. On a series,
therefore, of concentric circles on the base of a tornado, we may erect a
family of coaxial bell-shaped surfaces to mark the points of equal
pressure, and thus map out the isobars of the vortex. Inside these coaxial
surfaces reaching to earth, others of still lower pressure may be drawn
tapering downward to a rounded point and terminating at various places
on the axis. In an actual tornado one of these infinitely numerous funnel-
shaped isobaric surfaces may become distinctly outlined and visible, if the
air has sufficient moisture to start precipitation when it reaches a surface
of suitably low pressure. This quite usually occurs in Nature, the funnel
sometimes reaching to earth, sometimes only part way, according to the
pressure at which precipitation begins, this pressure depending, of
course, on the percentage of humidity of the uprushing air.
The form of the funnel-like cloud ere it reaches the earth is interesting.
Being an isobaric surface, it would support in static equilibrium a free
particle resting on it and sharing its rotatory motion. The lower rounded
part of the funnel is parabolic, the upper outer part hyperbolic; the two
together delineating the well-known Rankine double vortex of
hydrodynamics. Students of hydrostatics know that when a glass of water
is spun round its axis at a fixed velocity, the dimple observed is of
parabolic form, and if frozen will sustain in repose a small shot resting on
its surface and whirling with it. Similarly the lower part of the funnel is
parabolic because in it the air rotates, as one solid body, while the
broader part of the funnel is hyperbolic because in it the air has a speed
inversely proportional to its radius of motion.
If everywhere in a tornado the circular velocity of the inflowing air were
inversely proportional to the radius, as above assumed, the speed near
the axis would be indefinitely great. This cannot be admitted. Practically,
the inflow ceases when the centrifugal force of the gyrating stratum
equals the pressure urging it toward the axis. Within this stratum is a
column of air rotating everywhere with constant angular velocity about
the vortical axis, and thus having quite calm air at its center. Outside this
solidly rotating core the air spirals radially inward and upward. Some idea
of the stream lines in such spiral flow may be obtained from Fig. 50 if a
rapid circular motion be added to the inward and upward velocity
represented by the arrows.
In the foregoing discussion no account of friction was taken. Near the
earth’s surface this dampens the whirl and centrifugal force, so that the
air flows more directly into the vortex, while farther aloft the centrifugal
force near the axis so effectually checks the inflow as to allow the central
core of air to rush up nearly unimpeded, as in a walled flue, taking its
draught mostly from the lower part. As a consequence, the upward speed
of the heated air in the tornado tube may be enormous, supporting in its
stream objects of considerable mass.
The true horizontal speed anywhere in a tornado is compounded of the
velocities of gyration and of translation, as in the cyclone. Hence the
advancing side may be considerably the swifter and more destructive,
particularly more destructive since the impact of air increases as the
square of the velocity. If the vortex were stationary it would be equally
dangerous on all sides, standing erect and symmetrical; but it drifts with
the whole mass of air, sometimes quite swiftly and often with varying
speed of travel at different levels; thus, in its slenderest forms, appearing
bent and not infrequently twisted, as it advances writhing serpentlike
through the sky. Furthermore,
the intensity of whirl may
fluctuate momentarily, with
consequent shifting of the
isobaric surface, including that
one whose form is visible by
reason of incipient condensation;
and thus the funnel-like misty
tongue appears to dart
earthward as a foggy downshoot Morey
from the cloud above, whereas Fig. 50.—Funnel-like Cloud
its parts are really rushing Sometimes Observed in a Tornado.
upward at all times very swiftly,
whether visible or not. This agile protrusion of the nimbus, now a tongue,
now a dark and mighty tower, is the strenuous part of the storm, the
abominated “twister” which the Kansan farmer sedulously shuns, or peeps
at from a hole in the ground. Unwelcome, indeed, are its visitations,
when, with mickle and multitudinous roar, it claps his house in sudden
darkness, hurls it aloft and sows its sacred relics over all the adjoining
township, “that with the hurly-burly hell itself awakes.”
Theory, as well as experience, accredits the tornado with vast energy
and power. For, suppose a surface stratum of air one mile in area and one
thousand feet thick to increase in absolute temperature one per cent, thus
uplifting the superincumbent atmosphere ten feet. The total energy stored
in this way equals the weight lifted multiplied by its upward displacement.
The weight is a ton per square foot and the displacement is ten feet;
hence the stored energy is ten-foot tons per square foot of the heated
tract, or about 280,000,000 foot tons for the square mile of heated air.
This is equivalent to the work of one million horses for over a quarter of
an hour. A goodly percentage of this stored work may be converted into
kinetic energy in the active part of the dry tornado. It is the energy of a
vast reservoir suddenly gushing through a tall penstock. It is a colossal
upward cataract, an aërial Niagara, a Johnstown flood suddenly liberated
and quickly spent.
A vortex of that description possesses enormous devastating power, for
it is endowed with four destructive elements: rapid onset for razing,
violent spin for distorting, swift uprush for lifting, low pressure for
disrupting. These four grim powers may operate at once and in accord.
When, for example, they assault a house, the horizontal blasts push and
wrench it on the foundation, the cellar air suddenly expanding puffs it
aloft, the internal air bursts its walls or windows, the uprush carries its
members on high and scatters them wantonly to the four winds. These
powers are abundantly attested by authentic reports from many localities.
When the tornado appears as a misty column it is familiarly called a
“waterspout,” particularly if it appears over a sea or lake. As already
explained, the visible and cloudy portion of the column is due to
condensation of the aqueous vapor in the air, as it rushes expanding and
cooling into the low pressure part of the vortex. From the lashed and
rippling sea surface, where it upcones into the base of the spout, some
water is carried aloft as spray mingling with the mist of the chilled vapor,
but not necessarily in very large proportion, and never rising in solid body
to the cloud, as popularly supposed. On the contrary, waterspouts,
however massive and formidable looking, are very tenuous, and may
occur on land or water indifferently. Doubtless they are better defined,
more regular and more familiar over water, and hence their name; but
essentially they are vapor spouts, though mingled at times with dust or
spray. Owing to rapid precipitation of the uprushing aqueous vapor, there
may be heavy rainfall on all sides of the waterspout, so that at sea it may
be difficult for the observer to ascertain how much of the downpour is salt
water and how much is fresh. On land the downpour is sometimes
mingled with débris, and even with live fish and frogs caught up from
neighboring bodies Of water. Copious hail also may fall with the rain, if
the vortex be a lofty one.
Fig. 51.—Vertical Section of the St. Louis, Mo., Tornado of May 27, 1896, Showing
the Vortex Tubes in a Theoretical, Truncated, Dumbbell-shaped Vortex.
 Fig. 52.—Horizontal Section of St. Louis Tornado of May 27, 1896.

The following description and analysis of a representative spout is due

to Professor Bigelow of the U. S. Weather Bureau:[70]

“The tornado may be illustrated by the St. Louis storm of May 27,
1896. It is a truncated dumbbell vortex out off at the ground on the
plane where the inflowing angle is about 30°. This vortex is much
smaller than the hurricane, although of the same type. It is about
1,200 meters high and about 2,000 meters in diameter on the
surface. The vortex tubes are shown in Figs. 51 and 52. In these
figures can be seen the vortex tubes, geometrically spaced, through
each of which the same amount of air rises. The rotating velocity is
 greatest about 300 meters above the ground, but the dimensions are
such as to produce enormous velocities in the lower levels. The
radius in the outer tube is taken to be 960 meters, and the inner tube
55 meters. The radial inward velocity on the outer tube is—8 meters
per second; on the outer tube the tangential velocity is 13 meters per
second, and on the inner 224 meters per second; on the outer tube
the vertical velocity is 0.27, and on the inner tube it is 80 meters per
second. On the outer tube the total velocity is 15 meters per second,
and on the inner tube 270 meters per second. The volume of air
ascending in each tube is 774,500 cubic meters per second. On
account of the distortion of the theoretical vortex, due to the cutting
of the lower portion by the truncated plane, and to the progressive
motion of the whole system that constitutes the tornado, there is
difficulty in computing the pressure to fit these observed velocities
and radii.
“Tornadoes occur in the southern and southeastern quadrants of
areas of low pressure, along the borders of the cold and the warm
masses which entered into the structure of the cyclone. When a cold
mass is superposed upon a warm mass, as was the case at St. Louis,
a tornado will occur if the difference in specific gravity be sufficient to
inaugurate a violent mixing, and the rotation be about a vertical axis,
instead of about a horizontal axis, as in the case of thunderstorms.”

The size and form of

waterspouts alter greatly with
the state of the atmosphere. As
Ferrel observes, they may vary
“from that of a cloud brought
down over a large area of the
earth’s surface in a tornado
where the air is nearly saturated
Morey with vapor and the general base
Fig. 53.—Vertical Section of Short Tornado. of the clouds very low,
somewhat as represented in Fig.
53, to that which occurs when the air is very dry, and when the tornadic
action is barely able to bring the cloud down from a great height into a
slender spout of small diameter, somewhat as represented in Fig. 54.
Horner says that their diameters range from 2 to 200 feet, and their
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