Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 14 (2023) 100886

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Journal of Agriculture and Food Research

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Techno-functional characteristics, and potential applications of edible

coatings: A comprehensive review
Vaishnavi Patil a, Rafeeya Shams a, **, Kshirod Kumar Dash b, *
a
Department of Food Technology and Nutrition, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab, India
b
Department of Food Processing Technology, Ghani Khan Choudhury Institute of Engineering and Technology, Malda, West Bengal, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This review emphasizes the growing technical and functional properties of edible coatings, as well as their
Edible coatings numerous prospective applications. Edible coatings were developed using proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and
Water vapor resistance natural polymers. These ingredients could be altered and blended to create coatings with distinct properties.
Gas permeability
Food products were coated with edible coatings in a number of ways, including dipping, spraying, brushing,
Spraying method
3-D food printing
rolling, or twirling the food in the coating material. The application strategy applied is dependent on the
distinctive food product and the desired outcome. These coatings are at the cutting-edge of innovation and
sustainability, employing organic and biodegradable components to efficiently address major environmental
challenges. This study additionally investigates the many technical and practical advantages that these coatings
have, such as better barrier qualities, precise release mechanisms, and integration with cutting-edge sensor
technologies for continuous quality monitoring. It also emphasizes the wide variety of applications, which vary
from increasing product shelf life and decreasing food waste to addressing various nutritional demands and
improving food aesthetic appeal. The advancements created in the edible coatings industry highlight their crucial
role in redefining accepted paradigms of food packaging, preservation, and consumption by fusing scientific
advancement with culinary inventiveness are also been discussed. Innovative materials, bioactive compounds for
health benefits, and packaging and coatings with less environmental impact are being researched to produce
edible coatings with better functionality and sustainability.

1. Introduction ingestion. Additionally, fruits and vegetables can pick up contaminants

from their skins, speeding up the rotting process and causing biochem­
Fruits and vegetables have seen a major rise in demand in recent ical deterioration. Browning, disagreeable flavors, and texture degra­
years as people have begun to realize how important they are to a dation are just a few examples of how this deterioration shows up, and it
balanced diet. They provide important nutrients such as vitamins, eventually degrades the quality of perishable commodities. In addition,
minerals, dietary fiber, antioxidants, bio-flavonoids, and flavorings. customers are at risk when pathogenic germs are present [3]. To protect
These healthy commodities are susceptible to a variety of both biotic and the skin of the fruits as mentioned above, edible coating technology
abiotic dangers. After harvest, fruits and vegetables experience signifi­ comes into the limelight.
cant losses due to variables like respiration, transpiration, respiration, The important quality factors of fresh produce contributing to the
and microbial activity. These foods also have a limited shelf life [1]. marketability are color, flavor, microbial safety, appearance, nutritional
Based on the method of maturation, fruits can be divided into two; value, and texture Thus, edible coating ensures all the factors to preserve
non-climacteric and climacteric groups. Contrary to non-climacteric the commodity [4]. The term “edible coating” refers to a substance used
perishable fruits, climacteric fruit continues to ripen once the harvest to cover the food’s surface and is acceptable to consume [5]. Coatings
is completed, increasing its susceptibility to microbial infection and can be employed to provide safeguards against physical harm, exposure
degradation [2]. Thus, climacteric fruits go through natural maturity as to light, and contamination. Edible coatings are primarily developed
a result of biochemical changes, rendering them only momentarily fit for using biopolymers such as lipids, proteins, polysaccharides, or a mixture

* Corresponding author.
** Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (R. Shams), [email protected] (K.K. Dash).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafr.2023.100886
Received 11 September 2023; Received in revised form 6 November 2023; Accepted 18 November 2023
Available online 23 November 2023
2666-1543/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
V. Patil et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 14 (2023) 100886

of both [6]. Typically, coatings containing fat exhibit reduced their characterization, such as thickness, microstructure, water-vapor
water-transfer capabilities, while Polysaccharide-sourced coatings have resistance, and gas permeability, were discussed.
lower gas permeability. On the other hand, protein-based coatings tend
to possess superior mechanical characteristics. To achieve desired 2. Classes of edible coating
properties in edible coatings, the use of resins, solvents, and plasticizers
is common. Solvents enhance tensile strength, resins restrict water vapor 2.1. Polysaccharide-source based edible coating
permeability, and plasticizers contribute flexibility and permeability to
edible coatings [7]. Additionally, coating adhesion is a crucial charac­ Ingredients frequently utilized in the development of edible coatings
teristic that relies on a variety of factors, including food surface attri­ include polysaccharides, lipids, and proteins like collagen, zein, and
butes, intended coating objectives along with application methods [8]. casein [23]. Polysaccharides encompass a range of materials such as
Depending on the type of fruit, coating agents may have varying degrees alginate, pectin, cellulose, chitosan, starch, and among others. These
of effectiveness. It is critical to emphasize that coatings are used polymeric carbohydrates offer several notable advantages when used in
commercially with the goals of maintaining the quality of the product edible coatings. They are bio-compatible, bio-degradable, and non-toxic
for consumers, ensuring nutritional benefits, and lowering production to living individuals [24]. For example, edible films derived from chi­
and packaging costs [9]. tosan, obtained from crickets and shrimp, have been shown to exhibit
The objective of edible coatings is to act as a barrier, regulating the mechanical strength, water resistance, and light-barrier properties, this
movement of a number of chemicals such as carbon dioxide, oxygen, characteristic makes them promising candidates for bio-based pack­
flavorings, lipids, moisture, along with other dissolved compounds [10]. aging materials in food and medicinal applications [25]. Gums (such as
Consequently, the application of edible coatings leads to a lowered rate gum-arabic and guar-gum), cellulose, starch, alginate, and carrageenan
of respiration and reduced weight loss in food commodities. Addition­ are polysaccharides that have garnered widespread attention for their
ally, edible coatings have a noteworthy capacity for incorporating safety (GRAS) by the United States Food and Drug Administration [26].
antimicrobial compounds, making them efficient transporters for these These polysaccharides have received acceptance and approval for their
chemicals. As per the findings of Shafiei and Mostaghim, the inclusion of use in various food packaging applications.
antimicrobial chemicals in the coating matrix has a significant impact on Cegrí et al [27], reported a study on polysaccharide-based edible
reducing fruit-related illnesses and microbial contamination [11]. By coating using Zucchini fruit. By reducing weight loss, chilling injury, and
actively preventing the production of ethylene, edible coatings signifi­ oxidative stress, the results showed that coating zucchini fruit with
cantly increase the shelf life of perishable items. The ripening and dextrin at lower temperatures retained its quality. Another similar study
degradation of fruits and vegetables are accelerated by the natural plant using polysaccharide-based edible coating was reported by [28] using
hormone ethylene [12]. In order to mitigate the effects of ethylene, Dashehri Mango as an experimental commodity. Gum and
edible coatings work as a shield, using a variety of strategies. They serve Carboxymethyl-cellulose (CMC) were used for coating treatment. After
as a gas barrier, reducing the amount of ethylene that is exchanged being kept at ambient temperature for nine days, sensory evaluations
between the produce and its surroundings thus, delaying the ripening demonstrated that CMC-coated samples had increased fruit appeal. An
process [13]. These coatings frequently contain anti-oxidants like alternative research was presented by Guerreiro et al. [29], At storage
ascorbic acid and tocopherols, which work to mitigate the oxidative intervals of 0, 7, and 14 days, color measurements were made using the
effects of ethylene and maintain the aesthetic attractiveness of the food CIE (L*, a*, b*, h*, and C*) system, as well as evaluations of microbial
[14]. Furthermore, by maintaining temperature and moisture loss, these growth observation, weight loss, firmness, Trolox equivalent antioxi­
coatings reduce the stress response that results in ethylene synthesis dant capacity (TEAC) analysis, soluble solids content (SSC), and taste
[15]. Antimicrobial substances are sometimes added to coatings to panel evaluations. They observed changes in weight loss, reduced mi­
prevent the growth of microorganisms that produce ethylene [16]. crobial growth and extended shelf life was there in coated commodities.
Additionally, edible coatings can act as physical barriers to keep the
products separate from other products that release ethylene during 2.2. Starch-based edible coating
storage and transit [17]. Even ethylene scavengers, which collect and
neutralize the gas inside the packing or storage environment, may be Carbohydrates are extensively utilized as biopolymers in the pro­
present in some coating formulations [18]. Edible coatings actively duction of coatings and films, primarily because of cost-effectiveness
reduce the impact of ethylene in this complex manner, significantly and wide availability. Their abundance and affordability make them a
prolonging the shelf life of perishable foods, reducing food waste, and preferred choice for various applications in the food and packaging in­
ensuring consumers have access to fresh and higher-quality produce dustry [30]. Plant-based carbohydrates have the benefit of being simple
[19]. to alter to fit particular needs. For instance, hydrolysis of starch and
These films and coatings are user-friendly, eco-conscious, highly cellulose can produce simpler carbohydrates like maltose and glucose.
secure, and cost-effective, presenting a promising solution for food These simpler complex carbohydrates act as the basic building blocks for
preservation [20]. A number of studies have been conducted to analyze the synthesis of edible polymers. Due to their cheap and wide avail­
the influence of edible coatings on the microbiological and physiological ability, carbohydrates are especially advantageous for the production of
stability of diverse types of fresh commodities. It has been demonstrated edible polymers [31]. Zhang et al. also reported that due to their
by Li et al. [21], using cinnamon-aldehyde as an edible coating on ba­ affordability and accessibility, carbohydrates are the most frequently
nanas that dramatically slowed down both weight loss and fruit studied and used biopolymer for these materials, which are primarily
ripening. Similar results were seen when protein isolate and organo-clay made from carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, or a mix of these. To sum­
were applied to less processed papaya slices that had been cut into slices marize, carbohydrates, specifically starch, are the most practical and
[22]. The surge in interest in edible films and coatings can be attributed widely studied materials for producing edible polymers. Starch, a
to consumers growing awareness of the importance of making healthy naturally produced carbohydrate found in an array of plant parts, is
food choices and their worries about the negative environmental effects significant as an important source of energy for both people and animals.
of synthetic, non-biodegradable packaging materials. Based on this It consists of two polysaccharides, amylose, and amylopectin, which are
objective of this review is to discuss several polysaccharide-based edible insoluble in water [32]. Through the application of shear pressures, heat
coatings, starch-based edible coatings, pectin-based edible coatings, and energy, and plasticizers, the semi-crystalline structure of starch granules
aloe vera-based edible coatings. It discusses edible coating preparation can be irreversibly disrupted, transforming it into a continuous matrix.
methods such as dipping, spraying, and edible coating 3-D food printing Many investigations have looked into the utilization of starch from
technology. The techno-functional features of edible coatings as well as various sources to create films and surface coatings with an array of

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V. Patil et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 14 (2023) 100886

qualities. pectin backbone is made up of molecules of (14)-linked D-galacturonic

The unique capability of starch to form films with heat sealability, acid that is linked to a number of rhamnose residues in the main chain
isotropy, and extended shelf life can be attributed to its component, and to galactose arabinose, and xylose in the side chains [40]. Pectin
amylose [33]. Starch is often used in the development of edible coatings polysaccharides are divided by some authors into three groups.
and films due to its ability to generate transparent, flavorless, and Pectin-based edible coatings that incorporate functional substances
colorless layers that possess similar properties to synthetic polymers [5]. improve the physical and structural integrity of food products, reinforce
Dai et al. [34] Conducted a study using starch-sourced edible coating on their mechanical characteristics, boost their resistance capabilities, and
graded Huangguan pears. The development of a film or coating made of help to reduce microbial contamination [41].
nanocomposites based on starch was successful. Starch nanocrystals Many studies were reported using pectin-based edible coating, one of
(SNCs) and cross-linked cassava starch were used to make this sub­ them was reported by [42]. Apple pectin edible coating was used on
stance. An analysis of the physical and chemical properties of the pears fresh “Rojo Brillante” persimmon. Lower a* values were seen in samples
revealed that the grading procedure had a negative impact on pear coated with the antioxidant solution and those dipped in it compared to
preservation. Conversely, using a coating treatment to extend the shelf the control samples, demonstrating successful browning suppression.
life of pear has shown to be very beneficial. The results showed that the Slices of persimmon coated with a coating containing sodium benzoate
film performing the best overall was the one having 6 % SNCs. A similar and potassium sorbate were still sellable after up to seven days of stor­
study in the field of starch-sourced edible coating was reported by age. The foundational categorization of pectic polysaccharides centered
Thakur et al. [6]. The study examined the feasibility of prolonging the around D-galacturonic acid. These polysaccharides are primarily
preservation time of plum fruit by utilizing a composite coating con­ grouped based on their structural composition and functional roles in
sisting of rice starch-ι-carrageenan (RS-ι-car) combined with sucrose plant cell walls. The key divisions include homogalacturonans, which
fatty acid esters (FAEs). When contrasted with uncoated control fruits consist of linear chains of D-galacturonic acid; rhamnogalacturonans
stored at room temperature, the composite coating comprising rice characterized by their branching and the presence of additional sugar
starch showed efficacy in reducing weight loss (WL), and respiration residues. The overall fruit flavor was rated favorably and within
rate and reducing the generation of natural ethylene (p 0.05). The re­ acceptable limits by the conclusion of the storage time. The coatings
sults of this study show that the RS-car-FAEs coating increases the shelf with the highest effectiveness at preventing the spread of mesophilic
life and preserves the overall quality of plum fruit while it is being aerobic bacteria were those containing sodium benzoate and nisin.
stored. This coating may one day be made available for sale as a new Molds, yeasts, or psychrophilic aerobic bacteria did not grow during
edible covering for the plum fruit industry. Thakur et al. [35], also re­ storage. A similar study on pectin-based edible coating was conducted
ported a similar study using Apple. Measurements were taken for fruit by Maftoonazad & Ramaswamy [43]. The objective of this study, which
weight loss, total soluble solids (TSS), firmness, titratable acidity (TA), implemented a predefined coating process, was to evaluate the effect of
respiration rate, greasiness, and alterations in fruit skin color. The re­ a pectin-based coating on the rate of quality changes in preserved lime
sults of this study showed that lower temperatures and the optimized fruits (Citrus aurantifolium). Maftoonazad & Ramaswamy [43] observed
combination, which included 1.5 % -carrageenan, 2.5 % rice starch, 1.5 that the coated sample has extended shelf life, preserved color, and less
% glycerol, and 2 % sucrose fatty acid ester, were beneficial in pre­ microbial load.
venting weight loss and maintaining tissue stiffness. Additionally, these
benefits were attained during storage after harvesting without affecting 2.4. Aloe vera-based edible coating
titratable acidity (TA), total soluble solids (TSS), or the bioactive
makeup of the apple fruit. Furthermore, coated fruit samples exhibited a Aloe vera is a widely recognized plant renowned for its remarkable
notable postponement in skin color alteration and a decrease in fruit therapeutic properties. It is typically found in both tropical and sub­
greasiness (p < 0.05). These results highlight the potential of a coating tropical regions. The gel obtained from aloe vera lacks any flavor, color,
formulation based on starch to improve visual appeal without degrading or odor. It is regarded as a natural substance that serves as an environ­
the nutritional qualities and interior quality of apple fruit over the mentally friendly and safe substitute for artificial preservatives like
course of storage. sulfur dioxide. The gel, according to researchers, works through a va­
riety of processes. [44], through its different antibacterial and antifungal
2.3. Pectin-based edible coating components, preventing the action of microorganisms that cause
food-borne diseases and developing a shield against both oxygen and
Apples, currants, and other mature fruits contain pectin, a white, moisture. Aloe vera gel has demonstrated the ability to effectively
colloidal carbohydrate with a high molecular weight. It is utilized in postpone oxidative browning, limit microbial development, control
medications, fruit jellies, and cosmetics because of its emulsifying and respiration rate, retain moisture, maintain fruit firmness, and regulate
thickening qualities, additionally to its capacity to change into a gel the maturation process when applied as an edible coating ([45]; [46]).
[36]. Pectin has entered the market of bio-polymers with scope and Habeeb et al. [47], reported that both gram-negative and
opportunities in future development as a result of all these character­ gram-positive bacteria were suppressed by Aloe vera gel. It was reported
istics and uses. Pectin is useful in a wide variety of applications since it is that through the inhibition of solute transport in membranes, anthra­
categorized according to its Degree of Methyl-esterification (DE) [37]. quinones demonstrated antimicrobial activity against strains of S. aureus
The intermediate lamellae and primary cell walls of numerous plants and E. coli [48].
and fruits frequently contain pectic compounds. The cellulose, hemi­ Aloe vera gel-based coatings have drawn greater interest in recent
cellulose, and lignin structures are frequently linked to them [38]. These years as a practical and secure way to significantly increase the shelf life
substances play a number of crucial tasks in the cell, such as improving of harvested horticulture. Due to its environmental friendliness, edible
cell-to-cell adhesion, aiding in the mechanical resilience of the cell wall, coating is attracting attention in the food business [49]. It can be
creating stabilizing gels, and having a big impact on plant cell prolif­ considered a sustainable substitute for artificial coatings and other
eration. These substances play a number of crucial tasks in the cell, such post-harvest chemical treatments. Fresh fruits, vegetables, and their cut
as improving cell-to-cell adhesion, aiding in the mechanical resilience of equivalents can all be kept fresh longer with the Aloe vera gel coating. It
the cell wall, creating stabilizing gels, and having a big impact on plant also aids in retaining more nutrients by improving storage conditions. As
cell proliferation [39]. Pectin, which is predominantly made up of acidic a result, the Aloe vera gel coating gives an opportunity for future fruit
structural polysaccharides with a variety of structures and is distin­ and vegetable post-harvest preservation [50].
guished by high molecular weight, and heterogeneous groups of glycan In recent years, Consumers have globally accepted aloe vera-based
galacturonans, is the most complex category of polysaccharides. The edible coating and numerous studies have been conducted in the field

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V. Patil et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 14 (2023) 100886

of packaging for this purpose. Recently, [51] reported a study using aloe noticeable increase in the study and creation of edible coatings recently
vera coating on Button mushrooms (Agaricus bisporous) at a temperature [59]. These coatings have drawn a lot of interest because they have the
of 4 ◦ C over a storage period of 16 days. The results showed that the potential to improve the performance, safety, lifespan, and quality of
edible coating made from aloe vera gel at a 50 % concentration, without food products that have been coated [60]. Edible coatings can be
the inclusion of essential oil, displayed noticeably improved properties, administered through a range of methods, including dipping, spraying,
including a higher and more stable zeta potential than formulations or coating (as depicted in Fig. 1), with the goal of controlling gas ex­
made from aloe vera gel at other concentrations. Additionally, this change, moisture transfer, and oxidative reactions. Additionally, bene­
formulation showed the greatest potential for keeping the postharvest ficial elements can be added to edible matrices and applied to food
qualitative characteristics of mushrooms over the course of storage. A surfaces to increase safety and perhaps even improve nutritional and
similar study was reported by Ebrahimi & Rastegar [52]. Guar gum sensory aspects [61]. Specific quality parameters, such as color, weight
(GG), an edible coating sourced from Aloe-vera gel, along with loss, firmness, decay rate, sensory qualities, microbiological contami­
alcohol-water-based Spirulina platensis extracts were investigated on nation, and nutritional attributes, need to be carefully evaluated when it
the physico-chemical characteristics of mangoes (Mangifera indica L.) comes to coated fruits and vegetables. These variables are strongly
kept at ambient temperature (25 ± 2 ◦ C) for a duration of three weeks. influenced by the kind of items and how they are stored [62].
According to the investigation, the coatings enabled the mangoes to
shed less weight and respire at a lower rate. Compared to the control 3.1. Dipping method
group, mangoes coated with GG + SPE exhibited noticeably increased
firmness. Additionally, the amount of fruit weight loss was dramatically The dipping method comprises dipping the commodity into a coating
reduced after applying GG + AL coatings. According to the study’s emulsion that is kept in a container. This method works especially well
findings, mangoes might have had their shelf life greatly increased by for foods with complex or uneven surfaces that require extensive coat­
GG-edible coatings augmented with Spirulina platensis, particularly the ings (with antibacterial, antioxidant, nutritious qualities, etc.). After the
alcoholic extract. food has been dipped and the extra coating has been scraped off, it is
allowed to dry either naturally (air drying) or with the help of a
2.5. Nano-emulsions based coating specialized drier [63]. The process of using this method to apply an
edible coating to food items involves three key steps: immersion,
Nano-emulsion coatings are a specific subset of edible coatings, deposition, and solvent evaporation [9]. The immersion method is
utilizing nano-emulsion technology to provide specialized functional­ widely used to apply edible coatings to fresh produce. Usually, the edible
ities and benefits to food products. Nano-emulsion forms a thin film coating mixture is used on fruits and vegetables for 5–30 s. In general,
around the food product that is composed of ecologically friendly and this technique is simple, especially when working with the majority of
digestible ingredients that protects the food from gases, microorganisms fruits [64].
and moisture [53]. Nano-emulsions can also be termed The immersion method is typically used in laboratory settings to
ultrafine-emulsions or submicron-emulsions [54]. The heterogeneous apply coatings since it is straightforward and affordable [65]. The dip­
colloidal systems known as nano-emulsions are made up of two liquids ping method of applying anti-microbial agents directly to food surfaces
that do not mix properly. An aqueous liquid must be used while the other has demonstrated decreased efficacy, primarily as a result of the anti­
liquid must be unctuous as stated by Lago et al. [55]. The stability, microbial agents’ diminished efficacy as a result of leaching into the
optical properties, and droplet size influence the rheology of the emul­ food, enzymatic activities, and interactions with other food components
sion. Due to the much smaller size of its particles, nano-emulsions are [9]. Occasionally, using this procedure results in a thick coating, which
more suitable than microemulsions in a number of applications [56]. could obstruct the food product’s capacity to breathe and have an
This microscopic particle size has numerous significant advantages over impact on how well it stores [9].
other formulations. Improved physicochemical qualities and increased The dipping procedure is fraught with difficulties, including the
stability are made possible by nano-emulsions. Nano-emulsions can be possibility of coating dilution, the build-up of waste or pollutants, and
used to slow down the physiological processes in fruits and vegetables the potential for microbe growth in the dipping solution. Additional
that cause them to deteriorate over time, such as respiration and drawbacks of the dipping procedure include the disintegration of the
ripening. Nano-emulsions can be applied in a uniform and sparse food product’s outer layer and a potential reduction in its functionality
manner to fruits and vegetables as coatings in order to protect them [66]. For example, fruits and vegetables’ natural wax coating may fall
against variables like dust, humidity, and microbial contamination [57].
The shelf life of fruits and vegetables can be greatly increased by using
nano-emulsions as a preservation technology, minimizing food waste
and raising the general safety and quality of the produce [54].
Nano-emulsions play a pivotal role in delivering flavors, nutrients, and
bioactive compounds, enhancing bioavailability, and improving the
overall quality and shelf life of food products [55]. These benefits,
including reduced fat content and extended product freshness, make
nano-emulsions a valuable tool for developing health-conscious and
appealing food offerings.

3. Technologies for the preparation of edible coating

The food sector is presently encountering novel challenges con­

cerning the sustainability and health implications of packaging and
processing methods. With shifting lifestyles and consumer inclinations
towards novel and organic items, individuals are seeking food products
that demand minimal processing yet possess extended shelf lives, all the
while retaining their nutritional and sensory attributes [58]. It can be
difficult to achieve these requirements when working with extremely Fig. 1. Illustration of Various methods involved in forming coating of
perishable goods like fruits and vegetables. As a result, there has been a different foods.

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V. Patil et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 14 (2023) 100886

off after dipping. with this edible ink composition by accelerating the freezing and drying
of meat. Additionally, there is a trade-off between the effects of SL and
3.2. Spraying method Canola oil in terms of managing printability while also providing exact
pore morphology as compared to rheological characterization [76]. A
The most widely used method to apply emulsions or coatings to food variety of food ingredients are simultaneously extruded in
products is spraying [8]. This technique entails creating droplets of the extrusion-based printing to produce a whole meal [74]. Nevertheless, a
coating solution using a variety of nozzles, which are then evenly material capable of being easily extruded from the nozzle tip and
distributed throughout the food’s surface. Three different spraying capable of bearing the weight of subsequent printed layers without
techniques have been used in industrial settings to apply edible coatings distorting is required [73].
to food items: pressure atomization, air spray atomization, and
air-assisted airless atomization [67]. Strong inertial forces and negli­ 4. Techno-functional properties of edible coating
gible viscous forces cause coating solution droplets to develop [9]. The
pressure used for atomization during the spraying process is crucial to Synthetic polymers have been widely used since the 20th century
take into account. The pressure must be kept below 3.5 bars in order to due to their easy manufacturing and ability to achieve desired functional
protect the film-forming process. Additionally, it has been demonstrated qualities. Today’s consumers are increasingly aware of the repercussions
that a thickness of 30 m is the best for achieving the appropriate me­ because the disposal of these materials has negatively impacted the
chanical and water vapor properties. Therefore, it is imperative to environment [77]. As a result, support for biobased alternatives and an
carefully monitor this parameter [68]. increasing emphasis on sustainability are present in industrial break­
This method guarantees a consistent and even coating thickness throughs. Scientists are working hard to develop composite materials
while also allowing for the application of multiple layers, including made of biodegradable polymers like proteins, lipids, and poly­
alternating solutions like sodium and calcium chloride [66]. Spraying saccharides. When compared to synthetic polymers, these materials
technologies also provide control over the temperature of the coating have unique qualities including being non-toxic, biodegradable, and
solution, guarantee the maintenance of the layer’s integrity, and enable widely accessible [78]. Selecting the suitable polymer to mix with can
self-sustaining and uninterrupted manufacturing [9]. High-viscosity help overcome any restrictions in a polymer’s potential hydrophilicity,
solutions, on the other hand, are frequently applied to food products water solubility, or mechanical strength. It is feasible to maximize the
by dipping rather than spraying, which leaves a thicker coating layer on desired characteristics in the resultant structure by combining polymers
the food’s surface [69]. Due to the need for a 4-step process (2 sprays [79]. A useful method for changing qualities as needed is polymer
and 2 dryings) in industrial settings, emulsified formulations are blending, which makes use of established and affordable technologies.
preferred over bilayer applications since they are more advantageous However, rather than drastically changing a material’s properties,
[70]. polymer blending’s main goal is to increase the material’s performance
capacity [80].
3.3. Edible coating 3-D food printing In addition to playing a prominent role among other biodegradable
materials, starch polymer offers an important substitute for synthetic
Applications for 3-D printing have been identified in a number of polymers. It finds widespread application across food and non-food
fields, including environmental research, medical innovation, and mil­ sectors, serving various purposes like edible packaging, adhesives,
itary use. Notably, the global market for 3D food printers has had a textile sizing, and cosmetic products [81]. Its widespread use, low cost,
strong rate of annual growth and has developed into a sizable business easy accessibility, biodegradability, and biocompatibility are all factors
with a projected value of over one billion dollars [71]. The process of contributing to its appeal (as outlined in Table 1). Linear amylose and
building goods layer by layer using three-dimensional stacking of plastic branched amylopectin make up the majority of starch, with the quan­
material is known as 3-D printing, sometimes known as rapid proto­ tities varied depending on the plant source. For instance, corn flour
typing or additive manufacturing [72]. This technique creates objects by contains 70 % amylopectin and 30 % amylose [82]. By heating starch
cutting them into a series of cross-sections [73]. granules combined with a plasticizer like water or glycerol, thermo­
The 3D food printing procedure begins with the edible ink-filled plastic starch (TPS), a polymer formed from starch, can be developed
cartridges being preheated to 5◦ Celsius and kept there throughout. A [78]. Although starch-based films offer desired qualities including
silicone base is sprayed with edible ink using a nozzle with a 1.5 mm transparency, odorlessness, and oxygen impermeability, their use in
diameter. Each ink is automatically modified by the printer to match the several applications has been constrained by their brittleness and hy­
printing conditions in order to guarantee the appropriateness of edible drophilic character. To overcome these limitations, a feasible approach
inks for food printing, improve printability, and evaluate the accuracy of is to mix the films with other natural polymers that exhibit favorable
the printed structure. A single-layer square form with dimensions of 54 interactions with starch [83].
mm on each side and 6 mm in thickness is chosen to assess the fidelity of Recent emphasis has been focused a lot on bio-sourced materials
2D printing (line resolution). A three-layer disc with a diameter of 41 from the marine ecosystem, mostly seaweed, to meet the growing need
mm is selected for the evaluation of 3D printing, and the desired shape is for natural and renewable resources. Due to its abundance of poly­
scaled for printing using CBM (Cell-based meat analog) [74]. Currently, saccharides, which provide it with a wide range of useful features like
no established guidelines exist for assessing the accuracy of 3D-printed excellent gel-forming properties, recycling potential, thermal resilience,
food. Therefore, dimensions are chosen in a manner that minimizes and effectiveness in addressing health issues, seaweed may be a prom­
the influence of the nozzle diameter on the final printed product’s di­ ising choice as a biopolymer [92]. Carrageenan, agar, and alginate are
mensions. For each ink type, a single sample is printed, followed by a three examples of seaweed-derived compounds that create films. These
visual inspection and measurements using a digital caliper. For the 2D substances have drawn a lot of interest from a variety of industries, such
square’s side lengths, measurements are taken six times: three times as functional meals, medicine delivery, tissue engineering, and textile
along the full length and evenly spaced in a direction parallel to the sizing [25]. These polysaccharides are frequently used because of their
square’s sides. The side thickness is measured at the center of each special characteristics. However, because the extraction of these poly­
square’s side. Regarding the 3D discs, measurements include the height saccharides requires the utilization of a significant amount of energy and
nearest to the edge of the silicone base on which the structure is printed, chemicals, it is now regarded as being both environmentally and
as well as the two-way perpendicular diameter [75]. The amount of economically unfriendly. The fact that seaweed itself contains additional
lipids (triglycerides) present is a key element in controlling the pore non-polysaccharide elements including proteins and lipids that support
morphology, and it can be done to expand the range of pore sizes created its capacity to form films should also be taken into consideration [25].

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V. Patil et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 14 (2023) 100886

Table 1
Techno-functional properties of the edible coating and their mechanism.
Techno-functional Description Mechanism Potential benefits References
property

Biodegradability Natural Degradation into Environmentally Incorporating Biodegradable Materials and Minimizing Packaging Waste and [84]
Safe Elements Additives Advancing Sustainability
Enhancing Texture Changes Surface Texture Tailoring Coating Matrix for Desired Elevating Sensory Experience and [85]
Texture Enhancing Appeal
Protection and Protection Against Microbes, Oxidation, Developing Antimicrobial and Minimizing Spoilage and Preserving Quality [86]
Preservation and Light Antioxidative Barriers
Barrier Properties Prevents moisture, gas, and aroma transfer Constructing a Physical Barrier, Prolonging Shelf Life and Retaining [87]
Decreasing Permeability Freshness
Flavor Retention Preventing Flavor Loss and Aroma Encasing and Safeguarding Volatile Flavor Preserving Product Taste and Aroma [88]
Degradation Compounds
Innovative Approaches Customizing Coatings for Specific Integrating Various Additives for Intended Crafting Distinctive Textures, Flavors, and [88]
Requirements Outcomes Appearances
Adhesion and Guaranteeing Uniform and Reliable Coating Improving Adhesion Via Formulation Enhancing Attachment and Aesthetic [89]
Uniformity Application Optimization Excellence
Controlled Release Controlled Release of Additives or Managing Diffusion and Release Kinetics Offering Prolonged Flavor, Nutrient, or [90]
Compounds Color Release
Aesthetic Improvement Elevates Appearance and Visual Allure Crafting Consistent and Visually Pleasing Enhancing Consumer Attractiveness [91]
Coatings

To make the hydrocolloid kappa-carrageenan (k-carrageenan), a species protection [102]. Edible coatings effectively reduce the risk of microbial
of red seaweed called kappaphycus alvarezii is widely cultivated. Recent proliferation and the occurrence of foodborne diseases by adding an
research has indicated that natural K. alvarezii seaweed, both with or extra line of defence [103]. Additionally, the ability of these coatings to
without additional fillers, can be used to create films. These films have control gas exchange and oxygen transport can successfully delay the
demonstrated notable functional qualities and mechanical strength oxidation of food ingredients, preventing the development of unfav­
required for numerous industrial applications [93]. ourable flavours and the spread of spoiling germs [104]. Thus, edible
coatings improve food safety by lowering the risk of contamination and
4.1. Role of edible coatings in food quality and food safety lengthening the product’s shelf life, which in turn lowers food waste and
the risks connected with it [105].
The use of edible coatings has a big impact on improving food quality
and food safety. These coatings can be used as a protective barrier to 4.2. Role of edible coatings in circular economy
cover a variety of food products, and they have a noticeable effect on
these elements of food [94]. Edible coatings have a crucial role to play in The circular economy, which attempts to reduce waste and improve
maintaining the sensory qualities of food, which include aspects like resource efficiency, can be significantly influenced by edible coatings.
texture, look, flavour, and scent [95]. These coatings can efficiently By minimizing food waste, edible coatings help to achieve this goal in an
prevent moisture loss from fruits and vegetables, preventing wilting and effective manner [106]. Edible coatings reduce the premature spoiling
maintaining their crispness [96]. Additionally, they can slow down the of perishable commodities, such as fruits, vegetables, and baked goods,
ripening process, extending the shelf life of food. so avoid their wastage [107]. This reduction in food waste reduces the
Fan et al. [97] reported an innovative approach involving the use of environmental impact associated with food production and disposal
alginate edible film infused with Cryptococcus laurentii to coat straw­ while also conserving precious resources.
berries. The study revealed that the microorganism retained its viability Edible coatings support this reduction by typically using natural and
within the film, and, notably, the application of these edible films led to edible materials, which is another important aspect of the circular
a substantial reduction in mold growth. Additionally, the coated economy [106]. For instance, coatings made from proteins or polymers
strawberries exhibited improved overall quality, sensory attributes and derived from plants, both of which can be obtained in environmentally
a more appealing physical appearance. This innovative technique friendly and inexpensive ways [108]. By maximising the use of easily
showed the potential for preserving freshness and extending the shelf available raw materials and reducing reliance on non-renewable re­
life of fruits using edible films with the aid of beneficial microorganisms. sources, this practice encourages resource efficiency [109]. Addition­
In another study, Lago et al. [98] highlighted the practical applica­ ally, biodegradable edible coatings can be created, in line with the
tion of edible coatings, specifically using cassava starch and native or circular economy’s emphasis on products that can degrade naturally in
modified maize, in preserving carotene and overall quality of pumpkin the environment and promote regeneration [110]. Edible coatings are
during the drying process. The results indicated a significant preserva­ environmentally beneficial solutions as they are recyclable and biode­
tion effect (P < 0.05) on carotenoids in pumpkin when the edible coating gradable (illustrated in Fig. 2) [111]. Even though they might not always
was applied. This study underscores the potential of edible coatings to
enhance food safety and quality by preventing the degradation of
essential nutrients like carotenoids. Edible coatings can efficiently pre­
serve the crispness of the crust in baked goods and stop moisture from
escaping the crumb, preserving the ideal texture [99]. Additionally, by
preventing browning, discolouration, and surface cracking, the coatings
can protect the aesthetic appeal of various food products. Edible coat­
ings significantly improve consumer pleasure and the marketability of
food products by preserving these essential qualities [100].
Edible coatings operate as a barrier to protect food from external
pollutants like microbes and pathogens when it comes to food safety
[101]. Foods that are ready to eat or other goods that are prone to
contamination during storage and transportation require more Fig. 2. Role of edible coatings within the circular economy.

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V. Patil et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 14 (2023) 100886

be compatible with traditional recycling systems, they can be added to adhesion testing assesses how efficiently the coating sticks to the food
composting methods, enabling the ethical disposal and recycling of surface [121]. Through the characterization of edible coatings, manu­
organic waste [112]. This is consistent with the tenets of the circular facturers can modify their formulations and application techniques to
economy, which places a focus on reusing materials and avoiding their suit the specific requirements of different food products, ultimately
disposal in landfills in order to manage waste more sustainably [113]. enhancing their shelf life and quality [122]. Ongoing research contin­
Furthermore, the usage of edible coatings can aid in the circular ually improves these characterization methods, optimizing the perfor­
economy’s support of local sourcing and production. These coatings can mance of edible coatings in the food industry [12].
be produced easily using locally available materials, hence lowering the
transportation-related carbon impact [114].
5.1. Thickness of edible coating
Due to their role in completing the food supply chain, edible coatings
also support the circular economy. By enabling the use of leftovers and
Key characteristics like gas permeability are directly influenced by
underutilised foods, like fruit peels, which can be turned into coatings, it
edible coating thickness. Peeling coatings that have been cast and cured
helps the food sector become more circular and reduce waste [35]. In
on flat plates allow for convenient micro-meter measuring. However, it
addition, some edible coatings are simple to remove or consume with the
can be difficult to gauge the thickness of the fruit after treatment.
food, which eliminates the need for additional packaging materials and
Measuring post-application thickness on fruit is challenging. In such
promotes the usage of all food product components efficiently [23].
instances, an estimation can be derived via surface solid density (SSD)
Edible coatings are a useful instrument in promoting the objectives of
quantification [123] [124]. The mathematical expression for surface
the circular economy, especially within the food business, as they are in
solid density is presented in Eqn. (1).
line with sustainability and responsible resource management [115].
(MFa) (Xs)
SSD = (1)
5. Characterization of edible coatings As

Assessing edible coatings is a crucial step in verifying its appropri­ In equation (1); The solid-mass fraction (Xs) of each film-forming solu­
ateness and effectiveness in preserving food product quality and safety tion is essential for computing SSD and MFa for the edible coatings. The
[116]. This process includes the evaluation of various aspects of the MFa value is calculated by comparing the fruit’s quality before and after
coatings, such as their ability to act as good barriers, mechanical the coating has been applied. Calculating the average sample area (As)
strength, microstructure, thickness, evenness, and their adhesion to the may need image analysis or measurements of volume/surface area as
food surface (as depicted in Fig. 3). Assessing th barrier properties of fruit forms get increasingly complex and irregular. As an alternative, the
coatings such as its resistance to water vapor and oxygen transmission, is coating solution’s viscosity, density, drying time, and solid concentra­
essential for gauging its capacity to protect against moisture loss and tion can be used to describe the film’s thickness.
oxygen exposure [117]. In a study, Nasirifar et al. [118] reported the A cutting-edge technique with high potential for measuring coating
effect of a carnauba wax coating and 2 % montmorillonite nano-clay on thickness is spectroscopic ellipsometry. Although it has been used to
the shelf life and freshness of blood oranges. The fruit was stored at 7 ◦ C characterize film and multilayer structure [125], as far as we are aware,
for 100 days and showed improved total acidity, antioxidant activity, its use in edible coatings has not been investigated. By comparing the
firmness, and color characteristics after coating application. actual experimental results to the predicted ellipsometric response of an
The mechanical properties, such as tensile strength, flexibility, and optical model that represents the expected surface structure, spectro­
resistance to puncture, help determine how effectively the coatings can scopic ellipsometry data are analyzed. A least-squares regression anal­
endure handling and safeguard the food product [119]. Analyzing the ysis is used to carry out this fitting process [77]. The measurements are
microstructure through techniques like scanning electron microscopy made across the whole visible spectrum, As a result, the results are
(SEM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM) provides insights into the contrasted using a mathematical model to calculate the film’s thickness
inner structure of the coating [120]. Moreover, measuring the thickness and coating’s refractive index. However, a number of microscopy
and uniformity of the coating ensures consistent performance and methods, including confocal microscopy, scanning electron microscopy
(SEM), and atomic force microscopy (AFM), may also be used to mea­
sure the topography, coating thickness, and roughness of the surface of
treated fruits [126].
Soares et al. [127] examined the effects of several factors such as fish
temperature, coating temperature and dipping time on the thickness of
edible coatings (water and 1.5 % chitosan) applied to frozen Atlantic
salmon, including fish and coating temperatures as well as dipping time.
Chitosan produced thicker coats when the temperatures of the fish and
coating solution were reduced. To keep salmon temperatures from rising
to dangerous levels for the growth of harmful microorganisms, safe
dipping intervals have been established. Compared to water, chitosan
had better freezing characteristics. Furthermore, understanding essen­
tial characteristics, such as gas permeability and resistance to water
vapor transport, is greatly aided by analyzing the coating
microstructure.

5.2. Barrier efficiency

The effectiveness of edible coatings in creating a protective barrier

relies on several factors, encompassing the choice of coating material, its
thickness, the microstructure of the coating, environmental elements
like temperature and humidity, as well as the particular needs of the
Fig. 3. Characteristics of the edible coating as thickening agent, stabilizer, non food product [13]. These all parameters come under the umbrella of
toxic, control of water permeation, and as food additive. barrier efficiency. The efficiency of the barrier properties in an edible

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V. Patil et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 14 (2023) 100886

coating is crucial for maintaining the quality and safety of the food ethanol and acetaldehyde, one can determine the gas permeability of
product [95]. According to Garcia et al. [128], edible cassava starch coatings. These compounds are essential to the metabolism of the fruit.
coating along with the plasticizer potassium sorbate improves straw­ Using a syringe, samples are taken from the fruit core to undertake the
berry fruit quality during the storage period by increasing water vapor analysis. These samples are then exposed to gas chromatography for in-
resistance and lowering the rate of respiration. Similarly, Ma et al. depth analysis [136]. This procedure is done to measure the internal
[129], also used gelatin and olive oil in combination to create a com­ atmosphere. Alternately, the respiration rate of covered fruits can be
posite film using a microfluidic emulsification process. The study was used to gauge changes in their interior makeup. Fruits are maintained in
done to increase the hydrophobic nature and the effect of oil content on a glass container that is well sealed in order to accomplish this, and
the distribution of lipid droplets in suspensions that form films. It was headspace is collected at various time intervals for gas chromatography
concluded that gelatin and olive oil can be used to produce films or examination of the CO2 and O2 levels [132].
coatings for a variety of culinary products. It was also stated that adding Mathematically, the process of permeation can be expressed using
olive reduces the tensile strength and water vapor permeability of the Fick’s first law. The flux (J), which correlates with the concentration
gelatin film and gives it a lustrous appearance. For instance, in the case gradient, can be defined in a specific direction as shown in Eqn. (3).
of fresh strawberries, it is essential for the edible coating to possess
(∂C)
strong moisture-blocking capabilities to safeguard against dehydration J= − D (3)
(∂X)
and preserve their crisp texture [28]. Conversely, when coating a baked
product, the primary concern is to inhibit moisture movement from the J here stands for the flux, which is the total amount of solute that
interior to the surface [130]. diffuses through a given area in a given amount of time (measured in
units like g/m2s or ml/m2s). The diffusivity constant, D, is expressed as
5.2.1. Water-vapor resistance the square meters per second (m2/s) rate of diffusion. The letters C and X
The characteristics of edible films and coatings are influenced by represent the diffusing substance’s concentration gradient and meters
various factors, including the composition of the material, preparation (m) stand for the film’s thickness [126].
conditions such as solvent type, pH of the medium, temperature, and the The flux (J) is provided under the two assumptions that the diffusion
type and concentration of additives like plasticizers, antimicrobials, is in a steady state and that there is a linear gradient through the film and
antioxidants, cross-linking agents, or emulsifiers [131]. When compared hence the flux J can be presented as shown in Eqn. (4).
to plastic films, hydrocolloid films derived from proteins and poly­
(C2− C1) Q
saccharides showcase enhanced gas barrier properties. They effectively J=D = (4)
(X) A.t
impede the permeation of carbon dioxide and oxygen. Additionally,
these films display satisfactory barrier capabilities against lipids. How­
Where A is the area of the film (m2), Q is the amount of gas diffusing
ever, they are less effective in preventing the passage of water vapor
through the film (g or ml), and t is the time (s). The driving force is
[61].
represented after Henry’s law is applied in terms of the partial pressure
On the contrary, lipid-sourced edible films and coatings like resins
difference of gas, and rearranging the terms results the equation in terms
and waxes are very effective at creating films and coatings that stop both
of permeability as mentioned in Eqn. (5) ([137],
moisture gain and loss. They are good moisture barriers due to their
hydrophobicity and low water vapor penetration [78]. However, these Q (p2− p1) P.Δp
= D.S. = (5)
films frequently have an opaque look when utilized as packing mate­ A.t (X) X
rials. Despite their advantages in terms of functionality, their aesthetic
p is the partial pressure difference of the gas across the film (Pa), S is
appeal could be a disadvantage in some situations [77].
the Henry’s law solubility coefficient (mole/atm), and P is the perme­
The water vapor resistance (WVR) of coated fruits can be assessed by
ability ((ml or g) m/m2.s.Pa). The permeabilities of O2, CO2, and water
tracking sample weight loss under controlled temperature and relative
vapor can be determined using Equation (6) [138,139].
humidity conditions. Water vapor resistance is expressed using Equation
(2) [132]. (Q.X)
P= (6)
(A.t.Δp)
aw − %R H100⋅ Pwv T.As
WVR = × (2)
R J
5.2.3. Sensorial and textural properties
Here, J signifies the slope of the weight loss curve during stable The fundamental essential characteristics of coated fruits and vege­
conditions, As represents the sample area, aw indicates the water ac­ tables include the increase in shelf life as well as the enhancement of
tivity of samples, Pwv stands for the saturated vapor pressure, T denotes texture and appearance (as outlined in Table 2). Understanding
the absolute temperature, and R signifies the universal gas constant. wettability-related parameters is essential for coating applications. Ac­
An alternative approach to ascertain the water vapor permeability of cording to Choi et al. [140], The surface-free energy, the interfacial
coated fruits is to create a coating through casting and drying on a plate. tension between the coating solution and the fruit’s surface, and the
Subsequently, the water vapor permeability of this coating can be contact angle are all significant factors to consider, are examples of this.
gauged using established methods grounded in gravimetric techniques These factors mainly influence the extent to which liquid adheres to the
[133]. This technique has been used widely in numerous research to surface, subsequently impacting the eventual thickness of the coating
assess the permeability properties of a variety of edible coatings [134]. that covers the fruit. In this context, Fama et al. [141]. found that the
Nevertheless, it’s important to emphasize that while these mea­ viscosity, draining time, the density of biopolymer solutions, the surface
surements are valuable for comparing different formulations, the tension of both the fruit and the liquid, and the fruit’s surface roughness
permeability attributes of coatings can alter when they are applied to an all had an impact on the mean liquid film thickness on coated apples.
actual fruit surface [135]. Changes in these properties can be caused by Maintaining the basic flavors (bitter, sour, and sweetness), aroma,
elements like the fruit partially absorbing the barrier layer or uneven firmness, color, gloss, and other sensory qualities of coated fruits
lipid distribution in emulsified coatings because of surface imperfections throughout the coating application is essential. To evaluate the sensory
[12]. qualities of coated fruits, techniques like descriptive analysis or con­
sumer and free-choice profiling panels are frequently used [142]. Cus­
5.2.2. Gas permeability tomers might reject samples in some cases because of their synthetic
By analyzing the internal makeup of coated fruits, often in relation to color and waxy look, especially when lipids are integrated into coatings
levels of O2 and CO2 as well as significant volatile chemicals like

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V. Patil et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 14 (2023) 100886

Table 2 items as well as their nutritional value. As smart packaging and sensors
Various properties of coated fruits and vegetables. are being investigated, nanotechnology is helping to develop coatings
Sr. Property Description References with improved barrier qualities. This will allow for in-the-moment
No quality monitoring [155]. These changes align with the general objec­
1. Extension of Fruits and vegetables with coatings have [145] tives of decreasing food waste, accommodating personal preferences,
Shelf Life a longer shelf life because they retain and responding to the expanding popularity of alternative proteins
more moisture, resist microbial growth, [156].
and take longer to ripen. These tendencies may be further developed in the years to come,
2. Texture By forming a layer that lessens physical [146]
maintenance damage and water loss, coatings can help
with a stronger emphasis on customization and individualized nutrition.
maintain the firmness and texture of The development of precise nutrient delivery into edible coatings could
fruits and vegetables. provide consumers who are concerned about their health with custom­
3. Appearance Coatings increase the visual appeal of [147] ized experiences [154]. Edible coatings and smart packaging may be
produce by giving it a shiny or glossy
more seamlessly integrated as technology develops, bringing with it a
surface, which can appeal to consumers
more. new level of convenience and transparency in food safety. The future of
4. Preservation of By minimizing the loss of volatile [116] food preservation and enhancement will be shaped by the development
Flavour components and shielding the product of sophisticated edible coverings that address both environmental issues
from outside odors, coatings can help and personal dietary needs [157]. The newest development entails an
preserve the flavor of fruits and
vegetables.
edible coating that may completely eliminate all signs of viscous fluids.
5. Retention of By reducing the amount of time that [148] A Colorado State University research team [158] recently created a
nutrients fruits and vegetables are exposed to air super-hydrophobic coating, a water-repellent, extremely thin surface
and light, which can cause nutrient layer. Given that it is made of beeswax and carnauba wax, two naturally
breakdown, coatings can help maintain
occurring materials that may be consumed and are allowed by the FDA,
the nutritious value of produce.
6. Safety To ensure that they do not pose any [149] this unique coating falls under the category of edible coatings.
health concerns to customers, coatings
must be food-safe and chemically free. 7. Conclusion

[142]. In addition, it’s important to keep in mind that modifications to Edible coatings are a potential new food protection technology,
the internal environment of coated fruits and the ensuing metabolic however, the best coating base for a given application may vary
slowdown might also affect their mechanical characteristics [143]. To depending on the type of food being protected and the required quali­
assess these properties, compression studies employing a Texture ties. For instance, polysaccharide coatings like chitosan and alginate,
Analyzer or an Instron Universal Testing Machine are frequently uti­ which effectively lower moisture loss and microbial development, are
lized. The most frequently reported measures when assessing the quality frequently used to preserve fruits and vegetables. Because they can act as
of preserved coated fruits are firmness or fracture resistance [144]. a barrier to oxygen and moisture, coatings comprised of lipids, such as
Due to their various applications, edible coatings are becoming more waxes and fatty acids, are frequently employed to preserve meat and
popular across numerous industries. They are essential in the food in­ poultry. Additionally, coatings consisting of proteins like gelatin and
dustry as they help protect fresh produce from oxidation, moisture loss, casein can be utilized to enhance the appearance and texture of food
and microbial growth by forming a barrier [17]. This improves the products. There are various particular instances of edible coatings that
quality and safety of fruits and vegetables in addition to reducing food have been proven to be efficient for food protection of numerous foods
waste. including fruits and vegetables such as strawberries, apples, and to­
According to Jiang et al. [150], chitosan coatings (both low molec­ matoes coated with chitosan and alginate-based coatings, a poly­
ular weight and high molecular weight) increased the storage period of saccharide with antibacterial and antioxidant properties. The shelf
blueberry fruits, demonstrating the significant potential for stability of cheese and other dairy products can be potentially increased
chitosan-based edible/biodegradable films in the food industry to with wax coats as wax coats can stop moisture evaporation and micro­
extend the shelf life of fresh cut fruits and vegetable. The shorter storage biological development. To develop and optimise edible coatings for
time is caused by the decrease of antioxidant capability. particular food products and applications, more study is required.
Additionally, pharmaceutical industries use edible coatings to However, edible coatings can contribute to the development of a more
encapsulate medicines for controlled release, enhancing drug absorption equitable and sustainable food system by lowering food waste and
and efficacy [94]. These coatings can be used in the agriculture sector to enhancing food quality and food safety.
alter seed surfaces for higher germination rates and defence against
soil-borne diseases [151]. Additionally, edible coatings are explored in
Declaration of competing interest
the cosmetics industry for innovative skincare products, and they hold
promise in reducing the environmental impact of traditional packaging
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
materials [152]. Edible coatings are a sustainable and promising solu­
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
tion for a variety of applications dueto their biodegradability and
the work reported in this paper.
functional properties, which are in line with the expanding demand for
environmentally friendly and effective solutions in today’s industrial
Data availability
landscape [153].

Data will be made available on request.

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The increasing value given to sustainability and natural elements is References

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