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Government Performance and Results An Evaluation of
GPRA s First Decade 1st Edition Jerry Ellig Digital
Instant Download
Author(s): Jerry Ellig, Maurice McTigue, Henry Wray
ISBN(s): 9781439844656, 1439844658
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 10.95 MB
Year: 2011
Language: english
 GOVERNMENT
PERFORMANCE
AND RESULTS
An Evaluation of GPRA’s First Decade
 PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND PUBLIC POLICY
A Comprehensive Publication Program

EDITOR-IN-CHIEF
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 American Society for Public Administration
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GOVERNMENT
PERFORMANCE
AND RESULTS
An Evaluation of GPRA’s First Decade

JERRY ELLIG
MAURICE MCTIGUE
HENRY WRAY
CRC Press
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Contents

Acknowledgments........................................................................................ xiii
About the Authors.......................................................................................... xv
Introduction.................................................................................................xvii
Intellectual Foundations of the Book.........................................................xix
Institutions........................................................................................xx
Incentives..........................................................................................xxi
The Scorecard Research Protocol..............................................................xxiii
Outline of the Book.................................................................................. xxv
Part I: GPRA and the Quality of Performance Information........... xxvi
Chapter 1: The Evolution of GPRA Performance Reporting... xxvi
Chapter 2: Best Practices for Outcome-Oriented Reports..... xxvi
Chapter 3: Other Essential Best Practices.............................. xxvi
Chapter 4: The State Factor................................................... xxvi
Chapter 5: The International Context...................................xxvii
Part II: GPRA and the Quality of Government.............................xxvii
Chapter 6: Regulation—Where Transparency Falls Short....xxvii
Chapter 7: Tax Expenditures—The Silent Partner...............xxviii
Chapter 8: GPRA and Performance Management
within Agencies...................................................................xxviii
Chapter 9: Toward Performance Budgeting?.......................xxviii
Chapter 10: Conclusions....................................................... xxix

Part I GPRA AND THE QUALITY OF PERFORMANCE

INFORMATION
1 The Evolution of GPRA Performance Reporting....................................3
Scoring Trends..............................................................................................4
Quantitative Evaluation of Progress............................................................10
Evolution of Best Practices..........................................................................13

v
vi ◾ Contents

Criterion 1: Accessibility....................................................................13
Fiscal Year 1999........................................................................13
Fiscal Year 2008.......................................................................13
Criterion 2: Readability.....................................................................13
Fiscal Year 1999........................................................................13
Fiscal Year 2008.......................................................................14
Criterion 3: Verification and Validation.............................................14
Fiscal Year 1999........................................................................14
Fiscal Year 2008.......................................................................14
Criterion 4: Baseline and Trend Data................................................14
Fiscal Year 1999........................................................................14
Fiscal Year 2008.......................................................................14
Criterion 5: Outcome-Oriented Goals...............................................15
Fiscal Year 1999........................................................................15
Fiscal Year 2008.......................................................................15
Criterion 6: Outcome Measures.........................................................15
Fiscal Year 1999........................................................................15
Fiscal Year 2008.......................................................................15
Criterion 7: Agency Affected Outcomes............................................15
Fiscal Year 1999........................................................................15
Fiscal Year 2008.......................................................................15
Criterion 8: Results Linked to Costs..................................................15
Fiscal Year 1999........................................................................15
Fiscal Year 2008.......................................................................16
Criterion 9: Vision.............................................................................16
Fiscal Year 1999........................................................................16
Fiscal Year 2008.......................................................................16
Criterion 10: Explanation of Failures.................................................16
Fiscal Year 1999........................................................................16
Fiscal Year 2008.......................................................................16
Criterion 11: Major Management Challenges....................................16
Fiscal Year 1999........................................................................16
Fiscal Year 2008.......................................................................17
Criterion 12: Improvement Plans.......................................................17
Fiscal Year 1999........................................................................17
Fiscal Year 2008.......................................................................17
Effects of Major Format Changes...............................................................18
Performance and Accountability Reports..........................................18
Highlights and Citizens’ Reports.......................................................19
Which Format Is Better?...................................................................23
Conclusion..................................................................................................24
 Contents ◾ vii

2 Best Practices for Outcome-Oriented Reports......................................27

Outcome-Oriented Goals and Objectives...................................................29
Why Are Outcome Goals Important?................................................29
What Constitutes a Good Outcome Goal?........................................29
Intermediate versus End Outcomes...................................................31
Outcomes Vary in Relation to Organizational Mission.....................31
Outcomes Need to Be Objectively Measurable..................................32
Outcomes Should Credibly Reflect the Organization’s Missions
and Sphere of Influence.....................................................................32
Wording Matters...............................................................................33
Elaborate on Goals as Necessary........................................................33
Quality Counts More Than Quantity................................................35
Don’t Let Desire for Perfection Be the Enemy of the Good...............36
Outcome-Oriented Measures......................................................................36
Outcome-Oriented Goals Need Outcome-Oriented Measures..........37
Activity Levels Do Not Measure Outcomes.......................................37
Raw Number versus Percentage Measures.........................................37
Overreliance on End Outcome Measures Should Be Avoided........... 40
Measures Must Provide a Credible Means for Tracking Progress
over Time......................................................................................... 40
Performance Targets Should Be Realistic but Challenging................41
Use Clear, Comprehensible Language to Define Measures
and Targets........................................................................................41
Focus on a Manageable Number of Measures................................... 42
Eliminate Measures That Lack External Significance....................... 42
Providing Context: Baselines and Trends................................................... 42
The More Comparable Prior Year Trend Data, the Better..................43
Include External Trend Data Where Available.................................. 44
Explain Targets and Trends.............................................................. 44
What’s Wrong With This Picture?.....................................................50
Anticipate and Explain Obvious Red Flags........................................50
Tell an Outcome-Oriented Story................................................................52
Take Advantage of the Transmittal Letter.........................................53
Highlight Specific Outcome-Oriented Accomplishments
throughout the Report.......................................................................54
Use Personal Vignettes That Demonstrate the Organization’s
Direct Impact on Individuals.............................................................56
Conclusion..................................................................................................57
3 Other Essential Best Practices...............................................................59
Overview....................................................................................................59
Accessibility................................................................................................60
More Prominent Home Page Links...................................................61
viii ◾ Contents

More Specific Contact Information...................................................61

Greater Use of Hyperlinks and Other Interactive Features................61
Better Links to Prior Year Reports.....................................................63
Readability and Ease of Use........................................................................63
What Reporting Format Works Best?............................................... 64
Be Concise.........................................................................................65
Focus on a Limited Set of Performance Metrics.......................65
Minimize Lengthy, Text-Heavy Narratives and Maximize
Tables and Graphics................................................................ 66
Place Lengthy, Technical Presentations Outside the Main
Body of the Report.................................................................. 66
Use Fewer Words......................................................................69
Keep the General Public in Mind......................................................69
Keep It Simple..........................................................................72
Avoid Acronyms.......................................................................72
Data Quality...............................................................................................72
More Candid Data Assessments........................................................74
Fuller Data Disclosure.......................................................................75
Minimize the Impact of Data Lags....................................................75
Don’t Let Data Issues Dictate Performance Metrics..........................76
Explanation of Results and Improvement Strategies...................................76
Clear and Candid Disclosure of Results............................................ 77
Reporting Perfect or Near-Perfect Performance Is Cause for
Skepticism, Not Celebration............................................................. 77
Explanations, Not Excuses................................................................ 77
Model Reports...................................................................................78
Linking Costs to Performance Results........................................................79
Addressing Major Management Challenges................................................83
Inspector General Assessments......................................................... 84
Agency Management Assessments.....................................................86
Conclusion..................................................................................................86
4 The State Factor.....................................................................................91
Scoring Summary.......................................................................................95
Summaries of Individual State Reports.......................................................96
Connecticut.......................................................................................97
Transparency............................................................................97
Public Benefits..........................................................................99
Leadership................................................................................99
Colorado..........................................................................................100
Transparency..........................................................................100
Public Benefits........................................................................100
Leadership..............................................................................102
 Contents ◾ ix

Florida.............................................................................................103
Transparency..........................................................................103
Public Benefits........................................................................105
Leadership..............................................................................106
What the United States Can Learn from State Reports............................106
Transparency...................................................................................107
Accessibility............................................................................107
Length and Readability..........................................................107
Data Validation and Verification............................................108
Baseline and Trend Data........................................................108
Public Benefits and Leadership........................................................108
What States Can Learn from the Federal Reports....................................109
Data Quality...................................................................................109
Performance Metrics........................................................................ 110
Assessing Performance Shortfalls..................................................... 110
Conclusion................................................................................................ 111
5 The International Context...................................................................113
Scoring Summary..................................................................................... 116
Australia.......................................................................................... 117
Transparency.......................................................................... 117
Public Benefits........................................................................ 118
Leadership.............................................................................. 119
New Zealand................................................................................... 119
Transparency.......................................................................... 119
Public Benefits........................................................................121
Leadership..............................................................................126
United Kingdom.............................................................................126
Transparency..........................................................................126
Public Benefits........................................................................129
Leadership..............................................................................131
What the United States Can Learn from International Reports................132
What Other Nations Can Learn from the U.S. Federal Reports...............133
Conclusion................................................................................................133

Part II GPRA AND THE QUALITY OF GOVERNMENT

6 Regulation—Where Transparency Falls Short...................................139
Measuring Regulatory Outcomes.............................................................141
Measuring Regulatory Costs.....................................................................143
Accountability for Regulatory Outcomes..................................................146
Integrating Performance Evaluation and Regulatory Analysis...................148
Revisions to Executive Order 12866................................................150
x ◾ Contents

Incorporate GPRA-Style Performance Measurement into

Proposed Regulations.............................................................150
Require Independent Annual Retrospective Cost and
Benefit Estimates.................................................................... 152
Revisions to OMB Circular A-11..................................................... 153
Require Analysis of Alternatives in Regulatory Strategic
Planning and Performance Reporting....................................154
Require Assessment of Costs and Benefits of Regulation in
GPRA Performance Reports...................................................154
Require Regulatory Agencies to Report on Opportunity
Costs...................................................................................... 155
Encouraging Change....................................................................... 155
Independent Regulatory Review...............................................................156
Conclusion................................................................................................ 157
7 Tax Expenditures—The Silent Partner................................................159
Defining Tax Expenditures.......................................................................160
What Counts as a Tax Expenditure?................................................160
Criticism of the Term...................................................................... 161
Tax Expenditures Are Big.........................................................................162
Assessment of Tax Expenditures...............................................................166
Owner-Occupied Housing: A Case Study................................................167
Outcomes of Tax Expenditures Not Systematically Measured..................170
Evaluating Tax Expenditures: A Proposed Division of Labor.................... 174
Conclusion................................................................................................175
8 GPRA and Performance Management within Agencies......................177
What Should Be Measured, and Why?.....................................................177
Measures That Link Outcomes with Costs......................................178
Cost-Effectiveness Measures...................................................178
Benefit–Cost Measures...........................................................180
Equity Measures.............................................................................. 181
Individual Performance Measures....................................................182
The Baseline: Pre-GPRA Planning and Measurement..............................184
Case Studies of Performance Management...............................................187
Develop Strategy and Allocate Resources........................................188
Identify Problems and Take Corrective Action................................189
Recognize and Reward Performance................................................189
Identify and Share Effective Approaches..........................................190
Progress over Time....................................................................................192
Econometric Studies.................................................................................195
GPRA and Perceived Quality of Performance.................................197
 Contents ◾ xi

GPRA and PART Scores.................................................................197

GPRA and GAO Survey Results.....................................................199
Conclusion................................................................................................201
9 Toward Performance Budgeting?........................................................203
Agency Performance Budgets................................................................... 204
Presidential Budget Recommendations.....................................................210
Congressional Budget Decisions...............................................................213
Why the Divergence?................................................................................ 217
Quality and Format......................................................................... 217
Divergent Political Incentives.......................................................... 218
Getting Performance Budgeting Back on Track....................................... 220
Conclusion............................................................................................... 222
10 Conclusions.........................................................................................225
Improving Performance Information....................................................... 226
Program Assessment Rating Tool................................................... 226
High-Priority Performance Goals....................................................227
GPRA Modernization Act of 2010................................................. 228
Performance and the Debt Crisis..............................................................231
Out of the Crisis.......................................................................................235
Spending.........................................................................................236
Tax Expenditures.............................................................................237
Regulation.......................................................................................237
Appendix I: Research Teams and Advisory Panels for the Mercatus
Center’s Performance Report Scorecard.......................................................239
Appendix II: Mercatus Scorecard Scores and the Quality of Regulatory
Analysis........................................................................................................245
Appendix III: Text of the GPRA Modernization Act of 2010......................249
References....................................................................................................275
Acknowledgments

An evaluation project of federal performance reports spanning ten years must nec-
essarily involve scores of dedicated people. In Appendix I, we list the members of
the research teams who evaluated the reports or provided other critical research
assistance during each year the Mercatus Center produced its Performance Report
Scorecard. We also gratefully acknowledge the help of external advisors who reviewed
our evaluations of agency reports and offered comments on the report that summa-
rized the results each year; they too are listed in the appendix. Of course, the usual
academic caveats apply. The fact that someone gave us advice doesn’t mean we took
it, and we remain responsible for any remaining errors in the project or this book.
Several individuals involved in this project over the years deserve special
mention. Our colleague Steve Richardson developed the initial approach to the
Scorecard, oversaw the research team, and coauthored the annual Scorecard report
for the first three years. Other colleagues pitched in as Scorecard coauthors in var-
ious years; they include Jay Cochran, Sarah E. Nutter, and Jennifer Zambone.
We have benefited greatly from the efforts of excellent project managers who also
served as outreach liaisons to federal agencies: Heather Hambleton, Lisa Korsak,
and Jen Wekelo. Numerous colleagues at the Mercatus Center have contributed
indirectly to this volume via stimulating and challenging conversations about
government performance management; they include Jerry Brito, Susan Dudley,
Jason Fichtner, Eileen Norcross, Frederic Sautet, Veronique de Rugy, and Richard
Williams. (Apologies to any friends we left out!) Evan Berman, editor of this book
series, deserves thanks both for his encouragement of this project and for a num-
ber of significant improvements to the manuscript sparked by his comments. We
also thank four research assistants whose work contributed directly to this book:
Christina Forsberg, Stefanie Haeffele-Balch, John Pulito, and Nick Tuszynski.
Finally, we thank our employer, the Mercatus Center at George Mason
University, for supporting this project for ten years. Key individuals include David
Nott, the CEO who authorized the first Scorecard as an experiment in 2000; his
successors Paul Edwards, Tony Woodlief, and Brian Hooks; and Tyler Cowen, the
center’s general director. Their support ensured that we could pursue this project
with maximal academic freedom, calling ’em as we saw ’em.

xiii
About the Authors

Dr. Jerry Ellig ([email protected]), has been a senior research fellow at the Mercatus
Center at George Mason University since 1996. Between August 2001 and August
2003, he served as deputy director of the Office of Policy Planning at the Federal
Trade Commission. Dr. Ellig has also served as a senior economist for the Joint
Economic Committee of the U.S. Congress and as an assistant professor of eco-
nomics at George Mason University. Dr. Ellig has published numerous articles on
government management and regulation in both scholarly and popular periodicals.

The Honorable Maurice P. McTigue, QSO ([email protected]), has been

a distinguished visiting scholar at the Mercatus Center at George Mason
University since 1997. Originally a farmer from New Zealand, he served as a
member of the New Zealand Parliament, held eight different Cabinet portfolios,
and served as New Zealand’s ambassador to Canada and the Caribbean. In 1999,
in recognition of his public service, Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II bestowed
upon Mr. McTigue the prestigious Queen’s Service Order during a ceremony at
Buckingham Palace.

Henry Wray, J.D. ([email protected]), is a visiting fellow at the Mercatus

Center at George Mason University. He served for more than 30 years on the staff
of the U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO) and the U.S. Congress.
At GAO he served as an associate general counsel, ethics counselor, and head of
the audit group responsible for evaluations of the U.S. Department of Justice, the
law enforcement components of the U.S. Department of Treasury, and the fed-
eral judiciary. Mr. Wray has served on the professional staff of the House Budget
Committee, the House Committee on Government Reform, and the Senate
Governmental Affairs Committee. After retiring from GAO, he served as coun-
sel for the Senate Governmental Affairs Committee and senior counsel to the
House Subcommittee on Government Efficiency, Financial Management and
Intergovernmental Relations.

xv
Introduction

Public and transparent performance reporting in the United States is at least as old
as the first permanent English-speaking settlement. In September 1608, Captain
John Smith became president of the struggling colony in Jamestown, Virginia. The
colonists nearly perished because many refused to work. The numerous “gentle-
men” (sons of the nobility) believed physical labor was beneath their dignity. The
less gentle preferred to pilfer tools, guns, and other items to barter with the natives
for food. Neither group was held accountable for the negative consequences of their
behavior. All food went into a common storehouse, from which everyone was fed.
Smith is famous in American history books for the rule he instituted: “He that
will not worke shall not eate (except by sickness he be disabled).” Less well known is
that Smith pioneered transparent and public performance reporting: “He made also
a Table, as a publicke memorial of every mans deserts, to incourage the good, and
with shame to spurre on the rest to amendment. By this many became industrious
… for all were so tasked, that there was no excuse could prevaile to deceive him.”
Positive outcomes quickly ensued: “This order many murmured was very cruell, but
it caused the most part so well to bestirre themselves, that of 200 (except they were
drowned) there died not past seven” (Barbour 1986, 208–14). With all due respect
to Light (1997), Smith’s initiative to bail out the colony in swampy Jamestown may
truly be the first “tide of reform” in American public administration.
Though predating the Government Performance and Results Act (GPRA) by
385 years, Smith’s initiative satisfies most of the prerequisites for open and honest
government management. Beneficial outcomes for the public were well defined,
performance measures were clear, causation was well understood, and performance
was transparently linked to consequences. Performance reporting was public, acces-
sible, jargon-free (except for the archaic spelling), and verifiable.
Today’s governments are rather more complex than the original Jamestown
settlement. That makes effective accountability more difficult, but the same basic
principles apply: define outcomes, define measures, understand how activities affect
outcomes, and link outcomes to costs and consequences.
Those concepts underlie GPRA. Enacted in 1993, this legislation directs U.S.
federal agencies to define the outcomes their agencies seek to produce, identify

xvii
xviii ◾ Introduction

measures that show whether they are making progress on these outcomes, and
disclose the results to Congress and the public. GPRA requires agencies to produce
periodic strategic plans with goals that include outcomes, annual performance plans
with performance measures, and annual performance reports. Strategic plans must
explain the outcomes agencies seek to produce for citizens. Annual performance
reports must report on the measures and explain the agency’s plans to improve
performance in the future.
Congress enacted GPRA in part because “waste and inefficiency in federal
programs undermine the confidence of the American people in the government.”
GPRA also noted, “Federal managers are seriously disadvantaged in their efforts
to improve program efficiency and effectiveness, because of insufficient articula-
tion of program goals and inadequate information on program performance.” The
legislation also states that “congressional policymaking, spending decisions and
program oversight are seriously handicapped by insufficient attention to program
performance and results” (GPRA Sec. 2a). The legislation sought to improve public
confidence, program management, and congressional decision making by making
better information available about the effectiveness and efficiency of federal pro-
grams and spending.
When federal agencies issued their first performance reports for fiscal year 1999,
the Mercatus Center at George Mason University embarked on what became a ten-
year research program to evaluate the quality of disclosure and offer suggestions for
improvement. The Mercatus Performance Report Scorecard assessed the reports from
24 agencies covered by the Chief Financial Officers Act, which account for the vast
majority of all federal spending.* Over the course of ten years, the Scorecard project
evaluated approximately 240 GPRA reports. About 25 different individuals served
on the research teams that evaluated these reports. Twenty-six different men and
women served on the advisory boards that reviewed and commented on our draft
evaluations and annual Scorecard publication. (A full list of research teams and advi-
sors appears in Appendix I. The usual academic caveat applies: responsibility for any
remaining errors in the reports or this book rests solely with us, the authors.)
No specific grants or contracts underwrote this research. The Mercatus Center
funded this project out of its general operating budget. We undertook this project
largely because one of this book’s coauthors, Maurice McTigue, experienced first-
hand the power of performance management to improve government’s effective-
ness and reduce its cost when he held seven different cabinet posts and served as a
member of New Zealand’s parliament from 1985 to 1994. New Zealand, of course,
is widely regarded as a pioneer of outcome-oriented, market-based reforms often
referred to as the new public management (Kettl 1997, Scott et al. 1997). By the

* The principal parts of government not included in these 24 agencies are the judiciary, the leg-
islative branch, the executive office of the president, and the independent agencies not among
the 24 CFO Act agencies. See OMB (2007a, 78). Outlays for these agencies actually exceed the
“total outlays” figure, but they total 99% of total outlays plus undistributed offsetting receipts.
 Introduction ◾ xix

mid-1990s, it appeared that GPRA would be the principal legislative vehicle for
implementation of new public management ideas in the United States. This created
an exciting research opportunity that neither the scholars nor the policy practitio-
ners at the Mercatus Center could afford to miss.
From the start, the Scorecard project had both positive and normative goals
that were linked to the purposes of GPRA. As scholars, our positive goal was to
create a “publicke memorial” of both quantitative and qualitative data that would
document the strengths and weaknesses of agency GPRA reports and show how
they changed over time. As concerned citizens and former government officials, our
normative goals were to “spurre on” federal agencies to produce more accurate and
useful disclosure, disseminate knowledge about best practices to “incourage” them
in this task, and ultimately “bestirre” decision makers in the administration and
Congress to use performance information to make program and budget decisions.
The results of this project can help answer a wide variety of questions in politi-
cal economy and public administration, such as:

◾◾ What factors make performance reports relevant and informative?

◾◾ Has the quality of information disclosed to the public improved?
◾◾ Why do some agencies produce better reports than others?
◾◾ Has GPRA led to greater availability and use of performance information by
federal managers?
◾◾ Has GPRA led to greater use of performance information in budget decisions?
◾◾ What steps would make federal management and budget decisions more per-
formance oriented?

This book is our attempt to answer those questions. All ten editions of the
Performance Report Scorecard are available on the Mercatus Center’s web site, www.
mercatus.org, for the benefit of researchers who might want to use our data to fur-
ther pursue these or other questions.

Intellectual Foundations of the Book

This book falls firmly in the tradition of the new public management and rational-
ist approaches to decision making and policy. GPRA has been the major factor
driving strategic planning and performance reporting in the U.S. government since
the mid-1990s. But it is just one example of a performance-oriented revolution
that has also occurred on the state level and internationally. Budget shortfalls and
new debt burdens will likely increase interest in public management and budgeting
techniques that allow governments to “do more with less,” so this is an appropriate
time to take stock of what GPRA has accomplished and what remains to be done.
We believe citizens are better off when government management and bud-
get decisions are based on actual outcomes produced by programs and policies.
Other documents randomly have
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 INDEX

Abrothallus De Not., 267

A. Cetrariae Kotte, 264
A. oxysporus Tul., 263
A. Peyritschii Kotte, 264
A. Smithii Tul., 263
Acanthothecium Wain., 322
Acarinae, 271, 397
Acarospora Massal., 183, 331, 390
A. chlorophana Massal., 374, 375, 390
A. glaucocarpa Koerb., 176
A. Heppii Koerb., 377
A. pruinosa (Sm.), 377
A. smaragdula Massal., 388, 393
A. xanthophana (Nyl.), 242
Acarosporaceae, 310, 331
Acarus, 395
Acharius, 1, 10, 123, 126, 133, 141, 149, 156, 185, 192, 304
Acolium, S. F. Gray, 277
Acrocordia gemmata Koerb., 152 (Fig. 90 b)
Acroscyphus, Lév., 320
A. sphaerophoroides Lév., 289
Actinoplaca Müll.-Arg., 327
Acton, xix, 57
Adanson, 9
Aesculus, 253
Agardh, C. A., xx, 21
Agyrium flavescens Rehm, 266
Aigret, 125, 371, 384
Alectoria Ach., 85, 94, 101, 103, 200, 257, 300, 340, 346, 350,
352
A. implexa Nyl., 227
A. jubata Ach., 3, 111, 401, 411
A. nigricans Nyl., 346, 389
A. ochroleuca Ach., 227, 389
A. thrausta Ach., 105 (Fig. 60)
Alectoriaceae, 339
Allarthonia Nyl., 321
Allarthothelium Wain., 321
Allescher, 201
Almquist, 262
Ambergris, 419
Amoreux, 10, 407, 415, 418, 420
Amphidium Nyl., 335
Amphiloma Koerb., 325
Anabæna Bory, 41
Anaptychia Koerb., 341 (see Physcia)
Anapyrenium Müll.-Arg., 315
Anema Nyl., 333, 373
Angiocarpeae, 156
Anthoceros L., 41
Anthracothecium Massal., 316, 350
Anzia Stiz., 90, 299, 339
A. colpodes Stiz., 90
A. japonica Müll.-Arg., 90
Archer, 28
Arctomia Th. Fr., 334
Argopsis Th. Fr., 105, 135, 297, 330
Arnold, 18, 261, 342, 343, 364, 368, 370, 407
Arnoldia minutula Born., 190 (Fig. 108)
Arnott, Walker, 15
Artari, 39, 42
Arthonia Ach., 158, 203, 278, 305, 321, 343, 361
A. astroidea Ach., 202
A. cinnabarina Wallr. (see A. gregaria), 349
A. dispersa Nyl., 365
A. gregaria Koerb., 247, 248
A. lecideella Nyl., 365
A. pruinosa Ach., 145
A. radiata Ach., 78, 365
A. subvarians Nyl., 262
Arthoniaceae, 59, 278, 309, 321
Arthoniopsis Müll.-Arg., 321
Arthopyrenia Massal., 30, 316
A. fallax Arn., 365
A. halizoa A. L. Sm., 383
A. halodytes Oliv., 383
A. leptotera A. L. Sm., 383
A. macrospora Fink, 365
A. marina A. L. Sm., 383
A. punctiformis Arn., 346, 365
A. quinqueseptata Fink, 365
Arthotheliopsis Wain., 327
Arthothelium Massal., 321
Ascolichens, 272, 273, 281, 308, 311
Ascomycetes xix, 178 et passim
Ascophanus carneus Boud., 180
Aspergillus Micheli, 220
Aspicilia Massal., 133, 136, 140 (see Lecanora)
A. atroviolacea (Flot.) Hue, 158
A. flavida (Hepp), 248
Aspidoferae, 9
Aspidopyrenium Wain., 314
Aspidothelium Wain., 314
Asteristion Leight., 337
Asteroporum Müll.-Arg., 316
Asterothyrium Müll.-Arg., 327
Astrotheliaceae, 309, 317, 352
Astrothelium Trev., 317
Athalami, 305
Aulaxina Fée, 322
Azolla Laur., 41

Babikoff, 138
Babington, 18, 350
Bachmann, E., 35, 75, 76, 215, 216, 235, 247, 347, 393
Bachmann, Freda, 162, 179, 181, 186
Bacidia, De Not., 329
B. acclinis (Flot.), 248
B. Beckhausii Koerb., 262
B. flavovirescens Anzi, 280
B. fuscorubella Arn., 249, 365
B. inundata Koerb., 372, 373, 377, 391, 392
B. muscorum Mudd, 248, 368, 370, 377
B. rubella Massal., 365
Bacotia sepium, 399
Baeomyces Pers., 123, 293, 294, 330
B. paeminosus Krempelh., 55
B. placophyllus Ach., 293, 368
B. roseus Pers., 123, 167, 195, 218, 247, 362, 367, 368,
369
B. rufus, DC., 123, 167, 177, 218, 237, 240, 362, 368, 369
Baranetzky, 24
Bary, de, 24, 31, 187, 209, 213
Bauhin, J., 419
Bauhin, K., 3
Baur, 51, 115, 118, 124, 161, 165, 167, 168, 169, 170, 172,
173, 174, 176, 177, 180, 181, 185, 255
Beckmann, 230, 257
Beechey, 15
Beetle-mites, 397
Beijerinck, 39, 220
Beilstein, 211
Belonia Koerb., 316
Berg, 211
Berkeley, 252, 404
Berzelius, 210
Betula nana L., 95
Bialosuknia, 57
Biatora Koerb., 158, 279, 293 (see also Lecidea), 391
Biatorella Th. Fr., 331
B. cinerea Th. Fr., 375
B. pruinosa Mudd, 217 (Fig. 119)
B. resinae Th. Fr., 355
B. simplex Br. and Rostr., 217 (Fig. 118)
B. testudinea Massal., 375
Biatorina Massal., 245, 291
B. Bouteillei Arn., 363
B. chalybeia Mudd, 386
B. coeruleonigricans A. L. Sm., 367
 B. globulosa Koerb., 378
B. lenticularis Koerb., 383
B. prasina Syd., 33, 61
B. (denigrata) synothea Koerb., 33, 204
Bilimbia, aromatica Jatta, 349
B. incana A. L. Sm., 343
B. microcarpa Th. Fr., 262
B. obscurata Th. Fr., 262
B. sabulosa Massal., 370
B. sphaeroides Koerb., 385
Bioret, 320
Birger, see Nilson
Bitter, 64, 79, 94, 97, 131, 140, 143, 147, 148, 149, 151, 176,
240, 242, 253, 257, 261, 267, 337, 397
Blackman, 206
Blackman and Welsford, 179
Blastenia Th. Fr., 340
Blastodesmia Massal., 316
Bohler, 415
Bombyliospora De Not., 329
Bonnier, 29, 36, 47, 65, 189, 232, 253
Bornet, 27, 28, 32, 36, 61, 78, 136, 189
Borrer, 12, 14
Borrera, see Physcia
Borzi, 28, 161, 164
Botrydina vulgaris Bréb., xix, 57
Botrydium pyriforme Kütz., 45
Bottaria Massal., 317
Bouilhac, 42, 140
Braconnot, 214
Brandt, 103, 130
Braun, Fr., 354
Braun, L., 393
Brefeld, 189, 207
Brez, 395
Brooks, F. T., 64, 179
Brown, E. W., 402
Brown, W. H., 168
Bryopogon, see Oropogon
Bryum L., 392
Buchet, 90
Buddle, 4
Buellia, De Not., 263, 280, 291, 302, 308, 341, 347
B. aethalea Th. Fr., 261
B. atrata Mudd, 245, 375
B. canescens De Not., 80, 366, 377, 380, 399
B. colludens Tuck., 382, 386
B. coracina Koerb., 375
B. discolor Koerb., 388
B. leptocline Koerb., 374
B. myriocarpa Mudd, 50, 346, 366, 369
 B. parasema Th. Fr., 365, 367, 377
B. Parmeliarum Oliv., 263
B. punctiformis, 50, 202, 207 (Fig. 118)
B. ryssolea A. L. Sm., 380, 382 (Fig. 125)
B. stellulata Mudd, 382, 388
B. triphragmia Th. Fr., 390
B. turgescens Tuck., 367
B. verruculosa Mudd, 261
Buelliaceae, 311, 341
Buxbaum, 6, 10
Buxus sempervirens L., 353

Cactus, 325, 353

Calenia Müll.-Arg., 338
Caliciaceae, 62, 115, 175, 189, 244, 288, 309, 319, 353, 366
Calicium De Not., 184, 201, 277, 319, 361
C. arenarium Nyl., 376
C. corynellum Ach., 376
C. hyperellum Ach., 349, 365
C. parietinum Ach., 202, 367
C. trachelinum Ach., 196, 202, 204
Calkins, 348, 403
Callopisma, see Placodium
Calluna Salisb., 95, 355
Caloplaca Th. Fr. (see Placodium), 340
 C. aurantia, var. callopisma Stein., 190
C. gilvella (Nyl.), 276
C. interveniens Müll.-Arg., 276
C. pyracea Th. Fr., 34, 388
Caloplacaceae, 311, 340
Calothricopsis Wain., 333
Calycidium Stirt., 289, 320
C. cuneatum Stirt., 350
Camellia L., 269
Camerarius, 1
Camillea Fr., 276
Campylidium, 191
Campylothelium Müll.-Arg., 317
Candelaria Massal., 339
C. concolor Wain., 365, 388, 399
Candelariella Müll.-Arg., 338
C. cerinella A. Zahlbr., 390
C. vitellina Müll.-Arg., 233, 237, 369, 377, 393, 417
Capnodium Mont., 179
Carpinus Tournef., 240
Carrington, 12
Carroll, 19
Cassini, 21
Catillaria Th. Fr. (see Biatorina), 329
C. Hochstetteri Koerb., 375
Celidiaceae, 265
Cellidium stictarum Tul., 267
Cenomyce Th. Fr., 295
Cephaleuros Kunze (see Mycoidea), 59, 288
Cephaloidei, 303
Cepteus ocellatus, 397
Cerania S. F. Gray, 340
C. vermicularis S. F. Gray, 194, 387
Cetraria Ach., 84, 94, 200, 210, 213, 225, 241, 264, 299, 346,
350, 357, 358, 370, 388, 399
C. aculeata Fr., 211, 241, 262, 299, 300, 355, 369, 384,
385, 386, 387
C. caperata Wain., 264
C. crispa Lamy, 387, 388
C. cucullata Ach., 201, 244, 389
C. diffusa A. L. Sm., 366
C. glauca Ach., 201, 231, 259, 264, 347, 388, 418
C. islandica Ach., 2, 94, 128, 195 (Fig. 112), 210, 212, 221,
227, 231, 241, 338, 355, 387, 401 (Fig. 128), 406, 408,
409, 411, 416
C. juniperina Ach., 201, 246, 416
C. Laureri Kremp., 364
C. nivalis Ach., 201, 210, 389
C. pinastri S. F. Gray, 145, 246, 410
C. tristis, see Parmelia
Chaenotheca Th. Fr., 201, 319
 C. chrysocephala Th. Fr., 265, 277, 288
Chalice-Moss, 3
Chambers, 43
Chasmariae, 295
Chevalier, 13
Chiodecton Müll.-Arg., 276, 320, 323, 351, 364
Chiodectonaceae, 59, 278, 309, 323
Chlorella Beij., 56
Ch. Cladoniae Chod., 56
Ch. faginea Wille, 56 (Fig. 23 a)
Ch. lichina Chod., 56
Ch. miniata Wille, 56 (Fig. 23 a)
Ch. viscosa Chod., 56
Ch. vulgaris Beyer., 42, 56
Chlorococcus (?Chlorococcum Fr.), 24
Chlorophyceae, xix, 51, 55-60, 61, 272, 324
Chodat, 28, 30, 43, 44, 55, 115, 329
Chroococcaceae, 25
Chroococcus Naeg., 24, 52, 82, 136, 153, 284, 311, 332, 373
Ch. giganteus West, 52 (Fig. 16)
Ch. Schizodermaticus West, 52 (Fig. 16)
Ch. turgidus Naeg., 52 (Fig. 16), 136
Chroolepus Ag., see Trentepohlia
C. ebeneus Ag., 22
Chrysothricaceae, 57, 310, 325
Chrysothrix Mont., 325, 353
C. noli tangere Mont., 325
Church, A. Henry, 421
Church, A. Herbert, 402
Cicinnobolus Ehrenb., 261
Cinchona L., 364
C. cordaminea Humb., 364
C. cordifolia Mutis, 364
C. oblongifolia Mutis, 364
Claassen, 34
Cladina Leight., 112, 122, 253, 292
Cladonia Hill, 9, 13, 23, 38, 44, 55, 56, 80, 81, 95, 104, 106,
172, 213, 237, 241, 242, 257, 262, 329, 344, 346, 347, 355,
358, 372, 375, 385, 391, 399, 408
Cl. agariciformis Wulf., 368
Cl. aggregata Ach., 120
Cl. alcicornis Floerk., 385, 386
Cl. alpestris Rabenh., 125, 211, 349, 369
Cl. alpicola Wain., 122
Cl. amaurocrea Schaer., 118
Cl. bellidiflora Schaer., 119
Cl. botrytes Willd., 173
Cl. caespiticia Floerk., 115, 124, 294, 296
Cl. cariosa Spreng., 113, 120, 295, 296, 368
Cl. cartilaginea Müll.-Arg., 122
Cl. ceratophylla Spreng., 122
Cl. cervicornis Schaer., 113, 120, 122, 243, 384, 387
Cl. coccifera Willd., 113, 118, 368, 369, 370, 387
Cl. cristatella Tuck., 367, 369
Cl. decorticata Spreng., 172 (Fig. 98)
Cl. deformis Hoffm., 226
Cl. degenerans Floerk., 114, 117, 124
Cl. destricta Nyl., 387
Cl. digitata Hoffm., 113, 122, 371
Cl. divaricata Meng. and Goepp., 355
Cl. enantia f. dilatala Wain., 112
Cl. endiviaefolia Fr., 384
Cl. fimbriata Fr., 51, 117, 120, 295, 296, 349, 367, 368,
370, 377; Subsp. fibula Nyl., 119, 369
Cl. flabelliformis Wain., 371
Cl Floerkeana Fr., 173, 296, 362, 370
Cl. foliacea Willd., 112, 113, 120, 122, 240, 295, 296
Cl. furcata Schrad., 117 (Fig. 70), 118, 124, 194 (Fig. 109),
212, 295, 297, 355, 368, 369, 377, 386
Cl. gracilis Hoffm., 115 (Fig. 68), 122, 124, 210, 297, 367,
369, 387
Cl. leptophylla Floerk., 295, 296
Cl. macilenta Hoffm., 362, 366, 367, 369, 378
Cl. miniata Mey., 112, 122
Cl. nana Wain., 112
Cl. Neo-Zelandica Wain., 112
Cl. papillaria Hoffm., 195, 296, 344
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