Unit I: Computer & Network Security Concepts
1. Overview of Computer & Network Security
Computer and network security encompasses all the measures, practices, and technologies
designed to protect computer systems, data, and networks from cyber threats, unauthorized
access, and malicious activities. With the increasing dependency on information systems for
business, communication, and personal activities, the need for securing digital resources has
become crucial.
Key Concepts:
• Confidentiality: Protecting data from unauthorized access.
• Integrity: Ensuring data accuracy and preventing unauthorized modifications.
• Availability: Ensuring that systems and data are accessible when needed by
authorized users.
Importance: The rise of cyberattacks like hacking, data breaches, and malware has made
computer and network security a vital concern for organizations, governments, and
individuals alike. Ensuring system security mitigates risks and helps build trust in digital
systems.
2. Security Goals
Security goals, commonly known as the CIA Triad, form the cornerstone of network and
computer security:
• Confidentiality: The principle of confidentiality ensures that sensitive information is
accessible only to those who have the authorization to view it. Unauthorized access to
sensitive data is prevented through encryption, access control, and authentication
mechanisms.
o Example: Encrypting a database with personal customer information so that
only authorized users can access it.
• Integrity: Integrity ensures that the data remains accurate and unaltered during
transmission or storage. Any changes to the data are either authorized or detected
immediately.
o Example: Digital signatures on files or messages to verify that the content has
not been tampered with.
• Availability: Availability ensures that the systems, data, and services are accessible to
authorized users when they are needed. Attacks like denial-of-service (DoS) aim to
compromise availability by flooding systems with traffic.
o Example: High-availability clusters or distributed denial-of-service (DDoS)
protection systems that ensure critical services remain operational during peak
traffic times or attacks.
3. Threats, Attacks, and Assets
• Threats: A threat is any potential danger that can exploit a system’s vulnerability. It
is an external or internal factor that has the potential to cause harm.
o Example: A hacker trying to break into a network to steal sensitive data.
o Types of Threats: Natural (e.g., earthquakes, fires), environmental (e.g.,
power outages), human (e.g., insider threats, social engineering), and
technological (e.g., software vulnerabilities).
• Attacks: Attacks are deliberate actions that exploit vulnerabilities to cause harm or
gain unauthorized access to systems.
o Example:
▪ Phishing: Fraudulent emails trying to trick users into revealing
passwords.
▪ Malware: Software designed to disrupt, damage, or gain unauthorized
access to computer systems.
• Assets: Assets are the valuable components or resources that need protection. These
include hardware, software, data, intellectual property, and services.
o Example: Company data, customer information, and proprietary software are
considered high-value assets.
o Asset Protection: Implementing robust security protocols to protect data,
ensuring that unauthorized access to assets is prevented.
4. Vulnerabilities
A vulnerability is a weakness or flaw in a system, network, or software that can be exploited
by an attacker. Vulnerabilities can arise from several factors, including poor system
configuration, outdated software, insecure coding practices, or human error.
Types of Vulnerabilities:
• Software Vulnerabilities: Bugs or flaws in the code of applications, operating
systems, or network protocols.
o Example: Buffer overflow vulnerabilities in legacy software.
• Hardware Vulnerabilities: Issues at the hardware level, such as faulty or insecure
hardware that can be tampered with.
o Example: A vulnerable processor chip susceptible to side-channel attacks (e.g.,
Meltdown and Spectre).
• Human Vulnerabilities: Mistakes or lapses in judgment by individuals, such as weak
passwords, misconfigured systems, or falling for social engineering attacks.
o Example: Employees reusing passwords across multiple services, making
them vulnerable to credential stuffing attacks.
Impact of Vulnerabilities:
• Exploiting vulnerabilities can lead to data breaches, system compromise, financial
loss, and loss of reputation.
• Regular patching, software updates, and vulnerability assessments help minimize the
risk of exploitation.
5. Security Functional Requirements
These are the key features that a secure system must possess to maintain data confidentiality,
integrity, and availability.
• Authentication: Verifying the identity of a user, system, or device.
o Example: Username and password, biometric authentication (fingerprint or
facial recognition).
• Authorization: Defining and enforcing what authenticated users are allowed to do.
o Example: Role-based access control (RBAC) or discretionary access control
(DAC), which assigns permissions based on user roles or tasks.
• Non-repudiation: Ensuring that an entity cannot deny the authenticity of their actions
or communications.
o Example: Digital signatures, logging actions, and maintaining transaction
records.
• Auditing: The ability to log and track actions and access attempts on a system to
detect and respond to suspicious activities.
o Example: Generating logs for access requests and system changes for later
review and investigation.
6. Security Services
Security services are the functionalities that are implemented in a system or network to
ensure its protection against threats and attacks.
• Confidentiality Services: Ensure that sensitive information is protected from
unauthorized access, primarily through encryption.
o Example: SSL/TLS for securing web traffic.
• Integrity Services: Ensure that data is not altered during storage or transmission. This
can be done using hash functions.
o Example: SHA-256 for file integrity checking.
• Authentication Services: Verify the identity of users or systems before allowing
access.
o Example: Multi-factor authentication (MFA), using something you know
(password) and something you have (a mobile phone for a verification code).
• Access Control Services: Control who can access a system and the level of access
allowed.
o Example: Implementing access control lists (ACLs) or RBAC.
7. Security Mechanism
Security mechanisms are tools or technologies that enforce security policies. These
mechanisms are the building blocks of security services.
• Cryptographic Mechanisms: Techniques that use mathematical algorithms to
encrypt data, ensuring confidentiality and integrity.
o Example: RSA encryption for secure data transmission, AES encryption for
securing files.
• Access Control Mechanisms: These include systems like firewalls, IDS/IPS, and
ACLs that enforce policies to allow or block access.
o Example: Using an IDS to detect unauthorized access attempts.
• Authentication Protocols: These protocols ensure that users or systems are who they
claim to be.
o Example: Kerberos protocol for secure authentication in network
environments.
8. Secure Communications
Secure communications involve the transmission of data between two or more entities while
ensuring that confidentiality, integrity, and authenticity are maintained.
• Cryptography: A fundamental mechanism for securing communications, ensuring
that the transmitted data cannot be easily intercepted or altered.
o Example: End-to-end encryption in messaging apps like WhatsApp.
• Protocols for Secure Communication:
o SSL/TLS: Protocols that provide encrypted communication over a computer
network (e.g., HTTPS).
o IPsec: A suite of protocols for securing Internet Protocol (IP) communications
by authenticating and encrypting each IP packet in a communication session.
o VPNs: Securely tunneling private network traffic over the public internet.
• End-to-End Encryption: Ensures that only the sender and receiver can decrypt the
message, not even intermediate servers.
o Example: Signal app’s implementation of E2EE for text messages and calls.
9. Model for Network Security
The Network Security Model aims to protect networks from security threats by employing
various tools and methods that ensure safe communication, access control, and data
protection.
• Layered Defense: The model recommends using multiple layers of protection
(defense in depth), with different tools and mechanisms securing different aspects of
the network.
• Threat Prevention: Using measures such as firewalls, encryption, and VPNs to
prevent unauthorized access.
• Detection: Monitoring network traffic for signs of malicious activity using IDS/IPS.
• Response: After detecting an attack, responding quickly to limit damage, such as
isolating affected systems or restoring from backups.
10. The OSI Security Architecture
The OSI Security Architecture maps security functions onto the layers of the OSI model to
help implement a structured approach to security across all aspects of network
communication.
• Layer 1 (Physical Layer): Physical security measures, such as limiting access to
physical hardware or network cables to prevent tampering.
• Layer 2 (Data Link Layer): Security at the data link layer to ensure data integrity in
the form of error detection and correction protocols.
• Layer 3 (Network Layer): Securing routing and addressing, such as implementing
IPsec for secure routing.
• Layer 4 (Transport Layer): Implementing SSL/TLS to secure communications at
the transport layer.
• Layer 5-7 (Session, Presentation, and Application Layers): Focus on
authentication, encryption, data integrity, and non-repudiation services to secure
communications at these higher layers.
11. Applications, Limitations, and Recent Advancements
Applications:
• E-commerce: Securing online transactions through SSL/TLS and payment gateways.
• Cloud computing: Protecting user data in cloud environments with encryption and
access control.
Limitations:
• Complexity: Advanced security measures may require expertise, making them
difficult to implement in smaller organizations.
• Cost: Implementing robust security infrastructures can be expensive for businesses
with limited budgets.
Cryptographic Tools: In-depth Overview
Cryptography is a fundamental component of modern security systems, ensuring the
confidentiality, integrity, and authenticity of data. It employs algorithms and protocols that
allow secure communication and data storage. The key cryptographic tools include
symmetric and asymmetric key ciphers, classical encryption techniques, modern block
ciphers, and user authentication methods. Let’s dive into each of these topics in detail.
1. Symmetric and Asymmetric Key Ciphers
Symmetric Key Ciphers:
• Definition: In symmetric encryption, the same key is used for both encryption and
decryption of data. The sender and receiver must securely share the key beforehand.
• Advantages:
o Faster than asymmetric encryption due to simpler algorithms.
o More efficient for encrypting large amounts of data.
• Examples: Data Encryption Standard (DES), Advanced Encryption Standard (AES),
RC5.
Asymmetric Key Ciphers:
• Definition: Also known as public-key cryptography, asymmetric encryption uses two
different keys: a public key for encryption and a private key for decryption. The
public key can be shared openly, while the private key is kept confidential.
• Advantages:
o Solves the key distribution problem since the public key can be shared without
compromising security.
o Used for digital signatures, ensuring both confidentiality and authenticity.
• Examples: RSA, ECC (Elliptic Curve Cryptography), Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange.
2. Classical Encryption Techniques
Classical encryption methods date back to ancient times. Although these are no longer secure
by modern standards, they laid the foundation for more advanced encryption techniques.
• Caesar Cipher: A substitution cipher where each letter in the plaintext is shifted by a
fixed number.
o Example: A shift of 3 converts "A" to "D", "B" to "E", and so on.
• Substitution Cipher: Each letter or symbol in the plaintext is replaced by another
letter or symbol.
o Example: The Vigenère cipher uses a keyword to determine the shift for each
letter.
• Transposition Cipher: The positions of characters in the plaintext are shifted
according to a specific system.
o Example: The columnar transposition cipher arranges the plaintext in a grid
and reads it off column by column.
Formulas:
caesarcipher: C= (p+k) mod 26 and p=(C-k) mod 26 where k = 3 and p is albhabet’s no
out of 25.
Hill cipher : C= p*k mod 26 and p= C*k^-1 mod 26 / p*k*k^-1 mod 26 where p=
plaintext matrix, k = key matrix, C = cyphertext matrix
Vignere Cipher : (Ci = pi +ki modm) mod 26 and pi = (Ci-ki modm) mod 26
These classical methods are relatively easy to break with modern computational power and
are mainly of historical interest today.
3. Symmetric Ciphers: Confidentiality with Symmetric Encryption
Symmetric encryption ensures the confidentiality of data by using the same key for both
encryption and decryption. It is widely used for encrypting bulk data due to its efficiency and
speed.
Key Concepts:
• Encryption Process: Plaintext is transformed into ciphertext using an encryption
algorithm and a secret key.
• Decryption Process: Ciphertext is transformed back into plaintext using the same
key.
Examples:
• AES (Advanced Encryption Standard): A widely used symmetric algorithm that
supports key lengths of 128, 192, and 256 bits.
• DES (Data Encryption Standard): A now-deprecated symmetric encryption
algorithm that uses a 56-bit key.
Challenges in Symmetric Encryption:
• Key Distribution: Securely distributing and managing the keys between the
communicating parties is a major challenge.
• Key Compromise: If the key is exposed, the confidentiality of the encrypted data is
compromised.
4. One-Time Pads (OTP)
A one-time pad is an encryption method that uses a single-use key that is as long as the
message itself. Each character of the plaintext is combined with a random key character using
an XOR operation. OTP is theoretically unbreakable if the key is truly random, used only
once, and kept secret.
Key Properties:
• Perfect Secrecy: An OTP provides perfect security, meaning that ciphertext provides
no information about the plaintext without the key.
• Challenges:
o The key must be securely shared between the sender and receiver, and it must
be as long as the message.
o The key must never be reused, which makes OTP impractical for most real-
world applications.
5. User Authentication Methods
Authentication is the process of verifying the identity of a user, device, or system. Various
methods are used to ensure that only authorized users can access resources.
Authentication Factors:
• Something You Know: Typically, a password or PIN.
• Something You Have: A smart card, security token, or mobile device.
• Something You Are: Biometrics like fingerprints, retina scans, or facial recognition.
Authentication Techniques:
• Password-Based Authentication: A user proves their identity by providing a
password. Security can be enhanced by enforcing strong password policies.
• Multi-Factor Authentication (MFA): Combines two or more factors, such as a
password and a security token or biometrics.
• Biometric Authentication: Uses biological characteristics (fingerprints, face
recognition) to verify identity.
6. Block Cipher and Data Encryption Standard (DES)
Block Cipher:
• A block cipher is an encryption algorithm that encrypts data in fixed-size blocks
(usually 64 or 128 bits) using a secret key.
• Modes of Operation: Block ciphers operate in various modes, such as ECB
(Electronic Codebook), CBC (Cipher Block Chaining), and CTR (Counter mode),
which affect how blocks are processed and how data is encrypted.
Data Encryption Standard (DES):
• Overview: DES is an outdated symmetric-key block cipher that was widely used in
the 1970s and 1980s. It uses a 56-bit key and operates on 64-bit data blocks.
• Weaknesses:
o DES is considered insecure today due to its relatively short key length (56
bits) and vulnerability to brute-force attacks.
o Example: In 1998, DES was broken in less than 24 hours using a distributed
brute-force attack.
• Replacement: DES has been replaced by more secure encryption algorithms,
particularly AES.
7. Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)
Overview:
• AES is the most widely used symmetric encryption algorithm, adopted as a standard
by the U.S. government in 2001 to replace DES.
• AES supports key lengths of 128, 192, and 256 bits, making it resistant to brute-force
attacks.
Key Features:
• Structure: AES operates on 128-bit data blocks and uses multiple rounds of
encryption (10 rounds for 128-bit keys, 12 rounds for 192-bit keys, and 14 rounds for
256-bit keys).
• Security: AES is highly secure and is widely used in a variety of applications, from
securing data transmissions to encrypting files on disk.
Strengths:
• AES is efficient and fast, even on limited hardware.
• It is resistant to known cryptanalytic attacks, making it suitable for both governmental
and commercial uses.
8. RC2, RC4, RC5, and RC6
The RC family of ciphers was developed by Ron Rivest at RSA Security. These are
symmetric key block ciphers with varying levels of security and efficiency.
• RC2: A 64-bit block cipher with a variable key length. It was used in early versions
of SSL but is now considered obsolete due to its weak security.
• RC4: A stream cipher that uses a variable-length key and operates on data one bit or
byte at a time. It is fast but has several vulnerabilities, particularly related to key
reuse, making it insecure for modern applications.
• RC5: A block cipher with variable block size (32, 64, or 128 bits), key length, and
number of rounds. It provides strong security but is slower than AES.
• RC6: An improved version of RC5, designed to be faster and more secure,
particularly for hardware implementations. It uses a 128-bit block size and supports
key sizes up to 256 bits.
9. Block Cipher Operation
Block ciphers work by taking fixed-length blocks of data and encrypting them using a secret
key. Different modes of operation modify how the encryption is applied to blocks of data.
Common Block Cipher Modes:
• ECB (Electronic Codebook): Each block of plaintext is encrypted independently,
making it fast but vulnerable to patterns.
• CBC (Cipher Block Chaining): Each block is XORed with the previous ciphertext
block before encryption, which eliminates patterns in the ciphertext.
• CFB (Cipher Feedback): Operates similarly to CBC but allows for encryption in
smaller units, such as bits or bytes.
• CTR (Counter): A counter is encrypted and XORed with the plaintext to create
ciphertext, allowing for parallel processing and faster encryption.
10. Random and Pseudo-Random Numbers
Random Numbers:
• True random numbers are generated from physical processes (e.g., radioactive decay
or thermal noise). They are unpredictable and unbiased.
Pseudo-Random Numbers:
• Pseudo-random numbers are generated using algorithms, making them deterministic
but seemingly random. They are sufficient for most cryptographic purposes but need
to be seeded properly to ensure unpredictability.
• Example: The Linear Congruential Generator (LCG) or more sophisticated
algorithms like Mersenne Twister.
Importance in Cryptography:
• Cryptographic algorithms like AES and RSA rely on random numbers for key
generation, initialization vectors (IVs), and nonces.
• A weak random number generator can compromise the security of cryptographic
operations.
