Applying the ASME codes plant piping and

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 APPLYING THE ASME CODES:
PLANT PIPING AND PRESSURE VESSELS

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 James A. Wingate is a practicing Mechanical Engineer and technical author. After graduation (BSME, 1964 & MSME, 1965,
both from Clemson University) he served 6 years in the U.S. Air Force as a development engineering officer in tactical missile
weapons systems. Since then he has performed various M.E. roles in heavy industry and in engineering design/construction firms.
More than half of his 4+ decades of practice have been as an independent consultant to those activities, as well as in forensic
analysis and as a legal expert-witness in capital loss litigations involving failures in piping/hydraulic systems and pressure vessels.
He is a long-time member of the ASME and has been very active in its Professional Development series of Continuing Education
program courses, concentrating in the ASME Piping Codes and the Boiler and Pressure Vessel Codes, B31.1, B31.3, etc. He has
been a registered Professional Engineer for more than 30 years. He and his family reside in the Greenville, South Carolina area.
Jim’s main leisure-time activity is fine woodworking, building scratch reproductions of antique furniture museum pieces from the
Colonial period in America.
His first book (Mister MechMentor Volume I), also published by the ASME, serves as an information source and problems-
solution guide for novice and recently begun Mechanical Engineers starting work in process industries, utilities plant design, and
in engineering/construction firms. Its emphasis is on those topics most often required on the job of junior engineers in those
environments: basic hydraulics, environmental control (HVAC), and pipe flow systems of various types. Utility systems engineering
concepts involving those topics are explained in a personal down-to-earth manner in Volume I, with an emphasis on “lessons
learned” and the design of safe and conservative utilities systems. This book, (Mister MechMentor Volume II) places emphasis on
the ASME Code applications of piping systems for boilers and pressure vessels and for heavy industrial process and utilities
engineering. Pipe stress analysis and Code application issues dominate this volume, which deals mostly with stress/strain and
mechanics of materials design-and-analysis topics, and, therefore, Volume II is aimed more at the mid- and senior-level engineers
and technical managers consistent with those types of advanced responsibility. However, Volume II retains the same friendly and
personal communication approach used in Volume I. Both volumes are intended to help fill the voids in modern on-the-job personal
training and technical assistance that have resulted in many firms from corporate staff down-sizing and out-sourcing policies;
hence, the “MechMentor” book titles and the fatherly conversational styles in which they are written.

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 APPLYING THE ASME CODES:
PLANT PIPING AND PRESSURE VESSELS

By

James A. Wingate

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 © 2007 by ASME Press, Three Park Avenue, New York, NY 10016

All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Except as permitted under the United States
Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any
means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher.

INFORMATION CONTAINED IN THIS WORK HAS BEEN OBTAINED BY THE AMERICAN SOCI-
ETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS FROM SOURCES BELIEVED TO BE RELIABLE. HOWEVER,
NEITHER ASME NOR ITS AUTHORS OR EDITORS GUARANTEE THE ACCURACY OR COM-
PLETENESS OF ANY INFORMATION PUBLISHED IN THIS WORK. NEITHER ASME NOR ITS
AUTHORS AND EDITORS SHALL BE RESPONSIBLE FOR ANY ERRORS, OMISSIONS, OR DAM-
AGES ARISING OUT OF THE USE OF THIS INFORMATION. THE WORK IS PUBLISHED WITH
THE UNDERSTANDING THAT ASME AND ITS AUTHORS AND EDITORS ARE SUPPLYING
INFORMATION BUT ARE NOT ATTEMPTING TO RENDER ENGINEERING OR OTHER PROFES-
SIONAL SERVICES. IF SUCH ENGINEERING OR PROFESSIONAL SERVICES ARE REQUIRED,
THE ASSISTANCE OF AN APPROPRIATE PROFESSIONAL SHOULD BE SOUGHT.

ASME shall not be responsible for statements or opinions advanced in papers or . . . printed in publications
(B7.1.3). Statement from the Bylaws.

For authorization to photocopy material for internal or personal use under those circumstances not falling
within the fair use provisions of the Copyright Act, contact the Copyright Clearance Center (CCC), 222
Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, tel: 978-750-8400, www.copyright.com.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Wingate, James A.
Applying the ASME codes: plant piping and pressure vessels / James A. Wingate.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 978-0-7918-0255-7
1. Mechanical engineering. 2. Mechanical engineering—Standards. 3. American Society of Mechanical
Engineers. I. Title.
TJ145.W47 2007
621—dc22
2007010224

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 CONTENTS

VOLUME TWO temperature ratings, allowable stresses, leakage vs. stress

Applying the ASME Codes: Plant Piping and loadings, pipe code requirements, ring-type gasket criteria,
illustrations, actual flange detail dimensions, examples and
Pressure Vessels
calculations.

Chapter 6: Thermal Restraint Stress 105

Preface vii
Foreword ix Internal and external restraint of thermal expansion and con-
traction will induce mechanical stresses and can lead to fa-
Chapter 1: ASME B31.3 Process Piping Stress tigue stress cracking of various object shapes, single- and
Analysis Requirements 1 multidimensional geometry.
Complete listing, definition, and description of the equations
dictated for pipe stress analysis code compliance; pipe wall Chapter 7: The Types and Amounts of Mechanical
thickness, flange pressure/temperature rating, thermal expan- Stresses to Be Expected in Common Utility
sion restraint—anchor displacement strain, cyclic fatigue, Piping Systems 117
sustained and occasional longitudinal loads, correlation of
design loads with failure mode and method of analysis, con- What the everyday mechanical engineer needs to understand
densed correlation table; allowable excursions above opera- about piping stresses and strains to interface intelligently
tional design temperature and pressure. with piping professionals; uses basics of elasticity and
Mohr’s Circle to demonstrate how a common steel piping
Chapter 2: Bellows-Type Pipe Expansion Joints: system responds to the typical loadings it receives in practice.
Pressure Thrust and Other Pitfalls 9
Physical illustrations of the various types, how they work, Chapter 8: Pressure (Hydro-) Tests 133
how they must be carefully applied and installed, and why Codes, vessel test requirements, safety considerations, and
they fail when this is not done; illustrated example, require- tips.
ments for safe use.

Chapter 3: Supports Determine Loads on Piping, Chapter 9: Issues and Codes Concerning Piping and Vessel
Connecting Equipment, the Level of Pipe Stress, and Overpressure Protection and Safety 139
Load Reactions on Supporting Structure 17 Guidance on sizing and selecting pressure relief and safety
Piping contractors, piping design and plant engineers, struc- relief devices, application tips, relationships to ASME B&
tural engineers, and all designers for piping and support PV CODES Section VIII Division 1 and the API 520-21
structure MUST have a good working understanding of this standards, and working data sheets for recording the flowrate/
material, for safety’s sake! This topic is covered in great pressure calculations and device sizing criteria.
detail, designed for self-study, and you don’t have to be a
pipe stress analyst to understand and apply these principles. Chapter 10: Jacketed Piping Issues 181
Chapter 4: Spring Constants of Elastic Shapes Identification and explanation of some of the unique, nasty
in Contact 61 problems that plague these miserable (jacketed) piping ar-
Mostly for pipe support design and pipe stress analysis, mod- rangements. They can be done safely, but you better know
els of elastic structural shapes in compression, tension, canti- how! Based on first-hand knowledge of real-life system fail-
levered beam in bending, sphere on flat plate, cylindrical ures with big-bucks damage consequences.
rod between flat plates, pure torsion.
Selected References 199
Chapter 5: Pipe Flange Leakage and Stress 67
A complete primer, with types of flanges, their pressure– Index 201

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 vi • Contents

VOLUME ONE: (PUBLISHED SEPARATELY) VOLUME ONE involves more entry-level and less specialized
professional information than does VOLUME TWO. VOL-
UME ONE is more basic, and is intended primarily for the
VOLUME ONE’s topics cover these main areas of mechanical engineering novitiate, to keep him or her out of trouble on that
engineering practice: first important job. Its contents were collected as a predecessor
and companion piece to VOLUME TWO.
• HYDRAULICS OF PIPE FLOW
• INDUSTRIAL HVAC SPECIALTIES
• UTILITY SYSTEMS
• CHILLED WATER LOOPS, OVERALL SYSTEM DE-
SIGN, AND CONTROL

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 PREFACE

Mister MechMentor is a collection of technical chapters, pub- Primarily involving mechanical process and utility piping
lished in two separately bound volumes, written in a friendly, design and analysis, fluids handling (pumping and flow con-
first-person style, meant to help people solve certain mechanical trol), real-world hydraulic transients, and useful solutions of
engineering problems. mechanical stress and strain problems often related to these
Its title reflects its intent, which is to augment the reader’s systems, the book’s selected topics are commonly encountered
necessary training in the way a caring mentor might. It explains on the job by folks who work in these engineering fields:
“why” as well as “how,” with the goal of helping the novitiate
learn certain potentially dangerous lessons in physics and engi- 1. Engineering design/construction firms;
neering design application, safely and convincingly, without 2. Contract engineers and designer/technicians;
subjecting him or her to the suffering and embarrassment of 3. Architect/engineer/planner/consulting firms;
learning the hard way. 4. Mechanical contracting firms: process, facility, utility,
It seems that life’s (and engineering’s) most important heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC),
lessons are learned by making painful mistakes; the author and plumbing;
insists that it is far better to learn from the past mistakes of 5. Environmental firms especially involved with mechani-
others than to repeat the mistakes himself. Whenever actual cal equipment and piping;
examples of such cases are helpful, they are included in a frank 6. Forensic loss consultants;
and colorful way most will appreciate. 7. Staff engineers in plant projects, both direct engineering
Although its primary readership is intended to be mainly and management, and in utilities, maintenance, safety,
younger people who have yet to gain certain vital engineering and environmental departmental duties, and especially
experiences, and who do not have access to a senior “flesh and the chemical/manufacturing process hazardous opera-
blood” on-the-job mentor, the more seasoned engineer may tions (HAZOPS) team members.
also find it helpful as a quick refresher and source of organized
solutions to the ubiquitous problems it embraces. Code refer-
ences are especially valuable.

vii

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 FOREWORD

Because this is my book, and because it pretends a claim, operators and maintainers, and especially by myself, then I go
however modest, on mentorhood, then I suppose I am duty- back and simplify the design to the point at which it will be
bound to offer you my own points of view on our chosen 100% understood. If I have to, I will make those changes on
profession, engineering, and that is what I will try to do my own time and expense. I will never be rich, and don’t care;
here. Of course, my opinions are just that—opinions. Every- however, I will sleep well at night.
one has them. It remains the prerogative, in fact the profes- As experienced technicians and professionals, we know
sional duty of each of us to strive toward finding his or her what we know, and what we can do, and we are expected
own personal truths. and paid to do “good engineering” within our range of actual
Any personal guidelines that I share here for your consider- competence. And indeed, we do try our best to be clever and
ation are necessarily taken from my personal experience. Fall- innovative and thrifty and thorough and sophisticated and brave
ing personally and quite remarkably short of genius, I have had and true-blue and all those other neat things we want our
to master the important lessons of my profession and my life employers and clients to think of us. And being human, many
as most folks do; by learning from my own mistakes, when times we are tempted to stretch just a bit beyond, to take a
unavoidable, and from the mistakes of others, whenever possi- little chance, maybe to want to brag a little, or bite off a tad
ble. I sincerely hope that all your learning experiences will be more than we can comfortably chew. You know the drill. Our
of the latter kind, and that your pilgrimage will be more worthy nature makes us want to promote ourselves, to continually
than was my own. market our abilities, to advertise our strengths both real and
I like to make simplifying assumptions as much as the imagined, and by all means to hide our weaknesses and fears
next guy does, and my point of view in design will always be at all times, all the while exuding cool self-confidence, and
conservative, but not ridiculously so. Rather, my degree of maybe even a general aura of salty seaworthiness. All of which
conservatism in any technical matter is always assigned in is perfectly natural. Perfectly human.
sensible proportion to the particular consequential dangers But we have taken upon ourselves the professional respon-
which might accrue if I made errors of judgment or calculation. sibility to do a certain kind of work, ostensibly one which
Knowing where to draw the line with yourself is the key. greatly benefits mankind but which, if not done properly, has
That knowledge will come with practice and observation and the potential to do great harm instead. And because of that, we
experience. You were not born knowing where the line should must act professionally, responsibly, at all times in our work.
be drawn; none of us were. But you were born with a head Even when to do so would seem contrary to our own personal
full of common sense and valuable human intuition, and a heart advancement. We must not try to practice outside the bound-
full of the inner voice of conscience. Use all of these gifts aries of our own limitations, all by our intellectual selves alone.
without hesitation or apology. Weave them into the framework No. To grow our abilities safely, we need to take our first steps
of your professional practice and of your life as well, and the on strange new ground with someone else present, someone
rest will come with time. who knows the ropes, to check us and guide us and keep us
I try to be efficient and productive, to create refined systems as well as our potential benefactors-née-victims safe from our
without putting too fine a point on things, and will avoid gilding fledgling efforts. We must swallow our human vanity and ask
lilies and reinventing wheels as best I can. I strive for maximum for help when we need it. And trust me, the oldest and best of
simplicity and understandability in the things I design, because us need help much more frequently than you are led to imagine.
it seems to me that these are the source springs of elegance. Those who blissfully ignore their personal limitations and
They are without question two of safety’s necessary ingredients. press on into unknown territory alone, without first achieving
If I find that I cannot in plain language explain my design a truly satisfactory upgrading in knowledge sufficient to the
precisely, completely, and clearly enough for its operational undertaking, are truly dangerous to themselves and the public
physical principles, means of control, range of safe operation, whom they are charged with serving.
design intent, natural physical limitations, expected service life, Every true profession recognizes this principle. Prac-
and requirements for proper safe operation and maintenance to titioners of education, law, medicine, those who serve us in the
be thoroughly understandable by its intended owners, builders, military, the guardians of public health and safety, and all the

ix

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 x • Foreword

rest; all know this, whether or not it receives much public At present, engineering lacks the grueling internship so
mention. justifiably prized and touted by the medical profession. As
The key word here is “alone.” Do not hesitate to ask for fledglings we are given typically nowhere near the kind of
guidance when you sense it is needed. Do not allow yourself scrutiny that lawyers invest in their new hires. And we surely
to be forced into giving snap explanations or making hasty don’t give our people the kind of gutsy, realistic, no-punches-
decisions, thinking that, if you do not you may damage your pulled training that the professional military must receive in
reputation. Far from it! It has been my life experience that order to do their job with even a prayer of personal survival!
really bad screw-ups do not happen unless the opportunity to No, the “onus” of self-policing is definitely sitting squarely
prevent them falls upon every weak link in the project’s entire upon our own shoulders. And that is where it should be anyway,
chain of production. if we are to be truly worthy of professional status. We have to
Each organization involved in that chain will have one de make it our own final responsibility to know exactly where our
facto decision-maker; sometimes, that person will be you. Don’t own personal limits of competence end, and where the vast sea
you become a weak link due to fear of speaking out, or shyness of unknowns, our remaining uncertainties, begins. And believe
about asking questions which you fear might seem “stupid” to you me, we all have limits, great bunches and gobs of
the others. When it is your turn to act, when the problem has uncertainty.
rolled up to your workstation and you see that a problem exists After all, are we not merely human? The more we poor
in the project and that sooner or later there will be trouble if creatures see and experience and learn, the more we realize the
someone doesn’t do something to fix it, then by all means, true depths of our own ignorance and human frailty. Its just
blow the whistle on it! It is your professional responsibility to that the professional keeps on trying to improve the situation,
do so. And, yes, it might cause some “big guy” to look bad realizing his quest is finally beyond human endeavor and can
somewhere in the chain, and he might cause you trouble and never truly end, right up until his day of death.
try to get you taken off the project, or even fired. And truly, the quest needs to come ahead of personal
Well friend, that is just an inevitable human experience. aggrandizement. The best professionals, the best engineers, the
It is a test of your mettle. Sooner or later, it is going to happen best people of all walks of life whom I have been privileged
to you on the job. When it does, do what you know is right, to know during a lifetime of practice, have been those who
and stick to your guns. And if you in fact turn out to be correct frankly admit their limitations, appearances be damned! They
but lose the argument anyway, if the organization knows you most certainly do not refrain from asking questions or begging
are right but fails to support you or spits you out, whatever the assistance when they face something that frightens them, way
reason, then FINE! It simply proves that they themselves are down inside. They will put the actual welfare of others ahead
seriously flawed and not worthy of employing professionals. of their own personal ambition every time.
You shouldn’t be working there anyway. Move on to another Finally, I am compelled to give you my honest appraisal
place where people are willing to act professionally and will of engineering. It is my long-term opinion that this profession
invariably do the right thing on principle! demands more actual brain sweat and more acceptance of tangi-
What is a professional engineer? I say he or she is an ble responsibility, yet repays one’s effort with proportionately
engineer who possesses necessary minimum levels of profes- less money and with more grinding of teeth during the late-
sional judgment consistent with adequate computational ability, night hours, than any other job that I know. The single important
plus an adequate base of scientific and technical knowledge exception is the professional soldier, who must add real mortal
gained through accredited formal education, plus the ability to danger to the list of professional living conditions, and gets
master complicated abstract procedures, plus common sense less in return for his tangible sacrifices than do all other men.
practicality plus emotional maturity plus a well-developed sense I think you have to enjoy this work for its own sake, and
of duty and responsibility, plus the ability and willingness al- have a fair share of intellectual curiosity and the impetus to
ways to continue the personal learning and improvement pro- continually seek more insight into the workings of the universe,
cess, not only to teach himself or herself through continual for engineering to make sense as a career. And on those terms,
self-study aimed at professional growth but also to seek out I think it does.
the wisdom and valuable experience of those who have proven
to have it.

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 CHAPTER

1
ASME B31.3
PROCESS PIPING STRESS
ANALYSIS REQUIREMENTS

ASME Code for Pressure Piping governs the materials, permis- If you work, or plan to work, in areas of piping responsibil-
sible stresses, design, fabrication, construction, testing, fatigue ity, I simply cannot recommend highly enough the ASME’s
life and operation of non-nuclear pressure piping systems in own continuing-education seminars on the B31 series. They
the United States. This means B31 covers just about everything beat heck out of any university training in applicability, concen-
in piping except the plumbing and site/civil items (which are tration, and effectiveness, and are the ultimate authority on
sanitary waste, storm drains, and potable water piping). piping questions. If you take the B31.3 seminar, or just want
The two most commonly encountered codes are the B31.1 to read the codebook for self-study, I think you will appreciate
Power Piping and B31.3 Process Piping Codes. B31.1 is used the following notes.
for power generation plants, and B31.3, which borrows heavily
from B31.1, covers industrial and related applications. B31.3 ASME PROCESS PIPING CODE B31.3
thus has the wider application, but the two codes are very
similar in philosophy and many details.
As far as I am concerned, there is only one way to learn
EXCERPTS AND SEMINAR NOTES
these codes well enough to practice them responsibly, and that (1997–2001)
is to read the code books, then take the ASME Continuing
Education seminars on B31.1 and B31.3, then read the code
books once again, and finally apprentice to a senior Code piping B31.3 PIPE WALL THICKNESS FOR
engineer for as long as it takes. This is quite an overall invest- CONTAINMENT OF INTERNAL FLUID
ment of money and labor, as it darn well should be, for safe- STATIC PRESSURE:
ty’s sake.
The stress-analysis part is all done by computer. To make One of the four equivalent hoop stress formulas for straight
correct modeling and input for the stress programs, you must pipe and matching ASME/ANSI B16.9 butt-weld fittings; found
understand the codes fully and also the finer details of piping in paragraph 304.1.2 of B31.3 as Equation 3(a), with the correc-
system construction, supports, and standard practices. tions added for mill pipe wall underthickness tolerance (12-
To aid some younger engineers for whose training I was 1/2%) and the total combined corrosion + erosion + groove
once responsible, I compiled seminar notes including those on depth allowances, per Code rules.
B31.3 herein. I hope they are of value to you, either as a means
of sparking interest in professional piping and pressure vessel PD
tm = +c
engineering, or preparing for self-study. They show the means (2)(SE + PY)[1.000 − (12.5%/100%)]
for determining permissible loads and stresses per the Code
(at the time of writing); the determination of actual loads and
stresses is done by the engineer for comparison to obtain ASME which reduces to {Ref. B31.3 para. 304.1.2; page 19 of
Code Compliance for the design. 1999_A00 Edition}

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 2 • Chapter 1

PD Flange Class (ASME/ANSI Rating) Value of PR, psig

tm = +c
(1.75)(SE + PY) 150 115
300 300
400 400
Note: Good for thin-wall pipe only, defined as tm < (D/6).
600 600
For heavier wall pipe use B31.3 Chapter IX (high-pres-
900 900
sure piping).
1,500 1,500
tm = minimum required pipe wall thickness, to be selected from 2,500 2,500
standard available commercial pipe wall schedules. Select the
first standard nominal thickness equal to or greater than the EXAMPLE #1: ASTM A-182 (1-1/4% Cr, 1/2% Mo) F-11
calculated value of tm (in.) Class 2 Forged Alloy Steel, in an ASME/ANSI B16.5 CLASS
P = internal fluid design pressure (the maximum expected 2500 construction, oper.@ 550°F.
sustained operation) (psig) S1 = 0.909 (Sh) = 0.909 (21.3 ksi @ 550°F, Table A-1 of
D = actual pipe outside diameter, as tabulated in the commercial B31.3 Code)
standards (in.) = 19,362 psi allowable stress;
S = allowable material operating stress per Table A-1 for design Pt = (19,362 psi)(2,500 class)/8,750
temperature (psi) = 5,532 psig operating fluid pressure capacity.
E = pipe or fitting quality factor, found in Table A-1B (di-
mensionless) EXAMPLE #2: ASTM A-126 grade 20 gray cast iron, CLASS
Y = dimensionless coefficient, found in Table 304.1.1 (varies 150, oper.@ 100°F.
w/material and temperature) S1 = 0.909 (Sh) = 0.909 (2.0 ksi @ 100°F, Table A-1)
c = total depth of wall metal lost to corrosion + erosion + = 1,818 psi allowable stress;
mechanical groove (in.) Pt = (1,818 psi)(115)/8,750
= < 24 psig operating fluid pressure capacity!! (non-
(This ends the internal pressure − pipe wall thickness calcu- shock duty, etc.)
lation procedure.)
(This ends the flange pressure rating determination
procedure.)

RATED FLUID PRESSURE CAPABILITY OF

FLANGES CONSTRUCTED TO ASME/ANSI B31.3 CYCLIC FATIGUE PIPE STRESS
STANDARD B16.5: ANALYSIS STRESSES DUE TO THERMAL
EXPANSION RESTRAINT AND ANCHOR-
SUPPORT DISPLACEMENT STRAIN:
B31.3 Table 326.1 page 56 calls out ASME/ANSI Standard
B16.5 “Flanges” pressure/temperature ratings.
The first half of the job is calculating the allowable stress
range, SA, per Equations (1)–(3). The second half is calculating
(S1)(PR) (0.6)(Sh) the displacement stress range, SE, Equations (4) – (6). By
Pt = where S1 = = 0.909 (Sh)
8,750 (0.66) definition, failure will be secondary, fatigue crack creation at
a point of stress concentration or metal flaw, with loss of fluid
containment (as opposed to primary first-time single-loading
Pt = sustained internal fluid pressure containment capacity of gross deformation wrecking leading to rupture).
the flange operating at the specified design operating tempera-
ture (psig) Allowable Stress Range SA Equations and
S1 = function of basic allowable stress for the flange material Procedure:
taken from B31.3 Table A-1, at temperatures up to but not over
600°F; for higher operating temps, S1 must be taken directly (1.a) SA = f (1.25 Sc + 0.25 Sh),
from B16.5 ANNEX D. or [B31.3 para. 302.3.5.(d)(1a), page 18]
Sh = basic allowable stress for the flange material, B31.3 Table
A-1; for Flange Rating, good only at temperature ≤ 600°F as (1.b) SA = f [1.25 (Sc + Sh) − SL.
explained above. [B31.3 para. 302.3.5.(d)(1b), page 18]
PR = numerically this is the ASME/ANSI component pressure
rating, except for the lightest duty (150-lb) flange, as listed in SA = Allowable stress range for cyclic expansions and support
the following table: displacements (psi).

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 ASME B31.3 PROCESS PIPING STRESS ANALYSIS REQUIREMENTS • 3

(1.a) applies to the whole piping system. It is too conserva- NE = number of actual full-stress-range thermal expansion load
tive, if computer analysis used. cycles to be survived.
(1.b) allows the computed values of Longitudinal Stresses Ni = number of partial-displacement loading cycles in load case
SL in each component due to sustained loadings to be examined, i; i = 1, 2, 3, . . . n.
with “credit” applied to the “cyclic stress range budget” for Si = corresponding (expansion or displacement) stress range
any “unused portion of the allowable sustained stress budget.” for load case i. (psi)
Because we use the computer programs for analysis, automati- n = number of distinct load case i’s identified by the engineer
cally calculating SL for each component node, then it makes and included in calculations.
good sense to use (1.b).
f = Stress Range Reduction Factor calculated from Eq. (2) So much for SA equations; now for SE equations.
below. Its max value = 1.00.
SL = Longitudinal Stress at a node point due to sustained load- Displacement Stress Range SE Equations and
ing (psi) Procedure:
Sc = Cold Allowable Stress for the pipe material, per B31.3
Appendix A (Table A.1) (psi)
(4.) SE = [(Sb)2 + 4(St)2]1/2
Sh = Hot Allowable Stress for the pipe material, per B31.3
[Ref. B31.3 para. 319.4.4.(a)(17), p. 39]
Appendix A (Table A.1) (psi)
SE = the Displacement Stress Range, which is the calculated
(2.) f = (6.0)(N−0.2) ≤ 1.00 range of stress a piping system will experience when subjected
[B31.3 para. 302.3.5.(d)(1c), page 18] to thermal expansion or contraction. Stresses due to pressure
and weight are not included in it. Note the displacement stress
N = equivalent number of full-stress-range loading cycles to range for cyclic thermal expansion from minimum pipe metal
which the system is to be subjected (as used in design work) operating temperature (where Sc applies, usually the ambient
or is calculated to have actually been subjected already (in installation temp.) to maximum pipe metal operating tempera-
remaining life analysis work.) An optional designer’s table can ture (where Sh applies, usually the hot design operating tempera-
be used to obtain f for more approximate situations. ture.) In cryogenic systems, the reverse is true; Sc applies to
[Ref. B31.3 Table 302.3.5, page 18.] the coldest operating temperature and Sh applies to the ambient
installation temperature in calculating the stress range (psi)
Number of Full-Range Sb = calculated Resultant Longitudinal Bending Stress Range
(Expansion and Displacement) for the full thermal expansion (or contraction) cycle as calcu-
Cycles N Value of f lated below (psi)
7,000 and less 1.00 St = calculated Torsional Stress Range for the full thermal
Over 7,000–14,000 0.9 expansion (or contraction) cycle as calculated below (psi)
Over 14,000–22,000 0.8
Over 22,000–45,000 0.7 [(iiMi)2 + (ioMo)2]1/2
(5.a) Sb =
Over 45,000–100,000 0.6 Z
Over 100,000–200,000 0.5 [Ref. B31.3 para. 319.4.4.(b)(18), p. 39]
Over 200,000–700,000 0.4
Over 700,000–2,000,000 0.3 Mt
(5.b) St = [Ref. B31.3, para. 319.4.4.(a)(17), p. 39]
2Z
B31.3 is intended for neither monster displacement − low
cycle plastic-range whanging, nor micro-tiny displacement
− high cycle vibratory buzzing. Mi and Mo = calculated in-plane and out-of-plane bending
moments, respectively, generated in the piping at the nodal
n point in question by the thermal expansion or contraction cycle.
(3). N = NE + Σ (Ni)(Si/SE)5 = {in.-lbs}
i=1 ii and io = in-plane and out-of-plane stress intensification fac-
NE + (N1)(S1/SE)5 + (N2)(S2/SE)5 + . . . + (Nn)(Sn/SE)5 tors, respectively, as numerically calculated by the formulae
(Ref. B31.3 para. 302.3.5.(d)(1d), p. 18) specified in B31.3, Appendix D for the specific applicable
piping component and geometry at this node. {dimensionless}
Mt = calculated torsional moment generated in the piping at the
SE = Displacement stress range per B31.3, as calculated be- nodal point in question by the thermal expansion or contraction
low. (psi) cycle. {in.-lb}

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 4 • Chapter 1

Z = regular section modulus for the nodal point in question, MLb = [(0.75 ii MLi)2 + (0.75 io MLo)2]1/2
per the usual formula for thin-walled cylinder cross-section,
with the understanding that the quantity [0.75 i] is never
except in the case of reduced outlet branches or reducing
used as less than 1.00 numerically; if ii or io is less than
tees. For the regular section, Z = (π/32 Do)(Do4 − Di4) as usual.
1.333, then use [0.75 i Δ
= 1.00].
For the reducing outlet tees, the code paragraph 319.4.4(c)
requires us to use the Effective Section Modulus Ze, which MLi and MLo = sustained in-plane and out-of-plane bending
is defined by Ze = π(r2)2TS. The term (r2) is the mean radius moments, respectively, generated in the piping at the nodal
of the branch pipe, and TS is the effective branch wall thickness, point in question by gravity. {in.-lb}
i.e., lesser of the header wall thickness and the product of the ii and io = in-plane and out-of-plane stress intensification fac-
in-plane stress intensification factor times the actual branch tors, respectively, as numerically calculated by the formulae
pipe wall thickness. (in.3) specified in B31.3, Appendix D for the specific applicable
piping component and geometry at this node. {dimensionless}
Finally, to meet the criterion requirement for B31.3 expan- MLb = resultant sustained bending moment. {in.-lb}
sion stress compliance, we have to make the numerical com- MLt = sustained resultant torsional moment generated in the
parison to show that for all points in the piping system, piping at the nodal point in question by gravity. {in.-lb}
Z = section modulus (or effective modulus for reducing tees)
(6.) SE ≤ SA. as already defined in the fatigue analysis section. {in.3}
(This ends the cyclic fatigue stress analysis procedure.) (tn − c) = nominal pipe wall thickness (with no mill under
tolerance subtracted) but minus the total depth of wall metal
lost to {corrosion + erosion + mechanical groove}. {in.}
B31.3 SUSTAINED LONGITUDINAL (other terms are as previously defined)
STRESSES** (This ends the sustained longitudinal stress analysis
procedure.)
**{At present, B31.3 contains no separate suggested formulas
for how to calculate SL. The following comes from the equiva-
lent passage of B31.1, which is standard practice; B31.3 is B31.3 OCCASIONAL LOAD STRESSES
considering adopting it formally. The S.I.F.’s for MLb are B31.1
and conservative.} Some loads appear only occasionally, but are sufficient in effect
In addition to hoop stress from internal pressure, which is to cause the primary failure mode (gross rupture), same as in
a sustained and not self-limiting stress, the other so-called Pri- sustained loadings, if the forces are large enough. In other
mary Stress in pipe work is the stress generated by sustained words, insofar as the ASME B31.3 piping code is concerned,
bending and torsional loadings, and because of the vector direc- occasional loads are not self-limiting but cause gross failure
tion in which it acts is called the longitudinal stress, symbol on a real-time basis, the same as sustained pressure and weight
SL. It results from gravity plus the longitudinal component of forces. Occasional forces are thus differentiated from the cycli-
stress from internal fluid pressure; bending stresses usually cal fatigue loadings. The usual examples of occasional loads
dominate the longitudinal pressure component and any torsional are wind (aerodynamic drag) forces, and inertial earthquake
stress which gravity might generate. forces (forcing/resisting loads come in via the contacting
Its vector is perpendicular in direction to the circumferen- supports.)
tial hoop stress caused by internal pressure. If a pipe is seam- For example, if the wind were constant forever, acting on
welded, then hoop stress causes a bulge and splits the pipe the pipe for 24 hours × 365.25 days per year, instead of being
along the seam line, whereas the longitudinal crack from bow- an occasional event, and if it always blew at 70 knots or some
ing bends and twisting is roughly perpendicular to the long other significant velocity, and if always came from exactly the
seam. SL is compared to the hot allowable stress Sh taken from same direction, then the wind would join gravity as a cause of
Table A-1 for B31.3 compliance. sustained stresses, and could be analyzed in a perfectly analo-
By definition, failure from SL will always be primary in gous way to SL. In fact, the wind would then be nothing more
nature, a first-time single-loading gross deformation, a distor- than a vector component of a combined omnipresent weight-
tional wrecking leading to physical rupture. The same is true wind force (normal gravity being the other vector component.)
for failures from excessive fluid pressure. SOL is the term for occasional load stresses, and because
they are indistinguishable in effect from the longitudinal SL
{Ref. B31.1 para. 104.8.1.(11a),(11b)} stresses caused by sustained load forces, the Code adds the two
together for comparison to the hot allowable stress Sh taken
PD [(MLb)2 + (MLt)2]1/2 from Table A-1 of the B31.3 Code, times a factor, for B31.3
SL = + ≤ Sh
4(tn − c) Z compliance.
where {Ref. B31.3 para. 302.3.6, p. 18}

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 ASME B31.3 PROCESS PIPING STRESS ANALYSIS REQUIREMENTS • 5

[(MOb)2 + (MOt)2]1/2 containment. It is by definition due to the repeated occurrence

SOL = SL + ≤ 1.33 Sh
Z of a range of cyclical stress variations at some point of maxi-
where mum intensity (i.e., a stress raiser) over some predictable
(generally delayed or longish-term) period of time. In the great
MOb = [(0.75 ii MOi)2 + (0.75 io MOo)2]1/2
majority of cases, the stress is created either by restraint of
otherwise free thermal expansion and contraction, plus any
once again with the understanding that the quantity [0.75
rapid thermal transients in time, plus thermal gradients in the
i] is never used as less than 1.00 numerically.
piping, plus cyclical pipe strains due to pipe terminal anchor dis-
SOL = the B31.3 Occasional Stress at a node point due to some placements.
causative agent. (psi) Once in a while a system may be subjected to unplanned
MOi and MOo = occasional in-plane and out-of-plane bending cyclical fatigue causative agents. Mechanical vibration trans-
moments, respectively, generated in the piping at the nodal mitted through supports or generated internally by fluctuating
point in question by some causative agent. (in.-lb) fluid dynamical forces, by static pressure pulsations, and any
MOb = resultant occasional bending moment. (in.-lb) other small-displacement-but-non-negligible strains are exam-
MOt = resultant occasional torsional moment generated in the ples. These are evaluated in the same way as anchor displace-
piping at the nodal point in question by some causative agent. ment cycles; determine stress range resulting from strain range,
(in.-lb) figure how many cycles will occur, and stir into the overall
mix of fatigue-causers to obtain overall SE. Compare result
(other terms are as previously defined)
to SA.
(This ends the occasional stress analysis procedure.) Typical stress fatigue cycles-to-failure for B31.3 piping
systems are from as few as 7,000 to as many as 2,000,000
equivalent full stress cycles over the intended design lifetime
CORRELATION OF B31.3 DESIGN LOADS of the piping system’s operation.
WITH FAILURE MODE and RESULTING The load conditions causing Secondary Failures (fatigue)
METHOD OF STRESS ANALYSIS are by Code definition SELF-LIMITING. The two main groups
of causative conditions are:
The stress–strain related failure mode of the piping system will
occur in one of only two distinct ways, as far as the ASME 1. Cyclic mechanical strains imposed by external forces
Code for Process Piping B31.3 is concerned. (These definitions on the piping, such as cyclical anchor motions
are not official code terminology, but are most definitely the 2. Restraint of otherwise free thermal expansion and
intent and must be understood clearly.) contraction

ALL <B31.3> PIPE FAILURES ARE DUE TO either . . . As for secondary loads of the cyclic mechanical strain
1. Primary failure: gross deformation, a real-time wreck- variety and the cyclic or occasional external force type, the
ing at the time of load application, a catastrophic collapse easy stresses these loadings create stop growing in magnitude when
to see and understand, such as due to loss of previously existing the displacement strains which cause them have all run their
dead weight supports (accident) or lack of adequate dead weight full course. A stress due to support displacement will be no
support in the first place (engineering error, will fail upon greater than its proportional strain, as long as it remains below
hydrotest). The motive cause of the primary stress/strain pipe the material’s yield point at the applicable temperature. So we
failure will be some combination of sustained internal fluid rely on a stopping of the application of the causative force
pressure forces, sustained weight forces due to the earth’s short of causing pipe stress to exceed the yield point to make
gravity, and any additional occasional external forces, with these types of secondary causative forces self-limiting. If yield
separate energy sources of their own (wind, earthquakes, etc.). stress is exceeded directly, upon application of the displacement
The loads are continuous, and if the piping system is too weak strain, then by definition, the system has failed in a primary
to limit stress at all points to below yield at temperature, then manner. Overstrain, irreversible deformation, gross rupture,
resulting stresses build rapidly without limit and the stress will have resulted. Otherwise, only local microdamage is done
reaches the ultimate value for the material; it ruptures plasti- at one or more points of intensified stress, which will eventually
cally, right then and there!
lead to formation of a fatigue crack type of failure, given enough
or cyclic repetitions of the displacements.
As for secondary loads due to thermal changes, the situation
2. Secondary failure: fluid leaking or blowing out of a is sort of reversed; if the thermal motion (expansion or contrac-
fatigue crack, a small breach in the pipe wall which has resulted tion due to heating or cooling of the pipe material) is unre-
from a sort of progressive micro-plastic-ratcheting strain situa- strained by supports, anchors, guides or equipment connections,
tion, and has propagated finally to the point of loss of fluid then there is no permanent stress created in the first place. The

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 6 • Chapter 1

thermal time-transient and spatial gradient stresses disappear Table 1-1 LOADING/FAILURE MODE CORRELATION
when the metal reaches uniform temperature throughout. And Load Type Failure Method of
once a thermal ΔT has been accomplished, an unrestrained Mode Analysis
metal expansion/contraction ceases, leaving the pipe longer or
Static Sustained Primary − Compare to Sh
shorter for sure, but unchanged in stress condition.
pressure* gross rupture from Table A-1 of
However, if pipe restraints restrict the amount of thermal
the B31.3 Code
growth, or are rigid enough to keep the thermal motion from
Water Occasional Primary − Add to SL, com-
taking place at all, then stresses are created. They can temporar-
hammer gross rupture pare to 1.33 Sh
ily exceed the yield point locally (at stress-raiser locations) by
means of local plastic straining; a permanent microdeformation, Liquid Occasional Primary − Add to SL, com-
just enough to drop the bulk material back into the elastic slugging gross rupture pare to 1.33 Sh
region, will take place. The local yielding limits the overall Steam Occasional Primary − Add to SL, com-
system stress to below yield. While being just as self-limiting hammer gross rupture pare to 1.33 Sh
as in the case of unrestrained expansion, however, the temporary Safety valve Occasional Primary − Add to SL, com-
stress variations in the constrained system lead to eventual blow gross rupture pare to 1.33 Sh
fatigue cracking. Weight Sustained Primary − Compare to Sh
Some of the loads and stresses B31.3 encompasses are forces** gross rupture from Table A-1 of
shown in Table 1-1. (Please see @ right.) the B31.3 Code
Thermal Cyclic Secondary − Compare SE to SA
expansion fatigue crack
ALLOWANCES FOR OCCASIONAL Thermal Cyclic Secondary − Compare SE to SA
EXCURSIONS ABOVE THE DESIGN transients fatigue crack
TEMPERATURE/PRESSURE CONDITION FOR
Thermal Cyclic Secondary − Compare SE to SA
METALLIC PIPING gradients fatigue crack
One piping system may have several applicable sets of design Thermal Cyclic Secondary − Compare SE to SA
bowing fatigue crack
operating conditions, severe in different ways. One set might
determine the pipe wall thickness, while another determines Wind Occasional Primary − Add to SL, com-
the flange temperature-pressure rating, etc. gross rupture pare to 1.33 Sh
Once set, the design conditions can be exceeded safely for Earthquake Occasional Primary − Add to SL, com-
short terms of operation of the system, according to these (inertial gross rupture pare to 1.33 Sh
B31.3/302.2.4 rules: forces)
Earthquake Cyclic Secondary − Compare SE to SA
1. If there shall be fewer than 1,000 full pressure-tempera-
(anchor fatigue crack
ture cycles in the allowable lifetime of the plant, the design displacements)
pressure and/or temperature can be exceeded for short time
Vibration*** Cyclic Secondary − Compare SE to SA
periods under these rules; otherwise the excursion values (which
fatigue crack
are assumed more severe than the otherwise “design” condition
of P&T) must be used for system design (even though the *Calculate the required minimum pipe wall thickness based on Sh.
excursions are only short term events, lasting a few hours at **Include all the weight components hanging on the pipeline; the fluid contents,
a time.) wall lining, the pipe wall material itself, insulation, lagging, jacket, tracing,
snow and ice accumulation, installed equipment such as valves, strainers,
2. . . . it is permissible to exceed the [ANSI/ASME] pressure flanges, blinds, etc.
rating [of a flange or component] or the allowable stress for ***Transmitted through structure via supports, induced by fluid flow fluctua-
pressure design [which is our old friend Sh, of course] [for the tions, etc.
pipe wall thickness] at the temperature of the increased condi-
tion by not more than
a. 33%, for no more than 10 hours at any one time and no Education handout by Glynn Woods (his 1997 notebook, pp.
more than 100 hours per year; or 28–33). It requires careful study and application.
b. 20%, for no more than 50 hours at any one time and The salient point of the procedure is that at no time is it
no more than 500 hours per year. ever permissible to reach the yield stress of the material at
3. The timed limits of operation at the excursion condi- temperature for any type of sustained or occasional primary
tions shall be calculated by the use-fraction sum rule, which is: load stress, as already defined herein (one that causes pressure
hoop stress or longitudinal bending stress or torsional shear,
Σ [(ti)/(tri)] ≤ 1.00 and which is by its very nature NOT SELF-LIMITING). The
bases for numerical analysis are the maximum principal stress
For a full definition of terms and a good example illustrating failure theory and the empirical data for creep strength (time-
how this formula is used, refer to the ASME B31.3 Continued to-rupture tests at elevated temperature.)

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 ASME B31.3 PROCESS PIPING STRESS ANALYSIS REQUIREMENTS • 7

THIS SECTION HAS NO BEARING WHATSOEVER When using these rules, do not fail to reduce the allowable
ON CALCULATING EXPANSION STRESSES, FATIGUE strength Sh for austenitic stainless systems containing flanges,
LIFE OF THE SYSTEM, SA OR SE!! It only places time and or other systems having Sh based on 90% of yield, as explained
magnitude limits on operational excursions above the system by Glynn’s notes. It would be simpler and safer (in Wingate’s
design and Code stress analysis design values for pressure/ opinion only!!) to just use the Table A-1, Sh all the way, but
temperature. to not allow P-T excursions for the austenitic stainless steels.

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 CHAPTER

BELLOWS-TYPE PIPE EXPANSION JOINTS:

PRESSURE THRUST AND OTHER PITFALLS

One topic of frequent concern is pitfalls in the use of bellows- In addition, bellows can absorb a very limited amount of
type inline expansion joints to control thermal expansion of a lateral bending, which is defined as deformation of the conduit
pipeline as it either heats up or cools down from the ambient into an elbow shape. Lastly, bellows joints have essentially
to the operating temperature. The chief pitfall is failure to zero capacity to absorb torsional strains, rotations about the
account for pressure thrust, which is created by regular pipe axis in the plane of the pipe cross section. Great care
bellows joints and transmitted to piping restraints and ter- must be taken to avoid exposure of the bellows to excessive
minal connections. lateral bending motions and to any torsion; this is accom-
See Figure 2-1 for pictorial illustrations of regular manu- plished by correctly-designed pipe guides, anchors, supports
factured bellows joints. and restraints.
We will briefly cover what bellows joints are, what they
do, how they are intended to work, and how to avoid the serious
pitfalls associated with careless usage of them. PITFALL #1: FATIGUE FAILURE
Bellows joints are tubular metal conduits (usually made of
austenitic stainless steel) with thin-walled toroidal convolutes, A bellows is a thin-walled pressure vessel subjected to large
which greatly reduce the axial stiffness of the conduit. They pressure transients and significant tensile/compressive metal
incorporate pipe stub ends, with or without flanges, for install- strains. It cannot live forever, and is expected eventually to
ing into runs of line piping. They have precisely engineered
rupture at the natural end of its fatigue life. All capacity to
dimensions. The dimensions are controlled to trade off axial
contain fluids will be lost, and repairs are not possible because
stiffness and pipe-axial strain compliance versus a design fa-
the convolute material has suffered ultimate stress; it is then
tigue life for a specified number of thermal cycles, while
worn out and worthless.
maintaining complete integrity of fluid pressure containment.
To avoid fatigue rupture, scheduled replacement must be
Bellows are intended to control the pipe stresses and strains
done. The old expansion joint must be replaced with a new
caused by the natural thermal expansion of the pipe material
unit before the old material cracks open. Therefore, you must
as it changes (rises or falls) from the ambient temperature to
be able to specify the number of thermal expansion and
the steady system operating temperature during startup, and in
pressurization cycles, as well as the range of temperatures
the reverse direction during shutdown.
and pressures in those cycles which it will have to withstand.
Primary consideration for bellows usage is controlling pipe
The factory engineer who designs the bellows joint and
axial stresses and strains by expansion of the bellows’ convo-
lutes (stretching out lengthwise) when the cooling-down pipe manufactures it must have this data in order to work out
tries to shrink, and bellows contraction (compression to a the detailed design dimensions of the bellows unit.
shorter length) when the heating-up pipe tries to lengthen. The
change in bellows length is met with relatively little resisting
force because of the inherent flexibility of the thin-walled toroi- PITFALL #2: UNPLANNED FAILURE
dal convolutes. The flexibility is expressed as a spring constant
over the applicable range of axial compression for the specific Premature failure of the bellows may come from internal or
bellows configuration. external erosion/corrosion, from excessive strains permitted by

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 10 • Chapter 2

FIGURE 2-1: Regular Type of Bellows Joints

No Pressure Compensation: Exerts Pressure Thrust on Piping
Reprinted with permission.

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 BELLOWS-TYPE EXPANSION JOINTS • 11

inadequate piping support-restraint-anchor-guide provisions, Now for the pitfall: the tie rods cannot absorb the pressure
from process upsets (temperature/pressure excursions) and from thrust UNLESS the expansion joint’s end flanges are in firm
accidental mechanical damage. contact with the outer pair of stop nuts.
Internal erosion, and external corrosion hidden from view However, in order to do its job of absorbing the axial
by insulation and lagging, are common culprits, and require thermal expansion of the piping, which of course is rigidly
frequent maintenance inspection for prevention. Inspection connected to the free ends of the expansion joint assembly, the
provisions therefore must be pre-planned. bellows MUST be compressed by the axial pipe thermal
Inadequate pipe support-restraint-anchor-guide pro- growth, which by definition pushes the joint’s flanges out of
visions are engineering errors. They are avoided by use of contact with the outer pair of stop nuts. In order for bellows
qualified pipe stress, pipe support, and interfacing structure compression to take place, the two pipe ends farthest from
engineers for the piping system and support design. Accurate the expansion joint (see Figure 2-2) therefore must be rigidly
process temperature/pressure/cycle conditions must be known restrained and immobile, taking the whole pressure thrust
by the pipe stress engineer. force without moving.
System operators are responsible for informing the re- So standard uncompensated-bellows type expansion
sponsible piping system engineer (through channels, of joints cannot eliminate the unbalanced pressure thrust
course) if thermal/pressure excursions occur, and the magni- forces** from the piping system.
tudes and frequencies of the excursions must be recorded and The tie rods serve ONLY to prevent unstopped linear
faithfully reported to that engineer, so that appropriate analysis expansion due to internal fluid pressure from stretching
can be made and corrective actions taken. the expansion joint past the point of material failure. The
tie rods cannot absorb pressure thrust unless all stop nuts
are jammed up tight, or locked down tight, on the joint
flanges, thus preventing all bellows motion and in the pro-
PITFALL #3: FAILURE TO PROVIDE
cess destroying its capability to absorb thermal motion of
ADEQUATE RESTRAINT AGAINST BELLOWS-
the piping.
GENERATED PRESSURE THRUST FORCES
Therefore, when regular uncompensated bellows joints
are used, the pipe ends must be rigidly restrained by sepa-
Bellows expand lengthwise when internally pressurized. Be- rate structure external to the piping, so that the bellows
cause they lack stiffness, the bellows joints would be pulled will be forced to compress by the amount of the pipeline’s
apart by huge unbalanced pressure thrust forces, being stretched axial thermal growth. This external structure must be able
past the point where the thin metal tears and the bellows rupture, to absorb all of the pressure thrust safely.
releasing the internal fluid pressure. The thrust forces are equal, **{However, a regular bellows joint with tie rods does not
opposite pairs, acting at the pressure centroid (exact axial center lose its lateral flexibility when the tie rod stop nuts are locked
of the pipe cross section.) The force magnitude numerically down completely. So, if the expansion joint application calls
equals the cross-sectional area of one convolute (using the only for absorption of lateral pipe motions, which are those
maximum inside diameter of one convolute for the area calcula- transverse to the bellows and piping flow axis, then regular tie-
tion) multiplied by the fluid pressure. rodded bellows joints can be used locked down, and no pressure
To illustrate, find the unbalanced thrust for a bellows joint thrust will be transmitted to the free piping. One must not forget
installed in a 10-inch pipe containing fluid at 150 psig. We that all capability to absorb pipe thermal axial extension (by
will assume the bellows convolute max inside diameter (ID) compression of the bellows] is lost in this special case).
is 16.00 inches. In the illustrative example calculation above, 30,160 lb
force of pressure thrust would be exerted by the bellows joint
F = (π)[(16.00)2/4](150) = 30,160 Lbf. on both connecting ends of the pipeline, acting axially away
from the center point of the joint assembly and toward the
To prevent self-destruction, rigid tie rods are fitted parallel connecting ends. The two external restraints each would have
to the pipe axis outside regular bellows-type expansion joints. to resist the thrust with 30,160 lb acting in the opposite direction,
The tie rods protrude through holes bored in the terminal flanges axially toward the center point of the bellows joint assembly.
of the expansion joint assembly, and are fitted with threaded Figure 2-2 gives this a simple illustration.
stop nuts on both sides of both flanges to serve as rigid stops Sometimes, bellows joints are necessary in a system but
to axial motion (see Figure 2-1). The stop nuts are manually the plant layout prohibits the installation of restraining structure
set into position to control total axial extension and compression adequately rigid to absorb the pressure thrust without deflection.
strains in the bellows convolutes. Setup notes specifying the When this happens, unbalanced pressure thrust must not be
plus-and-minus travel are placed on the piping drawings to allowed to be generated in the first place. But we have just
guide the piping contractor in setting the locations of the stop seen that regular bellows joints always create unbalanced pres-
nuts during initial construction of the pipeline. sure thrust!

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 12 • Chapter 2

FIGURE 2-2: Regular Bellows Pressure Thrust

Note: for clarity, the necessary pipeline gravity supports and wind/earthquake restraints are not shown.

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 BELLOWS-TYPE EXPANSION JOINTS • 13

In such cases, there is only one solution: namely, to use the pipe axial thermal expansion while generating ZERO pres-
a specially engineered pressure-compensating expansion sure thrust forces external to the expansion joint itself. These
joint, of which there are two distinct types, as depicted in joints work as advertised, but are expensive and may present
Figure 2-3. an extra maintenance burden to keep working properly. Like
These joints incorporate a special extra bellows, which any type of bellows joint, they require careful design and instal-
serves no purpose other than to generate a pair of exactly equal- lation, with accurate pipe stress analysis and proper pipe sup-
magnitude opposite-direction forces counteracting the main bel- port design.
lows thrust. These devices permit total internal absorption of

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 14 • Chapter 2

FIGURE 2-3(A): Pressure Compensating Bellow Joints

Flow Stream Changes Direction 90 - Degrees

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 BELLOWS-TYPE EXPANSION JOINTS • 15

FIGURE 2-3(B): Pressure Compensating Bellow Joints

Flow Stream Goes Straight Thru Joint

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 CHAPTER

3
SUPPORTS DETERMINE LOADS ON PIPING,
CONNECTING EQUIPMENT, THE LEVEL
OF PIPE STRESS, AND LOAD REACTIONS
ON SUPPORTING STRUCTURE

Many times one must route piping in a very certain way, in description of the system next, to augment the information on
order to fit the pipe into the only space available for it. And the isometric.
according to Murphy’s law, when this happens, the number of
structural support points available for the piping will also be
limited, and their strength (i.e., lack of it!) will also be a prob- Description of Piping System
lem. The poor mechanical engineer is then faced with the deli-
cate balance between providing adequate support design, for The piping in question is seam-welded low carbon steel (black
controlling pipe stress within Code limits, and adequate control steel) carrying secondary loop hot water at 210°F operating
of pipe support reaction forces, so as not to warp the building temperature and at a maximum 150 psig design pressure. This
structures which must resist them. material has an allowable cold stress of 20,000 psi, but the
This is a very common occurrence in the life of a mechani- welded seam construction reduces the pipe cold allowable stress
cal process and big utility piping engineer, and early on he to only 17,000 psi. At 210°F design temperature, the hot allow-
learns a thing or two about solving it. I hope the following able stress is the same as the cold allowable stress.
discussion and examples will be of great help to you, when It is 12-in. pipe size, with standard wall thickness,
you also encounter it. branching from a 16-inch header connection (Node 120). It
I am going to give you a sneak preview of the correct runs north 6 ft, drops 27 feet 8 in., runs south 3 ft 4 in., turn
approach to its solution now, to whet your interest: west and runs 14 ft 10 in. From there (Node 40) it drops straight
The TYPES of pipe supports are very important, because down to a terminal connection at a Heat Exchanger (HX) flange,
in conjunction with their location as well as the piping geometric which is modeled as the terminal anchor point (Node 5). The
configuration and thermal motion, they: pipe size reduces down from 12-in. to 10-in. at the H/X
flange connection.
• DETERMINE THE LOADS ON THE PIPING AND The pipe is full of water. It is insulated with 3 in. thickness
ITS CONNECTING EQUIPMENT, of calcium silicate. All pipe joints are butt welded. All changes
• THE LEVEL OF PIPE STRESS, in direction are via standard butt-welded long-radius 90 degree
• AND THE LOAD REACTIONS ON SUPPORTING elbows. The flanges at Node 5 and at the Strainer (Nodes 20,
STRUCTURE. 30) are ANSI Class 150 forged carbon steel raised face weld
neck type. The valve connecting flanges (@ Node 60) are same
ILLUSTRATION BY TYPICAL EXAMPLE class, but are slip-on types. Weights are shown.
The design code for the piping system is the ASME B31.3
Taken from real life, the example we will study is reproduced Process Piping Code.
as an isometric sketch in Figure 3-1. I shall give a verbal Now for the critical part: the supports!

17

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 18 • Chapter 3

FIGURE 3-1: Piping Stress Analysis Examples Isometric Sketch

Note: A simple hand-drawn isometric is usually sufficient for the record, and can be made quickly on a standard isometric sketch pad sheet. Usually a landscape-
style layout on an 11 × 17 inch sheet is best for clarity and detail. It is very important that an accurately dimensioned and clearly-marked node map in isometric
form be made to accompany the computerized stress analysis, and if your software does not generate the sketch as part of your input then you must create one
by hand (or via CADD if you prefer). File the isometric drawing in its final form, reflecting the adopted piping geometry and all of its support locations and types.
Dimensions should be shown on the isometric, but it is neither necessary nor feasible to make the isometric drawing to scale. It must be filed with the record
hardcopy of the computer stress analysis output and any necessary side calculations you may have made to prove ASME code-worthiness of the design. Invariably
it will be needed when the construction actual locations and pipe support detail designs and specifications are made.

AVAILABLE PIPE SUPPORT POINTS 1. Node 50—3 in. east of the horizontal weld point of
elbow Node 40;
In the real-world system this example was based on, there were 2. Node 80—at center of the short horizontal north-south
only three available intermediate support points between the run between the elbow Nodes 70 and 90;
terminal points, which are Node 5, the H/X connecting flange, 3. Node 100—7 feet below the top end of the 27 foot 8
and Node 120, the header branch connecting point. The interme- inch riser (or downcomer, whichever way you choose
diate support points, as depicted on the isometric sketch, were: to look at it.)

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 SUPPORTS DETERMINE LOADS • 19

PIPE SUPPORT DESIGN CANDIDATES Pipe Stress Example No. 1:

Four different support scheme examples were analyzed for this Ten pages of stress program output. See pages 24–33.
piping configuration, as given below. Each example has its
own pipe stress analysis and B31.3 code compliance report, Node 50 support = single variable spring;
with example number identified by header notes on each sheet Node 80 support = pair variable springs;
of computer output. Node 100 support = simple vertical support, rigid against down-
Each analysis has the same format. The support condi- ward forces but free to let pipe move upward unrestrained.
tions are the only differences among the four computer {The isometric sketch depicts this scheme.}
runs, as can be seen by comparing the “INPUT DATA
ECHO” sections of each report.
First analysis in each report shows the cold-only gravity Pipe Stress Example No. 2:
plus sustained internal and external loads part of the ASME
B31.3 Sustained Loading Case, marked LOAD CASE NO.
Nine pages of stress program output. See pages 34–42.
1,WT/PRS.
The “ANCHOR AND SUPPORT FORCES (ACTING ON Node 50 support = single variable spring, optimized to minimize
SUPPORT)” nodal table, “MEMBER FORCE (ACTING ON load on H/X flange;
PIPE) AND STRESS” nodal table, and NODAL DISPLACE- Node 80 support = pair variable springs,optimized to minimize
MENTS table of output are printed out for the sustained (gravity load on H/X flange;
plus sustained external plus internal pressure forces on “cold” Node 100 support = rigid vertical restraint support; rigid against
pipe) loading case (see Table 3-1). all vertical forces upward and downward; no freedom for verti-
Second analysis in each report shows the ASME B31.3 cal pipe motion.
Thermal Expansion Loading Case, marked LOAD CASE NO. {The isometric sketch also depicts this scheme.}
2, THERML.
The ANCHOR AND SUPPORT FORCES (ACTING ON
SUPPORT) nodal table, “MEMBER FORCE (ACTING ON
Pipe Stress Example No. 3:
PIPE) AND STRESS” nodal table, and NODAL DISPLACE-
MENTS table of output are printed out for the thermal expan-
sion case (thermal stresses and strains of weightless pipe). Nine pages of stress program output. See pages 43–51.
No occasional load cases apply to the four examples: no
Nodes 50, 80, and 100 supports = simple vertical supports,
earthquake, wind, snow, or other types of occasional loadings
rigid against downward forces but free to let pipe move upward
take place. unrestrained. (Not depicted.)
Third analysis in each report shows the non-Code combi-
nation of thermal plus weight loads, marked LOAD CASE NO.
3, THL + WT. It contains the same 3 nodal results tables as
the first two load cases. This is the so-called “actual operating Pipe Stress Example No. 4:
condition” we normally think of, that is sustained operation,
without transients, in the hot operating temperature state. Nine pages of stress program output. See pages 52–60.
While Load Case No. 3 THL + WT has no meaning under
the ASME B31.3 Code, it is the condition under which we Nodes 50, 80 and 100 supports = rigid vertical restraint sup-
design and evaluate the steady-state support load reactions and ports; rigid against all vertical forces upward and downward;
the steady-state pipe strains (as indicated by the nodal displace- no freedom for vertical pipe motion {also not depicted}.
ments table.) It is this case which we summarize for anchor
Note: in all four examples, Nodes 5 and 120 are rigidly re-
and support reactions of all four support scheme examples at
strained in all 12 potential degrees of freedom (no translation
the end of our Topical section.
or rotation in either direction about any axis, which is the
The final analysis in each report gives the nodal compari- true definition of an anchor point.)
son summary of calculated stresses versus allowable stresses Nodes 50, 80, and 100 are unrestrained in the horizontal
required for B31.3 Code (Pipe Stress) Compliance. Note that plane and about all rotational axes in all four examples.
the “SUSTAINED” and “OCCASIONAL” calculated stress
tables are identical, because there are no occasional loads in- From this point forward, whenever we quote numerical
cluded in the examples we are studying. results, we are referring to the SUMMARY OF PIPE REAC-
Further guidance will be given regarding the stress analysis TIONS ON SUPPORTS & END CONNECTIONS table, which
and computer reports as we go along. is Table 3-1 on page 23. As explained previously, that summary
Now, let’s examine the four separate pipe support schemes: comes from LOAD CASE NO. 3, THL + WT, specifically the

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 20 • Chapter 3

ANCHOR AND SUPPORT FORCES (ACTING ON SUP- exchanger having a 10-in. ANSI flange, they might cause prob-
PORT) nodal table for each of the four support schemes. lems for a weaker piece of equipment, such as a centrifugal
pump. The loads might exceed the pump manufacturer’s pub-
lished permissible nozzle forces and moments, which are se-
DISCUSSION, SUPPORT SCHEME #1 lected to avoid excessive casing deflection, impeller-to-casing
impact, bearing wear, seal damage, etc. which can result when
This is the second-best preferred support approach. The springs excessive pipe loads warp the pump connection nozzles. One
allow their nodal attachment points, 50 and 80, to move under should always check this out for safety’s sake. Excessive pipe
the impetus of thermal expansion as the pipe metal temp rises loads can and do cause pump mechanical failure!!
from initial 70°F startup temp to the final sustained 210°F We can minimize these pipe loads on terminal equipment
operating temp. In the stress program printout with header Pipe by judicious selection of the spring constants of those hangers
Stress:: Example No. 1: page 8 of 10 we find these values at Nodes 50 and 80. The pipe stress program makes it easy;
of vertical displacement DY, in. all one has to do is to include the command ANCHOR,REL
in the input keyword string for Node 5, and the computer
will do the necessary trial & error calcs for sizing the springs
appropriately. And that is exactly what we see happening in
Node DY
Example No. 2 below.
50 + 0.08″ (Node Point 50 moves upward; the spring force
decreases by the amount 0.08 in. × 1200 lb/in. = 96 lb, but
still exerts an upward vertical support force of 2,416 lb at Node DISCUSSION, SUPPORT SCHEME #2
50, as shown on the SPRING HANGER SELECTION TABLE
on the same page. This computer-optimized version of Scheme #1 differs only in
the spring cold and hot settings employed by the hanger supports
at Nodes 50 and 80.
Node DY
• At Node 50, the spring constant for Scheme #1 was
80 − 0.21″ (moves downward; the combined spring force ex- 1,200 lb/in. (Grinnell Figure 82 Size 13 spring hanger),
erted vertically upward on Node 80 by the pair of spring hangers and for Scheme #2 the spring constant and Grinnell unit
increases by the amount 0.21 in. × 2 springs × 300 lb/in. = size (13) remain the same. However, in Scheme #1 the
126 lb, making the support force = 2 × 803 = 1,607 lb at cold-set and (hot) operating loads are 2,509 and 2,416
Node 80. pounds, respectively. In Scheme #2, by requesting the
Also in the stress program printout with header Pipe program to optimize the springs, we find the loadings
Stress: Example No. 1: page 6 of 10 we find this value of are changed to 3,171 and 3,076 lb, respectively.
vertical fixed (rigid) support reaction force, pounds: • In similar fashion at Node 80, we find the same pair of
springs, namely, two Grinnell Figure 82 Size 8 spring
hangers having 300 lb/in. spring constants in both
Node FY Schemes #1 and #2. But the loadings are changed from
739 lb cold and 803 lb hot per spring in Scheme #1 to
100 − 7,425 lb (acts downward on the building support steel.) 694 and 757 lb, respectively, in the optimized con-
This is not an excessive load for industrial plant pipe rack figuration.
framing steel (LOAD CASE NO. 3, THL + WT).

Pipe Reaction on Terminal Equipment

Pipe Reaction on Terminal Equipment
The Summary of Pipe Reactions shows that for Scheme #2 the
The Summary, Table 3-1, taken from the same section of the vertical load has been reduced from the original −1,105 lb
report, shows a vertical load of −1,105 lb (downward on the (downward on the heat exchanger) at Node 5 to only −500 lb,
heat exchanger) at Node 5 for this support scheme, and a and no change in the negligible 173-lb, horizontal load there.
negligible 172 lb horizontal load there. The moments impressed The moments impressed on the H/X flange are also reduced
on the H/X flange are also shown: 3,258 ft-lb. about the vertical as shown: 3,258 ft-lb about the vertical axis is reduced to 2,904
axis, and 1,397 net ft-lb. in the vector resultant vertical plane. ft-lb, and the 1,397 net ft-lb moment in the vector resultant
While these pipe reaction forces and moments would present vertical plane remains essentially unchanged at 1,394 net ft-
no stress difficulty to a rugged shell and tube TEMA heat lb. These were the expected results, and are about the best

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1902-1903. LIST 0F YACHT H SAILING CL¥B FLAGS N?2

ERITH YACHT CLUB. Est 1900. EtUrance Fee, £1 1 0. Annual
Subscription, £1 1 0. Com. a. I. Gaze, Esq. V.-C. F. A. Stone, Esq. R.-
O. Fndk, Parish, Esq. rw. A. De Merroll, Esq., H. SCO. J Wincketter
Houte, A TBEAS.1 Old Broad Street, London, E,C. ; \Club HouM,
Rrith, Kent, ESSEX YACHT CLUB. Est. 1890. Entrance Fee, £0 10 0.
Annual Subwcription^ £1 1 0. Com. K. Frost-Siriith, Esq. v.-o. A. R.
Ray, Esq. R.-O. J. T. Robey, Esq. H. Trs. a. J. Ray, Esq. H. SCO. A. R.
Ray, Esq.. Victoria Villa, Leigh. Eggex , Club Houee^ Leigh, Esge^,
ESTONIAN YACHT CLUB. Est. 1889. Entrance Fee, 20 Roubleit,
AnntuU Sttbseription, 10 Routlee. . Com. R. von Gemet, Esq. V.-O.
Baron E. Ungrm-Stemberg. Trcas. W. Hoeppenor, Esq. See. R.
Hoeppener, Esq., Revolt Russia. EXE YACHT CLUB. Est. 1889.
Entrance Fee, £1 1 0. Annual Subseriptiont £1 1 0. COM. v.-a R.-O.
Trias. H. Sea J. E. Norman, Esq. Dr. Parkinson. A. J. Darke, Esq. i.
Pearse. Esq., Club House, The Pier, Exmowh, Devon. FALMOUTH
SAILING CLUB. Est. 1894. Annual Subseriptiant £0 10 6. COM. MaJ.
J. Mead. V.-C. H. & Tuke, Esq., A.R.A. H. Trs. N. Robins, Esq. H. 8f0.
H. S. Norton, Esq., C/o Devon and Cornwall Bank, Ltd., Falmouth.
FAMBRiOQE YACHT CLUB. Est 1898. I Entrance Fee, £0 10 G. •
Annual Subscription, £0 10 6. Com. Cyril C. L. lonides, Esq. V.-C. A.
R. Thorn, Esq. R.-C. G. Uinfreville Laws, Esq. H. Trs. C. R. >\ ickins,
Esq. I H. 8eo. Francis B. Cooke, Esq., Club Bouse, North Fambridge,
near Maldon, Essex. FORtft CORINTHIAN YACHT CLUB. Est 1881.
Entrance Fee, £1 1 0. Annual Subscription, £1 1 0. COM. T. F. Gibb,
Esq., C.A. V.-C. W. T. Surry, Esq. R.-C. W. NimmoTod, Esq. H. Trs.
James Dickson, Esq. ni- j H. Seo. a. DouHlas, Esq., u\g\] IS, South
St. Andrew St., Edinbtirgh; Club House, J, Blenheim PI., Edinburgh.
FOWEY YACHT CLUB. Est 1894. Entrance Fee, £1 1 0. Annual
Subscription, £S t 0. Com. E. Atkinson, Esq. Y.-C. C. P. Johnson, Esq.
R.-C. A. T. QuiUer-Couch, Eiq. H. Trs. a. H. Hem, Esq. ,-7M>fSec. R.
C. DerinK Beale, Esq., '^^^ Club House, Fowey, ComwalL
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^ QOUROCK YACHT CLUB. Est. 1894. BfUranee Fee, £0 10 0. Annual
Subteripticn, £0 10 0. Com. W. Robertson, E«q. V.-C. D. MoPheraon,
Esq. R.-C. M. Hope Pateraon, Esq. H. TRt. J. McL. IngrliB, Esq. H.
Sec. W. B. Stevenson, Esq., Hi, Bath Street, Ola$ffow, QRAVE&END
8AILINQ CLUB. Est. 1894. Annual Subtcription, £0 10 6, Oaft. H.
Winder, Esq. MATCS, H. Trs. &8ca r F. Hole, Esq. \T. Hill, Esq. \ P.
Flower, Esq., 8, Lantdoiene Square, Rosh&rvUle, Kent. ^ GUERNSEY
YACHT CLUB. Est. 1890. (In above eketeh, ehield thould be red.)
Entrance Pee, £jO 10 0. Annual Subaeriptum, £0 10 0. Com. Oapt.
W. O. Le Cocq, R.N. V.-O. O. B. Gardner, Esq. H. TRS. H. H. Randell,
Esq. H. SIC. A. B. Oarre, 39, Haute ViUe, Guemaeif. ^ HAMBURGER
YACHT CLUB. Est. 1892. Entrance Pee, Mark 10. Annual
Suheeription, Mark 96. Puis C. Yolckmann, Esq. v.-P. Capt. Leatn. a.
D. O. During. TREAs. Or. O. M. Josephson. SCO. P. Fntsche, Esq.,
Club Hauee, Sehletteenbrueke, No. 8, Hamibw HAMBURQER 8EGEL
VEREIN. Est. 1895. Entrance Pee, Mark 6. Annual Subeeription, Mark
IS. Otto Barthe, Esq. Dr. M. Foerater. Q. Jftnisch, Esq. H. Uppelt.
Esq., HENLEY SAILING CLUB. Est. 1896. Annual Subacription, £0 10
0. Com. H. N. CorselUs, Esq. V.-C. W. H. Macpherson, Esq. H. TBS.
JW. H. Weldon, Esq., a SCO. ( College o/ A rtne. Queen Victoria
Street, London, B.C. HOLY LOCH SAILING CLUB. ', 66, Hamburg.
Est. 1888. Entratu^ Fee, £,0 10 6. Annual Subacription, £0 10 6.
Com. V.-C. Treas. A Seo. J. K. TulHs, Esq. D. T. Cassils, Esq. JR. M.
Mann, Esq. \ 91, '" ' QUmford St., Glaegow. Dig lt#\w». .. HOWTH
SAILING CLUB. Est. Annual Subacription, £0 10
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19O2-1903, LIST OF YACHT 3c SAILING €hV M FLhCn N?3

H0YUKE8AILINQCLUB. Est. 1888. MiUranee Fee, £1 1 0. Annual
Subteriptiont Outport Membtn, 10/0. ,, „ Inport MemUert, £i In. a.
Tom Davies, Esq. V.-C. T. Harbridjce Jones, E«q. R.-C Donald D.
Cnmpbeil, £t»q. TncAs. A. B. H. .Inck«on, Eiiq. sec. H. A. K. Little,
E«q., Clvb House, Marine ParSde, Uoylake. H.5;Ci»s NUMBER
8AILINQ CLUB. Est. 1897. Enti-anee Fee, £.0 10 6. Annuai
Sub$eription^ KO 10 6. Com. T. W. Pickeregill, Esq. V.-C. C. W. Day,
E«mj. R.-C. F. S. Cropland, Esq. H. Tr8. / A. A. Walker, A 8ec. \ j/r,
ArgpU Street, HtUl. HYTHE YACHT CLUB. Est. 1894. Entrance Pee,
£8 S 0. Annual Svhueriptwn, £? 5 0. „ „ {Ladies), £2 1 0. Tiie Lord
Montagu of Beaulieu. L. Roberts West, Esq. T. M. l^nl, Esq. Com. V.-
O. R.-O. H. SCO. ft TRCAS. rCapt. R. T. Dixon, < Li Langdoicn Fin,
Hythe, Southampimi. ISLAND 8AILINQ CLUB. Est. Entrance Fee, £1 1
0. AwiiuU Subserijdion, £1 1 0. Com p. Perceval, Esq. V.-O O. Barintf,
Esq., .I.P., C.C.D.L. B.-O O. H. Harrison, Esq., J.P H. TR8. P. L.
Quiton, Esf). H. SCO Herbert Whyatt, Esq., Club Hotue, Hitjh Street,
We»t Cowen^ I. gf W. REQIO REQATE CLUB LARIANO. Est. 1872.
Anmtal Subneriptvnt, 20 Lire. H.PRcs. H.M. The King of Italy. M. v.-P.
U.R.H. The Duke of AbniKzi. pRcs. Marquis Lodovico Trotti. v.-P. Cav.
Zauetto Brambilla. H. Tm. Cav. Eugenio Besana. M. Sic. Cav. Angelo
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1902-1903. LIST OF YACHT 5 SAILIMC? CLUB rLAGS, N?:v

LOUQH DERQ YACHT CLUB. • Est. 1884. Kiaranc§ Fee, £1 0 0.
Annual Subteription^ £1 0 0. Com. MaJ. T. S. Wellesley BernaitL V.-
C. Lord Dunalley. H. 8eo. JS. G. J. Parker Hutchinson, Esq., * TBt. I
CaHU Lough, KiUaloe, Co. Clare, LOUQH NEAQH YACHT CLUB. Est.
1897. AnniuU Subteription^ £0 10 0. Com. Ix>rd O'Neill. V.-C.
Viscount Massereene and Ferrard. R.-C. MaJ. Arthur Pakenham H.
Tns. D. Redmond, Eik). H. 8bo. W. T. Cowan, Esq.. Dunadry, Co.
AtUrim. LYTHAM YACHT CLUB. Est. 189a EiUranee Fee, &i f 0. Ann.
Sub., iLStO; Country Member; £i 1 0. Com. R. L. Ascroft, ¥>f\. V.-C.
W. C. Brvant, Ei*q. R.-C. B. P. Dotwion. Eiq. H. 8io. A. L. Poole, Esq.,
Club Houte, Central Beach, Lytham. KONINKLIJKE ROEI EN
ZEILVEREENIQINQ •' DE MAA8.*' Est. 1861. Annual S\ib§eriytUmt
1$ Florim. H.PRit.Q. van der Pot, Kxi. Pais. L. M. A. Iloffninn. Kaq. H.
Trs. J. J. llavelaar, Yjh\. H. 8to. Baron A. A. Hweerti de Ir of 8|iain
Pnif. T. Navel DiMtlior. Km|. Com. Wm. G. MImw, Knq. .H. 8fo,, H|
PelerNCii t'leiucnt, Vjui. izecf by Club //««**, Malaga, Stt^iiu.
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19O2-1903. LIST 0r YJLCMT Jk SAIILIM© QhVM FI.AOS. N?

3 > Annual Subscription, £/) 10 6. Com. W. L. Wyllie, Esq., A.R.A. V.-
C. C. Willis, jun., Esq. R.-C. J. E. Caiitle, Esq. H. TM. E. J. Goldsmith,
jun., Eiq. H. Sec. H. J. Cobb, Esq., SU, High St., Rochester, KentlEIN.
I USntrance Fee, Mark 15. [Annual Subgcription, Mark 30. Est. 18a
Entrance F«, £0 6 0. Annual Subscription, £/0 5 0, 1DLAND SAILING
CLUB. Est 1894. COM. F. VillierB Forster, Esq. H. Tiw. O. A. Cox, Esq,
M. Sto. L. B. Chatwin, Esq., f, Bennett* a Uill, Birmingham^
BrancbeB at Edfirbaston, Norton, and Barnt MINFMA yacht club. Est.
1889. Entrance Fee, £0 10 6. Annual Subscription, £0 10 6. Com.
Gen. SirO. Greaves, O.O.B., K.C.M.O, V.-O. G. E, Stowell, Esq. R.-O.
H. T. Clarke, Esq. H. Trs. .[ Geo. P. Pooock, Esq., a Sec. I Central
Exeeutioe Office, i. Water Lane. Great Tower Street, London, E.C, ,
Saundersfoot) nd Weymou'!ih. Annual Subscription, £.0 10 6. Com.
T. J. Walmslev. Esq. , Claughton, Birkenhead » MOSQUITO YACHT
CLUB. Est. 1896. Entrance Fee, Yen 15. Annual Subscription, Yen 6.
Com. v.-c. H. Tto. H. SCO. H. Keswick, Esq. F. J. Hall, Esq. P. R.
Scott, Esq. A. J. Pumfrett, Eaq.^ Entrance Fee, £6 5 0. Annual
Subserijition, £1 1 0. Adml. V.-A. R.-A. H. Sec a Trcas. Digitized by R.
Sinclair Scott, Esq. Andrew Coats, Esq. Pet-er Donaldson, Esq. Cn W.
Scott, Esq., dmtt 187 Olasgoh
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19O2-1903. mmmmmmummmmm LIST" 0F TJLCHT 1.

§AlLIJf«G €L¥® FXAG^. N?3 NAVAL VOLUNTEER CRUISING CLUB.
E8t. 1892. Entrance Pee, £.0 10 8. Annual SubiTiptivn^ k,l 1 0.
PRES. Com. Lt. A. H. Fry. v.-c. James ». Smith, Esq. H. Tus. A. Gumi,
Esq. Sec. F. O. S. Bram well, Esq.. 176, 177, d; 181, King's Road
Arches, The Be€ieh, Brighton. NEVA YACHT CLUB. Eirt. 1895. Annual
Sxtbseription, 100 RoubUs. Com. Con tre- Admiral N. A. Zelenoi. V.-
O. N. A. Sytenko, Esq. Treas. a. a. lllyne, Esq. H. Sec. A. M.
Kepnikoff, Esq., Moika, 1, SL PeUrshurg ; and Club House, Peterhof.
■ NEW BRIGHTON SAILING CLUB. Est. 1870. Entrance Fee, £0 10 0.
Annual Subitirriptioit, £0 10 C. COM. Alfred Nickels, Esq. v.-c.
Riehapd Bulman, Esq. TBtAS. J. >t. Pooley, Esq. H. Sec. W. Glass,
Esq., S'>, Groee Road, Rock Frrry, Birkenhead. NEWHAVEN &
SEAFORD YACHT CLUB. Est. 1889. Entrance Fee, £.110. Annual
Siibucriptian, £1 1 0. Com. F. S. Shenstone, Esq., J.P., D.L. V-O. Capt.
R. O. White, K.N.R. R.-C. Aubrey Harcourt, Esq., J. P., D.L. Treas. J.
Bannister, Esq. Sec. E. Bedford, Esq., 1, High Street, Newhaven,
Stissex. ^ HCOLAIEFF YACHT CLUB. Est 1888. Entrance Fee, 10
Roubles. Annual SuoscriplUm, to Roubles. Com. v-c. Trca«. ft sec. N.
N. Arkos, Esq. P. P. YuriUin, Esq. /S. F. ACanaBiev, Esq., \ Nieclaieff,
Black Sea. NORDDEUTSCHER REGATTAVEREIN. Est. 1868. Entrance
Fee, Mark 10. Annual Subttcription, Mark SO. COM. Ad. Burmester,
Esq. V.-C. Ad. Tietgens, Esq. Thcas. a. Kayser, Esq. H . SCO. Alfred
O'Swald , Esq. . Bootshaus an der AUter, Il/ttnJntm. KOIfClELIQ
NORSK YACHT CLUB. Est 1878. Entrance Fee, 5 Kr. Annual
Subscription, 10 Kr. Com. V.-C. Sec. A TREA8, C. Wisbech, Esq.
Alfred W. G. lArsen^ Esq. fP. T. Mallinfir, Esq., \ Club House, Christi<
^ffigiti fiTH OF IRELAND YACHT CLUB. Est. 1899. Entrance Fee,
£110. Annual Subicrij/tion, £1 1 0. Com. G. Hert.ert Brown. j!ji V.-C.
J. n. Burke Murphy, R.-C. J. St. Clair Boyd, Esq, . niobert E.
Workman, 1 I zetsec. a I jr), Bedford Street, J. P. , J.P. D. Treas. Club
House. Cultra, Co. Don >oim|
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19O2-1903fclSiT OF YACHT * »4^!! LJ! J^^^ qLUB r.i/AU^

N?3 NORTH SHANNON YACHT CLUB. Est. 1896. StUranM Pet, i.1 0
0. Annual Subior^wn, Al 0 0, TIm EafI o( KIngfton. O. A. P. KeUy,
Eiq., &L. B. HAmllton, Esq. O. W. Alleyne. Eoq., Carriek-on-Shannont
Inland, v.-o. R.-C. RTns. N SCO NORTHUMBERLAND YACHT CLUa
Est. 1890. Sntranee Fee, £1 0 0. Annual SufueriptUm, £110 OoM.
The Hon. Mr. Jtutioe Brace, v.-o. W. Runciman, Esq. R.-O. W. &
VMurhan, Esq. TNTAS. W. F. Allden, }Sm\. 810. E. H. Richardmii,
Esq., Moucrdfi, GateMkead, Headquarters : NewcatUe-on-Tyne.
NYLAND8KA YAGHTKLUBBEN. Est 1861. AnnruU Subeerijttion^ Mark
tSO. Patron, H.I.M. The Emperor of BuseU. OoM. Ernst Krofflus, Esq.
v.-a M. Sohferfneck, Esq. TNCAS. Ernst Kroglus, Esq. Sao A.
Soderhind, Esq., Club House, Helsinafort, FiiUaud, UNION NAUTIQUE
08TENDAI8E. V.-P. TmAS, ft 8S0. Louis de Hemptinne, Esq. F.
Quinet, Esq. / Louis Dopiere, Esq., \ Place d'JnNM, 13, 'Armee, 1,
Ontend, i {KNEY 8AILINQ CLUB. Est. 1889. Entrance Fee, £0 10 0.
AitnualJSubtniption, £0 6 0, OOM. T. 8. Peece, Esq. V.-O. O.
Hutheriaod, Esq. tsiAs. Jmnes Begg, Esq. K P. W. Pesca, Esq., **
Orkneg iierald* k^kunU. ORWELL CORINTHIAN YACHT CLUB. Est.
1888. Bntranee Fee (ntepended). Annual Subeeriptwn, £1 1 0, OOM.
Edwftiti Pftckard, Esq. v.-a E. O. Pretymm, Esq., H.P. R.-O. W. P.
Burton, Esq. Trias. A. E. SIdgwiolc, Esq. u a./*. / A. F. Penraven,
Esq., H. 8COS. ^^yf Elkington, Esq.. 8, St.. MattheMfe Street,
JimHek : and Bntranee Fee, £0 10 0, Annual Subeeriptwnt £1 0U8E
AMATEUR BAILING CLUB. Est. 188a Annual aubteripiUn^ £0 9 6,
OOM. A. C. Fountains, Esq. v.-a T. GibNOft Bowles, Esq., M.P. R.-0. A.
K. King, Esq. H.8(c. /Herbert Barrett, Esq.. ft Tiir*» \ Town Hall,
K%ng*e Lynn. Digitized by Vj (FORD UNIVERSITY 8AILINQ CLUB.
Est. 1884. 0 0 OOM. C. C. Lynam, Esq. V.O. R. £. 8. Spender, Esq R.-
a F. A. Richards, Esq. H. TRt R. 0. fjcott, Esq. H. Sep., F.^. Riphards.
Em.,
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1902-1903. LIST OF YACHT J^ SAELIMO €L¥® FLAGS N?3

PARK8T0NE SAILING CLUB. Est. 1895. Entrance Fee, £,1 1 0. Annual
Subieripti&n, f.l 11 6 Pmu. J. W. Bennett, Esq v.-p. Col. Baker. H TRs.
F. A. Stone, Esq. H SKC. Alfred M. Bolton, Esa., Club HoutCt Poole
Harbour, Parkttaiie, Dorget PEMBROKESHIRE SAILING CLUB. Est.
1894. Annual Subicription, £0 10 o. COM Major H. Davies. v.-O Dr.
Bernard Cooke. H. Sto. / E. O. Elford. Esq., a TWAS \ Pemirroke
Dock, SL Wale$ PENARTH YACHT CLUB Est 1881 Rntranee Fee, £S 9
0. Annual Subscription, &S S o. Com. v.-O. R.-C. Trcas. a Sec Col.
Pitxroj Clayton. J. Chellew, Esq. Goodenoiiifh Taylor, Esq. (F. P. Adey,
Esq., \ 6, Ki/nn'n Terrace, Pmarth. POOLE YACHT CLUB. Est. 1890.
Entrance Fee, £10 0. Annual Subscription, £1 1 0. Com. J. H. Slade,
Esq. v.-c. R. E. Diirell, Esq. R-O. E B. Oakley, Esq. H. Sec. John
Carter, Esq., PooU Yacht Club (LimX Poole, Dortet. PORTSMOUTH
SAILING CLUB. Est. 1901. Animal Sxibseription, £110 Pnts. Lieut. -
Col. R. Barrington-Baker v.-p. A. E. Brian t, Esq. Ca»t. B. Lucas, Esq.
H.sec. J A. S. Germao, Esq., aTu. I /, King Street, Porten^oitth
PRINKIPO YACHT CLUB. Est. 1890. Entrance Fee, £1 0 0. Annual
Subscription, £S U 0. Com. Count G. d'Arnoux. V.-C. Dr. L, F. Mizzi,
TREA8 N. Castelli, Esq. Src. \^ Mongeri, Esq., and ®'*^'- (C. Doros,
Esq., Constant inovle. RANELAQH SAILING CLUB. Est. 1888.
Entrance Fee, £0 10 6. Annual Subscription, £1 1 0 Com. a. C.
Cakes, Esq. V.-C. E. C\ Hiscox, Esq. R.-C. A. Gritten, E«q. H. Tr». C.
E. Matthevi-s, Esq. H. Sec. S. G. Pechell, Esq., Digiti zei SEGEL CLUB
"RHE." Est. 1856. Entrance Fee, Mark SO. Annual Subscription, Mark
kS. Com. M
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1902-1903. LIST ©F YACHT isi SMMMQ CLIB W%AQn^ B5

N?3 RHEIN18CHER 8EQLER-VERBAND. Est. 1898. Annual
Subteription^ Mark 12. Com Vioe«Admini] i. D. Menting V -c Dr. O.
Schulx. « -O A. Weber, Esq. Com. R.-0. W. Scott Ha^-ward, Eiq.
Charles Wilden, Esq. J. Pierce Lewis, Esq. / Hugh Hughes, Esq., and
RIQAER YACHT CLUa Est. 1877. Entrance Fee, 10 RouUee. Annual
Subeeriptum, 10 RoubUt. Com. Th. Behrmann, Esq. V.-O. O.
IJIienthal, Esq. Tnkas. J. Laurenti, Esq. ROCHESTER SAILING CLUB.
Est. 1890. Annual S^^beeripUon, £0 S 0 COM. W. L. Wyllie, Esq.,
A.R.A. V.-C. C. Willis, Jun., Esq. R.-C. E. A. Gill, Esq. 8T. P^ERSBURQ
IMPERIAL YACHT CLUB. Est. 1846. Annual Si^ttcttptiou, Jfi)
Honble*. Com cj^nural Baron FreeHeriks. v-c '*aptain Niloff. ftc A.
Caton, Esq , Club N9u*f, Oreat Uoretaia* 31, St. Pi^errburg. ST.
F^ERSBURQ RIVER YACHT CLUB. Est. 1860. Entrance Fee, S5
Roubl^f. Annual SvUtteription, dO Boublet. Patron, H. I. H. The
Grand Duke Alexis Alexandrowi tsch. Admiral P. N. Naslinoff. v.-O
Prof. H. Dohnberg. riKAs. N. Stephanits, Esq. N. O. Wassilieff, Esq.,
'"• • " rtoifsln", Fetergburg. SALCdtiBE YACHT CLUB. Est. 1894.
Annual Subtienption, &1 1 0. Com. Commander C. W. Herbert, R.N.
v,-0. Robert Heriot, Esq. R.-O. Commander H. B. Alison, R,N. H. 8ic.
/Cyril E. turner. Esq.. «TatAt.\ Saleoinbe,S, Devon. ^ALI Kntrauce
Fee, £0 10 0. AiiHual Subeeripticn, £0 10 0. >0M. 1 Sio. k TSCAS. K.
T. Meadow-s, Esq., M.D., J.P / Frank Qover, Etq., \ Club R*mM,
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19O2-1903. LIST ©F YJkCHT 1 SAELI!«© €hVm FI.AGS;

N*: NAVAL VOLUNTEER CRUISING CLUB. Est. 1892. Entrance Pee,
£0 10 6. Annual Subfription, £1 1 0. Prcs. Com. Lt. A. H. Fry. v.-C.
James B. Smith, Esq. H. Trs. a. Ounn, Esq. Sec. F. G. S. Brain well,
Esq., 17C, 177, d: 181, King's Jioftd Arches, The Beach y Brighton.
NEVA YACHT CLUB. Ert. 1895. AnniuU Subscript utn, 100 Rottbles.
COM. Contre-Aduural N. A. Zelenoi. V.-O. N. A. SyU?nko, Esq. TncAS.
A. A. lilyne, Esq. H. SCO. A. M. Kepnikoff, Em., Moika, J, St
Petersburg ; and Club House, PeUrhof. NEW BRIGHTON SAILING
CLUB. Est. 1870. Enl ranee Fee, £0 10 0. Anniiai Subscriplion, KO 10
C. COM. Alfreaii, Riwk I-\ try, Birkt-nhcad. NEWHAVEN & SEAFORD
YACHT CLUB. Est. 1889. Entrance Fee, £1 1 0. Annual Subscription,
£1 1 0. COM. F. S. Shenstone, E«q., J. P., D.L. V-C. Capt. R. G.
White, K.N.R. R.-O. Aubrey Ilarcourl, Esq., J. P., D.L. Trkas. J.
Baiiniwter, Esq. Sec. E. I3e
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19O2--1903, LIS^T ©r YACHT S SAILJM^ CLUB FLAGS. N?

3 NORTH SHANNON YACHT CLUB. Est 1896. Bnirwnce Pet, £i 0 0.
Annual SiAtcnptian, &1 0 0. AoM. The Eftrl o( Kinjrfton. O. A. P.
KeUy, Enq., B.L. E. HMnllton, Esq. 0. W. Alleyne. Ewj., Carriek-on-
Shannotht Ireland. v.-o. H. TW. M 9io. iKNEY SAILINQ CLUB. Est. 6
0, Mntraw* Fee, BO 10 0. Ama*ual Subeeription, £0 v.-o. T. 8.
Peace, L_O. SutherUod, Jmiim Begg. Esq. P. W. Pears, Era.,
**OrknegHeraid" kirhcaU. NORTHUMBERLAND YACHT CLUB. Est.
1890. Bniranee Fee, £1 0 0. Annual SubeeripHon, £110 OoM. The
Hon. Mr. Jnatioe Brace, v.-o. W. Rundman, Esq. R.-0. W. S. Vaaghan,
Eaq. TWAS. W. F. AUden, Eaq. 810. E. H. Richardnon, Esq.,
Motecnifl, Gateehead. Headquarien : Neweattle-on-Tyne. ORWELL
CORINTHIAN YACHT CLUB. Est 1888. Entrance Fee (nupended).
Annual Subeariptlon, £1 1 0. Oon. Edward Packard, Eaq. £. G.
Pratyman, Esq., ILP. W. P. Burton, Eaq. A. B. Sidgwiok, Esq. V.-O.
R.-0. TiwAa. / A. F. Penraven, htiq., \R W. EIkinjrton,Eaq., S, St.
MattheMfM Street, Jvewieh ; Club Room, Pier HM, Fetiaittowe. and
NYLAND8KA YACHTKLUBBEN. Est 1861. AnntuU Subeerijdion, Mark
tSO. Patnon, H.I.M. The Emperor of Busai*. OoM. Emat Kroffiua,
Eaq. v.-a II. Sohferfheck, Esq. TNCAa. Ernat Krogina, Esq. Sto A.
Soderhind, Esq., Club House, Belsingfors, Finlaytd, 0U8E AMATEUR
SAILINQ CLUB. Est 1883. Annual Subeeription, £0 9 6. OOM. A. C.
Fountaine, Eaq. v.-a T. Gibson Bowlea, Esq., M.P. R.-0. A. K. King,
Eaq. H.8(c. /Herbert Barrett, Esq., % Tar •• \ Town Bali, King's Lifnn.
Digiti UNION NAUTIQUE OSTENDAISE. Piisa: Loois de Heini>tlnDe,
Eaq. v.-P. F. Quin«^ ^• TatAa, / Louia Dopiere, Esq., a saa \ Place
d'Armes, 13, Ostend, Belgfum. (FORD UNIVERSITY SAILINQ CLUB.
Est. 1884. Entrance Fee, Sfi 10 0. Annual Subscription, £10 0 OOM.
C. C. Lynam, Esq. v.-a R. E. S. Spender, Eaq R.-0. F. A. Richards, Esq.
H. Taa R. 0. Rcott, Esq. H. flta F. A. Richards. Em)., Ized by Xew
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1902-1903. LIST OF YACHT Jc SAILING CLlf© FLAOS N?3

PARK8T0NE SAILING CLUB. Est 1895. Entrance Fee, £1 1 0, Annual
Sub§eriptumy iA 11 6 Pm». J. W. Bennett, Esq v.-P. Col. Baker. H Trs.
F. a. Stone, Esq. H sia Alfred M. Bolcon, Esq., Club HoutCy Poole
Harbour, ParkHone, Donei PEMBROKESHIRE SAILING OLUB. Est.
1894. Annual Subtcription, £0 10 o. COM Major H. Davies. v.-c Dr.
Bernard Cooke. H. SCO. ( aTWAS \ E. O. FJford, Esq., Pembroke
Dock, S. Walee PENARTH YACHT CLUB Est 1881 Entrance Fee, ZS f
0. Annual SubtteHption, £S f 0. OOM. v.-o. R.-C. Treas. a Sec Col.
Fitsroy Clayton. J. Chellew, Esq, (lOodcnoutrh Taylor, Esq. ( K. P.
Adey, Kson. \ C, Kymin Terrace, Pnxarth. POOLE YACHT CLUB. Est.
189a Entrance Fw. £10 0. Annual Subtcripiion, £1 1 0. OOM. v.-o. R.-
O. H. SlO. J. H. Slade. Esq. R. E. Dnrell, Esq. E B. ()akley, F^. John
Carter, Esq., PooU Yacht Club (Urn. ', Don Poole, boreet
PORTSMOUTH SAILING CLUB. Est. 1901. Annual Subaeriplion, £1 1
0 Pns. Lieut. -Col. B. Barrington-Baker v.-P. A. E. Briant, Esq Ca^t. B.
Lucas, Lsq. H.SCC i A. S. Gemiaa, Esq., •Tus. I /, King Street, Poi-
tm.outh PRINKIPO YACHT CLUB. Est. 1890. BtUranee Fee, £10 0.
Annual Stibeeription, £t lU 0 Com. Count G. d'Arnoux. V.-C. Dr. L. F.
Mi«m, Treas N. Castelli, Esq. B,^. .JF. Mongeri, Esq., and iC. Doros,
Emj., ConetantinopU. RANEUQH SAILING CLUB. Est. 1888. Entrance
Fee, £0 10 6. Annual Subecription, £1 1 0 Com. a. C. Oakes, Esq. V.-
C. E. ('. HiM;ox, Esq. R.-C. A. Gritten, Esq. H. Trs. C. E. Matthews.
Esq. H. Sec. S. G. Pechell, Esq., SEGEL CLUB "RHE." Entrance Fee,
Mark SO. Annual Subtcription, Mark 1*8. Com. Max C^ochlus, Esq.
V.-C. Max Kamm, Esq. Trias Walter Rhode Ksq.j Digitized by
\L^'^(^QK6nio,h^g, 1856. Pruetia.
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1902-1903. LIST ©F YJLCHT IR SAILIMG €%WB FJLAG^.

N?3 RHEINI Est. 1898. Annual Subteription, Mark 12. D. Menting.
COM v-c Vice-Admiral s. Dr. O. Schulx. A. Weber, Esq. rACHT Annuai
Subteripthn, At 1 0. Com. W. Scott Havward, Esq. v.-o. Charles
WUdera, Eaq. R.-O. J. Pierce Lewis, Esq. TntA*. /Hufirh Hujrhes,
Esq., and OLua SntrQWM Fee, 10 RoubUt. Annual Subteription, 10
BoubUi. COM. Th. Rehrmann, Em. v.-o. G. IJIienthal, Esq. T«f At. J.
Laurentz, Eaq. TER SAILING CLUB. Ett. 1890. Annual Subteriptiont
£0 6 0 OOM. W. L. Wyllie, Em., A.R.A. V.-O. C. Willis, Juii., Esq. R.-O.
E. A. 0111, Em). ST. P^ERSBURQ IMPERIAL YACHT CLUB. Est. 1846.
I Annual SubnenpUou, ino Bon bleu. I Com (i6n*a^ Baron
Free<1eriks. |v-c '^apiain Niloff. i^c A. CaU»n, Esq , Clftb //oHJic,
Ormt Mortkaia, SI, St. Petertburg. ST. r^TERSBURQ RIVER YACHT
CLUB. Est. 1860. Entrance Fee, 95 RouUm, Annual Subteription, SO
BoubUi. Patron. H. I. H. The Grand Duke Alexia Alexandrowitsch. I
Admiral P. N. Nadinoff. T 8ALC61mBE yacht club. Est. 1894. bALl
Annual Subiteription, £1 1 0. OOM. Commander C. W. Herbert, R.N.
v.-o. Robert Heriot, Esq. R.-C. Commander H. B. Anson, R.N. H. 8to.
/Cyril E. turner, Esq., a Trias. \ Sateoinbe,3. Devon, Unirance Fee, £0
10 0. Annual SubecripHon, £0 10 0. >0M. 4. Sea k TSEAS. R. T.
Meadows, Esq., M.D., .T.P / Frank Gover, E-jq., >. \ Club HiHjM,
Saltaxh, CwHwaU Digitized by (^oogle
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