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8th International conference on turbochargers and
turbocharging 1st Edition Crc Press Digital Instant
Download
Author(s): CRC Press
ISBN(s): 9780849307775, 0849307775
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 121.50 MB
Year: 2006
Language: english
8th International Conference on Turbochargers and Turbocharging
Organising Committee

Kian Banisoleiman (Chair) Lloyd's Register EMEA

Steve Birnie Borg-Warner Automotive
Henry Tennant Holset Turbochargers
Ennio Codan ABB Turbo Systems
Les Smith MIRA
Andrew Stapleton QinetiQ
Ricardo Martinez-Botas Imperial College London
]oerg Seume University of Hannover
Chris Brace University of Bath
] ohn MardeII Consultant
 8th International
Conference on
Turbochargers and
Turbocharging

Institution of Mechanical Engineers

Combustion Engines & Fuels Group

•IDGTE

CRC Press
Boca Raton Boston New York Washington, DC

WOODHEAD PUBLISHING LIMITED

Cambridge England
Published by Woodhead Publishing Limited, Abington Hall, Abington, Cambridge CB 1 6AH,
England
www.woodheadpublishing.com

Published in North America by CRC Press LLC, 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW,
Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487, USA

First published 2006, Woodhead Publishing Limited and CRC Press LLC
© 2006, Institution of Mechanical Engineers unless otherwise stated
The authors have asserted their moral rights.

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A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.

Woodhead Publishing ISBN-13: 978-1-84569-174-5

Woodhead Publishing ISBN-lO: 1-84569-174-1
CRC Press ISBN-lO: 0-8493-0777-5
CRC Press order number: WP0777

Printed by Antony Rowe Limited, Chippenham, Wilts, England

CONTENTS

PART I: COMPRESSORS AND NOVEL INTAKE SYSTEMS

1 Prediction and measurement of turbocharger compressor wheel temperature

A Yamagata, S Nagai, K Nakano, and T Kawakubo, Ishikawajima-Harima Heavy
Industries Company Limited, Yokohama, Japan 3

2 Turbocharger compressor development for diesel passenger car applications

H Chen and J F Yin, Honeywell Turbo Technologies Limited, Skelmersdale, UK 15

3 The reduction of turbocharger whoosh noise for diesel powertrains

D Evans, Ford Motor Company Limited and A Ward,Ricardo UK Limited 29

4 The influence of installation parameters on turbocharged automotive

engine performance
G Capon, A Leong, and T Morris, Ford Motor Company Limited, UK 43

5 Using the centrifugal compressor as a cold air turbine

M Miiller, S Sumser, P Fledersbacher, K Rofiler, and K Fieweger,
DaimlerChrysler AG, Germany, and H-J Bauer, University of'
Karlsruhe, Germany 55

6 Extending the knock limit of a turbocharged gasoline engine via turboexpansion

J W G Turner, R J Pearson, and N Milovanovic, Lotus Engineering, UK, and
D W Taitt, Loughborough University, UK 69

7 Turbo-cooling applied to light duty vehicle engines

CD Whelan and R A Richards, WDL Limited, UK 81

PART II: IMPROVED MODELS FOR CYCLE SIMULATION

8 A one-dimensional model for variable and fixed geometry radial turbines

for turbochargers
J M Lujan, J R Serrano, C Cervell6, and F J Arnau, Universidad Politecnica de
Valencia, Spain, and S Soltani, Renault, France 97

9 Analysis of turbocharger non-adiabatic performance

S Shaaban and J R Seume, University of Hannover, Germany 119

10 Part-load performance prediction of turbocharged engines

S Shaaban and J Seume, University of Hannover, Germany, R Berndt, Technical
University Berlin, presently Ingenieurgesellschaft Auto und Verkehr IA V GmbH,
Germany, H Pucher, Technical University Berlin, Germany and H J Linho.fj;
Linhoff Engineering, Germany 131

v
PART III: ELECTRO BOOST SYSTEMS

11 Development of electrically assisted turbocharger for diesel engine

Y Yamashita, S Ibaraki, and H Ogita, Mitsuhishi Heavy Industries Limited,
Tokyo, Japan 147

12 The design and testing of an electrically assisted turbocharger for heavy

duty diesel engines
o Ryder, Holset Engineering Company Limited, Huddersjield, UK,
H Sutter, ATE GmbH, Germany, and L Iaeger, Iveco Motorenforschung AG,
Switzerland 157

PART IV: TURBINES

13 A numerical study of the performance characteristics of a radial turbine

with varying inlet blade angle
L Barr, S W T Spence, and A McNally, Queen's University Belfast, UK 169

14 Experimental study on the performance of a variable geometry mixed flow

turbine for automotive turbocharger
S Rajoo and R Martinez-Botas, Imperial College London, UK 183

15 Turbocharger turbine performance under steady and unsteady flow: test bed
analysis and correlation criteria
M Capobianco and S Marelli, University of Genoa, Italy 193

16 Flexible turbocharger turbine test rig MONA VI

D Filsinger, G Fitzky, and B Phillipsen, ABB Turbo Systems Limited, Baden,
Switzerland 207

17 Active control turbocharger for automotive application: an

experimental evaluation
A Pesiridis and R Martinez-Botas, Imperial College London, UK 223

PART V: MECHANICAL ASPECTS

18 Thermomechanical analysis of a turbocharger turbine wheel based on CRT-

calculations and measurements
T Heuer, B Engels, H Heger, and A Klein, BorgWarner Turbo Systems Engineering
GmbH, Germany 235

19 Dynamics of mistuned radial turbine wheels

X Sheng, D C Clay, and I Allport, Holset Engineering Company Limited,
Huddersfield, UK 251

20 Improving analysis capability in order to reduce turbine RCF

S T Kitson, D C Clay, D H Brown, R 0 Evans, D M Eastwood and P K Tootill,
Holset Engineering Company Limited, Huddersfield, UK 261

VI
21 Axial load capacity of V-section band clamp joints
K Shoghi, BorgWarner Turbo Systems, Bradford, UK, S Barrans and
P Ramasamy, University of Huddersfield, UK 273

PART VI: ADDITIONAL PAPERS

22 Reliability trends, operating issues and acceptance criteria related to exhaust

gas turbochargers used in the marine industry - a classification society view
K Banisoleiman and N Rattenbury, Lloyd's Register, London, UK 289

23 A novel method of high efficiency pressure charging

A 0 Dye, Epicam Limited, Linton, Cambridgeshire, UK 305

24 Turbine wheel design for Garrett advanced variable geometry turbines for
commercial vehicle applications
H Chen, Honeywell Turbo Technologies Limited, Skelmersdale, UK 3 17

25 Compact long-route exhaust gas recirculation mixer design and optimization

J Yin, N Deschatrettes, 0 Han, and P Renaud, Honeywell Turbo Technologies
Limited, Skelmersdale, UK 329

26 Transient performance prediction of the turbocharging system with the

variable geometry turbochargers
H Uchida, A Kashimoto, and Y Iwakiri, Toyota Central R&D Laboratories
Incorporated, Aichi, Japan 341

27 Plain and full floating bearing simulations with rigid shaft dynamics
I McLuckie, S Barrett, and B K Teo, Advanced Integrated Solutions Limited,
Market Harborough, Leicestershire, UK 351

VII
 Prediction and measurement of
Turbocharger compressor wheel temperature
A. Yamagata, S. Nagai, K. Nakano and T. Kawakubo
Ishikawajima-Harima Heavy Industries Co., Ltd., Yokohama, JAPAN

ABSTRACT

Conjugate heat transfer (CHT) analysis for a high-pressure ratio turbocharger compressor
has been conducted to estimate the temperature distribution of a rotating impeller. CHT
analysis have been performed with several thermal boundary conditions, which are
temperature around a compressor housing, of a back plate of the impeller and of a turbine
shaft. We revealed the effects of these conditions on the compressor impeller temperature.
Using a radiation thermometer, temperature measurement of a rotating impeller also has
been performed. It was utilized to verify the accuracy of CHT analysis for the temperature
prediction of a rotating impeller.

Nomenclature Subscripts
1) Diameter blp Back plate of impeller
Mu Rotation Mach number c/h Compressor housing
N Rotation speed exit Compressor exit
Q Volumetric flow rate oil Lubricant oil
T Temperature ref Reference condition
Tt Total temperature shaft Turbine shaft
Zb Number of blades tip Impeller tip
It c Compressor total pressure ratio

1. INTRODUCTION

In recent years, the need of Diesel engines for passenger vehicles is increasing in the
worldwide and the turbo charging for Diesel engines becomes very important due to the
economical and environmental reasons. In order to improve the output power and the fuel
consumption and also to suppress the emission of Diesel engines, a high efficiency and
high-pressure ratio turbocharger is required.
Since a single stage centrifugal compressor is used usually in a turbocharger for a
passenger vehicle, high rotational speed is necessary to achieve high-pressure ratio at a
turbocharger compressor. Therefore, due to the increase of rotational speed, the compressor
wheel, impeller, is exposed to high centrifugal stress. High-pressure ratio also leads the
increase of discharged air temperature, and this causes higher material temperature and
consequently the impeller material strength decreases.
In order to guarantee the lifetime of a turbocharger, it is important to know the impeller
metal temperature correctly. However, there is much difficulty in a direct temperature
measurement of rotating parts under high rotational speed, because thermal sensors set on

3
the impeller surface cannot bear the high centrifugal force. Therefore, analytical method
that can predict the impeller metal temperature at high-pressure ratio accurately is desired.
As a practical method to predict the impeller metal temperature, heat transfer analysis
assuming a heat transfer coefficient on the impeller surface and fluid temperature near the
wall as thermal boundary conditions has been applied. Mukherjee and Baker [1] have
calculated the metal temperature distribution of a high-pressure ratio turbocharger
compressor wheel using a heat transfer analysis. They applied a heat transfer coefficient
derived from empirical method, and also have investigated thermal stress occurred at the
impeller together with centrifugal load.
In the aspect of taking account of heat transfer between solid walls and fluid
simultaneously, conjugate heat transfer (CHT) analysis can be useful to obtain the metal
temperature distribution with high accuracy. One of the main issues of CHT analysis is
computational cost, i.e. limitation of memory size to run a calculation and computational
time to obtain a converged solution. However, recent progress of computer hardware and
parallel computing technology has realized a large CHT calculation. Bohn [2] has
conducted a CHT analysis for the whole of a turbocharger, including a compressor, a
turbine and a bearing housing. He described about the effect of heat transfer from a turbine
to a compressor through a bearing on a compressor performance. Heuer [3] also has done
CHT calculations of some twin-entry turbine housings with an integrated manifold, and
avoided a thermal shock occurred at a turbine scroll by the modification of a turbine
housing geometry.
In the present study, in order to construct the temperature prediction method of a rotating
impeller analytically, CHT analyses for a high-pressure ratio turbocharger compressor with
high rotational speed have been conducted. This analysis includes a compressor housing
and a back plate of the impeller. Further, the metal temperature of the rotating compressor
impeller has been measured using a radiation thermometer and the accuracy of CHT
analysis was verified.

2. METHODOLOGY

2.1 Compressor configuration

RHG8V turbocharger with variable geometry turbine system, which has been developed
in IHI for truck size Diesel engines, is chosen for this study. Figure 1 shows a cross
sectional view of the RHG8V turbocharger, including the information of a selected
computational domain and temperature measurement locations. This turbocharger
compressor has a cavity inside a shroud casing, which is called "Casing Treatment". This is
made to enhance the compressor operating range by the flow re-circulation through this
cavity, and included in a computational model used in this study. The compressor design
parameters are summarized in Table 1. Total pressure ratio of the compressor :rtc becomes
3.5 at 100% test rotation speed, and the discharged air temperature reaches over 200 deg. C.
The computational domain is limited only to compressor side, which includes a
compressor impeller, a back plate behind the impeller, a compressor housing and a shaft
connected to a turbine. A bearing housing and a turbine are not included. At the interface
between a compressor and a bearing or between a compressor housing and atmosphere,
temperature or heat flux is given as a thermal boundary condition.

4
 Temperature measurement of the rotating impeller is performed at the compressor inlet
and the back surface of the impeller using an infrared thermo camera and a radiation
thermometer, respectively, which are shown in Figure 2. Further, thermo couples are set in
stationary parts, which are a compressor housing and a back plate, and stationary parts
temperatures are measured and used for the verification and the boundary conditions of
CRT analysis.

Table 1. Specification of RRG8V turbocharger compressor.

Number of blades Zb 7 +7
Impeller diameter Dtip (mm) 92.00
Impeller tip Mach number (*) - - - - - -------
MUtip ~~
1.40
Total pressure ratio (*) ltC 3.50
(*) at 100% test rotation speed.

~----------.------: Radiation thenoometer

! 0>":,,::::::::"1 l~-~-----1Iil&dP"" /1----0. I

- --~::.-:--Ir\\~ 5{ ./:. (I )~
J~'_J:t.i:-
!

3"1.\JII
~~~k ~ r':/: ~~HJ ~.~ I
I\.~~ - ~~ ::' ~ 'f~,~ -
, , , C:::::'_,L J:" i \ ',~, ii,! ~\
ColJ1lressor ----t-e' / \ '- .. '-). 'I: N\.. \
impeller L~/ -\ \ ~--~ ~ 11; ~~--L
r ~

----, -T------------------+f------~--
--4~---_____c_
________ !~ 11orr::=---=iDIC~HL

Infrared thenoo J " '"\ II (I ~ :,r)

caImra ! : \ :1/ :
~
-'\i'~ I
• Y . -~"I!I
~~.~/r,
~--L I ~
I

(\,'
I· • '
\ I • ", I

Thenoo couples in '~/. I in a back plate

a compressor housing -~...'.:
. ±)
_~ I
I I
------------------------------,

Figure 1. Overview of the computational domain and the measurement points.

5
 Radiation

a) Radiation thermometer. b) Infrared thermo camera.

Figure 2. Thermometers for the compressor wheel temperature measurement.

2.2 Computational model

The computational model used in this study is shown in Figure 3. Since a compressor
impeller is composed of 7 full-length blades and the same number of short blades, the
computational domain is reduced to a 1/7 sector of the annulus to save the computational
cost and the periodic boundary condition is applied circurnferentially. Here, though the
compressor housing has a non-axisymmetric geometry, a volute region is simulated by the
representative geometry of a volute section for the simplicity. At the outer surfaces of solid
regions, which are a compressor housing, a back plate of the impeller and a shaft end to a
turbine, thermal boundary conditions are applied, i.e. surface temperature or heat transfer
coefficient and neighbor temperature are given, and heat fluxes through these boundaries
are determined by the heat balance between the interior and the adjacent boundary.
Computation is the steady-state calculation performed by FLUENT version 6.2.
Computational grid is generated by GAMBIT, a pre-processor of FLUENT, and mainly
consists of tetra mesh. Solid and fluid region have about 1.0 million and 1.5 million cells
respectively and total number of grids becomes 2.5 million cells.
As a flow and heat transfer solver, the segregated solver within FLUENT 6.2 is selected
and the Spalart-Allmaras one-equation model determines the turbulent viscosity of the fluid.
In order to control stability and convergence of the CHT calculation, the relaxation factor
for each equation is adjusted appropriately. Calculation has been done by Intel Xeon multi-
processor machine and continued till mass flow rate, total pressure and total temperature at
inlet and outlet boundary and the metal temperature became converged. About 2 days of
computational time is required to obtain a converged solution.

2.3 Boundary conditions

As flow boundary conditions, uniform total pressure, total temperature and flow angles
are fixed at the inlet boundary and static pressure is fixed at the exit boundary.
Thermal boundary conditions are summarized in Table 2. CRT analysis has been
performed for following four typical conditions and the effect of each condition on the
impeller metal temperature are revealed.
1) Outer surfaces are all adiabatic, i.e. there is no heat transfer through the outer surface of
the computational domain.

6
2) In order to evaluate the effect of heat transfer through the rotor shaft on the impeller
metal temperature, the thermal boundary condition at the shaft end is changed
parametrically. At first, it is assumed that the shaft temperature at the compressor side
is the same as the lubricant oil temperature. After that, the normalized shaft end
temperature is increased to +0.17 and +0.34. Other surfaces are all adiabatic.
3) In order to evaluate the effect of heat transfer through the outer surface of the
compressor housing, the thermal condition on this surface is changed. Assuming the
heat transfer coefficient at the outer surface of a compressor housing at a fixed value,
the neighbor atmosphere temperature is increased from the reference temperature to
+0.17 and +0.34. Other surfaces are all adiabatic.
4) In order to evaluate the effect of heat transfer through the back plate surface, the back
plate surface temperature is changed parametrically. First, the temperature distribution
of the back plate obtained by the stationary part temperature measurement is applied to
a solid region of the back plate. After that, the temperature distribution level is changed
to both -0.17 and +0.17. Other surfaces are all adiabatic.

- No. of grids : Solid 1.0 million

: Fluid 1.5 million
- Grid type : Tetrahedron

a) Side view of the computational domain b) Impeller and shroud cavity.

Figure 3. Computational model of CRT analysis.

Table 2. Summery of thermal boundary conditions.

Case (1) (2) (3) (4)
LlT shaft adiabatic 0, +0.17, +0.34 adiabatic <=
LlTc/h adiabatic <= 0, +0.17, +0.34 adiabatic
LlTb/p adiabatic <= <=--_._._----- -0.17,0, +0.17
--

*) Above temperatures are normalized by the reference value.

7
2.4 Temperature measuremeut
In the usual turbocharger test, temperatures of compressor air, turbine gas and lubricant
oil are measured at the inlet and the outlet of a compressor, a turbine and a bearing to
calculate the total performance of a turbocharger. In this study, the additional measurement
of stationary parts' temperature is performed at the locations shown in Figure 1 using the
thermo couples set in the compressor material. These data are used to validate and calibrate
the result of CHT analysis.
In order to measure the metal temperature of a rotating impeller, the optical radiation
thermometers, shown in Figure 2, are used in this study. The radiation thermometer has a
large merit in the ability of no-contact temperature measurement on a solid surface, and has
the accuracy within a few degrees if enough calibration is conducted. Since a radiation
thermometer detects energy and frequency radiated from a black heated body, it is required
that there is no obstacle between the measured surface and a thermometer, and the
measured surface must be painted black.
The temperature on a hub surface at compressor inlet is measured using the infrared
thermo camera, which is set upstream of an open compressor inlet, shown in Figure 2-b. To
obtain the back surface temperature, a radiation thermometer probe is inserted through the
inclined hole that is drilled at a back plate. For both two thermometers, a calibration has
been done at the stationary condition. It is confirmed that the measured temperature using a
radiation thermometer and an infrared thermo camera is agreed with that by the contact
temperature measurement.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

3.1 Results of CRT analysis

Figure 4 shows the temperature distribution of solid regions obtained by CHT analysis at
pressure ratio of 3.5. The value of temperature is expressed as a normalized difference from
that of reference condition. In this calculation, adiabatic thermal boundary condition is
applied, i.e. there is no heat flux through the outer surfaces of the computational domain
except for flow inlet and outlet boundary. This result indicates that the highest temperature
occurs at the volute and high radius of the back plate. Because of the deceleration of the
outflow from the impeller, static pressure and temperature increase gradually at the diffuser,
and static temperature of the compressed air reaches the maximum at the compressor exit.
As a result of high temperature flow in the volute, heat flows from the fluid into the solid at
high radius part, and the solid temperature is increased there. Further, heat conducts
through a compressor housing and a back plate, therefore, temperature of stationary parts is
greater than that of the impeller. Especially, temperature of the back plate is almost the
same as the maximum temperature because the heat flux between a back plate and a
bearing housing is not considered in the adiabatic condition, i.e. the cooling effect due to
the lubricant oil flowing in a bearing housing is not taken into account.
Heat flux distribution on the impeller surface at the same condition is shown in Figure 5.
In this figure, positive value means heat inflow from the neighbor fluid and negative value
means heat outflow. This result shows that positive heat flux is observed on the back
surface of the impeller, i.e. heat flows from fluid into solid here. This positive heat flux at
the back surface is mainly caused by the following two reasons. First is that the hot back

8
plate is faced with the impeller back surface, and second is a viscous heating due to the
shear flow between a rotating disk and a stationary wall. On the other hand, negative heat
flux is observed on the blade and hub surfaces, so the compressor main flow takes heat
away from the impeller material. The metal temperature of the impeller is determined as the
balance between these two heat fluxes in this calculation.

0.61 0.40

•• •
•• •••
=
= (T-T<ef)
IT'd = = (T - T ref)
IT,e!
•• •
•• •••
•• •
. • 0.08 •
•• 0.14

a) Whole of computational model b) Compressor impeller.

Figure 4. Normalized temperature distribution obtained by CHT analysis.

(+) (+)
Heat in Heat in
••
••• •••
••
• •••
••• ••
0.0
• 0.0

••
• •••
••
• Heatout

••
• Heat out
(-) (-)

a) Blade and hub surfaces. b) Back surface.

Figure 5. Heat flux distribution on the impeller surface.

3.2 Effects of thermal conditions

Additional calculations, in which thermal boundary conditions around a compressor are
varied parametrically, are performed as described at section 2.3. Figure 6 shows the change
of the impeller metal temperature from that of adiabatic condition, when the shaft end
temperature and the atmosphere temperature around a compressor housing are changed,
respectively. The values of temperature are normalized using the reference value in the

9
same manner of Figure 4. In this figure, it can be found that a change of impeller
temperature is very small, that is less than 0.01, even though the shaft temperature and the
atmosphere temperature are changed from base to over 0.3. As a reason for the small effect
of the shaft temperature, it is considered that heat transfer through the shaft is very small
compared with that on a blade surface and a back surface because of its small conduction
area, and this leads the small change of the impeller temperature. Also, though the
atmosphere temperature affects the compressor housing temperature, the impeller faces a
compressor housing by small area at the blade tip only, and this lead the same result when
the shaft end temperature is varied. From these results, it can be said that the effect of the
shaft and atmosphere temperature on the impeller metal temperature is small and heat
transfer through the turbine shaft and the compressor housing can be ignored at the impeller
metal temperature prediction.
The change of the impeller temperature, when the normalized back plate temperature is
varied from -0.17 to +0.17, is also shown in Figure 6. As described at section 2.3, the
temperature distribution measured by thermo couples is applied on a surface of the back
plate as a thermal boundary condition. The result shows that the effect of the back plate
temperature is not small compared with that of a shaft end and a compressor housing, and
normalized temperature changes from -0.025 to 0.027. This is mainly caused because the
faced area with the impeller back surface is very large compared with a casing and a shaft.
Therefore, in order to predict the impeller temperature correctly, it is very important to
estimate the heat transfer between the impeller back surface and the back plate wall.

0.03

--c- dTshaft varied

----{s- dTc/h varied
:::J dTb/p varied
-0.03
-0.30 -0.20 -0.10 0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0040 0.50
Temperature change at thermal boundaries
fl T / Tref

Figure 6. Effects of thermal boundary conditions.

3.3 Temperature measurement

The relation between the compressor discharged air temperature and the metal
temperature of a rotating impeller is shown in Figure 7. They are measured at different
compressor flow rate, from choke to surge, and different rotation speed, 80%, 95% and
100% test rotation speed. This figure includes the back plate temperature at the same radius
of the impeller diameter, and all values of temperature are normalized by the reference
value. This result shows that impeller metal temperature depends on the compressor

10
discharged air temperature strongly and it is found that all temperatures in a compressor
show the linear variation with the compressor discharged air temperature.
The lubricant oil temperature and turbine gas temperature are measured at the same time,
which are also shown in Figure 7. The lubricant oil temperature is almost constant when the
rotation speed and the compressor flow rate are changed, except for 80% rotation speed in
which inflow lubricant oil is heated intentionally. In this figure, whether the lubricant oil
temperature changes or not, it seems that the impeller metal temperature is affected by the
discharged air temperature only.
The normalized turbine gas temperature is varied with 0.5 at 95% and 100% rotation
speed because the combustion gas is supplied to drive the turbine at these conditions. At the
lower speed, 80% rotation speed, turbine gas temperature is constant because non-
combustion compressed air is used to drive the turbine at this speed. From this result,
whether the turbine gas temperature changes enormously or not, it seems that the
discharged air temperature only affects the impeller metal temperature. As a reason of this
result, it is considered that the lubricant oil flowing in the bearing housing shields the heat
transfer from a turbine to a compressor.
As a result of above considerations, it is concluded that the metal temperature of a
rotating compressor impeller is determined mainly by its discharged air temperature
increase due to compression of the suction air, and not affected by the lubricant oil and the
turbine gas temperatures. This trend agrees with the result of the parametric CRT
calculations described in the previous section.
Comparison of the impeller metal temperature between measurement and calculation is
shown in Figure 8. Although calculation predicts the impeller temperature slightly lower
than measurement at both a back surface and a hub inlet of the impeller, it is confirmed that
CRT analysis can predict the impeller metal temperature with accuracy within 0.03 of the
normalized temperature. As a reason for the deviation between measurement and
calculation, it is considered that the computational mesh near the wall adjacent to the fluid
is relatively large to estimate heat transfer, and the wall function works automatically to
determine the heat transfer between a fluid and a solid. In order to improve the accuracy of
the temperature prediction further, a sufficient grid resolution is required near the wall to
resolve the temperature boundary layer.

11
 0.60
-0- Back Plate
0.50 - 15. ImpeDer (Back)
--L ImpeDer (Hub)
0.40

0.30
't
E-<~
--. 0.20

't
E-<~ 0.10

E-< 0.00
'-"'
Q) 2.40
£! - 0- Turbine Gas
~ 2.00 -fr--- Lubricant Oil
~ 1.60
~ ConDustion gas
1.20

0.80
Non-conDustion gas
0.40 croo--o
~
/tl\~
0.00
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70
Compressor discharged air temperature
( Ttexil - Trd ) / Tref

Figure 7. Temperature measurement results.

.... 0.70
fo..t" • Measurement

-
--.
....
"
E-<~
,
0.60

0.50
L Calculation

E-< 0.40
'-"'

~ 0.30
-:;j
.... 0.20
Q)

~ 0.10
~
0.00
Compressor ImpeDer Back ImpeDer Hub
Discharged Air Surface Surface

Figure 8. Comparison between measurement and cak:ulatbn.

12
4. CONCLUSIONS

Conjugate heat transfer analysis for a high-pressure ratio turbocharger compressor was
conducted to obtain the temperature distribution of a rotating impeller. Temperature
measurement using a radiation thermometer was also performed to validate the
computational results.
The conclusions of this study are as follows.
1) Heat inflow occurs on the back surface of the impeller, which is mainly caused by the
hot back plate faced with the impeller back surface and the viscous heating due to the
shear flow between a rotating disk and a stationary wall. On the other hand, the
compressor main flow takes heat away from the impeller material, and the impeller
metal temperature is determined as the balance between these two heat fluxes.
2) Parametric CHT calculation and a temperature measurement reveal that the compressor
metal temperatures vary proportionally to the compressor discharged air temperature.
The compressor impeller metal temperature is mainly affected by the compressor
discharged air temperature, and the effects of a lubricant oil flowing in a bearing
housing and a turbine gas temperature are relatively small.
3) Although CHT analysis predicts the impeller temperature slightly lower than the
measured value at both a back surface and a hub inlet of the impeller, it is confirmed
that CHT analysis can predict the impeller metal temperature with enough accuracy to
estimate the lifetime of a turbocharger.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors would like to thank the Engineering Department of Vehicular Turbocharger
Division in Ishikawajima-Harima Heavy Industries Co., Ltd., who gave the opportunity to
conduct this research and to publish the paper, and also the Thermal and Fluid Machine
Testing Group in Ishikawajima Inspection & Instrumentation Co., Ltd. for the contribution
to the arrangement and operation of the measurement.

REFERENCES

[1] Mukherjee, S. and Baker, D., "Thermal Design of High Pressure Ratio Turbocharger
Compressor Wheels", SAE-2002-01-0162, 2002.
[2] Bohn, D.E. et aI., "Conjugate Flow and Heat Transfer Analysis of a Turbocharger",
ISABE-2003-1167,2003.
[3] Heuer, T. et aI., "Thermomechanical Analysis of a Turbocharger Based on Conjugate
Heat Transfer", GT2005-68059, 2005.

13
Other documents randomly have
different content
malady often recurs two or three times in a year, and lasts several
weeks, the subject of the hallucination being always the same.[535]
 Q. 4. Whether there is a probable chance of
recovery; and in case of convalescence, whether the
cure is likely to be permanent?
The prognosis, or means of ascertaining the probable event of
mental derangement, is founded on the consideration of many
different circumstances, such as the particular modification of the
malady; the violence of the symptoms; the duration and frequency
of the attack; its causes; the age, sex, constitutional temperament,
and hereditary dispositions of the affected individual; the general
state of his health; and the particular nature of his bodily maladies;
upon each of which we shall offer a few observations.[536] It has
been remarked that those affected with furious mania recover in a
larger proportion than those who suffer under the depressing
influence of melancholy, but that when the maniacal and melancholic
states alternate, the hope of recovery is farther diminished. The
probability of cure is also more or less, according to the duration of
the disease; when, however, it has acquired a systematic character,
it becomes very difficult to remove it, so that after it has continued
upwards of a year, patients at public asylums, as in Bethlem and
Saint Luke’s, are pronounced incurable, and treated accordingly. In
considering the causes of mania, we must class them in two
divisions—Predisposing, and Exciting. Among the former of these
causes stand hereditary predisposition; injuries of the brain; (these
also belong to the class of exciting causes); certain bodily diseases;
and a peculiar temperament. Among the latter we may first
enumerate those of a Physical nature, as frequent intoxication; fever;
mercurial medicines, largely administered; the suppression of
periodical or occasional discharges and secretions; parturition;
injuries to the head from external violence, &c. The Moral causes
include those emotions which are conceived to originate from the
mind itself, and which, from their excess, tend to distort the natural
feelings; or, from their repeated accessions, and unrestrained
indulgence, at length overthrow the barriers of reason and
established opinion; such are the gusts of violent passion, and the
protracted indulgence of grief; the terror impressed by erroneous
views of religion; the degradation of pride; disappointment in love;
and sudden fright.
Of Hereditary disposition we may observe, that there does not
appear to be any malady more obviously dependant upon its
influence than that of madness[537]; for even if one generation
escape, the taint is presumed to cling to the succeeding branches
until, either by admixture with a purer stock, or by education or
management, it is neutralized or drained away. In forming a
prognosis it therefore becomes the first object of inquiry, whether
any branch of the patient’s family has ever manifested any
symptoms of the disease; for where this is made out, our
expectations of permanent recovery must be slender; and even
should the patient become convalescent, he will be liable to a
relapse from every fresh exposure to the exciting causes. Injuries
about the head may be considered as both the predisposing and
exciting causes of insanity; for a fracture of the cranium has been
known to produce disorder in persons who had never betrayed the
least obliquity previous to the accident, and whose families had
never manifested the slightest disposition to the malady. Although
mental derangement has been observed in persons of every habit
and temperament, yet there is certainly a complexion which may be
said to predominate in these cases; Dr. Haslam, for instance, has
stated, that out of 265 patients in Bethlem hospital, 205 were found
to be of a swarthy complexion, with dark or black hair; the
remaining 60 having a fair skin, and light brown or red hair. Among
the most powerful exciting causes of derangement of intellect in
those predisposed to the malady are to be classed the moral causes
which produce mental distress and uneasiness; at the eventful era of
the French revolution, and for some years after, the lunatic
establishments of France were inundated by its victims; and Dr.
Burrows observes, that the annals of insanity will satisfactorily shew
that there never was, in any country, a sudden increment of insane
persons, without some powerful and evident excitation, physical,
moral, theological, or political.[538] I have, says Zimmerman,[539] had
occasion to see all the great hospitals in Paris, and have
distinguished in them three kinds of maniacs: the men who had
become so through pride; the girls through love; and the women
through jealousy.
The use of ardent spirits or wine to a person predisposed to
insanity, is always dangerous; under the same circumstances a long
course of mercurial remedies has been found mischievous. The
suppression of accustomed evacuations is also a frequent cause of
mania, and the restoration of them not unfrequently removes the
mental affection. Where there is in women an hereditary disposition
to mania, it is frequently called into action immediately after
parturition; in such cases, the prognosis is favourable;[540] on the
other hand, it has been remarked that in our climate, women are
more frequently affected with insanity than men; and it has been
considered very unfavourable to recovery, if they should be worse at
the period of menstruation, or have their catamenia in very small or
immoderate quantities. We have already noticed local injuries of the
head among the predisposing causes; we may also observe in this
place, that they not unfrequently prove an exciting one; in the case
of Hadfield the insanity was occasioned by a blow on the skull.
Dissection has thrown little or no light on the pathology of insanity; it
must be admitted that a peculiar structure of the brain will
predispose to madness, but there may exist many alterations in the
structure of these parts too minute for the eye to observe, or the
scalpel to expose. In some cases, however, the brain of the maniac
displays an obvious deviation from the healthy appearances, as we
learn from the testimonies of Chiarugi in Italy, Greding in Germany,
and from Dr. Haslam’s work in this country. The more general
appearances would seem to consist in excessive determination of
blood to the brain, with enlargement of its vessels; and effusion of
fluids into its cavities; the membranes of the brain have also been
found variously altered from their healthy state; ossifications have
been observed on the dura mater; the tunica arachnoidea has
appeared thickened, and more or less opaque; and the pia mater
has not unfrequently appeared inflamed and turgid with blood;
besides which Dr. Haslam has recorded an appearance of air in the
vessels of this membrane; nor is it uncommon to discover effusions
of a watery fluid between these membranes. The medullary
substance, when cut into, has seemed to contain more blood than
usual; the consistence of the branular mass has moreover been
stated, by different anatomists, to recede from its natural state in
cases of insanity. Bonetus, in his Sepulchret. Anatom. has asserted
that the brain of maniacs is so dry and friable that it may almost be
rubbed into powder; but with respect to this we are disposed to
doubt. Morgagni,[541] however, tells us that he has generally found
the brain of such persons of considerable hardness; and Mr. John
Hunter has found it so tough as even to exhibit some degree of
elasticity; Dr. Baillie has also remarked, that when these changes
take place in the brain, the mind is at the same time deranged, there
being either mania, or lethargy, or the person is much subject to
convulsive paroxysms. Other cases might be adduced in which the
brain was found on dissection to have a consistence preternaturally
soft. With regard to these phenomena, the experienced anatomist
will readily coincide with Pinel, that although they may occur in the
brain of the maniac, yet that they have frequently been found where
no mental affection had ever betrayed itself; in addition to which we
may remark that it does not necessarily follow that the morbid
appearances disclosed by dissection had existed during the progress
of the malady; it has been very truly observed by an intelligent
reviewer,[542] that a person may have, for ten years, frequent attacks
of epilepsy; he may become at last maniacal, and die comatose.
Upon dissection, marks of inflammation and of serous effusion are
observed in the brain and its membranes; but can we suppose that
any such lesion of structure existed during even the latter half of the
epileptic state?
 OF NUISANCES, LEGALLY, MEDICALLY, AND
CHEMICALLY CONSIDERED.

There are in law many kinds of nuisance; but we shall confine

ourselves to the consideration of those only which can be made the
subject of medical or chemical investigation; these are such as are
directly or indirectly detrimental to health, whether general or
individual; or are destructive to comfort; or injurious to property:
obstructions to the free course of air, light, and water, volumes of
smoke, and noisome smells fall under the two first descriptions,
while the fumes of some manufactures combine every species of
annoyance.
The question, how far the salubrity of the atmosphere may be
affected by the effluvia of particular manufactories, is one that the
medical practitioner is often called upon to decide; and upon such an
occasion let him beware that his judgment be not swayed by the
fastidiousness of the surrounding inhabitants, nor warped by the
clamours of invidious rivals or interested opponents; as a man of
science and integrity he is called upon to decide between two parties
equally valuable to the state,—between the health and comfort of
the citizen, and the prosperity of the manufacturer.
The manufactories and occupations which have been considered
exceptionable, for reasons to be hereafter enumerated, may be
arranged under four divisions, viz.
1. Those, during whose operation gaseous effluvia, the products of
Putrefaction or Fermentation, escape into the atmosphere, and are
either noxious from their effects upon animals, or insufferable from
the noisomeness of their smell: such as the steeping of flax, and
 hemp; (1) the manufacture of catgut; slaughter-houses; starch
manufactories (2); tanneries (3); the feeding of swine; and the
several occupations of horse slaughterers (4); skinners; fell-
mongers; curriers, &c. &c.
II. Those, where, by the Action of Fire, various principles are
evolved, and diffused in the form of vapour, or gas; the inhalation
of which is not only disagreeable to the senses, but injurious to
the health; as the process of brewing (5); the formation of various
acids (6); the incineration of animal substances, as practised by
the manufacturers of hartshorn; Prussian blue (7) makers; roasters
of horn for lanthorns (8); glue manufacturers; varnish makers (9);
soap boilers(10), and renderers of tallow (11); smelting houses
(12); gasworks; brick kilns; turpentine distillers, and rosin makers,
&c. &c.
III. Those, which are capable of yielding waste liquids, that poison
the neighbouring springs and streams, as gas works (13); starch
manufactories; dying-houses, &c. &c.
IV. Those trades, whose pursuit is necessarily accompanied with
great noises, as those of copper-smiths; anchor-makers; gold-
beaters; tin-men; trunk-makers; proof-houses, (where cannons are
proved); the tilting of steel; forging bar iron; flatting-mills;[543] &c.
&c.
Against these nuisances there are various remedies: by action or
indictment at law, by injunction in equity, and sometimes by the
summary abatement of the party injured.
If the injury be general (ad commune nocumentum omnium
ligeorum) the proper remedy is by indictment, 1 Inst. 56, 3 Bl. Com.
219, 4 Bl. Com. 167; and an indictment will lie even though there be
another remedy or punishment by act of parliament, as for keeping
swine in London, 2 Will. and Ma. Sess. 2, c. 8, § 20; Regina v. Wigg;
2 Salk. 460; Ld. Raym. 1163. But it is otherwise of an offence
created by statute, then the remedy must be in the form prescribed
by the statute.
 Though indictment is a suit of the crown, and a general pardon
will excuse the fine inflicted on conviction for a nuisance, it will not
prevent the abatement of it. Rex et Regina v. Wilcox, 2 Salk. 458;
see also Dewell v. Sanders, cited 16 Vin. Abr. 42, 45.
But if the nuisance be not general, but particular, then an
indictment will not lie; yet the individual aggrieved may have his
action on the case, 3 Bl. Com. 220; Bull. N.P. 26; Esp. N.P. 635.
Individuals also are in some cases permitted of themselves to abate
a nuisance, 3 Bl. Com. 5; Lodie v. Arnold; 2 Salk. 458; 16 Vin. 40. In
Rex v. Rosewell, only a small fine was set upon the defendant
convicted on indictment of a riot, committed while pulling down
some part of a house, it being a nuisance to his lights; see case 2
Salk. 459, and authorities there cited; also Rosewell v. Prior, ib. 460;
but contra, see cases where they may not; Lord Mansfield’s
judgment in Cooper v. Marshall, 1 Bur. 259.
The old writs, the assize of nuisance, F. N. B. 183, and Quod
permittat prosternare, F. N. B. 124, Palmer v. Poultney, 2 Salk. 458,
are now out of use, but might be resorted to on an extreme
occasion, 3 Bl. Com. 220.
Courts of Equity will also interpose by injunction in cases of
nuisance, to restrain and prevent an injury for which courts of law, in
many cases, could not give an adequate compensation, 1 Fonb. Tr.
Eq. 31; Coulson v. White; 3 Atk. 21; Atty. Gen. v. Doughty, 2 Ves.
453. And though the Court of Chancery, on application to have an
assumed nuisance (as a mill-dam which had been destroyed)
restored to its original state, has refused an injunction; yet to
accelerate the determination of the right it has directed the
defendant to bring an action of trespass, and every thing to be
admitted on both sides necessary for trying the mere right. Birch v.
Sir Lyster Holt; 3 Atk. 725; 2 Ves. 414; on this principle see also Lord
Teynham v. Herbert, 2 Atk. 483, and cases there.
Noxious, dangerous, or highly disagreeable trades and
manufactures are nuisances, except when exercised in accustomed
places;[546] thus an ancient brewery[547] though in the midst of a
populous town, is no actionable nuisance, 2 Lil. Abr. 246; Jones v.
Powell; Palm. 536; Hutt. 153; because it shall be supposed to have
been erected when there were no buildings near; but if a brewery or
glass-house (Rex et Regina v. Wilcox, 2 Salk. 458) be newly erected,
it is a nuisance, 1 Hawk. Pl. 199; Jones v. Powell, Hutton 135, for
the smoke is at least destructive of comfort and may be injurious to
health; much more then is a smelting-house a nuisance when, in
addition to dense and continued volumes of smoke, the poisonous
fumes of sulphur, lead, antimony, and arsenic, not only taint the
atmosphere, but so affect vegetation as either to destroy it
altogether or poison the cattle that feed upon the adjacent herbage;
or where the vapours injure fruit trees, 4 Ed. 3, and 4 as. pla. 3,
cited in a pamphlet A. D. 1639 in Serjeant Hill’s collection of law
pamphlets, vol. 5; see also 1 Roll. Abr. 89; 1 Burr. R. 260. Now
though the business of smelting is highly necessary, and it may
appear hard to restrain a man from making the most profitable use
of his lands and premises, yet public health is of primary importance,
[548]
and these maxims of law must ever be remembered: Prohibetur
ne quis faciat in suo, quod nocere possit alieno: et sic utere tuo ut
alienum non lædas. Palm. 536; 9 Co. Rep. 58.
Next to the fumes of metallic poisons we may rank the vapours of
sulphuric, nitric, muriatic, and other acids, when carelessly prepared
in large quantities, Rex v. White and Ward, Burr. 333.
It was said to be no nuisance to a neighbourhood for a butcher or
chandler (Rankett’s case) to set up their trades among them; but it
may be by such or other tradesmen (as a dyer, Hutt. 136) laying
stinking heaps at their doors; in other cases the necessity of the
thing shall dispense with the noisomeness of it.[549] Jacobs’ Law Dict.
tit. Nuisance; 2 Rolle’s Abr. 139. But query, how the necessity is to
be proved? for though the sale of meat and candles be necessary in
a town, the one need not be slaughtered, nor the other
manufactured among ordinary dwelling houses; the one is offensive
to the feelings of humanity and disgusting to the senses, the other is
so disagreeable to the olfactory nerves, that few persons can pass a
tallow-chandlers on a melting-day without experiencing some degree
of nausea.
 In all the best regulated cities of Europe the slaughter-houses are
confined to particular situations, generally without the walls;[550] the
general neatness and propriety of English towns leave little to be
derived from foreign example, but in this instance we are defective.
Some years since, a pamphlet was published against the nuisance of
street butchers, but evidently without effect; perhaps the mere
vending of meat in open shops may not be attended with any evil
sufficient to counter-balance the convenience; but where the beasts
are also slaughtered in ordinary situations, the nuisance is very
considerable, and in many instances likely to be injurious to the
health of the neighbourhood; for though the nuisance is not so
apparent in some of the streets as before the act of the 57th Geo. 3,
[551]
yet the accumulation of filth behind the houses is likely to be the
greater from the very circumstance of its being remote from public
observation.
Though in making these observations we recommend general
markets, and selected situations, for the exercise of particular
trades, rather than that they should be dispersed throughout the
town; yet we must observe, that unless these districts are made the
subject of peculiar regulation, the public evil might be encreased in
intensity by accumulation, much more than it had been diminished
by segregation. In places for the sale of animal food cleanliness is
very generally attended to, as a contrary practice would greatly
increase the tendency to putrefaction; self-interest is here the best
possible guard against nuisance, but this motive does not so
immediately apply to other cases,[552] and we accordingly
occasionally observe the utmost disregard of public convenience in
the conduct of many disgusting manufactures.
The dictum of Rolle that usefulness shall dispense with
noisomness has, however, been broken in upon by many more
modern decisions; in Morley v. Pragnel, Cro. Car. 510, an innkeeper
brought an action against the defendant for erecting a tallow-
furnace so near his inn that many of his guests left the house, and
he recovered damages for the injury; Tohayle’s case was then
quoted; he had erected a tallow-furnace in the Strand, which, on
indictment, was ordered to be abated, (see also 1 Hawk. P. C. 463
where Rolle’s doctrine is questioned.)
As to the physical effect of each particular species of bad smell,
there may always be some doubt, and much contrariety of evidence
is to be expected; this however is certain, that those stenches which
may be innocuous to persons in full health, are by no means so to
invalids or persons of irritable nerves or stomachs; and to pregnant
women they are generally allowed to be dangerous.[553]
Habit has also a powerful operation in diminishing the deleterious
effects of such effluvia; instances daily occur in which the fumes of
certain manufactories affect strangers in the most violent degree,
while the artisans engaged in the occupations which produce them;
or the persons accustomed from their residence to the full force of
their influence, scarcely experience any inconvenience; nay, in some
cases, they would even seem to derive a degree of benefit from
such an atmosphere, and to suffer whenever they quitted it;[554] like
the criminal recorded by Sanctorius, who fell sick when taken out of
an infected dungeon, and did not recover until he had been returned
into the impure air to which he had been so long habituated. We
apprehend that the history of the French bastile would furnish the
physiologist with some extraordinary illustrations of the power of
habit over the functions of the body. We introduce these remarks for
the purpose of shewing, that persons immediately engaged in an
indictable manufactory, are not only morally, but physically,
incompetent to give evidence in proof of the extent of the mischief it
may create: in addition to which it must not be forgotten, that in
those works in which are carried on the fusion and volatilization of
metals, the workmen employed in the interior of the building escape
the deleterious fumes which pass up the flues, and spread
desolation over the surrounding district. These views will moreover
enable us on many occasions to reconcile the conflicting testimony
which is so often given on trials of nuisance, without in the least
impeaching the veracity or sincerity of the individual witnesses
engaged in the contest.
 But for the purposes of legal redress it is not necessary that the
smell should be unwholesome; it is enough if it renders the
enjoyment of life and property uncomfortable: see Lord Mansfield’s
judgment in Rex v. White and Ward, 1 Burr. R. 333; so in Aldred’s
case, 9 Co. Rep. 57, which was for keeping hogs; Regina v. Wigg, 2
Salk. 460, 2 Lord Raym. 1163. In Street v. Tugwell, for keeping
seven pointers close to the plaintiff’s house, whereby he was
annoyed by the noise and smell, the jury found for the defendant;
and though Lord Kenyon would not grant a new trial, he said
another action might be brought for the continuance. Mic. Term, 41
Geo. 3; 2 Selw. Ab. 1006.
Though the obstruction[555] of a fine prospect is no nuisance
(Aldred’s case, 9 Pep. 58; 3 Salk. 247, 459; Attorney Gen. at the
relation of Gray’s Inn Society v. Doughty, 2 Ves. 453) yet as an
action lies for hindering the wholesome air, 9 Rep. 58, query whether
building a house across the end of a street, whereby it becomes less
wholesome, whether by want of air or by stagnation of damp
vapours, is or is not a nuisance? and whether actionable or
indictable. For though the rule originally laid down as to indictable
nuisances is, that they must be ad commune nocumentum omnium
ligeorum, yet if it be to the injury of a great many, as to the
inhabitants of a whole street, that is enough; Rex v. Roupel; K. B.
Kingston Assizes, 59 Geo. 3; and Sir Ed. Coke says, “there is a writ
in the register necessary to be put in execution for the
wholesomeness of the air in London, and all other cities.” De vicis et
venellis mutandis, 4 Inst. 252.
The abatement of those nuisances which affect the atmosphere is
of the highest importance, for it is not optional what air we shall
breathe; and next to them we may rank those which affect running
streams or other waters.
“Lourlulary, or lourgary, is an offence when any cast any corrupt
thing appoisoning the waters in or about London, compounded of
these two words lour corruption, and laron a thief or felon, and if
any die by reason of such offence within a year after, it is felony;
and extendeth to all other cities.” Burgs. &c. 4 Inst. 252; (see also 8
Geo. 1, c. 26, and several modern paving acts.) And by an old
statute 12 R. 2, c. 13, which if it be (as asserted) obsolete, well
deserves to be revived in some form, none shall cast any garbage,
dung, or filth, into ditches, waters, or other places within or near any
city or town, on pain of punishment by the Lord Chancellor!! at
discretion!! as a nuisance. The jurisdiction has been rather strangely
given according to modern notions, but the provision of the act
appears to be wise, and might even now be useful.
To steep stinking sheep-skins (2 Strange 686) or other noxious,
noisome, or poisonous thing is indictable. It is a nuisance, for which
an action will lie, to erect a lime-kiln[556] so near a fish-pond that it
infects the water, and the fish die, or to make a drain which brings in
unwholesome food to them, 16 Vin. Abr. 33;[557] and if it be on a
navigable river it is indictable, as in the recent case of the King at
the relation of the city of London, conservators of the Thames
against Munroe and Evans, proprietors of certain gass-works, the
refuse from which being discharged into the river is said to have
destroyed the fish;[558] the defendants were found guilty. Croydon
Assizes, 1821.
Noises, whether by day (Tenant v. Jones K. B. Feb. 15, 1821) or
by night (Rex v. Smith, 2 Str. 704) are nuisances, for these not only
render life uncomfortable, but are prejudicial to the health of
invalids; there is a case in equity where an agreement not to toll a
church-bell was enforced by injunction.
But it is said the fears of mankind, however reasonable, will not
create a nuisance; therefore it is no nuisance to erect a building for
the purposes of inoculation, (Jac. Law Dict. Anon Dec. 18, 1752; 3
Atk. 21, 720, 750.) In this case a motion was made for an injunction
to stay the building of a house for the purpose of inoculating for the
small-pox in Cold Bath Fields; for the motion the following cases and
authorities were cited, 2 Roll. Abr. 139, (the case of Browne for
dividing a messuage) Hawk. Pl. c. 75, s. 11; 1 Lutw. 169. But Lord
Hardwicke said, that upon an indictment of that kind there had been
lately an acquittal at Rye, and refused the injunction.
 This decision does not appear to be reconcileable with the cases
and statutes respecting the keeping of gunpowder,[559] which is a
nuisance by the reasonable fears of possible danger, (Rex v. Taylor,
2 Str. 1167, 1169.) So also it was a nuisance, indictable, to divide a
house in a town for poor people to inhabit in, by reason whereof it
will be more dangerous in the time of sickness and infection of the
plague, (2 Roll. Abr. 139); and this possible evil has often been
realised in the obscurer parts of London in cases of typhus, and
more frequently in the liberty of Dublin where the narrowness of the
streets, and the alleged operation of the window-tax have excluded
the possibility of proper ventilation. It is therefore more reasonable
to suppose that the utility of the establishment in question in the
above cited case, and the comparative openness of the situation
prevailed over the fear of possible risk, and that the principal
objection was the exercise of the summary jurisdiction of a court of
equity in a matter more properly triable at law, rather than from an
opinion that a receptacle for highly infectious diseases in a populous
neighbourhood was not a nuisance.
But if the disorders for which it is open be not highly infectious, an
hospital is certainly no nuisance. In the case of Rex v. Mac Donald, 3
Burr. L. 1645, it was moved that an indictment against the
defendant, for converting his house into an hospital for taking in and
delivering lewd, idle, and disorderly unmarried women, should be
quashed; Lord Mansfield took notice of the narrow principles of the
prosecutors, (the parish, for that they were thereby burthened with
bastards) and expressed his surprise how such a bill could ever be
found, asking “by what law is it criminal to deliver a woman when
she is with child.”
Whether a new comer can have an action for a nuisance has been
doubted, for it was his own act that he came into the
neighbourhood, and volenti non fit injuria; but on the other hand see
Westborn v. Mordaunt, Cro. Eliz. 191; 2 Leon. pl. 129, p. 103; Espin.
N. P. 637; and if a man come into possession of the premises by
descent, or operation of law, or a clergyman to his parsonage, it
would appear that he may at any rate have his action.
 It must be observed that every continuance of a nuisance is held
to be a fresh one, and therefore a fresh action will lie; and very
exemplary damages will probably be given, if after one verdict
against him the defendant has the hardiness to continue it;
(Westborn v. Mordaunt, 2 Leon. pl. 121; Beswick v. Cunden Hill, Cro.
Eliz. 402; Bull, N. P. 75; Espin, N. P. 637). And it is a continuance,
though the premises constituting the nuisance be let to an under-
tenant subsequently to the verdict against the first tenant for years
for the erection, for he transferred it with the original wrong, and his
demise affirms the continuance of it; he hath also rent as a
consideration for the continuance, and therefore ought to answer
the damage it occasions. Rosewell v. Prior, 2 Salk. 460, and cases
there.
There are other things which may be called nuisances in transitu,
such as the removal of night-soil, garbage, soap boilers-lees, (the
waste lees are the residual liquor after soap-boiling), and other very
stinking refuse; all these should be restrained (as some already are)
to certain hours of the night.
 OF IMPOSITIONS.

Under this head we shall comprehend the subject of Feigned

Diseases, and that of the Adulterations of Food.
 Feigned, or Simulated Diseases.
There are several objects, for the accomplishment of which
persons are induced to simulate the existence of disease; such as,
for obtaining military exemptions and discharges; or certain civil
disqualifications; for the purpose of deriving parochial relief, or
pecuniary assistance from benefit societies; or the comfortable
shelter and retreat of an hospital; for exciting compassion and
obtaining alms; for creating public interest and curiosity; for
procuring release from confinement, or exemption from punishment;
and, lastly, for the dishonest intention of recovering unjust
compensation from some person selected for accusation, as the
author of the pretended calamity.
The subject has been very ably treated by different authors on
Medical Jurisprudence, especially by Mahon and Foderé, whose
opportunities for observation during the severe operation of the
conscription laws, must have been numerous and instructive; in our
own country the work of Dr. Hennen, on the principles of Military
Surgery, will be found to contain some very valuable information
upon the detection of such impostures.
The diseases which have been selected for the accomplishment of
any of the purposes above enumerated are extremely numerous,
although there are some few which may be said to be more
generally preferred on such occasions.
In general the medical enquirer will not have much difficulty in
detecting such impositions; although there are cases where the
investigation becomes a subject of extreme delicacy and importance,
as in those of persons reporting themselves sick, and unfit for
military service, or Malingerers, as they are technically called. It
must be confessed that there is a degree of eclat attending the
detection of a fraud, which is very likely to lead the practitioner
astray, by inducing him to attach undue importance to the supposed
proofs of guilt; such cases have unfortunately occurred, and the
innocence of the party has been compromised by the vanity of the
inquisitor.
Whenever the suspicions of a medical person are excited with
respect to the sincerity of a patient’s account, he should always
endeavour to conceal them; he should become himself a dissembler,
“superare malitiam malitia,” for while the impostor is persuaded that
the medical attendant is his dupe, he will be less on his guard; he
should then be desired to describe with minuteness every symptom
and circumstance of his malady; he should be questioned as to its
origin, progress, and duration, its seat, and intensity, and the effects
produced upon it by remedies; few impostors will be able to
withstand such interrogatories without tripping; they will soon betray
some incongruity in their statements, and enable the pathologist to
elicit the truth. A girl of seventeen counterfeited epilepsy so well in
the general hospital of Montpellier, as to elude all suspicion, until M.
de Sauvages who being less credulous asked her whether she had
not felt an air pass from the hand to the shoulder, and from the
shoulder to the thigh, when, upon her replying in the affirmative, he
ordered her to be whipped, after which she had never any return of
the disease. If a patient complains of a long protracted disease,
which has rendered his life uncomfortable, and we at the same time
perceive that his body has not undergone emaciation, we are
naturally led to suspect the truth of his statement; and we shall find
little difficulty in verifying, or dispelling our suspicions; nor ought we
to forget, in an inquiry of this nature, to learn whether the patient
has in truth ever flown to any remedy for relief; for if he be an
impostor, however cheerfully he may have appeared to submit to
medical discipline, we shall find upon minute examination that he
has uniformly neglected every plan proposed for his cure. Galen
was, from a circumstance of this kind, led to the detection of a
person who feigned a fit of cholic, in order to avoid attending a
public assembly, but he was observed to neglect the remedy
(Philonium) which had uniformly relieved him, when labouring under
the actual attack of the disease to which he was in reality subject.
We should, moreover, be informed respecting the previous character,
habits, constitution, and former complaints of the suspected invalid;
and we should learn the ostensible reasons which the individual in
question may have for feigning ill health, whether for temporary or
permanent purposes. The inspections should be conducted in
private, for it has been remarked by those most experienced in these
subjects, that the number of spectators always increases the
obstinacy of the impostor.
When the more ordinary modes of investigation have failed in
leading to the detection of an imposture, of whose existence we
entertain but little doubt, we may proceed to a system of
intimidation, and to severe discipline; few impostors, however
sturdy, can withstand the cravings of hunger, blistering, the affusions
of cold water, and above all a continual nausea from the
administration of divided doses of Tartarized Antimony; and yet
exceptions of an extraordinary kind might be adduced; “I have seen
an instance,” says Dr. Hennen,[560] “where the patient admitted of all
the preparatory measures of amputation before he thought proper to
relax his knee joint;” the same author also relates the case of a
dragoon who bore very severe riding-school duty for some weeks,
secured to his horse, before he could be brought to acknowledge
that his chronic rheumatism was assumed. Mahon[561] records a very
extraordinary instance of a conscript, who feigned blindness, and
baffled every attempt to detect the imposition; he was even placed
on the margin of a river, and desired to go forward, which he did,
and fell into the stream; he was however, without doubt, aware that
boats were provided for his safety, for after having received his
discharge, he freely acknowledged the imposition which he had
practised.
Having offered these general remarks, we shall proceed to
consider the particular diseases more usually counterfeited, and the
modes best calculated for their detection; although we must here
observe, that after all that can be said upon the subject, each case
will require an exertion of ingenuity for its detection, for which no
previous instruction can ever provide.
 Insanity has in all ages been feigned for the accomplishment of
particular objects; we read of its having been thus simulated by
David, Ulysses, and Lucius Brutus; the observations which we have
already made upon the subject of imputed insanity, will suggest to
the medical inquirer a plan of examination most likely to lead to a
just conclusion. In general the detection of such an imposture will
not be difficult; the feigned maniac never willingly looks his
examiner in the face, and if his eye can be fixed, the changes in his
countenance, on being accused, will be strongly indicative of his real
state of mind; it is moreover, very difficult to imitate the habits of a
lunatic for any length of time, and to forego sleep; an insane person
generally sleeps but little, and talks much during the night, but the
pretender, if he thinks he is not watched, will sleep, and only act his
part when he believes his conduct to be observed.
Somnolency. This is a state of body which the sturdy impostor has
in several instances assumed; he pretends to be in a state incapable
of any muscular motion; he is constantly in bed, retaining that
posture in which his limbs are placed, or may happen to fall; his
great aim is to appear unconscious of the external world; the
interesting case of this kind related by Dr. Hennen[562] must be
considered as the master-piece of imposture. A person of the name
of Drake, in the Royal African Corps, assumed an appearance of total
insensibility, under which he resisted every kind of treatment; he
resisted the shower bath as well as shocks of electricity; but on a
proposal being uttered in his presence to apply the actual cautery,
his pulse rose; and on preparations being made to remove him to
Bethlem hospital, an amendment soon manifested itself.
Syncope. It seems probable that certain persons have possessed a
controlling power over the action of the heart; Dr. Cleghorn, of
Glasgow, mentions in his lectures the case of a person whom he
knew, who could feign death, and had so completely the power of
suspending, or at least, moderating the action of the heart, that its
pulsation could not be felt; this man, it appears, some years
afterwards, died suddenly. The story of Colonel Townshend is well
known, who, in the presence of Dr. Cheyne and some other
physicians, put on all the appearance of death, and was resuscitated
of his own accord; in this instance it is said that neither pulse nor
respiration could be perceived for more than half an hour; he,
however, actually died on the same evening.
Dr. Hennen relates a most interesting case of violent palpitation of
the heart, which was produced by the man’s own efforts. Dr. Hennen
found that he could at any time render the affection very imperfect
by throwing the patient’s head well back, so as to destroy that
voluntary combination of muscular action, which he believes to have
produced the palpitation; “we must suppose,” says he, “that this
person had the power of throwing the muscles which narrow the
chest into sudden and strong action, at the moment when the apex
of the heart made its stroke upwards;” after a serious admonition,
Dr. Hennen sent the man back to his duty, and as he afterwards
remained without any murmur or complaint, we must consider his
obedience as a tacit acknowledgment of his guilt. Some persons
have pretended that they have no pulsation at the wrist, and they
occasion its cessation by pressure on the artery, or by taking a full
inspiration, and continuing to retain the breath as long as possible.
[563]

Epilepsy. There is perhaps no disease that has been more

frequently simulated with success; its characters, and mode of
attack, offer great facilities for the impostor; it does not require the
unremitting caution which other maladies exact for successful
imitation, nor is it necessary, as Dr. Smith observes, to assume it but
at convenient times; it being perfectly consistent with the nature of
the disorder to be quite well in the intervals, which may be longer or
shorter at the impostor’s pleasure; during the feigned attack, the
blood is generally sucked from the gums, and the mouth made to
froth by chewing soap;[564] there is, however, one symptom of the
disease which cannot be imitated—the incontractility of the pupil of
the eye, on exposure to light, which in a real fit of epilepsy is always
dilated and immoveable; nor is the patient affected by rubbing
stimulants on the nose. During these feigned convulsions impostors
have often suffered the most flagrant liberties to be taken with their
persons, without betraying the least consciousness of what was
going on, such as having pins and needles run into different parts of
their bodies; this fact admits, in some degree, of physiological
explanation; compression on the muscles, by acting on their nervous
filaments, or by some unknown influence on the distribution of
nervous energy, renders them less sensible in proportion as they
become contracted; wounds are thus often inflicted in the field of
battle which are scarcely felt during a desperate conflict, on account
of the high muscular energy of the part which is in force at the time;
indeed it may be satisfactorily shewn that convulsions, or inordinate
muscular contractions, are in themselves instinctive efforts to
diminish pain.
Hysteria. On account of the variety and mutability of the symptoms
which characterise this affection, but little skill is required for its
simulation. Dr. Cullen is said[565] to have been deceived by a man
who, pretending to be affected with this disease, was retained in the
Edinburgh Infirmary as long as suited his convenience, and
afterwards triumphantly acknowledged the deceit; affusion of cold
water, low diet, and blisters, will generally furnish the means of
detection.
The Shaking Palsy is a frequent plea on the part of an idle beggar;
and is always suspicious, especially where the person appears to be
in other respects, in an ordinary state of vigour; this ingenious order
of mendicants, however, says Dr. Gordon Smith,[566] understands the
art of mimicking wretchedness too well not to have the details of
their appearance in some degree of keeping.
Before we quit the subject of spasmodic diseases, it is essential to
remark that, owing to circumstances and peculiarities of
temperament, these diseases assume, on certain occasions, and in
particular individuals, an extravagance of character which might
create a suspicion of their being feigned. Lord Monboddo, in his
“Ancient Metaphysics,” mentions an extraordinary case of what he
calls “jumping ague,” in which the person affected would jump on
chairs and tables, and run with great velocity during sleep. Sir John
Sinclair, in his Statistical account of Scotland, relates also many well
authenticated histories of the same disease, and in some parts of
Forfarshire it is said to be extremely common; and there is reason to
believe that it may be propagated by a species of sympathy;
numerous are the instances[567] on record, where the accidental sight
of a patient, suffering an epileptic attack, has immediately
occasioned a similar attack on the spectator; so that epilepsy has
been supposed to be sometimes communicable from one person to
another, nearly in the same manner as has been observed of the
action of yawning; and agreeably to a notion alluded to by the poet
—
“Dum spectant oculi læsos, lædunter et ipsi.”

Similar spasmodic diseases have been occasioned by religious

enthusiasm, and propagated by sympathy, have become in a very
wonderful manner epidemic;[568] in such cases, although we must
consider those in whom the affection originated as designing
impostors, we are bound to acquit the general mass of sufferers of
any blame, except that which may attach to excessive credulity.[569]
Fever. The state of the system after a night’s debauch may deceive
a person unaccustomed to such inspections. Emetics have also been
taken with the same view, and the face has been exposed to the
fumes of sulphur. Foderé likewise states that paleness has been
induced by smoking Cummin seeds;[570] and we have heard that a
paroxysm of fever may be excited and kept up by the introduction of
a clove of garlic into the rectum. Dr. Hennen says that he has seen
many attempts to simulate fever by whitening the tongue with chalk,
&c. and he has often met with old soldiers profoundly versed in the
history of a paroxysm of intermittent, and very skilful in imitating the
rigors. The detection, however, of such artifices cannot be difficult.
Dropsy. This is more generally feigned by pregnant women, and
for the means to be employed for the detection of the fraud, we
must refer the reader to our section on utero-gestation. Sauvages
relates the case of a mendicant who gave to his child the
appearance of hydrocephalus by piercing the integuments of the
head, and gradually introducing air; and Ambrose Paré mentions a
similar practice for the purpose of counterfeiting hydrocele.
Jaundice. If any attempt should be made to colour the skin yellow,
the whiteness of the tunica conjunctiva, as well as the appearance of
the urine and fœces of the patient, will always detect the imposition.
Hæmopthysis. This disease has been frequently feigned by sucking
blood from the cheeks, gums, &c. but the professional inspector can
never be deceived by such artifices; the appearance of the sputa,
the state of pulse, &c. will always indicate the truth; besides which
detection must be insured by a careful examination of the mouth
and fauces.
Vomiting of Blood. Sauvages relates the case of a young woman
who, to avoid the confinement of a convent, swallowed a quantity of
bullock’s blood, and vomited it up in the presence of a physician sent
to examine her. Where such a trick is suspected, we have only to
secure the patient from the necessary supplies, and the fraud is at
once detected.
Vomiting of Urine. Where this is asserted we may safely pronounce
the patient an impostor, for the event is physiologically impossible.
Bloody Urine. An appearance of this nature is often produced in
India by eating the Indian fig (Cactus Opuntia), or the fruit of the
prickly pear, which imparts to the urine a blood-red colour. It has
been also simulated by clandestinely pouring real blood, or colouring
matter, into the night utensils. There is an old story of a boy who
imposed on many by pretending to pass black urine; but being
confined, he was detected in an attempt to secrete an ink-bottle,
which pointed out the mode of his imposture.
Incontinence of Urine. The simulation of this affection may be
detected by giving the patient a full dose of opium at night, without
his knowledge, and introducing the catheter during sleep, or, by
taking him by surprise during the day, and introducing the same
instrument; when, if he be an impostor, it will be found that the
urine has not drained off, guttatim, as it was secreted, but that the
bladder possesses the power of retention. If the bed clothes are not
found wet after a full dose of opium, during the operation of which
the patient has been suddenly awoke, we may also be satisfied that
there is no incontinence. Foderé says that if the penis is secured by
a ligature, it will swell considerably in the real incontinence, in
consequence of the urine running into the urethra; but that no such
effect will happen if the disease be feigned.
Gravel and Stone. All impositions upon this subject may be detected
by chemical analysis; in general, it will be sufficient to saw the
pretended calculus into two parts, when the absence of the
characteristic structure will establish the fraud; it will frequently be
found that they are small pebbles, or coarse siliceous sand; Mr.
Wilson[571] has related two instances of this kind in which an attempt
was made to practise on his credulity; “many years ago,” says he,
“when I resided in the house of Mr. Cruikshank, a person brought his
son to that gentleman for surgical advice, asserting that the boy had
long been cruelly afflicted with stone; in proof of which he produced
several pieces of hard slaty substances, which he stated he had
assisted the child in removing from the urethra; upon my expressing
an opinion that these were not urinary concretions, he pretended to
be angry, and indignantly left the house, declaring that he would
seek for a surgeon to perform the operation for the removal of the
stone, whose humanity would not let him doubt the assertion of a
father, who, though in poverty, would gladly sacrifice his own
existence to save that of his son: a few days after this he brought
back the boy with a large piece of slate sticking in the urethra, which
had torn the inner membrane, and from the swelling it had
produced, was with much difficulty removed; wishing to detect the
imposture, I persuaded him to leave the boy in Mr. Cruikshank’s
house, under the pretence that the operation of lithotomy should be
performed, if necessary; and it was only after the forms of binding
the boy and bandaging his eyes were gone through, that he could
be prevailed upon to confess his father had taught him to introduce
these substances, which he had procured from coals, for the
purpose of exciting commisseration for his pretended sufferings, and
obtaining money from the charitably disposed; and perhaps, in this
instance, to have extorted money from the surgeon to conceal his
ignorance, had he seriously attempted to perform any operation.”
Alvine Concretions. It sometimes occurs that bodies of a very
anomalous kind are passed from the intestines; but the medical
practitioner by a careful examination of the substance, and a minute
inquiry into the nature of all the ingesta, will frequently succeed in
tracing their origin. Dr. Marcet, in his “Essay on Calculous Disorders,”
relates some interesting instances of this kind, which we shall notice
in this place, in order to put the medical man on his guard when
called upon to deliver his opinion upon such occasions. The first case
is that of some concretions put into Dr. Marcet’s hands by Sir Astley
Cooper, and which had been discharged by a female patient, under
circumstances which made it questionable whether they had
proceeded from the rectum, or from the urethra; they were,
however, discovered to be pieces of undigested cheese formed into
balls by the action of the intestines, or portions of caseous matter
actually formed in the intestines from milk taken as nourishment by
the person, and coagulated by the gastric juices into those
undigestible masses. Another singular species of intestinal calculus
was found by Dr. Marcet and Dr. Wollaston to be oat-seeds, derived
from the oaten cake which the patient had eaten. Dr. Marcet also
describes a concretion which, by the assistance of Dr. Wollaston, he
discovered to be those small woody knots which are often found in
certain pears, and which the person had previously eaten. The last
case which he relates is not less curious; a philosophical gentleman
of delicate health, and disordered system, voided a number of small
red globular bodies, each of which had in its centre two black
opaque spots; they were supposed to be peculiar animals connected
with his disorder, but Dr. Wollaston soon satisfied himself that they
were nothing but the spawn of lobsters, an extremely indigestible
substance, of which the patient acknowledged to have eaten about
the time he passed these bodies. The author has deemed it
necessary to introduce this subject under the present article; for,
strange as it may appear, it not unfrequently happens, as Dr. Marcet
has stated, that persons apparently respectable, produce bodies, as
having been voided, which are wholly supposititious.
Abstinence from Food. Long fasting, or the power of refraining
altogether from food for years, has been frequently the subject of
imposition. The case of Anne Moore, of Tetbury, must be in the
recollection of all our readers[572]; and in the Philosophical
Transactions two cases are recorded, in one of which a man is said
to have taken nothing but water for eighteen years, with now and
then during a certain period of the year, a draught of clarified honey;
but the case which has excited public interest in the greatest degree,
is that of Elizabeth Canning, (for whose trial, see 10 Harg. St. Tri.
205, and 19 Howel St. Tri. 262) who, among other circumstances,
pretended that she had been confined in a loft from Tuesday the 2d
of January at four o’clock, A. M. until Monday the 29th, at four P. M.
and that during this period she had had no sustenance, except about
twenty-four pieces of bread to the amount of a quartern loaf, a
penny mince-pye, and between three or four quarts of water; and
yet that on the 28th day she made her escape by jumping out of the
window, and walked twelve miles in six hours without taking food.
[573]
This story, incredible as it may appear, was actually believed by
many persons, and popular clamour rose to a most indecent height;
bills of indictment were preferred, and libels circulated without
example either as to number or virulence; and Mary Squires, an
unfortunate old gipsey, was condemned to death for the robbery
charged to have been committed previous to this alleged, wanton
imprisonment of the impostress Canning. One of the most
interesting points in the evidence of these trials, (for there were
several on different grounds,) was derived from the inspection of the
linen of the impostress by an ingenious midwife, (19 How. St. Tri.
428) who observed that in twenty-eight days a menstrual period
would probably have occurred, and yet there was no vestige of such
an event to be traced on the linen; thus may physiological
circumstances often elucidate points apparently remote from medical
cognizance.
 Deafness and Dumbness. Where the former of these maladies is alone
simulated, the inspector will be able, with a little address, to detect
the imposture; a sudden noise will frequently betray the patient, and
an instance of this kind is related by Ambrose Paré; we may also
contrive to communicate in his presence some circumstance in which
he is greatly interested, and notice the effect of the intelligence upon
his countenance, or upon his pulse. Where dumbness is only
feigned, we should remember that the powers of articulation never
leave a person without some cause, which medical inquiry must
discover. It has been a question whether the absence of the tongue
should be considered a sufficient reason for muteness; although we
cannot dispute the validity of such a proof, it is necessary to know
that cases are recorded[574] where persons did very well without that
organ; but we are inclined to believe with Dr. Smith, that the
muscles belonging to the tongue were, in such cases, not deficient.
But these observations apply to instances of imposture, where
deafness or dumbness have been singly simulated; suppose a
medical practitioner is called upon to examine a patient who declares
himself to labour under the misfortune of congenital deafness, and
consequent dumbness, what plan of investigation is he to pursue
upon such an occasion? It must be admitted that where this
simulation is well performed, it becomes extremely difficult to detect
it; but it requires so much art and perseverance that few persons will
be found capable of the deception: M. Sichard succeeded in the
detection of a most accomplished impostor, by requiring him to
answer a number of queries in writing; when, the Abbé soon found
that he spelt several words in compliance with their sound, instead
of according to their established orthography; by substituting for
instance the c for the q, which at once enabled the Abbé to declare
that it was impossible that he should have been deaf and dumb from
his birth, because he wrote as we hear, and not, as in the case of
the real deaf and dumb, as we see.
Blindness. In cases of alledged amaurosis, the practitioner has
generally relied upon the contractility of the pupil, as a test of vision;
but Richter asserts that nothing positive can be drawn from the
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