Physics I
Albrecht Haase
Physics I Albrecht Haase 2025
Lecture 23 Electrodynamics:
Gauss’ Law
Trento 2025
Lecture 23: Gauss’ Law
Gauss’ law
Physics I
relates electric field at points on a (closed) Gaussian surface to the net
Albrecht Haase
charge enclosed by that surface 1 𝑞
𝐸= 2
𝑟Ƹ
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
𝑞 = +𝑄 𝑞 = +2𝑄 𝑞 = −0.5𝑄
Trento 2025
Lecture 23: Gauss’ Law
2
Electric flux
Physics I
Flat surface, Uniform field:
Albrecht Haase
• small patch 𝑑𝐴 only 𝑬 perpendicular to 𝑑𝐴 pierces area
• area vector 𝑑 𝐴Ԧ for an area element (patch element): perpendicular to
element, magnitude equal area 𝑑𝐴 of the element.
Trento 2025
Electric flux 𝑑𝛷 through patch element: projection of 𝐸 on 𝑑 𝐴Ԧ
𝑑𝛷 = 𝐸 ⋅ 𝑑 𝐴Ԧ = 𝐸 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝐴
Total flux: sum of fluxes
Lecture 23: Gauss’ Law
𝛷 = 𝐸 ⋅ 𝑑 𝐴Ԧ
differential limit 𝛷 = න 𝐸 ⋅ 𝑑 𝐴Ԧ SI unit: N m2/ C
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Electric flux
Physics I
Closed surface, Uniform field:
Albrecht Haase
• including vector directions:
• 𝑑 𝐴Ԧ always pointing outwards closed surface
Trento 2025
1) 𝐸 pointing inwards: 𝜃 > 90° → cos 𝜃 < 0: 𝛷 < 0
2) 𝐸 perpendicular: 𝜃 = 90° → cos 𝜃 = 0: 𝛷 = 0
Lecture 23: Gauss’ Law
3) 𝐸 pointing outwards: 𝜃 < 90° cos 𝜃 ≥ 0: 𝛷 > 0
Net flux 𝛷 = ර 𝐸 ⋅ 𝑑 𝐴Ԧ integration over closed surface
4
Example: Closed cylinder, uniform field
Physics I
Gaussian surface of closed cylinder of radius 𝑅 in uniform 𝐸-field along
Albrecht Haase
cylinder’s central axis parallel to field.
Net flux of 𝐸-field through the cylinder?
𝛷 = ර 𝐸 ⋅ 𝑑 𝐴Ԧ = න 𝐸 cos 180° 𝑑𝐴 + න 𝐸 cos 90° 𝑑𝐴 + න 𝐸 cos 0° 𝑑𝐴
Trento 2025
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
= 𝐸 න −1 𝑑𝐴 + 𝐸 න 0 𝑑𝐴
Lecture 23: Gauss’ Law
𝑎 𝑏
+ 𝐸 න +1 𝑑𝐴 = −𝐸𝐴 + 0 + 𝐸𝐴 = 0
𝑐 5
Example: Closed cube, non-uniform field
Physics I
Non-uniform field 𝐸 = 3.0𝑥 i + 4.0 j pierces Gaussian cube (𝐸 in N/C, 𝑥 in m)
Albrecht Haase
Electric flux through right face, left face, top face?
Right: 𝛷 = 𝐴𝑑 ⋅ 𝐸 Ԧ = 3.0𝑥 i + 4.0 j ⋅ 𝑑𝐴 i
Trento 2025
= 3.0 ⋅ 3.0 න 𝑑𝐴 + 0 = 9.0 N/C ⋅ 4.0 m2
= 36 Nm2 /C
Lecture 23: Gauss’ Law
Left: 𝛷 = 𝐴𝑑 ⋅ 𝐸 Ԧ = 3.0𝑥 i + 4.0 j ⋅ 𝑑𝐴 − i
= −3.0 ⋅ 1.0 න 𝑑𝐴 + 0 = −3.0 N/C ⋅ 4.0 m2 = −12 Nm2 /C
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Example: Closed cube, non-uniform field
Physics I
Top: 𝛷 = 𝐴 𝑑 ⋅ 𝐸 Ԧ = 3.0𝑥 i + 4.0 j ⋅ 𝑑𝐴 j
Albrecht Haase
= 0 + 4.0 න 𝑑𝐴 = 4.0 N/C ⋅ 4.0 m2
Trento 2025
= 16 Nm2 /C
Lecture 23: Gauss’ Law
7
Gauss’ Law
Physics I
• relates net flux 𝛷 at points on closed surface to net enclosed charge
Albrecht Haase
𝜀0 𝛷 = 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐
• expressed by the electric field through Gaussian surface
Trento 2025
𝜀0 ර𝐸 ⋅ 𝑑 𝐴Ԧ = 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐
Examples:
• 𝑆1: 𝐸 outwards at all surface points: 𝛷 > 0 → 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐 > 0
Lecture 23: Gauss’ Law
• 𝑆2: 𝐸 inwards at all surface points: 𝛷 < 0 → 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐 < 0
• 𝑆3: 𝐸 in- an outward equally: 𝛷𝑖𝑛 = 𝛷𝑜𝑢𝑡 → 𝛷 = 0
→ 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 0
• 𝑆4: net enclosed charge: 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 𝑞 + −𝑞 = 0 → 𝛷 = 0
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Gauss’ Law and Coulomb’s Law
Physics I
Finding 𝑬-field of charged particle (𝑞) at distance 𝑟:
Albrecht Haase
𝜀0 ර𝐸 ⋅ 𝑑𝐴Ԧ = 𝑞
Trento 2025
Choose spherical surface of radius 𝑟 centred around 𝑞 →
𝐸 uniform, parallel to 𝑑 𝐴Ԧ → cos 𝜃 = 1 → 𝜀0 𝐸 𝜀 = 𝐴𝑑 ׯ0 𝐸 4𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝑞 →
Lecture 23: Gauss’ Law
1 𝑞
𝐸 =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
Coulomb's law
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Example: Gauss’ law to find electric field
Physics I
Plastic, spherical shell (shown in cross section), uniform
Albrecht Haase
charge 𝑄 = −16𝑒, radius 𝑅 = 10 cm, particle with charge
𝑞 = +5𝑒 at the center.
𝑬-field at (a) 𝑃1 at 𝑟1 = 6.00 cm, (b) 𝑃2 at 𝑟2 = 12.00 cm?
Trento 2025
1 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐 1 5 ∙ 1.60 × 10−19 C
𝑃1 : 𝐸 = 2
= 2
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 C 0.06 m 2
4π ∙ 8.85 × 10−12
Nm2
= 2.0 × 10−6 N/C
Lecture 23: Gauss’ Law
1 −11 ∙ 1.60 × 10−19 C
𝑃2 : 𝐸 = 2 2
C 0.12 m
4π ∙ 8.85 × 10−12
Nm2
= −1.1 × 10−6 N/C
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Example: Gauss' law to find enclosed charge
Physics I
Net charge enclosed by Gaussian cube producing
Albrecht Haase
field 𝐸 = 3.0𝑥 i + 4.0 j ?
𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 𝜀0 𝛷
Trento 2025
= 𝜀0 𝛷𝑙𝑒 + 𝛷𝑟𝑖 + 𝛷𝑡𝑜 + 𝛷𝑏𝑜 + 𝛷𝑓𝑟 + 𝛷𝑏𝑎 ;
𝛷𝑙𝑒 = −12 Nm2 /C; 𝛷𝑟𝑖 = 36 Nm2 /C; 𝛷𝑡𝑜 = 16 Nm2 /C
𝛷𝑓𝑟 = 𝛷𝑏𝑎 = 0 Nm2 /C
Lecture 23: Gauss’ Law
𝛷𝑏𝑜 = − න 3.0𝑥 i + 4.0 j ⋅ 𝑑𝐴 j = −4.0 න 𝑑𝐴 = −16 Nm2 /C
𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 𝜀0 −12 + 36 Nm2 /C = 8.85 × 10−12 C 2 /Nm2 ⋅ 24 C = 2.1 × 10−10 C
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Charged Isolated Conductor
Physics I
Excess charge on an isolated conductor move to the surface, from Gauss' law:
Albrecht Haase
• 𝑬-field inside conductor must be zero, otherwise it would
constantly move free e-
• choose Gaussian surface just inside conductor surface,
Trento 2025
also field through it is zero → enclosed charge is zero
Isolated Conductor with a cavity
• choose Gaussian surface just inside conductor around
cavity surface → no charge enclosed → no field in cavity
Lecture 23: Gauss’ Law
• increase cavity size until only thin conducting layer
remains → no changes on field inside
→ closed conducting surface shields internal from 𝑬-fields
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Physics I Albrecht Haase Trento 2025 Lecture 23: Gauss’ Law
13
Faraday cages
Charged Isolated Conductor Surface
Physics I
External field
Albrecht Haase
Place cylindrical gaussian surface perpendicular to
conductor surface half inside, half outside
• 𝐸 = 0 inside conductor: no flux, side surfaces 𝐸
Trento 2025
perpendicular: no flux
• only flux through outer surface: 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 𝜀0 𝛷 = 𝜀0 𝐸𝐴
• expressed by surface charge density (C/m2)
Lecture 23: Gauss’ Law
𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 𝜎𝐴: 𝜎𝐴 = 𝜀0 𝐸𝐴
𝜎
𝐸=
𝜀0
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Example: Spherical metal shell
Physics I
Cross section of spherical metal shell of radius 𝑅, electrically neutral. A
Albrecht Haase
particle of charge 𝑞 = -5.0 μC inside at distance 𝑅/2 from center.
Induced charges on its inner and outer surfaces?
• Gaussian surface inside conductor: 𝐸 field through it
Trento 2025
must be zero → charge induced on inner surface: +𝑞
• must be compensated by uniformly distributed charges
– 𝑞 on the outer surface
Lecture 23: Gauss’ Law
• field lines inside skewed, outside spherically symmetric
15
Gauss’ law in cylindrical symmetry
Physics I
Infinitely long cylindrical plastic rod with a uniform charge density 𝜆, charge
Albrecht Haase
distribution and field have cylindrical symmetry
Field at radius 𝑟?
• place concentric Gaussian cylinder of radius 𝑟, height ℎ
cv
Trento 2025
• net flux through cylinder from Gauss’ Law
𝐸, 𝑑 𝐴Ԧ radially outward
𝛷 = න 𝐸 ⋅ 𝑑 𝐴Ԧ = 𝐸 න 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐸 2𝜋𝑟ℎ
cv
Lecture 23: Gauss’ Law
𝜀0 𝛷 = 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 𝜆ℎ 𝜆 linear charge density (C/m) → 2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟𝐸ℎ = 𝜆ℎ
𝜆
E-field of a charged wire 𝐸 =
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
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Example: Upward streamer in a lightning storm
Physics I
• before large thunderstorms: conduction electrons driven into
Albrecht Haase
ground by cloud’s negatively charged base
• leaves body positively charged, hair extends along 𝐸-field lines
Trento 2025
• Upwards streamer: dangerous situation when ionization of air
molecules frees huge number of e-
• move to neutralize: large current through body, influencing
Lecture 23: Gauss’ Law
lung and heart muscle, causing burns
• opposite to upwards streamer are Lightning leaders from
cloud
(cc) wikimedia commons 17
Example: Upward streamer in a lightning storm
Physics I
Body model:
Albrecht Haase
• narrow vertical cylinder 𝐿 = 1.8 m, 𝑅 = 0.10 m, charge 𝑞 uniformly distributed
• electrical breakdown above critical field strength 𝐸𝑐 = 2.4 MN/C along body
Trento 2025
• What 𝒒 required along body for breakdown?
𝜆 𝑞/𝐿
Lecture 23: Gauss’ Law
𝐸𝑐 = = → 𝑞 = 2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟𝐿𝐸𝑐
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
C 2 N
𝑞 = 2𝜋 ∙ 8.85 × 10−12 ∙ 0.1 m ∙ 1.8 m ∙ 2.4 × 106 ≈ 2.4 × 105C
Nm2 C 18
Non-conducting (infinite) sheet
Physics I
• uniform (positive) surface charge density 𝜎
Albrecht Haase
• Gaussian surface: closed cylinder, end cap area 𝐴
• 𝐸 perpendicular to end caps, away from sheet: 𝐸 ⋅ 𝑑 𝐴Ԧ = 𝐸 𝑑𝐴
Trento 2025
• no contribution from curved surface
𝜀0 ර𝐸 ⋅ 𝑑 𝐴Ԧ = 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐
𝜀0 𝐸𝐴 + 𝐸𝐴 = 𝜎𝐴
Lecture 23: Gauss’ Law
𝜎
𝐸=
2𝜀0
𝑬-field of charged sheet 19
Two conducting plates
Physics I
• uniform surface charge density of each plate
Albrecht Haase
surface 𝜎1 , but opposite charges
• placed in parallel: charges attract,
move to inner surface
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• twice surface charge density on inner surface
2𝜎1 𝜎
𝐸= = field between plates
𝜀0 𝜀0
Lecture 23: Gauss’ Law
• Gaussian surface including both sheets:
𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 0 → 𝐸 = 0 field outside plates
• in reality: finite size plates edges effect (fringing) 20
Example: Charged non-conducting sheets
Physics I
Two large, parallel, non-conducting sheets, each with fixed uniform charge
Albrecht Haase
density on one side, opposite sign 𝜎(+) = 6.8 μC/m2 , 𝜎(−) = 4.3 μC/m2
𝐸-field from left sheet:
𝜎(+) 6.8 × 10−6 C/m2
Trento 2025
𝐸(+) = =
2𝜀0 2 ∙ 8.85 × 10−12 C2 /Nm2
= 3.84 × 105 N/C
𝐸-field from right sheet:
Lecture 23: Gauss’ Law
𝜎(−) 4.3 × 10−6 C/m2
𝐸(−) = =
2𝜀0 2 ∙ 8.85 × 10−12 C2 /Nm2
= 2.43 × 105 N/C 21
Example: Charged non-conducting sheets
Physics I
Superposition principle:
Albrecht Haase
𝐸-field left of both sheets:
𝐸𝐿 = 𝐸(+) − 𝐸 − = 3.84 − 2.43 × 10−7 N/C
Trento 2025
= 1.41 × 105 N/C
𝐸-field between both sheets:
𝐸𝐵 = 𝐸(+) + 𝐸 − = 3.84 + 2.43 × 10−7 N/C
Lecture 23: Gauss’ Law
= 6.27 × 105 N/C
𝐸-field right of both sheets
same magnitude opposite signs: 𝐸𝑅 = −𝐸𝐿 22
Gauss’ law in spherical symmetry
Physics I
Proof of the Shell theorems:
• spherical shell: uniformly charged, total 𝑞, radius 𝑅
Albrecht Haase
Gaussian surface 𝑺𝟐 (concentric sphere)
• spherical symmetry: 𝑬 uniform, radial direction
Trento 2025
𝜀0 ර𝐸 ⋅ 𝑑 𝐴Ԧ = 𝜀0 𝐸 ර𝑑𝐴 = 𝜀0 𝐸4𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝑞 →
1 𝑞 force on charge outside uniformly charged shell
𝐸= 2
for 𝑟 ≥ 𝑅 equals force of point charge at the shell's center
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
Lecture 23: Gauss’ Law
Gaussian surface 𝑺𝟏 (concentric sphere)
𝜀0 ර𝐸 ⋅ 𝑑 𝐴Ԧ = 𝜀0 𝐸4𝜋𝑟 2 = 0 →
force on a charge inside a
𝐸 = 0 for 𝑟 < 𝑅 uniformly charged shell is zero 23
Gauss’ law in spherical symmetry
Physics I
any spherically symmetric charge distribution of radius 𝑅
Albrecht Haase
• symmetry: volume charge density 𝜌 equal in each shell,
can be different from shell to shell
• decompose into concentric spherical shells, apply shell
theorem:
Trento 2025
1 𝑞′
𝐸= 2
, 𝑞′ enclosed charge
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
4 3
for uniformly distributed charge: 𝑞′ 𝑉′ 3 𝜋𝑟
= = →
• charge proportional to volume 𝑞 𝑉 4 𝜋𝑅3
Lecture 23: Gauss’ Law
3
𝑟3 1 𝑞
𝑞′ = 𝑞 3 → 𝐸= 𝑟 𝑟≤𝑅
𝑅 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 3
24
Summary
Physics I
Electric flux Charged wire 𝜆
𝛷 = න 𝐸 ⋅ 𝑑 𝐴Ԧ 𝐸=
Albrecht Haase
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
through Gaussian surfaces Charged non-conducting sheet
𝜎
𝛷 = ර 𝐸 ⋅ 𝑑 𝐴Ԧ 𝐸=
Trento 2025
Shell theorems 2𝜀0
Gauss' Law 𝜀0 𝛷 = 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐 1 𝑞
𝐸= 2
for 𝑟 ≥ 𝑅
for Gaussian surfaces 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
𝐸 = 0 for 𝑟 < 𝑅
Lecture 23: Gauss’ Law
𝜀0 ර𝐸 ⋅ 𝑑 𝐴Ԧ = 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐
Uniform spherical charge distribution
Charged conductor surface
𝜎 1 𝑞
𝐸= 𝐸= 3
𝑟
𝜀0 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 25
