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Economic Pluralism

Economic Pluralism explores the evolving meanings and consequences of plur-

alism in contemporary economics. Its 20 original essays reflect the breadth and
maturity of pluralist discourse among economists, including new perspectives on
pluralism in mainstream and heterodox economics, pluralist innovations in
undergraduate and graduate economics education, and pluralist analyses of eco-
nomic heterogeneity (commercial and communal, capitalist and non-capitalist).
It is a volume sure to elicit fresh thinking about academic economics and real-
world economies in the twenty-first century.

Robert Garnett is Associate Professor of Economics at Texas Christian Univer-

sity. Erik K. Olsen is Assistant Professor of Economics and member of Doc-
toral Faculty at the University of Missouri Kansas City. Martha Starr is
Associate Professor of Economics at American University in Washington, DC.
Routledge frontiers of political economy

   1 Equilibrium Versus    7 Markets, Unemployment and

Understanding Economic Policy
Towards the rehumanization of Essays in honour of
economics within social theory Geoff Harcourt, volume two
Mark Addleson Edited by Philip Arestis,
Gabriel Palma and
   2 Evolution, Order and Malcolm Sawyer
Complexity
Edited by Elias L. Khalil and    8 Social Economy
Kenneth E. Boulding The logic of capitalist
development
   3 Interactions in Political Clark Everling
Economy
Malvern after ten years    9 New Keynesian Economics/
Edited by Steven Pressman Post Keynesian Alternatives
Edited by Roy J. Rotheim
   4 The End of Economics
Michael Perelman 10 The Representative Agent in
Macroeconomics
   5 Probability in Economics James E. Hartley
Omar F. Hamouda and
Robin Rowley 11 Borderlands of Economics
Essays in honour of
   6 Capital Controversy, Post Daniel R. Fusfeld
Keynesian Economics and the Edited by Nahid Aslanbeigui and
History of Economics Young Back Choi
Essays in honour of
Geoff Harcourt, volume one 12 Value, Distribution and Capital
Edited by Philip Arestis, Essays in honour of
Gabriel Palma and Pierangelo Garegnani
Malcolm Sawyer Edited by Gary Mongiovi and
Fabio Petri
13 The Economics of Science 20 The Active Consumer
Methodology and epistemology Novelty and surprise in consumer
as if economics really mattered choice
James R. Wible Edited by Marina Bianchi

14 Competitiveness, Localised 21 Subjectivism and

Learning and Regional Economic Analysis
Development Essays in memory of
Specialisation and prosperity in Ludwig Lachmann
small open economies Edited by Roger Koppl and
Peter Maskell, Heikki Eskelinen, Gary Mongiovi
Ingjaldur Hannibalsson,
Anders Malmberg and 22 Themes in Post-­Keynesian
Eirik Vatne Economics
Essays in honour of
15 Labour Market Theory Geoff Harcourt, volume three
A constructive reassessment Edited by Claudio Sardoni and
Ben J. Fine Peter Kriesler

16 Women and European 23 The Dynamics of Technological

Employment Knowledge
Jill Rubery, Mark Smith, Cristiano Antonelli
Colette Faga and
Damian Grimshaw 24 The Political Economy of Diet,
Health and Food Policy
17 Explorations in Economic Ben J. Fine
Methodology
From Lakatos to empirical 25 The End of Finance
philosophy of science Capital market inflation, financial
Roger Backhouse derivatives and pension fund
capitalism
18 Subjectivity in Political Jan Toporowski
Economy
Essays on wanting and choosing 26 Political Economy and the
David P. Levine New Capitalism
Edited by Jan Toporowski
19 The Political Economy of
Middle East Peace 27 Growth Theory
The impact of competing trade A philosophical perspective
agendas Patricia Northover
Edited by J.W. Wright, Jnr
28 The Political Economy of the
Small Firm
Edited by Charlie Dannreuther
29 Hahn and Economic 38 Money, Macroeconomics and
Methodology Keynes
Edited by Thomas Boylan and Essays in honour of
Paschal F. O’Gorman Victoria Chick, volume 1
Edited by Philip Arestis,
30 Gender, Growth and Trade Meghnad Desai and Sheila Dow
The miracle economies of the
postwar years 39 Methodology, Microeconomics
David Kucera and Keynes
Essays in honour of
31 Normative Political Economy Victoria Chick, volume 2
Subjective freedom, the market Edited by Philip Arestis,
and the state Meghnad Desai and Sheila Dow
David Levine
40 Market Drive and Governance
32 Economist with a Public Reexamining the rules for
Purpose economic and commercial
Essays in honour of contest
John Kenneth Galbraith Ralf Boscheck
Edited by Michael Keaney
41 The Value of Marx
33 Involuntary Unemployment Political economy for
The elusive quest for a theory contemporary capitalism
Michel De Vroey Alfredo Saad-­Filho

34 The Fundamental Institutions 42 Issues in Positive Political

of Capitalism Economy
Ernesto Screpanti S. Mansoob Murshed

35 Transcending Transaction 43 The Enigma of Globalisation

The search for self-­generating A journey to a new stage of
markets capitalism
Alan Shipman Robert Went

36 Power in Business and the State 44 The Market

An historical analysis of its Equilibrium, stability, mythology
concentration S.N. Afriat
Frank Bealey
45 The Political Economy of Rule
37 Editing Economics Evasion and Policy Reform
Essays in honour of Jim Leitzel
Mark Perlman
Edited by Hank Lim, 46 Unpaid Work and the
Ungsuh K. Park and Economy
Geoff Harcourt Edited by Antonella Picchio
47 Distributional Justice 56 Affirmative Action in the
Theory and measurement United States and India
Hilde Bojer A comparative perspective
Thomas E. Weisskopf
48 Cognitive Developments in
Economics 57 Global Political Economy and
Edited by Salvatore Rizzello the Wealth of Nations
Performance, institutions,
49 Social Foundations of Markets, problems and policies
Money and Credit Edited by
Costas Lapavitsas Phillip Anthony O’Hara

50 Rethinking Capitalist 58 Structural Economics

Development Thijs ten Raa
Essays on the economics of
Josef Steindl 59 Macroeconomic Theory and
Edited by Tracy Mott and Economic Policy
Nina Shapiro Essays in honour of
Jean-­Paul Fitoussi
51 An Evolutionary Approach to Edited by K. Vela Velupillai
Social Welfare
Christian Sartorius 60 The Struggle Over Work
The “end of work” and
52 Kalecki’s Economics Today employment alternatives in
Edited by Zdzislaw L. Sadowski post-­industrial societies
and Adam Szeworski Shaun Wilson

53 Fiscal Policy from Reagan to 61 The Political Economy of

Blair Global Sporting Organisations
The left veers right John Forster and Nigel Pope
Ravi K. Roy and
Arthur T. Denzau 62 The Flawed Foundations of
General Equilibrium Theory
54 The Cognitive Mechanics of Critical essays on economic
Economic Development and theory
Institutional Change Frank Ackerman and
Bertin Martens Alejandro Nadal

55 Individualism and the Social 63 Uncertainty in Economic

Order Theory
The social element in liberal Essays in honor of David
thought Schmeidler’s 65th birthday
Charles R. McCann Jnr Edited by Itzhak Gilboa
64 The New Institutional 74 Growth and Development in
Economics of Corruption the Global Political Economy
Edited by Social structures of accumulation
Johann Graf Lambsdorff, and modes of regulation
Markus Taube and Phillip Anthony O’Hara
Matthias Schramm
75 The New Economy and
65 The Price Index and its Macroeconomic Stability
Extension A neo-­modern perspective
A chapter in economic drawing on the complexity
measurement approach and Keynesian
S.N. Afriat economics
Teodoro Dario Togati
66 Reduction, Rationality and
Game Theory in Marxian 76 The Future of Social Security
Economics Policy
Bruce Philp Women, work and a citizen’s
basic income
67 Culture and Politics in Ailsa McKay
Economic Development
Volker Bornschier 77 Clinton and Blair
The political economy of the
68 Modern Applications of third way
Austrian Thought Flavio Romano
Edited by Jürgen G. Backhaus
78 Marxian Reproduction Schema
69 Ordinary Choices Money and aggregate demand in
Individuals, incommensurability, a capitalist economy
and democracy A.B. Trigg
Robert Urquhart
79 The Core Theory in Economics
70 Labour Theory of Value Problems and solutions
Peter C. Dooley Lester G. Telser

71 Capitalism 80 Economics, Ethics and the

Victor D. Lippit Market
Introduction and applications
72 Macroeconomic Foundations of Johan J. Graafland
Macroeconomics
Alvaro Cencini

73 Marx for the 21st Century

Edited by Hiroshi Uchida
81 Social Costs and Public Action 89 Hayek and Natural Law
in Modern Capitalism Eric Angner
Essays inspired by Karl William
Kapp’s theory of social costs 90 Race and Economic
Edited by Wolfram Elsner, Opportunity in the
Pietro Frigato and Twenty-­First Century
Paolo Ramazzotti Edited by Marlene Kim

82 Globalization and the Myths of 91 Renaissance in Behavioural

Free Trade Economics
History, theory and empirical Harvey Leibenstein’s impact on
evidence contemporary economic analysis
Edited by Anwar Shaikh Edited by Roger Frantz

83 Equilibrium in Economics 92 Human Ecology Economics

Scope and limits A new framework for global
Edited by Valeria Mosini sustainability
Edited by Roy E. Allen
84 Globalization
State of the art and perspectives 93 Imagining Economics
Edited by Stefan A. Schirm Otherwise
Encounters with identity/
85 Neoliberalism difference
National and regional Nitasha Kaul
experiments with global ideas
Edited by Ravi K. Roy, 94 Reigniting the Labor
Arthur T. Denzau and Movement
Thomas D. Willett Restoring means to ends in a
democratic labor movement
86 Post-­Keynesian Gerald Friedman
Macroeconomics
Essays in honour of Ingrid Rima 95 The Spatial Model of Politics
Edited by Mathew Forstater, Norman Schofield
Gary Mongiovi and
Steven Pressman 96 The Economics of American
Judaism
87 Consumer Capitalism Carmel Ullman Chiswick
Anastasios S. Korkotsides
97 Critical Political Economy
88 Remapping Gender in the Christian Arnsperger
New Global Order
Edited by Marjorie Griffin Cohen 98 Culture and Economic
and Janine Brodie Explanation
Economics in the US and Japan
Donald W. Katzner
 99 Feminism, Economics and 108 The ‘Uncertain’ Foundations
Utopia of Post-­Keynesian Economics
Time travelling through Essays in exploration
paradigms Stephen P. Dunn
Karin Schönpflug
109 Karl Marx’s Grundrisse
100 Risk in International Finance Foundations of the critique of
Vikash Yadav political economy 150 years later
Edited by Marcello Musto
101 Economic Policy and
Performance in Industrial 110 Economics and the Price Index
Democracies S.N. Afriat and Carlo Milana
Party governments, central banks
and the fiscal–monetary policy 111 Sublime Economy
mix On the intersection of art and
Takayuki Sakamoto economics
Edited by Jack Amariglio,
102 Advances on Income Inequality Joseph W. Childers and
and Concentration Measures Stephen E. Cullenberg
Edited by Gianni Betti and
Achille Lemmi 112 Popper, Hayek and the Open
Society
103 Economic Representations Calvin Hayes
Academic and everyday
Edited by David F. Ruccio 113 The Political Economy of Work
David Spencer
104 Mathematical Economics and
the Dynamics of Capitalism 114 Institutional Economics
Goodwin’s legacy continued Bernard Chavance
Edited by Peter Flaschel and
Michael Landesmann 115 Religion, Economics and
Demography
105 The Keynesian Multiplier The effects of religion on
Edited by Claude Gnos and education, work, and the family
Louis-­Philippe Rochon Evelyn L. Lehrer

106 Money, Enterprise and Income 116 Economics, Rational Choice

Distribution and Normative Philosophy
Towards a macroeconomic Edited by Thomas A. Boylan and
theory of capitalism Ruvin Gekker
John Smithin
117 Economics Versus Human
107 Fiscal Decentralization and Rights
Local Public Finance in Japan Manuel Couret Branco
Nobuki Mochida
118 Hayek Versus Marx and 121 Capitalism, Institutions and
Today’s Challenges Economic Development
Eric Aarons Michael Heller

119 Work Time Regulation as 122 Economic Pluralism

Sustainable Full Employment Edited by Robert Garnett,
Policy Erik K. Olsen, and Martha Starr
Robert LaJeunesse

120 Equilibrium, Welfare and

Uncertainty
Mukul Majumdar
Economic Pluralism

Edited by Robert Garnett,

Erik K. Olsen, and Martha Starr
First published 2010
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada
by Routledge
270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2009.

To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s
collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.

© 2010 Selection and editorial matter, Robert Garnett, Erik K. Olsen, and
Martha Starr; individual chapters, the contributors

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or

utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now
known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in
any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing
from the publishers.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Economic pluralism/edited by Robert Garnett, Erik K. Olsen, and Martha
Starr.
p. cm.
1. Economics. 2. Pluralism. I. Garnett, Robert F. II. Olsen, Erik K., 1966–
III. Starr, Martha.
HB171.E243 2009
330.1–dc22 2009008115

ISBN 0-203-87181-2 Master e-book ISBN

ISBN10: 0-415-77703-8 (hbk)

ISBN10: 0-203-87181-2 (ebk)
ISBN13: 978-0-415-77703-2 (hbk)
ISBN13: 978-0-203-87181-2 (ebk)
Contents

Notes on contributors xvi

Acknowledgments xxii

Economic pluralism for the twenty-­first century 1

R obert G arnett , E rik K . O lsen , A N D M artha S tarr

Part I
Pluralism and economic inquiry 17
Pluralism and heterodoxy

1 Pluralism in heterodox economics 19

F rederic S . L ee

2 Moving beyond the rhetoric of pluralism: suggestions for an

“inside-­the-mainstream” heterodoxy 36
D a v id C olander

3 Is convergence among heterodox schools possible,

meaningful, or desirable? 48
W illiam W aller

4 Raising dissonant voices: pluralism and economic heterodoxy 61

D iana S trassmann , M artha S tarr , and
C aren A . G rown

Theorizing pluralism

5 Is Kuhnean incommensurability a good basis for pluralism

in economics? 74
G usta v o M ar q u é s and D iego W eisman
xiv   Contents
6 Why should I adopt pluralism? 87
R ogier D e L anghe

7 Ontology, modern economics, and pluralism 99

T ony L awson

8 The Cambridge School and pluralism 114

Vinca B igo

Part II
Pluralism and real-­world economies 127
Economic democracy and the common good

9 America beyond capitalism: the Pluralist Commonwealth 129

G ar A lpero v it z

10 From competition and greed to equitable cooperation:

what does a pluralist economics have to offer? 145
R obin H ahnel

11 Growth, development, and quality of life: a pluralist

approach 160
D aphne T . G reenwood and R ic H A R D P . F . H olt

12 Beyond the status quo, in the world and in the discipline:

the comments of an Austrian economist 176
E mil y C hamlee - ­W right

Economic cooperation: commercial and communal

13 Hayek and Lefebvre on market space and extra-­catallactic

relationships 181
Virgil H enr y S torr

14 The plural economy of gifts and markets 194

I oana N egru

15 Communities and local exchange networks: an Aristotelian

view 205
P hilip K o z el
 Contents   xv
Part III
Pluralism and economics education 219
16 Promoting a pluralist agenda in undergraduate economics
education 221
K im M arie M c G oldrick

17 The illusion of objectivity: implications for teaching

economics 236
A lison B utler

18 A pluralist teaching of economics: why and how 250

G illes R a v eaud

19 Economic pluralism and skill formation: adding value to

students, economies, and societies 262
R od O ’ D onnell

20 A most peculiar success: constructing UADPhilEcon, a

doctoral program in economics at the University of Athens 278
Yanis Varoufakis

Index 293
Contributors

Gar Alperovitz is the Lionel R. Bauman Professor of Political Economy at the

University of Maryland and serves as President of the National Center for
Economic and Security Alternatives. Previously he was a Fellow of King’s
College at Cambridge University, a founding Fellow of the Institute of Pol-
itics at Harvard University, a Fellow of the Institute for Policy Studies, a
Guest Scholar at the Brookings Institution, and a Guest Professor at Notre
Dame University. He has also served as a Legislative Director in the U.S.
House of Representatives and the U.S. Senate, and as a Special Assistant in
the Department of State. Dr. Alperovitz was a Marshall Scholar and a Gug-
genheim Fellow.
Vinca Bigo received her Ph.D. from the University of Cambridge, U.K. She is
an active member of the Cambridge Social Ontology Group. Her research
centers on feminist epistemology, ontology, pluralism, and psychology in
economics, on the nature of care, and the ethics of care.
Alison Butler received her Ph.D. from the University of Oregon and has taught
at several different public and private universities across the country. Her out-
look is shaped by many factors, including her upbringing as a white Jewish
woman raised across different economic classes and living in an interracial
household; her experiences teaching in settings of very different racial and
economic diversity and her time spent working in the highly structured pro-
fessional environment of the Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis. Her current
research focuses on alternative pedagogies and issues relating to gender and
race in the classroom.
Emily Chamlee-­Wright is Professor of Economics at Beloit College in Beloit,
Wisconsin, and a senior research scholar at the Mercatus Center in Fairfax,
Virginia. She earned her Ph.D. in Economics from George Mason University.
Her primary research interests concern the ways in which cultural and market
processes affect one another. Her books include The Cultural Foundations of
Economic Development (Routledge 1997) and Culture and Enterprise, co-­
authored with Don Lavoie (Routledge 2000). She is currently completing a new
book, The Learning Society: Social Coordination in Post-­Katrina New Orleans
 Contributors   xvii
(Routledge, Advances in Heterodox Economics), which examines intersections
between markets and social capital with particular attention to the roles of cul-
ture and social capital in communities recovering from Hurricane Katrina.

David Colander received his Ph.D. from Columbia University and has been
the Christian A. Johnson Distinguished Professor of Economics at Middle-
bury College, Middlebury, Vermont since 1982. In 2001–2002 he was the
Kelly Professor of Distinguished Teaching at Princeton University. He has
authored, co-­authored, or edited over 35 books and 100 articles on a wide
range of topics. His books have been, or are being, translated into a number
of different languages, including Chinese, Bulgarian, Polish, Italian, and
Spanish. He has been president of both the Eastern Economic Association
and History of Economic Thought Society and is, or has been, on the editorial
boards of numerous journals, including the Journal of Economic Perspectives
and Journal of Economic Education.

Robert Garnett is Associate Professor of Economics at Texas Christian Uni-

versity. His writings on the philosophy of economics and economics educa-
tion have appeared in Rethinking Marxism, the Journal of Economic Issues,
the Atlantic Economic Journal, the Review of Political Economy, the Review
of Austrian Economics, the Review of Social Economy, the Journal of Mar-
kets and Morality, Studies in Philosophy and Education, and the Post-­Autistic
Economics Review. His current projects focus on economics education as
liberal education, the meaning and requirements of pluralism in economic
inquiry, and the relationship between commercial and philanthropic forms of
economic cooperation.

Daphne T. Greenwood is Professor of Economics at the University of Colorado

at Colorado Springs.

Caren A. Grown is Economist-­In-Residence at American University. Previ-

ously, she directed the Poverty Reduction and Economic Governance team at
the International Center for Research on Women, and was a Senior Program
Officer at the John D. and Catherine MacArthur Foundation in Chicago, Illi-
nois. She has written and edited several books including The Feminist Eco-
nomics of Trade (Routledge 2007, with Diane Elson, Irene Van Staveren, and
Nilufer Cagatay), Trading Women’s Health and Rights: The Role of Trade
Liberalization and Development (Zed Books 2006, with Elissa Braunstein
and Anju Malhotra), Taking Action: Achieving Gender Equality and Empow-
ering Women (Earthscan Press 2005, with Geeta Rao Gupta), and Develop-
ment, Crises and Alternative Visions: Third World Women’s Perspectives
(Monthly Review Press 1987, with Gita Sen). Her current research focuses
on assets and women’s well-­being, gender issues in public finance, and inter-
national trade and gender. She holds M.A. and Ph.D. degrees in economics
from New School for Social Research and a Bachelor’s degree in political
science from UCLA.
xviii   Contributors
Robin Hahnel is Professor of Economics at American University. He has
written extensively with Z Magazine editor Michael Albert, including a co-­
authored book, The Political Economy of Participatory Economics (Princ-
eton 1991). His other recent books include The ABCs of Political Economy:
A Modern Approach (Pluto 2002) and Economic Justice and Democracy:
From Competition to Cooperation (Routledge 2005). His research in eco-
nomic theory and analysis is informed by the works of Marx, Keynes,
Sraffa, Kalecki, and Robinson, among others. He has actively partici-
pated in various social movements and organizations over the years, most
recently with the Southern Maryland Greens and the U.S. Green Party.
He also has served as a visiting professor or economist in Cuba, Peru, and
­England.
Richard P.F. Holt is Professor of Economics at Southern Oregon University.
He received his Ph.D. in Economics from the University of Utah. Among
the scholarly outlets that have published his work are the Review of Political
Economy, Journal of Post Keynesian Economics, Eastern Economic Jour-
nal, and American Journal of Economics and Sociology. His recent books
include Empirical Post Keynesian Economics: Looking at the Real World, co-­
authored with Steven Pressman (M.E. Sharpe 2006) and Quality of Life, Sus-
tainability and Economic Development: State and Local Options, co-­authored
with Daphne Greenwood (M.E. Sharpe, forthcoming).
Philip Kozel received his Ph.D. in Economics from the University of Massachu-
setts, Amherst. As an Assistant Professor at Rollins College, he has helped
his department to complete an extensive reform of the economics major. His
current research is on the economics of piracy from the high seas to DVDs.
Rogier De Langhe is a Ph.D. fellow of the Research Foundation of Flanders
(FWO) and works in the field of philosophy of social science, exploring such
topics as models, explanation, and economic methodology.
Tony Lawson lectures in the Faculty of Economics at the University of Cam-
bridge, U.K. He is organizer of the Cambridge Social Ontology Group, and
the Cambridge Realist Workshop, and until recently was Executive Director
of the Cambridge Centre for Gender Studies. He has published various art-
icles and books, the latter including Economics and Reality, and Reorienting
Economics, both with Routledge.
Frederic S. Lee is Professor of Economics at the University of Missouri Kansas
City and the Executive Director of the International Confederation of Associ-
ations for Pluralism in Economics (ICAPE). He has published in numerous
heterodox economics journals, including the Journal of Economic Issues,
Review of Radical Political Economy, Review of Social Economy, Journal
of Post Keynesian Economics, Review of Political Economy, and Journal of
Australian Political Economy. He is also the editor of the widely circulated
Heterodox Economics Newsletter.
 Contributors   xix
Gustavo Marqués is Magister in Philosophy and Doctor in Philosophy (Univer-
sity of Buenos Aires). He is full Professor of Methodology of the Social Sci-
ences and Epistemology of Economics (Faculty of Economic Sciences, UBA
and UNLZ). He has written and published many books and articles about
methodology and epistemology of the social sciences and economics, most of
them in Spanish. His paper, “Criticizing Dow and Chick’s Dualism: The Case
of the Dual ‘Rational/Irrational’ in the Stock Market” appeared in English in
the Post Autistic Economics Review, issue 35.
KimMarie McGoldrick is Professor of Economics in the Robins School of Busi-
ness at the University of Richmond in Virginia. Her passion for developing her
students’ research skills led her to develop a new economics capstone experi-
ence in which students apply, assess, and extend the theoretical and applied
models they have encountered in their economics coursework. Over the past
seven years she has (co)coordinated many teaching and learning workshops
including five CeMENT regional mentoring workshops, several IAFFE teach-
ing workshops, a Service Learning in Economics workshop, and an Annual
Teaching Workshop in Wilmington, NC. She is a member of the staff of the
Teaching Innovations Program, an NSF funded project designed to improve
undergraduate education in economics by offering instructors an opportunity
to expand their teaching skills and to participate in the scholarship of teaching
and learning. She also serves on the Editorial Board of the Journal of Eco-
nomic Education. She is currently completing an edited volume (with David
Colander) on Educating Economists: The Teagle Discussion on Reevaluating
the Undergraduate Economics Major (Edward Elgar, 2010).
Ioana Negru is Lecturer in Economics at Anglia Ruskin University, Cambridge.
She has recently published in the area of economic methodology and pluralism.
Her main research interests include the economics of gift exchange and altruism,
Austrian economics, the philosophy of economics, and economic methodology.
Rod O’Donnell completed his Ph.D. at Cambridge University in 1982 and was
Professor of Economics at Macquarie University from 1995 to 2007. He is
now Professor of Economics at the University of Technology, Sydney. His
varied research interests include the thought of J.M. Keynes (economics,
philosophy, and politics), macroeconomics, pluralist economics, skill forma-
tion in graduates, and the teaching of economics.
Erik K. Olsen is Assistant Professor of Economics and member of Doctoral
Faculty at the University of Missouri Kansas City. He teaches Political Eco-
nomy, Urban Economics, Mathematical Economics, and Microeconomics at
both the graduate and undergraduate levels. He received his Ph.D. in Eco-
nomics from the University of Massachusetts Amherst in 2005.
Gilles Raveaud was a post-­doctoral fellow at Harvard University at the time
of this writing. He is currently Assistant Professor at the Institute of Euro-
pean Studies at the University of Paris Saint-­Denis. He received his Ph.D. in
xx   Contributors
­Economics from the Université Paris-­X Nanterre (France). He was in June
2000 one of the founders of the Post-­Autistic Economics Network (PAEN)
which mobilized students and lecturers to contest the hegemony of neo-
classical economics at the universities. His research critically examines the
discourses of mainstream economists and of the European Union on unem-
ployment. His work has been published in the Journal of Common Market
Studies.
Martha Starr is Associate Professor of Economics at American University in
Washington, D.C. Prior to joining AU, she was a senior economist at the Fed-
eral Reserve Board of Governors. Her research is centrally concerned with
issues of culture and social values in economic life, and has covered such
subjects as consumerism and the media, lifestyle and consumption norms,
gender and economic identity, “self-­control” problems in consumer spending,
socially responsible investment and consumption, and household saving. She
is also strongly interested in macroeconomics and monetary policy, especially
as they relate to globalization and development. Her work has appeared in a
wide range of journals, with recent articles having appeared in the Review of
Social Economy, Review of Radical Political Economy, Economic Inquiry,
Contemporary Economic Policy, Journal of Comparative Economics, and
Global Society. She is a co-­editor of the Review of Social Economy.
Virgil Henry Storr is Senior Research Fellow and the Director of Graduate
Student Programs at the Mercatus Center and the Don C. Lavoie Research
Fellow in the Program in Philosophy, Politics and Economics, Department of
Economics, George Mason University. He holds a Ph.D. in Economics from
George Mason University and a B.A. from Beloit College. Virgil’s book on
the Bahamas’ economic culture, Enterprising Slaves and Master Pirates, was
published by Peter Lang. He is currently working on a new book, The Cul-
ture of Markets, to be published by Routledge in their Advances in Heterodox
Economics series.
Diana Strassmann is the founding editor of Feminist Economics, the journal
of the International Association for Feminist Economics (IAFFE) and a co-­
founder of IAFFE. After receiving her A.B. in economics from Princeton
University and her M.A. and Ph.D in economics from Harvard University,
she joined the Rice University faculty in 1983. She is currently Professor of
the Practice in Rice University’s Center for Women, Gender, and Sexuality
Studies, a faculty affiliate at Rice’s Chao Center for Asian Studies, and direc-
tor of Rice’s Program in Poverty, Social Justice, and Human Capabilities.
She has published widely in the fields of economic regulation, environmental
policy, and feminist economic theory. Her current research focuses on the
impact of feminism on economics.
Yanis Varoufakis was born in Athens in 1961, where he received his secondary
education prior to completing his university studies. He has held academic
appointments at the University of Essex, University of East Anglia, Univer-
 Contributors   xxi
sity of Sydney, and University of Glasgow. Since 2000, he has taught polit-
ical economy at the University of Athens where he directs UADPhilEcon,
an international doctoral program in economics. His books include Rational
Conflict (Blackwell 1991), Foundations of Economics (Routledge 1998), and
Game Theory: A Critical Text (Routledge 2004). He is currently working on a
book entitled Modern Political Economy, also to be published by Routledge.
William Waller is Professor of Economics and Director of Wine Studies at
Hobart and William Smith Colleges where he has taught since 1982. He
received his B.S (1978) and M.A. (1979) in economics from Western Michi-
gan University. He received his Ph.D. in economics from the University of
New Mexico (1984). He is past-­president of the Association for Evolutionary
Economics and past-­president of the Association for Institutional Thought.
He has served as a trustee of the Association for Social Economics, a member
of the editorial board of the Journal of Economic Issues, and as member of
the board of directors of the Association for Evolutionary Economics, where
he served for a year as acting Secretary-­Treasurer. He is currently a trustee
of the Association for Evolutionary Economics. He has co-­edited two books,
Alternatives to Economic Orthodoxy (M.E. Sharpe, 1987) and The Strati-
fied State (M.E. Sharpe, 1992). His articles on institutionalist methodology,
feminist economics, public policy, and the work of Thorstein Veblen have
been published in Journal of Economic Issues, Review of Social Economy,
History of Political Economy, and Review of Institutional Thought as well as
a number of edited collections. He is active in the Association for Evolution-
ary Economics, the Association for Institutional Thought, the Association for
Social Economics, and the International Association for Feminist Economics.
Diego Weisman has a degree in Economics and in Philosophy from the Univer-
sity of Buenos Aires, where he is undertaking postgraduate studies in the field
of Epistemology of Economics. In the last five years, he has been a research
fellow of the Research Center for the Epistemology of Economic Sciences
(CIECE), where he has been involved in many studies of the Epistemology of
Economics.
Acknowledgments

This volume would not exist but for the extensive collaboration that brought 200
economists from 29 countries to the University of Utah in early June 2007 for a
three-­day conference on Economic Pluralism for the 21st Century. Special rec-
ognition and thanks are due to the International Confederation of Associations
for Pluralism in Economics (ICAPE) for sponsoring the conference and to the
ICAPE conference organizing committee: Al Campbell (University of Utah),
Wilfred Dolfsma (Utrecht School of Economics), Edward Fullbrook (University
of the West of England), Robert Garnett (Texas Christian University), Neva
Goodwin (Tufts University), John Henry (University of Missouri, Kansas City),
Mary King (Portland State University), Frederic Lee (University of Missouri,
Kansas City), Judith Mehta (University of East Anglia), Edward McNertney
(Texas Christian University), Erik K. Olsen (University of Missouri, Kansas
City), and Martha Starr (American University). Equally crucial were the heroic
contributions of the University of Utah: Al Campbell, Korkut Erturk, Becky
Guillory, Julie Robinson, Scott Kjelstrom, Rogier Kamerling, Ozge Ozay, Carlos
Schonerwald da Silva, Yongbok Jeon, Ozden Birkan, and Adem Yavuz Elveren.
In our attempt to craft a thematically cogent volume, we were able to select
only a small subset of the conference papers. We are grateful to all conferees
who submitted their papers for possible inclusion in this volume, and to each of
our contributors for their gracious responses to our extensive requests for
revision.
Finally, we thank Terry Clague, Tom Sutton, Sarah Hastings, and Beth Lewis
at Routledge and Allie Waite at Wearset for their generous assistance in the pro-
duction and marketing of this collection.
Economic pluralism for the twenty-­
first century
Robert Garnett, Erik K. Olsen, and Martha Starr

Half a century ago, a book exploring the value of pluralism in economic inquiry,
institutions, and education would have seemed anomalous, particularly in the
United States. In the wake of World War II, economists were “covered in glory”
(Morgan and Rutherford 1998: 13), having solved many wartime policy problems
with their newly acquired mathematical and statistical expertise (Sent 2006: 83).
The economist was increasingly regarded as a “neutral, professional scientist,
offering expert, value-­free advice” (Morgan and Rutherford 1998: 11); and the
economists’ new tools – formal modeling, econometric testing, and hypothetico-­
deductive reasoning – were widely admired as the sine qua non of a rigorous,
objective social science (ibid.: 9). Scientific monism thus emerged as the mainline
ethos of postwar economics (Weintraub 2002), in marked contrast to the pluralist
atmosphere of the 1920s and 1930s in which “it was possible to hold a number of
different economic beliefs and to do economics in many different ways without
being out of place or necessarily forfeiting the respect of one’s peers” (ibid.: 4).
Many proponents of scientific monism in postwar U.S. economics saw them-
selves as freedom fighters. They defended the singularity of Truth and Method
as “a wall against irrational and authoritarian threats to inquiry” (McCloskey
1998: 169; Richardson 2006: 14–16).

For the immigrants who lived through the interwar period in Europe – and
some, like Marschak, who fled first Lenin and then Hitler – this hope of
building a wertfrei social science, immune to propaganda of every kind,
gave motivating force to the econometrics movement.
(Leijonhufvud and Craver 1987: 181; see also Hutchison 1960 [1938] and
Popper 1945).

In this broader context, postwar U.S. economics and its ascendant monism
were part of a “grand crusade against fascism and totalitarianism” (Bernstein
1999: 108). Noble aims notwithstanding, however, advocates of these new
analytical methods often crossed the lines that divide scholarly enthusiasm
from illiberal zeal; they “adopted a crusading faith, a set of philosophical
­doctrines, that made them prone to fanaticism and intolerance” (McCloskey
1998: 140). Circa 1965, mainstream economists’ elevated social status and
2   R. Garnett, E.K. Olsen, and M. Starr
methodological hubris predisposed them to dismiss alternative theories tout
court as unscientific.
Dissenters objected to the mainstream’s hegemonic intolerance in a variety of
ways. One group of challengers pursued a “fight science with science” strategy.
Leading Austrian, Marxian, Sraffian, post Keynesian, institutionalist, and new
classical theorists in the 1970s and early 1980s developed paradigmatic altern-
atives to prevailing micro- and macroeconomic orthodoxies (cf. Dolan 1976;
Desai 1979; Steedman 1977; Kregel 1975; Eichner 1979; and Tool 1979).1 These
critics were monist in their pursuit of stand-­alone alternatives to mainstream
theory. Yet they were also pluralist in one important sense. Against the grain of
the modernist unity-­of-science movement, they sought to make truth and method
contestable in economic inquiry. We therefore regard their diverse heterodox
projects as a first wave of pluralism in contemporary economics.
By the early 1990s, however, dissatisfaction with this Kuhnian school-­of-
thought-­ism gave rise to a new genre of pluralism, “not just polite tolerance
among parallel schools, each with its own truth” but “active dialogue and mutual
learning among self-­consciously partial perspectives” (Fullbrook 2005). Philo-
sophically, the second-­wave pluralists stood atop a wide raft of post-­positivist
work on economic ontology and epistemology that had flourished in the 1980s.
This included the work of pragmatists, postmodernists, Marxists and post-­
Marxists, Keynesians and post Keynesians, feminists, realists, hermeneuticists,
institutionalists, post-­structuralists, and others (Tribe 1978; Resnick and Wolff
1982; McCloskey 1983; Klamer 1983; Amariglio 1984; Ruccio 1984; Amariglio
1988; Mirowski 1987; Mäki 1989; Dow 1990; Lavoie 1990; Samuels 1990;
Strassmann 1993; Lawson 1994).
Second-­wave pluralists were dissatisfied with the notion of science as empire
building or paradigmatic one-­upmanship, a monist view they ascribed to many
mainstream economists as well as to their first-­wave critics. In seeking to explain
the broad embrace of this monist view by postwar economists, some new plural-
ist writers (Fullbrook 2001; Garnett 2006; Marqués and Weisman this volume)
pointed to the influence of Thomas Kuhn’s Structure of Scientific Revolutions
(Kuhn 1962). Cold War language and logic permeate Kuhn’s text (Fuller 2000;
Fullbrook 2001), most notably in Kuhn’s analogy between scientific paradigms
and rival political systems: “Like the choice between competing political institu-
tions, the choice between competing paradigms proves to be a choice between
incompatible modes of community life” (Kuhn 1962: 94). On Fullbrook’s
reading of Kuhn’s Structure,

Kuhn’s book methodically transposes the Cold War narrative onto the
competing-­theories narrative of science. . . . Kuhn’s narrative makes the
defense of one’s paradigm community, through the elimination or marginal-
ization of rival ones, the scientist’s overriding goal. . . . It is this emotionally-­
charged us-­or-them, all-­or-nothing mentality which Kuhn’s book seems to
legitimate as the ethos of science.
(Fullbrook 2001)
 Economic pluralism for the 21st century   3
Post-­Kuhnian pluralism gained wide visibility in 1992, when Geoffrey
Hodgson, Uskali Mäki, and Donald McCloskey published a petition in the
American Economic Review (signed by 44 leading economists, including four
Nobel laureates) calling for “a new spirit of pluralism in economics, involving
critical conversation and tolerant communication between different approaches”
and demanding that this new pluralism be “reflected in the character of scientific
debate, in the range of contributions in its journals, and in the training and hiring
of economists” (Hodgson et al. 1992). One year later, Hodgson, John Adams,
Terry Neale, and several other economists created an international consortium,
ICARE (the International Confederation of Associations for the Reform of Eco-
nomics), to serve as an institutional voice for the new pluralism. By 2000,
ICARE had been joined by the U.K.-based Association for Heterodox Eco-
nomics, pluralistic journals like the Review of Political Economy, and pluralistic
organizations like the European Association for Evolutionary Political Economy
– all creating new spaces for dialogue and collaboration among previously seg-
regated schools of thought (Lee 2002).
The new pluralism gained additional momentum in 2000 and 2001, when a
series of petitions from young economists in France, the United Kingdom, the
United States, and Italy ignited the international Post-­Autistic Economics (PAE)
movement (Fullbrook 2003).2 This student-­led movement called for a more open
and scientific economics, guided by a philosophically principled pluralism:

[a pluralism] that regards the various “schools” of economics, including

neoclassicalism, as offering different windows on economic reality, each
bringing into view different subsets of economic phenomena . . . [and]
rejects the idea that any school could possess final or total solutions, but
accepts all as possible means for understanding real-­life economic
problems.
(Fullbrook 2003: 8–9)

The pluralistic ethos of the PAE movement struck a resonant chord with eco-
nomics students and faculty around the world, giving rise to what Fullbrook
describes as a “peace movement,” an historic attempt to forge unity among dis-
senting economists who despite being “a sizable and growing minority” had long
been divided into separate schools of thought (Fullbrook 2003: 2). Sheila Dow
concurs:

The interesting new work among young scholars is synthetic in nature,

exploring the middle ground between schools of thought and developing
new ideas as a result of cross-­fertilization.
(Dow 2008: 9)

Our strict juxtaposition of first- and second-­wave pluralism is of course styl-

ized. Many economists today would identify with key elements of both perspec-
tives. Yet the epistemological perspectives of first- and second-­wave pluralism
4   R. Garnett, E.K. Olsen, and M. Starr
are sufficiently divergent to warrant a distinction. First-­wave pluralists place a
high value on paradigmatic self-­sufficiency. Their ideal is the analytically unified
and self-­contained school of thought whose practitioners need not engage in
scholarly dialogue beyond the boundaries of their own tradition. Second-­wave
pluralists, in contrast, aspire to a Millian pluralism: a “positive valuing of a diver-
sity of views in the minimal sense that one who is so committed would not want
to reduce the number of available narratives or views” (Hargreaves-­Heap 2001:
356; see also Mill 2001 [1859]). From this perspective, the value of interparadig-
matic conversation never ends since there is no possibility, even in principle, that
“any school could possess final or total solutions” (Fullbrook 2003: 8–9).
As economics enters the twenty-­first century, tensions between these monist
and pluralist ideals – unity and difference, closure and openness, self-­
sufficiency and interdependence – are generating important new lines of thought
and discovery. The shifting terrain of post-­Cold War economic theory is posing
novel questions, for example, about the meaning and value of paradigms and
pluralism. Is it any longer accurate or useful to classify neoclassical economics
as a single body of thought (Colander 2000)? Are mainstream economists
becoming more pluralistic (Davis 2006)? Are heterodox economists as pluralis-
tic as they claim to be (cf. Sent 2003; Van Bouwel 2004; Lee this volume)?
Does the mainstream/heterodox serve to affirm and protect non-­mainstream tra-
ditions, or does it only deepen their marginality and hasten their dissolution
(Lee 2009; Colander this volume)? Should non-­mainstream economists seek to
produce a “single correct alternative to neoclassical economics” or should they
pursue pluralist objectives (King 2002)? Is scientific progress in economics
enhanced or retarded when individual scholars abide by pluralist norms (De
Langhe this volume; Boettke 2007)?
Economics education is a second area in which critical synergies between
pluralist and monist perspectives are giving rise to new conversations.
Economics educators increasingly agree, for instance, that students’ intellectual
development is inhibited by the authoritarian monism of conventional economics
textbooks, curricula, and pedagogies. At the same time, sharp disagreements
remain over whether or not “economics students are entitled to a solid discipli-
nary training in prevailing economic theory” (Vromen 2007: 64). These disputes
are the latest in a long-­running debate over the goals of the undergraduate eco-
nomics major. Critics have rightly objected to the paradigmatic parochialism
embedded in the standard goal of teaching students to “think like economists”
(Siegfried et al. 1991). But rather than rejecting the traditional mantra, recent
work on these questions has followed the “mend it, don’t end it” path proposed
two decades ago by Bartlett and Feiner (1992). Leading economics educators are
speaking across the mainstream/heterodox divide, trying to restate the concept of
thinking like an economist to convey not “thinking like a traditional microecono-
mist” but the broader liberal art of reaching reasoned economic conclusions in
the face of analytical, empirical, or normative uncertainties (Colander and
McGoldrick 2008; Becker 2004; Knoedler and Underwood 2003; Feiner 2002;
Earl 2000; Ferber 1999).
 Economic pluralism for the 21st century   5
A third nexus of pluralist rethinking lies in the rapidly evolving field of com-
parative economics. Postwar development economists posited a tripartite classi-
fication of national economies: capitalist (First World), socialist-­communist
(Second World), and other (Third World). This venerable continuum, along with
the very idea of an economic system, are being recast in distinctly pluralist ways
today by feminist, Marxist, institutionalist, Austrian, and human development
economists, all of whom emphasize the historical-­institutional complexity, con-
tingency, and path-­dependence of every economic system (cf. Gibson-­Graham
1996; Resnick and Wolff 2002; Hodgson 1999; Buchanan 1991; Koppl 2008;
Sen 1999). Roger Koppl (2008: 925), for example, writing in the free-­market
tradition of Austrian economics, argues that

Little is said when we declare the superiority of “the free market” over
“intervention.” Any market is governed by formal and informal rules, and
no one set of rules is uniquely able to render markets “free.” It is easy
enough to see the difference between Soviet-­style socialism and Western
democratic capitalism. It is not always easy to decide when a marginal
change in the rules diminishes freedom.

The old debates – capitalism vs. socialism and the like – are still present in eco-
nomic discourse; but they are gradually being eclipsed by new debates about the
relative (dis)advantages of untidy economic hybrids such as gift economies,
basic income grants, and ethically inspired market action (e.g., ethical consump-
tion, investment, or production practices).
This volume offers a snapshot of contemporary pluralist thinking in each of
these important domains. Its 20 essays, all previously unpublished, reflect the
creativity and controversy that currently surround discussions of economic plur-
alism. The first eight chapters address questions of pluralism in the philosophical
realms of epistemology, ontology, and methodology; the remaining 12 chapters
explore the roles and consequences of pluralism in real-­world economies and
economics education, respectively. Innovative reforms in all of these areas
promise to add substantial value to economics and economies in the twenty-­first
century. In support of these transformative efforts, Economic Pluralism aims to
encourage critical conversations about the role and value of pluralism in all
forms of economic institutions, knowledge, and learning.

Pluralism and economic inquiry

The first eight chapters examine conceptual and philosophical aspects of eco-
nomic pluralism. Pluralism in this context refers to the claim that there is no
uniquely warranted theoretical lens through which to view the world, no single
methodology for characterizing it empirically, and no single set of questions
worthy of investigation (Kellert et al. 2006). Chapters 1–4, “Pluralism and
­heterodoxy,” offer contentious perspectives on the value of broadening the
circles of economic conversation among heterodox schools of thought, or
6   R. Garnett, E.K. Olsen, and M. Starr
between heterodox and mainstream discourses, and how this might produc-
tively be done.
The first chapter, by current ICAPE president Frederic Lee (“Pluralism in het-
erodox economics”), looks at evidence for the existence of pluralism within het-
erodox economics. He argues that economics is divided into two distinct
alternative perspectives: mainstream economics and heterodox economics. For
some time now, mainstream economists have demonstrated a pronounced anti-­
pluralism toward their heterodox colleagues by refusing to engage with hetero-
dox theories, progressively excluding heterodox economists from academic
positions, preventing heterodox economists from gaining influence in profes-
sional organizations, and denigrating heterodox journals and departments in
ranking exercises. In contrast, Lee finds that heterodox economists (Post Keyne-
sian, institutionalist, Marxist, feminist, and others) have made pluralism a core
value. Not only do these economists maintain a level of proficiency in main-
stream economics, they also engage meaningfully with one another. Lee docu-
ments the extent to which heterodox economists belong to multiple professional
associations, routinely cite work in journals from different heterodox perspec-
tives, and participate in conferences sponsored by diverse heterodox economics
organizations. Lee argues that while the different traditions that constitute heter-
odox economics have distinct identities, there is such sustained integration of the
different heterodox approaches that they can be considered a “pluralistic, integ-
rative whole.” Heterodox economics is thus a living example of how pluralist
dialog can enrich the participating viewpoints and perhaps yield a coherent body
of analysis that transcends the individual perspectives.
David Colander, whose own work successfully straddles mainstream and het-
erodox discourses, argues (“Moving beyond the rhetoric of pluralism: sugges-
tions for an ‘inside-­the-mainstream’ heterodoxy”), in contrast to Lee, that
heterodox calls for pluralism are unlikely to change the mainstream’s disinterest
in heterodox work. Mainstream economists are so busy competing with each
other for the highly limited access to the profession’s highly regarded outlets that
heterodox work simply never makes it onto their radar screens. Colander pro-
poses several strategies to change this fact, centered on possibilities of articulat-
ing heterodox work more effectively along the innovative edges of mainstream
research.
William Waller (“Is convergence among heterodox schools possible, mean-
ingful, or desirable?”) looks at the pluralism/heterodoxy relationship through an
evolutionary lens, arguing that forces of selection tend to produce convergences
in ideas, interests, and methods across schools of thought. This selection mech-
anism makes increased cross-­talk among heterodox schools not only likely but
inevitable.
Diana Strassmann, Martha Starr, and Caren Grown (“Raising dissonant
voices: pluralism and economic heterodoxy”) point out that, in both heterodox
and mainstream circles, participation in the production of economic knowledge
is dominated by people with certain characteristics: men over women, people of
European over African or Latino ancestry, and people from wealthy countries
 Economic pluralism for the 21st century   7
over the rest of the world. Since knowledge production is inevitably shaped by
the life experiences, positions, and judgments of its participants, efforts to foster
pluralism in economics risk being hollow if they aim only to diversify theoret-
ical and methodological approaches, without also broadening the range of voices
regularly heard in economic discourse.
The remaining chapters in Part I, collectively titled “Theorizing pluralism,”
examine conceptual, theoretical, and pragmatic dimensions of pluralism in eco-
nomic inquiry. For Gustavo Marqués and Diego Weisman (“Is Kuhnean incom-
mensurability a good basis for pluralism in economics?”), pluralism has two
distinct meanings: a diversity of paradigms, and an attitude of engagement and
open mindedness. They argue that the work of J.S. Mill provides stronger
support for both types of pluralism than does Kuhn’s incommensurability thesis,
which many heterodox economists (notably Sheila Dow) have invoked in
support of economic pluralism. Kuhn’s incommensurability thesis provides only
a negative basis for recommending pluralism. We cannot entirely rule out view-
points incommensurable with our own because we lack the epistemological
grounds to do so; but this does not mean that these viewpoints have merit or can
contribute to knowledge production within one’s preferred paradigm. Marqués
and Weisman also read Kuhn as arguing that paradigms develop because of con-
vergent thinking within the paradigm, not from conversation across paradigms.
Mill, on the other hand, provides positive reasons for embracing pluralism. For
Mill, liberty of expression requires an attitude of openness and engagement
among people and society, i.e. a pluralist orientation. Further, since human
knowledge is fallible, dissenting ideas must not be silenced. Encounters between
different viewpoints are necessary to fully develop and grasp one’s own ideas.
Hence pluralism must not only be tolerated but embraced as an active catalyst
for knowledge production. Heterodox economists should therefore reconsider
their de facto reliance upon Kuhn’s incommensurability thesis and look instead
to Mill as a basis for pluralism.
Rogier De Langhe (“Why should I adopt pluralism?”) points out that lack of
consensus, or dissensus, is both ubiquitous and enduring across the social and
natural sciences. It is better understood as a stylized fact of scientific endeavor
rather than an anomalous and transient state between normal periods of consen-
sus. The task for communities of scholars and for science policy, therefore, is to
manage this diversity of views without halting or distorting knowledge produc-
tion. Pluralism provides a means to do this, but De Langhe also sees a paradox.
Individual-­level pluralism entails an “anything goes” attitude that prevents a
scholar from taking a robust stance and defending a position. So while pluralism
provides a way to manage diversity, it may inhibit knowledge production. De
Langhe proposes to resolve this paradox by distinguishing between individual
and community levels of pluralism. Individual scholars can make warranted,
albeit subjective, choices among competing alternatives, but diverse communit-
ies of scholars cannot. Hence pluralism is a desirable characteristic of groups of
scholars, and provides a way to manage diversity while promoting knowledge
production, even though individual level pluralism is not desirable.
8   R. Garnett, E.K. Olsen, and M. Starr
Tony Lawson (“Ontology, modern economics, and pluralism”) addresses the
charge of anti-­pluralism that is sometimes leveled against projects – such as his
own critical realism – that aim to provide an integrated, scientific alternative to
mainstream economics. He sees this criticism as misguided if, as in the case of
critical realism, the proposed alternative is itself pluralist. Vinca Bigo (“The Cam-
bridge School and pluralism”) confronts the related argument that critical realists
are anti-­pluralist because of their unwavering preference for “open” rather than
“closed” conceptions of economic and social systems. Bigo contests this claim,
arguing that a critical realist stance does not entail the rejection of all work done
from a closed-­system perspective; rather, it rejects the insistence that all economic
analysis must be conducted within a closed-­system framework.

Pluralism and real-­world economies

The seven chapters in Part II consider pluralism in economic structures, institu-
tions, and relations. They address several related themes: What are the desired
characteristics of a pluralistic economy? What are the advantages of an economy
that recognizes and encourages diverse economic arrangements? To what extent
are these pluralist features found in existing economies? How might the desired
features of pluralist economies become more prevalent? How can a plurality of
economic theories contribute to this? These questions are all the more apt in
light of the financial turmoil across the globe and economic downturn unfolding
in 2009. The bounds of what is possible, desirable, and indeed necessary in
terms of reform and public action seem to be broader now than at any time in a
generation, and this calls for discussion that is open not only to diverse perspec-
tives but also to diverse institutional forms.
The first four essays (“Economic democracy and the common good”) focus
on the characteristics of a pluralist economy. Gar Alperovitz (“America beyond
capitalism: the Pluralist Commonwealth”) considers the question of what the
U.S. economy might look like beyond capitalism. He finds that while long-­term
trends have left people less free, less equal, and less in control of their own
futures, a new mosaic of ideas and policies has been taking shape at the state,
local, and firm level that can counter these trends. This new mosaic contains the
building blocks of a democratic political-­economic system that differs from the
capitalisms and socialisms we have known in the past. Alperovitz calls this the
“Pluralist Commonwealth.” Large-­scale public ownership of corporate equity,
worker-­owned and community-­benefitting enterprises, Community Development
Corporations, nonprofit corporations, and enterprising state and local public
agencies all have a role to play in this commonwealth. These are not utopian
hopes; all of these institutions exist and are thriving in some form in the U.S.
today. Alperovitz claims that some kind of systemic transformation, while not
necessarily imminent, may be emerging as a spontaneous, evolutionary response
to the manifest ills of contemporary U.S. capitalism.
Robin Hahnel’s essay (“From competition and greed to equitable coopera-
tion: what does a pluralist economics have to offer?”) begins with the provoca-
 Economic pluralism for the 21st century   9
tive claim that the movements for economic justice, economic democracy, and
environmental sustainability have failed miserably over the past quarter century.
Hahnel argues that heterodox economists have contributed to this failure through
their misconceptions about the nature of capitalism, lack of clarity about what is
required to achieve progressive economic change, and flawed visions of the
desired alternatives. The key to reversing a generation of defeat is fundamental
change in the way economists understand capitalist economies, as well as new
strategies for seeking change. Like Alperovitz, Hahnel sees glimmers of hope in
an otherwise unpleasant economic reality – already-­existing “experiments in
equitable cooperation” within the prevailing capitalist economy such as local
currency systems, cooperative enterprises, and intentional communities that
should be recognized and cultivated. While imperfect and incomplete, these
experiments are indispensible as pilot programs for a progressive economics
movement that seeks to replace capitalism with equitable cooperation.
Daphne Greenwood and Ric Holt (“Growth, development and quality of life:
a pluralist approach”) argue for a new way of thinking about quality of life and
sustainability at the community level. They note that mainline economic theory
tends to obscure the distinction between growth and development. Economic
growth has yet to be proven sustainable, and rising aggregate income tells us
very little about human health, inequality, power, culture, or human relation-
ships. Growth itself is a poor and misleading indicator of quality of life. Green-
wood and Holt call for a new approach to economic theory that integrates social
development, economic growth, and “strong sustainability.” They see elements
of this new approach in ecological, feminist, post-­Keynesian, Marxist, and insti-
tutionalist economic theories – in the diverse yet complementary perspectives of
Veblen, Ayres, Galbraith, Georgescu-­Roegen, Boulding, Daly, and Nelson.
These different traditions all have something to contribute to the new pluralist
approach to human well-­being that Greenwood and Holt advocate.
Finally, Emily Chamlee-­Wright (“Beyond the status quo, in the world and in
the discipline: the comments of an Austrian economist”) approaches the argu-
ments of Alperovitz, Hahnel, Greenwood, and Holt from the perspective of an
Austrian economist. One might expect an Austrian to be mostly satisfied with
the political-­economic status quo, given the broad support accorded to market-­
based solutions in recent decades. But this is not the position taken by Chamlee-­
Wright. Like many left-­leaning heterodox economists, she is deeply dissatisfied
with the current state of both political-­economic affairs and the economics pro-
fession, and argues that important theoretical and policy changes are needed in
order to advance the common good. She also agrees with Alperovitz and Hahnel
that civil society (the non-­governmental public realm) offers rich possibilities for
cooperation and experimentation, and calls for a pluralistic conversation among
economists over the role of civil society as a means to remedy pressing social
problems. Where Chamlee-Wright differs from the other contributors is in her
vision of the state. Rather than turn to government as a complement to civil
society, Chamlee-­Wright proposes turning to radically de-­politicized market
processes in which the winners and losers are not preordained. For her the
10   R. Garnett, E.K. Olsen, and M. Starr
appropriate way forward is Tocquevillian – fostering complex forms of voluntary
community, civic and commercial – rather than the Alperovitz/Hahnel solution
of civil society plus government.
The final three chapters in Part II (“Economic cooperation: commercial and
communal”) explore alternatives to monolithic conceptions of economy, particu-
larly the notions of market economy or capitalism as all-­pervasive systems that
colonize and destroy all other forms of economic cooperation. Virgil Storr
(“Hayek and Lefebvre on market space and extra-­catallactic relationships”)
offers an unorthodox Austrian account of market processes as sources of com-
mercial and communal cooperation. Storr’s emphasis on the communal aspects
of commerce is inspired by a creative joint reading of the Austrian economist
Friedrich Hayek and the Marxist economic geographer Henri Lefebvre. While
noting that Hayek and Lefebvre both fail to theorize the communal externalities
of markets, Storr shows how their respective modes of analysis can be creatively
combined to bring “extra-­catallactic” relations into our theories and assessments
of commercial societies.
Ioana Negru (“The plural economy of gifts and markets”) examines the
evolving relationship between gift and market forms of economic cooperation,
both historically and within economic theory. Viewing gift exchange as a form
of economic interaction that is never fully supplanted by a market economy,
Negru challenges established economic and anthropological narratives that posit
a linear progression gift to market modes of provisioning. She envisions instead
a gift/market nexus, a behaviorally and institutionally diverse network of coop-
eration, as a lens through which to analyze economic life in historical and con-
temporary societies.
Philip Kozel (“Communities and local exchange networks: an Aristotelean
view”) analyzes two institutional innovations that arguably enhance the virtues
and outcomes of market exchange: local currencies and local exchange trading
systems. Against critics who see markets as necessarily entailing certain negat-
ive effects, Kozel argues, pace Aristotle and latter-­day Aristoteleans like
Amartya Sen, that the effects of markets are contingent upon the social arrange-
ments in which they are embedded. Kozel’s essay speaks to the virtues of plural-
ism both in terms of economic organization (commercial and communal forms
of economic cooperation) and economic theory/philosophy (reaching across the
left/right divide).

Pluralism and economics education

Economics education is an emerging frontier in the economic pluralism move-
ment. These final five chapters draw from the authors’ diverse backgrounds and
interests to describe innovative pedagogical, curricular, and professional reforms
through which intellectual pluralism might become (and in some spaces is already)
a valued goal and tool of graduate and undergraduate economics education.
KimMarie McGoldrick (“Promoting a pluralist agenda in undergraduate eco-
nomics education”) proposes creative strategies for pluralistic reform in under-
 Economic pluralism for the 21st century   11
graduate economics education. Over the past two decades, educators in economics
and across the disciplines have increasingly embraced the goals of active learning,
inclusive classrooms, and critical analytical thinking. These trends, McGoldrick
suggests, open the door for pluralist reform in undergraduate economic education.
She encourages mainstream and heterodox economists to form a “teaching
commons,” both to enlarge the professional dialog about economics education and
to cultivate their shared goals and values as liberal educators.
Alison Butler (“The illusion of objectivity: implications for teaching eco-
nomics”) explores issues of inclusion and exclusion in the introductory eco-
nomics classroom. While standard textbooks put forth a single, “objective”
understanding of economic principles, Butler enumerates the diverse ways that
economic phenomena are perceived depending upon an individual’s race,
gender, class, and other axes of social and economic difference. She offers con-
crete suggestions for how to enrich student learning by fostering inclusive,
multi-­perspectival discussions of economic ideas.
Gilles Raveaud (“A pluralist teaching of economics: why and how”) reflects
on the lessons he gained through a decade of work as a student, teacher, and
active participant in the international post-­autistic campaign for pluralistic
reform in graduate and undergraduate economics education. He proposes an
intelligent rethinking of introductory economics as a problem-­centered course
that includes but does not privilege standard neoclassical theory.
Rod O’Donnell (“Economic pluralism and skill formation: adding value to
students, economies, and societies”) argues that well-­designed pluralist courses
provide a broader and richer set of transferable thinking skills than their ortho-
dox counterparts (e.g., learning to judge the relative value of competing claims
when no single correct answer is available). He illustrates his claims with refer-
ence to his Contending Perspectives in Economics course at the University of
New South Wales, Australia. O’Donnell’s argument is exceptionally useful for
instructors or administrators in need of a concrete rationale for pluralistic reform
of undergraduate curricula.
Yanis Varoufakis (“A most peculiar success: constructing UADPhilEcon, a
doctoral program in economics at the University of Athens”) delivers a colorful
first-­hand account of the formation and structure of the Ph.D. program at the
University of Athens. By virtue of its unique curriculum, learning goals, and
pedagogy, the UADPhilEcon program is an exceptional model of pluralist edu-
cation. Varoufakis argues that UADPhilEcon students achieve higher levels of
intellectual autonomy via the “universal skills” they acquire through required
courses in political philosophy, economic history, and the history of economic
ideas, in addition to basic microeconomics, macroeconomics, mathematics, and
econometrics courses.

Parting words
This volume, while seeking to advance larger discussions of economic pluralism
within and beyond the discipline of economics, is ultimately limited in scope. Its
12   R. Garnett, E.K. Olsen, and M. Starr
20 chapters are devoted almost exclusively to pluralism as currently defined and
debated by heterodox economists. Such a narrow focus may seem inconsistent
with a pluralist ethos. To be clear, however, we see heterodox pluralism as merely
one part of economic pluralism, not the whole. We are keenly aware of pluralist
currents within mainstream economics, for example Davis (2006). We also do not
regard heterodox economists as always and everywhere more pluralistic than their
mainstream counterparts, or vice versa. We are excited by the pluralistic rethink-
ing of human nature, well-­being, and cooperation across the social sciences today,
and believe that all economists can and should contribute to the overlapping con-
versations made possible by these emerging developments.
That said, we also believe that heterodox economists are well positioned to
exercise leadership in the ongoing campaign to foster pluralism in all areas of
economic discourse. Some observers claim that professional economics is no
more pluralistic today than when Hodgson et al. published their “Plea for a Plu-
ralistic and Rigorous Economics” petition in 1992. Others (ourselves included)
point to the community of heterodox economists as one segment of the discip-
line in which a significant tilt toward pluralism has demonstrably occurred since
the early 1990s (Lee 2002; Dow 2000; Fullbrook 2003; Lawson 2003). The
chapters in this volume add breadth and nuance to this pluralist turn in heterodox
economics. In so doing, we hope they might elicit broader conversations about
the value of pluralism in economic inquiry, institutions, and education among
economists at large.

Notes
1 We do not classify feminist economics as a first-­wave (Kuhnian) pluralist project, in
part because feminist economics per se did not emerge until the late 1980s and because
feminist economists have generally defined and conducted their project in a more open-
­handed manner than many of their heterodox counterparts.
2 The initial petitions from French students (2000) and professors (2001) as well as the
2001 petitions from Ph.D. students at Cambridge University and from an international
gathering of economics students and faculty at the University of Missouri at Kansas
City appear in Fullbrook (2003). A 2002 petition of Ph.D. students in Siena, Italy is
available at www.debating.it/siena2003/conf_phd_econ2003/manifesto.htm. A 2003
petition by Harvard undergraduate students seeking a more pluralistic introduction to
economics is recorded in Lee (2003). A similar 2008 petition by undergraduate and
graduate students at the University of Notre Dame is available at: http://openeconom-
ics.blogspot.com/.

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Part I
Pluralism and economic
inquiry
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
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obligation, #7 Ruy, AE RAY. Boundless, (bownd’-les) a. Without
bound or limit, eR ny, SeWERH, DegTAy, PRYEOY, 4204 BAY;
immeasurable, stay; ag, the boundless ocean, YeHE, YEYE;
boundless power, 48248; boundless duration, $#(RZBf, AiR.
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without limit, $2mR, 2% GE, SRB. 283. Bounteous. (bown’-te-ug) a.
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le) adv. In a bountiful manner, HEBER. Bountifulness, (bown’-te-fil-
nes) n. The quality of being bountiful, 宽大 ， 3, TK 您 , 好 施
Bounty, (bown’-te) n. 1. Liberality in bestowing gifts and favours, eis,
PLM, AR, BEM; generosity in giving, HEHE. REG; 2. A gift Irecly
bestowed, fii 物 , $RRR, AGES 3. A premium given to induce men to
enlist into the public service, or to encourage a branch of industry,
BREA. MOZAM GIAR RAG. REO TBS Hh). Becquce (boo’;ka)n, 1. A
nosegay, 7Em; a bunch of flowers, 72, 一 东 花 ; 2. Aa aromatic
odour from the best wines when uncorked, SAMOA ARO Z ML. BF.
Bis. Bourbonism, Yoowlbondcnl n. Adberence to the legitimate royal
line, so called from partizanship to the House of Bourbon io France,
2S =, BH AFG Bee BR oh AT HS Bourdon, (booi'-dun) a. A pilgrim’s
staff, 游人 之 杖 . Bourg, (boorg) n. , 之 Bourgeois, (bur-joys’) n. ing
types, PAGE ZR. Bourgeois, (boor-zhwa'-ze) n. The mid~ dle classes
in towns, 中 等 社会 , PIRZABourgeon, (bur’-jun) x. A branch bad, (
植 ) HAW —o. t. 1. To sprout, we. HF ; 2. To set forth, x. Bourn,
(boorn) n. 1. A bound, a jimit, 界限 , 资 界 , 境界 ; 2. Goal, 目的 ,
#5 3. A stream or rivulet, 小 河 , 流水 . Bournonite, (boorf-nun-itey
n. An antis monial sulphuret of lead, 428. Bourse, (boors) n. An
exchange where merchants meet to transact business, 7 RAM. 商会 .
Bouse, Boose, (bvoz) v. i. - dy, Stk, 订 饮 Boustrophedon, (bow-stro-
fe’-don) n. An ancient mode of writing from right to’ left, and then
from left to right, as-in ploughing, URZUEHE(TAREA AK PAREL MAR
RA) [的 、 Bousy, (boo'-ze) a, Dranken, 艺 酬 的 , At Bout, (bowt) n-
1. A turn, —#1, —@43 an attempt, ~f ; as, do it all at one bout, —
SAK; 2. A single part of an action carried on at successive intervals,
AE K, AMUN GK 5 3. A trial, RPA, HM; as, 和 drinking bout,
gki#2##};4 A round, 一 KE. 一 回合 , —#-2 A Boutade, (boo-tdd")
». A whim, ZAR. & TE; a tancy, BR, SEIN) 2 caprice, 任 TE, Bik.
Bovey-coal, (bo'-ve-koal) n. ~ bituminous coal, 烟煤 之 一 种 Bovid,
ey a. "Pertaining to the ox, 牛 A fortified town, AR A kind of printe
To drink free A species of Bovine, *(bo'-vine) a.~ 1. Pertaining to
oxen and cows, ah, 47845 2. Dull, 3% eA, 果 的 , 牛 性 的
Boviform，(bo'-ve-form) a. Having the form of an ox, P14-4kaw,
47085. Bow, (bow) v.¢. 1. To bend, J. Ht, 2. To bend the body or
head in token of respect, Bhan ae May Shs LA Bchk 5 28, to bow the
head to the ground, to knock the head, 4e, 大, FRE, DNGH; to bow
themselves, #H49, #14, SBE, #5; 3. To crush, i, Bil, to subdue, 克服
, REM, SURE; as, to bow one's will, We, BIE; to bow the nations, %,
RMAR: 4. To incline, $x y:-—v. i. 1. To bend or incline ‘the body out
of respect, MS Rial Hak; to stoop, Hg; as, to bow in reverence, #£;
to bow to the ground, DNGH; 2. To bow to one, to nod or bow
elightly, BASH; to bow in return, SiR :— n. 1. An inclination of the
head, BEER, pid 2. A bending of the body, R4, ht Bow, (bow) n. 1.
The forepart of a ship, AVS, 船 头 ; 2. The bow oar, AMS. Bow, (bo)
n. 1. A well-known weapon or instrument to shoot arrows with, 5,”
3K; as, bows and arrows, Bit, Bye; 2. Anything bent or in form of a
curve, as a Trainbow， 弧 形 之 物 , 虹 ， 及 物 之 曲 作 ， 弧 形 如
虹 雳 者 然 ; 3. The doubling of a' 8tring，rlbbon，&r.，in a slip
knot, 3 GWALE MELA Bs 4 The instrument with which the chords of
a violin is sounded,, Pues, HH Ga!
 BOW 105 BOY ms aie BIA); 5. An instrument for turning is
drill, RR GRE AZHS, EVEL Bow-bearer, cheba nei) m。 An-under
ofticer of the forést, whose duty is to inform of trespasses, 党 林 窒
Bow-bent, (bo'-bent) a. Bent like a bow; FVM, maz Bing. Bow-brace,
(bo!-brase) 2. A guard on the left arm against the springing back of
the bow-string, 2U4$ (24$ LAB, 县 防 — RRR )Bow-ease, (bo’-kase)
n. bow, OB. K, Bia, MBow - compasses, : (bo'-k um-passez) n. pl.
Com- 规 贺 passes, one leg of which slides on a curved plate of
metal, which is riveted. into the other, BL, SRAR( PML). Bow-drill,
(bo! dril) n. A drill worked by a bow aud spring, $858, SHE (Babes
$R2R). Bow-dye, (bo'-di) x. A kind of scarlet colour, $2 ff. Bowed,
(boad) a, The case-of a Bent like a bow, @S 形 的 : Bowel, (bow'-el)
v ¢. To take out the _ bowels, #578 8, UMAR, HIB. Bowelless,(bow/-
el-les)a. Without tenderness or pity, Sef nity Mt PAG Bt, FE ARAR AY.
Bowels,(bow'-elz)n. pl. ‘ 1. The intestines of an animal, QRHh; the
entrails of an animal, especially of man, }2, USS. Ma, Ati}; the five
viscera, jy, HE; ae obstruction of bowels, XfiPAg; 2. The interior part
of anything, 物 之 内 部 } as, Tenderness, 3258, f21> 5 Soft bowels,
pity, (RIEL, ts Bowels of compassion, A&HS, 好 mg. Bower, (bow'-er)
n. An enchor at the’ bow of a ebip, SASH, ARIAS Bower, (bow’-er) n.
1. ‘A. shelter or covered placo:in-s garden, made with | . boughs of
trees, &c., FEM, St, AE (Hy 灯 内 树枝 称 就 之 陈 地 ) ; 2. A bed-
chamber, RASH, bE ; 3. A shady recess, Kim, KE. Bower, (bow'-¢r)n.
A muscle that bends a joint, (N88) tH MZ. Bower, (bow’-er) n.- One
of ‘two knaves _ in euchre, MUS, MEPCRBZ—. Bowery, (bow’-er-e) a.
Shading as a bower, 242i); containing bowers, 4% 的 ， gmap in. A
farm or . plantation, 22, 图 Bovwess, (bow’-es) Jel (bow’-et}) mn A .
young hawk, 4. | Bow-grace, (bow’-grase) n. A-frame of junk, to
guard the sides or bows of ships from injury by ice, ASSUB, Gai 或
船 身 之 架 , GALA HERE 2B. Bow-hand, (bo’-hand) xn， The hand
thet drawa the how, BF, UW52—F. . Bowie-knife, (bo'-e-nife)n. A
long knife, cused $8 a weapon in the Western States of America,
47], 0, RMMBAS NE 刀 . Bowingly, (bow’: pete) gdv. Inabending’ |
manner, Ath Z ‘ Bowl, (boal) n. 1. A round hollow, wt: 2. A basin,
#%, 3 a drinking cup, $f. 2, 8k 器 ; a concave vessel to hold liquors,
#¥, #5 a9, a large bowl, Zt; a soup bow}, js | 枕 ;a rice bowl, BE a
punch bowl, 大 许 BUF the bowl ‘or ‘basin of a fountain, 1 ak#}
8.'The hollow part of anything; A, RL, RGR, Nye Bowl, (boal or bowl)
n. A’ ball of — "used to play on a leyel plot of ground, 3f, aR, AAEM
EI: 2 HER FT ALF Fp 3 t. 1. To-roil as a bow! or ball, Se¢9, 如 四 本
FEL; 2. To pelt with anything rolled, SUR, EM Z EZ 5 To bowl, out ©
at cricket, ta break down one’s wicket | Bow-maker, (bo’-ma-ker) n.
the bowela of the earth, sp, 地 心 ; 3. | by bowling, (HESR)INH &
WER TK PI — vt. 1. To play at bowling, SEARAISR ZATKME) 2. To
roll a bowl, HeetHlzK, NG IMACHEIKS 8. To move smoothly dnd
rapidly like a ball, 2 Hime ‘peo 4. To alma ball at a wicket, LRA RM
MZ EB. Bowlder, (boal'-der) n, 1. A moderately sized stone, of a
round form, |@4, 大 叮 3A; 2. A block of stone borne by ice, &e.,
from its original position, (fit) A, BG. Bow-leg, (bo'-leg) n. A leg:
crooked 6 bow, SH, Ws iy. Bow-legged, (bo'-legd) a. Having crooked
lege, Bawa, Ppiay. ‘Bowler, (boal'-er or bowl'-er) n. 1. One who plays
at bowls, (fA 5 2. One who bowls the ball at cricket, (#iaR) 42
Bowlees, (bo'-les) c. Destitute of a bow, eA, 缺少 马 弧 的 Bowline,
(bo'-lin or bow’-lin) n. A rope to draw & gail into line with the bow,
and keep it close to the wind, ILAWse HPAL Beh SRA HB HE BZ 9)
Bowling, (boal'-ing or bowl'-ing) x. Playing at bowls, MRM, Aa
FBowling-alley, (boal’-ing-al’-le) a. A place for playing bowls,
M=RDH, ZR, 大 强 子 万 . Bowling-green, ‘(boal!-ing-green) n. A
Jevel place of ground kept smooth in Dowling, 37H, WAR, 平 草场.
Bowling-ground, (boal/-ing-grownd) n. Sze Bowling-greenOne who
makes bow,. S[. Bowman, (bo’-man) n. A man who uses a bow,
#fSA3 an archer, $13, SAG | Bowman, (bow’-man) n. rows the oN
oar in a boat, HU 者 , UTR, Bow-net, feo net} n. Akind of wicker
basket used for catching lobsters and crayfish, Se ees eone eae: ae
~pen,(bo’-pen) coe : 9 A metallic Follag: -pen, hav MZ ing the part
which holds.the ink bowed out toward the middle, 4t#4, RMZ SK EC
ZARA, JCA ER ah ah)... Bow-piece, (bow’-pees) x. A gun at the bow
of a ship, ARIF add. Bow-saw, (bo’-saw) n. A flexible saw fot cutting
curves, S28, #07, MEM Zoe. Bowse, (bowz) v. i. To haul or pull _
together, (fy) 一 同 拉扯 , Tal FAH ste. Bow-shot, (bo’-shot) n. ‘Phe
space which bow, —fif 23, St GME Z Ft. Bowsprit, (bo'-sprit) n. A
Jarge, boom or The man who | spar, which projects over the stem of
aship to carry sail forward, jit, Alot, AL FASE 5 as, bowsprit bumpkin,
Hier. e f 之 “Bow-string, Cie atte) n, The string of a bow, Bik:—v. t.
1.. To strangle with a bow-string, be Bae REIL A; 2. ‘Lo ‘furnish with
a bow-string, bit, 2%. Bow-window, (bo’-win-do}n. A rounded bay-
window, YNZ, SBLE. Bow-wow, (bow!-wow) n. The bark of a dog,
Borgen tee 2 inh A. Anarcher, 3A, .项 人 ; 2. One who makes ae
bow, SE, Bap. Box, (box) n- 1. A case of any size and material ‘for
containing anything, #4.—, 报 , 箱 ( 哉 物 之 箱 不 验 大 小 ); 28, 2
match box, BAI ;.a band-box, tf} a pill-box, | $85 a hat-box, @#; 2.
The contents of the case, i244 A, FFI PTAs 3. A money chest, gh i,
GEE 5 contains the compass, S2MI{#> 5. Anenclosed space, such as
a seatin atheatre, | 4. The case that if’ | Box-wood, (box’-wood) x.
an arrow may pass when ehot frem-a | _ Boyau, (boy’-0) my pl.
Boyaax.. ” WZ HOF, CZ ALM: 6. A cylindri‘ cal hollow iron used in
wheels, in which the axletree runs, R50, SHE qa 2 * SMM. eeRHMR);
7. A hollow tube in a punip, closed with a valve, Si, SS, Siok WR aR
AT D2 hs 8. The'driver's seatina coach, HAT SG i EMa Zk 19. A small
lodge, 4.8 F-,/}-@ 510. The square in which the pitcher stands,
(#ESk)i2aR HOOK ZS; To be in the wrong bux AB, AGE OMA 5 Ina
tight bo, A, AUITE PFs In the same bor, 同 榜 之 困 史 中 ,回放 :一
站 上 1. To enclose in a box, ” Afi AR 2. To furnish with a box, g¢ 4}
3. To make o hole or cut ina tree, to procure the sap, StgLiAak, 己 取
其 计 . Box, (box) n. A blow with the hand or fist, Yt, —38, FZ We
geez sv. t. Togive a box to, Yai, 4H. Yrice. i. To fight with the fist,
2B4, UFHR, a ett, F 4G. Box, (box) n. A shrub with its wood, (ti) icv.
t. To make to turn on her keel, ( 航 ) EAS RG; To box the compass,
to go over the points of the compass in either order, (Mt)
AP#M=EToOD AAR 陈 Box-coat, (box’-koat) n, An overcoat used first
by coachmen, 知 兴 老 , 短 外 家， Box-day, (box'-day) n. A day for
lodging papers, (ii) 收 京 日 期 , 放 告 日 期 ， Box-drain, (box’-
drayn) n. Au undergroand drain, bored wp on the sides and onthe
top, and covered with earth; a JAE, SUBSE, AIRE (MRR LEAT
Bmvtie2). Box-elder,(box-el’-der) n. The aub-leaved maple, (Hi) 械
树 . Boxen, (box!-n) a, Made of box-wood, N aK hy Bays reeembling
box, 似 黄杨 木 的 Boxer, (kox’-er) n. One who fights with his fists,
BRZA. HELA, MESHZ AiA pagilist, SET, 参 卫 教师 ‘Boxers,(box’-erz)
x. pl. 1Ho Chuan, Rar ‘#8; the rebels who rose against foreigners
and Christians in North China in’ the year 1900 a-p., Bé-F-32HB.
Boxing, (box'-ing) n. The actof fighting with the fist, 47385, 47H$;
the act or rale of boxing, sBL7E, HIS5 as, boxing master, #3ehn, FFT
hig. Box-iron, (box’-iurn) na. Box containing a beater for ironing,
3t:}, J45t2-. Boz-keeper, (box'-keep-er) mn. An attendantate theater
WXIBES 2°41) 2 = BH. Box:lobby; (bux"lob-be) x. The lobby leading
to the boxes, RUM LMR ER. Box-tree, (box'-tre} n. A tree or shrub of
the genus Buxus, (tif) 装 杨 水 之 一 种 . The wood of the box-tree,
HALA. Boy, (boy) n. 1. A male eae Rt HI; a lad of immature age,
RMIT ABE; as, a bright boy, si, it 2. A waiting servant, ff, iH, ir, AAAS
as, a house-boy, 侍者 , PHM, MHI The old bow, . REM, Ss Yellow
boys, HER. Boyar, (boyar} n n. A nobleman of Russia, RAM RAL. A
ditch covered with a parapet, (2%) eos, Rew. Boycott, (boy’-kot) ».t.
To combine together to havé no dealings with one on account of his
politica! opinions, a mode: of persecution sd called from Captain
Boycott, who was the first victim of'it in Ireland in'1880, 464i], FMI,
BAM SULA ROE, EIBLNCRR LZ ae SOE SR 某 人 有 所 交际 (Ee, FARA
Se ABR RIA, hE )i—n. The, process of boycotting, Ja M4E3e, 抵制.
和 Boyer, (boy'-er) n. A Flemish sloop with a castle at each end, Sei
LAR, WUE Wh Boyhood, (boy’-hood)n. The state of being .
 BOY 106 BRA 上 a boy, bin, shit, bee AZ Kit. Boyish (boy’-
ish) a. Like 2 boy, #3 Hii, BRALAY, 如 小 孩 的 ; puerile, PRM AT 童
心 的 ; as, boyish conduct, 小 孩 之 行 坊 ; boyish ideas, JRA HD.
Boyishly, (boy'-ish-le) ade. In a boyish * manner, 似 童 子 一 般 ,
URFELR. Boyishness, (boy'-ishenes) 2. Thequality of being boyish,
MF ZU, RETR. Boy's-play, (boyzpla) n. Am RABIN Zea. Brachman,
(brik’-man) Brahmin, (bri’min) n. One of the sacerdotal order in
India, BREN te Brachycatalectic, (brak-e-kat-d-lek'-tik) n. A verse
wanting red 人 at the end, (59) EAM i Zit Brachycephalic, {brak-e-
gee -fal’-ik) av .Short-headed, AHAB AN RIDE) worthy of a boy, -
hsgmU Zak, 小孩 之 作 Bi; anything trifling, B2aRBoyuna, (bo-yu'-
n&) n: we large serpent. > of America, JME, SN FBrabble, (brab’-bl)
1, 的 braw], BOPP, we 0%; a broil, 口角 , Ha. Braccate, (brak’-
kate)a.’ Having the feet concealed by. long feathers, (BH) BRAR een.
Brace,(brase) n. 1, That which ‘holds ange thing tight, Hers, Sep HS
—ty RE); 2. Acincture or bandage, WA, 12475 8. A ‘thick strap which
supports the body of a coach, HM, HS 2PM MA: 4. A strap to support
the trousers, #7, Gag 754P; 5. A pair or a couple, 一 对 ,一 名 ; as,
a brace of partridges, —2) 2448 ; 6. Tension, phy, 强力 ; 7. A
crooked line connecting two or more words or lines, thus; i (Ff) AE
@; 8. A piece of timber, framed in with bevel jointa, to keep the
building from swerving cither way, (At) Mache (EZ, AUK BSAA): 9. A
rope reaved through a block at the end ofa yard, (ft) PRA, UBL CH;
10. pl. The cords on the sides of a drum for tightening the beads
and snares, Rais EI RUST) 5 11. A handle of iron or.wood, #hig:—-v.
£1. To tighten, BAS, HhBt, HE; to bind, or tie close, $F HS855 WHE;
2. To make to atrengthen, Wi, XH, 3453 3, To strain up, 伸 , #97,
BHA; 4. To furaish with braces, i TI, DRM, Bese, SetbsekES 5. To hol
firmly; $43, 把 持 , HE :—v. 4. To brace Up, BEB. Bracelet, (brase’-
let) n. 1. An ornament for tho wrist, Gi, Hai, FO), FAs os, a .gold
bracelet, $335 2. A piece of defensive armour for the arm, #Piz. WH.
Bracer, (bra’-ser) n. 1. That which braces, 支持 之 物 REZ BS 2. A
band or bandage, Je? 447; 3. A bracing medicine, fis 33, WR, AAG 4.
A dee fence for the arm, 4f#¢, FFFA, BY. Brach, (brash) n. A bitch of
the hound kind, vg th, Hite Brachelytrous, (brak-e-li’-trus) a. With
short elytra, (#4) #7A1 2098 04. Brachial, (bra‘-ke-al) a. Bel gto the
hydi 1, (brak-e-de-ag'-o-nal)_ nn, Br The “shortest diagonal of a
rhombic’ | prism, SPCRALNG MR: Brachygraphy, (bré-kig’-ra-fe) n.
hand writing, Bima Zik, MIE. Brachylogy, (bra-kil’-o-je) n.
Conciseness of speech, (N22 i# fg. Brachyptera, (bra-kip’-te-ra) n. A
group of boleoptera having short wings, (44) 得 Aaa Brachypterous,
(bri-kip -ter-us).a.. Shortwinged, 短 术 的 . Brachytypous, (brak’ e-
tipe-us) a, Of a short form, M7245, Keay. See Type. Brachynral,
(brak-e-yu'-ral) Brachyu: rous,(brak-e-yu'-rug)a. 1, Short-tailed, Ai
few}; 2. An epithet of a tribe of erustacea, comprehending the
crabs, SRM “RNG ( 墅 亦 在 内 )Bracing, (brase’-ing) a., Giving
strength or tone, 寡 氨 力 的 , AAI AD, PAS. Brack, (brak) n. An
opening caused by the parting of any solid body, Sis, Fu: Bracken,
(brak"n) n. Fern, REM. See i Brake. Bracket, (brak’-et) n. 1, An
angnlar stay to support anything fastened to a wall, LGB, 托 架 , 腑
木 ; 2. A mark used in printing, thus, [j which enclose words or lines,
RBFEA (PBA B 2a ae ) + 3. A gas-pipe projecting from a wall, 条 上 .
MBA —v.t. To furnish with, to “enclose in’ brackets, “ple seats, Bea
FEMZA. See Brace. ._ Brackish, (brak/-ish) a. Saltish, #aRAy;
somewhat salt, We Aa wR By Brackishness, (brak’-ish-nes} n. The
quality of being brackish, 稍 骨 之 味 . Bract, (brakt) Bractea, (brak’-
te-a) 1. An irregularly developed leaf growing out from the peduncle
of a flower, &c., (#9) AL, 3, HEH. Bracteate, (brak’-te-ate) Bracted,
(brak’ted) a. Furnished with bract, (4) 42% 的 , AT REES AY. |
Bracteated, (brak’-te-a-ted) a. Plated over with a richer metal, 包 金
的 , 4128.09, DES ZS aay. Bracteolate, (brak’-te-o-late) a. Having
bracteoles, (ta) Aaity. (il) ba. 了 racteole， (brak/-te-ole)n. A little
bract, tl (brakt’-les) a. Destitate of arm, Afay, BASS, 上 腑 的 ; as,
bracbial artery, EASMME: Brachiate, (brak’-e-ate) a, Having branches
‘in pairs, decussated, all nearly horizontal, and each pair at right
angles with the next, (i) Hitkpin hE bay CR EACH, tp CN Te na
Brachiocephalic, (brak-e-o-sef-al’-ik) a. ‘Connected with the artery
which sup“plies plood to the arms and ‘head, /前 解 ) RAM EZ MATA
PH Brachiopod,(brak'-e-o-pod)n. An acephalous bivalve molltsc with
two ‘fleshy | ‘arme at the sides of the mouth, @038, Ry © FBR ESOP
AL, 2 AP). odons, (brak-e-op’-o-dus) a. Belonging, to ‘the
brachiopod'class, BRA Pepe (bra-kiet-to-se-fal-ik) a. Having its skull
sbgrt in proportion to its breadth, 短 颜 是 的 . Brachistachrone,(b1
&-kist'-o-krone)n. The curve-of ewiftest descent under gravity, ain
Ci) Seah. Brad, (brad) n. A nail without a head, but with a projection
from a side, #4, SHAT, SEZ IT ( 惟 其 劳 有 凸 出 之 处)Brad-awl,
(trad’-aw!) n. An awl to make holes for brads, #798, 方 红 打眼 之
雏 . Bradypod, (oral: e-pod) 2. A sloth, (i) Brae, (bra): n. ‘A hillside,
出 例 ， 山坡 ， Brag, (brag) v. i. To boast, Wi, Be, RG fii; to bluster,
IEMK ACH AWEBLAIA 5 as, to brag of one’s attainments, Aer, 自 难
其 能 ; to brag of one's wealth and respectability, #3¢@ 8 5 to brag
of one’s merits, HIB :—n. 1. A boast, PH, ” PER 2. A game at cards,
狐 脾 战 之 名 .， Braggadocio, (brag-ga-do’-she-o) a. 1. 及 boasting
fellow, BOM, BRZAS 2. A boast, AB, BMZHBraggardism, (brap/-gard-
izm) n. fulness, 自 跨 之 事 . Braggart, ‘(brag’-gart) n. A boaster, #1
十; na vain fellow, BA :—a. Boastful, HN. Boastshort- 上 ‘ fe Mash. 由
Brained，(braynpd) a. Bragger, (brag'-ger) x. A boaster, 路 天 者 .
Bragging, (brag’-ging) n. Boastful language, Bie 2ER. Braggingly, 全
adv. ingly, BRAK. Bragless, isl sin a. Without bragging or ostentation,
不 难 不 伐 的 , MRA. 了 rahma，Brama，({bri'-ma) mn， In the
Hindu theology, the deity viewed as “ereator, and who, ever since his
work as such was finished, is regarded as living in sublime solitary
retirement, % PL RAE (60 BBA PVRS KF, FMR tt, SOR, 馆 今 长 生 云
)“ Brahman, (bra’-man) Brahmin, (bri’-min) We One of the sacred
caste among the Bosete. ~ Hindus that boasts of direct descent.
froth Brahma, and is.therefore of high priestly rank, RBH te. BM aT
(ERPS, PS PIS a, BERLE). Brahmanaa, (bra-man’-is). Treatises on the
ceremonial system of Brahmanism, abounding in legend and
speculation, & RARE, REPT. Brahmanism, (bra’-man-izm)n. Thecreed
and ritual of the Brahmans, 23g FG, Baim. Brahminica}, (bra-min’-ik-
al) a. Pertain‘ing or Yeleuing to the Brahmins, BR 算 门 教 的 ，
Brahmo-Somaj, {bra'-mé-so"moj): 2. recent revival of Hinduism on
asin principles and the rational ideas and philosophy of Eurdpe,
SBaREN pre HAT (QAREES PHAR BP, WASH). Braid (brayd) v.t. 1. To
intertwine, sR. HRB; to plait, 办 , 打 , HAW; as, to braid the cue or
queue, 4]. 梳 黑 1 to braid rushes, 板 草 席 ; 2. To mingle, 调 , 搜 ;
as, to braid starch, 哆 次 ,失效 :一 na， 1. A narrow band formed by
plaiting, m2 PAL $7, vw, BRD; 2. Braid of hair, #E38. Braid, (brayd)
a. Deceitful, BRRAy, Be 的 ; hasty, fickle, 轻浮 的 . Brail, (brayl) n. 1.
A piece of leather to bind up a hawk’s wing, BR, RERS 348; 2. A
small rope to furl a ship's sail, $601.70 (AE LGM Z/M®) :一 0. t. To
haut up by brails, Sti, ARUP, HL. Brain,(brayn) n. 1. The soft whitish
masa enclosed in tbe cranium or skull, which is the centre of the
nervous system and the seat of sensation, perception,
consciousness, and will, AS, BES, HU (IA RAE LAW RR BAEZ Des A
32D} as, the large brainy XfM}> the small brain, 小 胶 ; to blow
one’s brains out, gBPiti; to have cracked. brains, $A, RELA, MKF; that
is beyond my brains, JE# ii Zt MI; no brains, (to be stupid),
4R54MRNES concussion of the brain, ARR&S2i@; inflammation of
brain and membranes, A9RE3 2 -The understanding, WH, BA, MEA,
Hitt: —v+.t, Todash out the brains, RH. Having brains, # Sab. 有 思
想 力 的 ; intelligent, READ. Brain-fever, (brayn’-fe-ver) n.
Inflammation of the brain, (#3) HAZE. Brainish, (brayn'-ish) a.
Hotheaded, 性 急 的 , 火 性 的 ; furious, SPAR. Brainless, (brayn’-
les) a. Silly, 恋 的 ， 时 的 ; thoughtless, MeANAGAY, BABI § witless,
不 想 的 , Sag AE AY. Brainpan, (brayn’-pan) n. The skull containing
brain, Say, AER, Ae. Brainsick, (brayn’-sik) a. Disordered in the
understanding, Rasy, HRMEAg, SU Fea, MEARE, LAE. Brainsickly,
(brayn’-sik-le)adv. Ina brains sick manner, fw, HERL, SHR ZAR.
Brainsickness, (brayn’-sik-ves) n. The state of being brainsick,, Ryd
ZAK, eA,
 BRA 107 BRA WER, SUF aA. (aaa. Brain-stone,(brayn/-
stone) n. Brain coral, Brain-throb,(brayn’-throb) n. The throbbing of
the brain, H(A, Sig. “‘Braird, (brayrd) n. The ” up of the seed of a
grain crop, SANG 之 发 戎 , HR. Braise, (braze) 9. t. close pan along
with other substances, so that they may impart their flavour :to it,
Afra SLEGIS (24 Se HP SU alta A, 使 分 别 物 之 香味 ) s—n. Meat
cooked in a close pan with cther substances, BAAR AR WAZA.
Braising-pan, (braze'-ing-pan) n. A covered pan for braising meat in,
4 #3285, FARE. Brait, (brayt) n. - A rough diamond, 组 爹 AB. :
Brake, (brayk) n. A fern, BR, G¥E 3 place overgrown with brake,
shrubs, and brambles, RE, HM, RABE SS a thicket, $3 as, a cane
brake, FRR. ° Brake, (brayk) n. 1. An instrument to break flax or
hemp, SRK, PERLE 2. The handle of a pump, dh fF 2493 3. A baker’s
kneading-board, SU fLA RT FARES Mw fs; 4. A sharp bit or snaffle,
22H Mh; 5. A frome for fettering refractory hersés while shoeing
them, @il/223) ABER ST RRR GR ZAR); 6. A heavy harrow, 44; a
heavy harrow for breaking clods, #248, BLA Bw; 7. An appliance to a
wheel to check motion, fit 动 楼, 停 输 样 , 输 第 3 Air brake, BRM;
+ Hydraulic brake, Aaa SB. Brake-man, (brake’-man) Brakes-mas, |
(brakes’-man) 7. A man who has charge of the brake, 学 输 制 之 人
. 了 rake-Van，(brake'-van) n. The vatt.ate tached toa train, to the
wheels of which the brake, is applied, filipgi, BARGE ( 火 EST HE
RZ). Braky, (brake’-e) a. Full of brakes, Wit 的 ; rough, #1a8; thorny,
赴 款 的 . Brama, (bri'-mal n. See Brahma. Bramah-press, (bra’-mi-
pres)n. A hydrostatic prees (invented by Bramah), 232 是 (人 名 ) a.
Bramble, (brani'-Di) mn，1. The blackberrybosh, (hth, BM MAF; 2.
Any rough, prickly, wild shurb, FIR MEA RIZE. | Bramble-bush,
(bram’-bl-biish) n, . A collection of brambles growing together, %
WES prickly shrubs, Fie, BM. Brambled, (bram’-bld) ac. Overgrown
with brambles, #I¢UREAY. SATICHAY. Bramble-berry, (bram’-bi-ber-
re) mn。 The fruit of the bramble, WRF, RAF. Brambie-net,(bram'-bl-
net) x. A kind of net to catch birds, #4, 3%, BAZ. Brambling, (bram'-
bling) n。 The moua- | tain finch, 山 岛 . Brambly, (bram'-ble) a. Full
of brambles, 肖 地 草 杯 的 Bramin, (bram’-in) n. See Brahmin.
Braminee,(bram-in-e’)Braminess, (bram/'in-es) n. The wife of a
Brahmin, WH PREZ. , Braminical, (bra-min’-ik-al) a. Pertaining to the
Brahmins, ¥7Z 73443 pertaining to their doctrine, g¥El 438k
85Braminism, (bram’-in-izm) n. The religion of the Brahmins,
#87244. Bran, (bran) n. The husks of ground corn, separated from
the flour by bolting, MiSKI 2H, BE; ae, bran bread, PS, DT «
Braneard, (brank/-ard) n. , H, ME s—v. i. To shoot out in branches or
into subdivisions, 3>#f, 分 枝 , BREE AM, HES To branch of, 分 ,分
Wa, SeHE; to branch off, as a river, Fie; to branch off, as a road, ‘(
Js, Wee; To branch out, to speak diffusively, tie SR, ABER —v. et. 1,
To adorn with needlework, representing flowers and sprigs, agi, MEH
2. To divide into branches or iuto subordinate divisions, 3 $k,38R ;.
Branched-work, the gealptured leaves and branches in monuments
and friezes, BAEZ AKG (Be PER LIA SRRE NG 2 HERE). Brancher,
(bransh’er) n. 1. That which brenches iortb， 支 出 之 物 ; 2. A
young bewk or other bird when it begine to take te the branches,
783%, AM (REZ. te). 、 Branchery, (bransh'-er-e) n. Vessels ramified
throtgh the pulpy part of the fruit, Mb, EE. Branchiate, (brank’-e-ate)
a. Having gills, #7 SRR. Branchis, (brank’-e-e) n. pl. The gills of
fishes, Fi #3. Branchiness, (bransh’-e-nes) n. Fulness of branches, 多
枝 , HH, HERS. Branching,(bransh’-ing) a. Shooting out branches, 萌
枝 的 , 生 杖 的 . Branchiopod,(brank’-e-o-pod)n. A crustacean, in
which the gills are supported by the feet, (S)) 2B, PAZERA ee, BEI.
Branchiopodous, ( brank-e-op‘-o-dus) a. Pertaining to the
branchiopods, BiA Boas. Branchiostegan, (brank-e-os’-te-gan) n. A
cartilaginous fish which has its gills covered with a membrane,
RRMA, Rat REARBZ). ~~ Branchicstegous, (brank-e-os'-te-gus) a.
Having the gills covered, QA Bt); pertaining to the branchiostegane,
Wigs Branchiostoma, (brank-e-os'-to-ma4) 2. A semi-transparent fish
of 2in., without *gkull,. heart, brain, or limb, and with. colourless
blood, 4 ( PA BOK 寸 , SEIU ee AE, DC LTA OR Branchireme, (
brank’-e-reem) n. An animal that has setiform legs, SRR %, BMPR
IM). Branch-leaf, ( bransh’-leef) 1. growing on a branch, # L2H.
Branchless, (bransh’-les) a. Destitute of branches or shoots, SREEAY,
SKA ARENT > naked, SBM, 269893 without’ anvaluable product, 不
能 产物 的 . Branchlet, (bransh’-let) n. branch, a twig, 小 枝 , LEE.
Branch-peduncle, (bransh'-pe-dung-kl) n. A peduncle springing from
a branch, (HD) 枝 生 之 花 醒 Branch-pilot, (bransh’-pi-lot) n. A pilot
who holds: a diploma for a especial navigation, fA 4 i) GERI ZEA.
Branehy, (bransh’-e) a. Full of branches, 党 枝 的 ， HE FEBAY; with
wide-spreading branches, 枝 某 鞭 朴 的 , BPERY. Brand, (brand) n.
1. A burning piece of A leaf A little wood, MB ZAR, 火把 ,, 炬 , Abe)
@ piece ‘of wood partly burned, PAZ; 2. A sword, (#¥) Gil. 05 3. A
mark made by a hot iron, AACELDAPIMS ZENS 4. Quality, SB BE 5. A
mark of infamy, 鹏 BETAS epee 5 6. A disease in Vegetables, RHEL :
—v.t. 1. To mark witha brand, 打 烙 印 , 打 火 印 ; 2. Lo put a
distinctive mark, SEP ge. 加 加 次; to brand as criminals, 3%, Wig, i
3. To stigmatize, Wf, 34%, iil, 7. Brandgaose, (brand'-goos) n. A
species ,Of wild- goose, FEM. FEZ —iiBrandied, (bran‘-did) a. Mized
or _ strengthened with brandy, Fi (A MIsHig7% PERE 2 BEAL AY. 3
Branding-iron, (brand’-ing-i-urn) Brandiron, (brand/-i-urn) n. 1. An
iron to brand with, HGR, AQEN, PA LURTEN ZARED 5 “2. A trivet to
set a pot on, Sap, AAgE > yp. Brandish, (bran/dish) v.t. To' wave a
wand, or to flourish a weapon, itt, 舞 HRH; to move a flag, HME; as,
to brandish a spear, ###2; to brandish the sword, #861, S61, $67]
5 to brandish the arms, 舞 手 :一 n。 A flourish, 4, 舞 . Brenaisher，
(bran'-dish-er) n. One who brandishes, 挥 者 ， 舞 者 . Brandling,
(brand’-iing) n. 1. A young salmon, =f; 2. A kind of worm, WA, Are.
Brand-new, (brand’-new) a. Quite new, as if fresh from fire, (UM}8
Way, PeaAd, 新 鲜 的 Brandrith, (bran'-Grith) n. A rail round a well-
mouth, $l, JF 0 23N. Brandy, (bran’-de) n, Spirit distilled from wine,
Haye #e A 2 08, 14 is FAI Brandy-faced, (bran'-de-fayst) a. Looking
ag if addicted to drinking, HOUR H,36 HAA. Brandy-wine, (bran'-de-
wine) n- Brandy, 他 前 地 酒 . Brangle, (brang'-gl) v.7. To wrangle, $
#45 to squabble, Sih], 口角 , Brangler,(brang’-gler) n. A quarrelsome
person, FERS, He, 好 与 人 口角 者 . Brangling, (brang/-gling) n. A
quarrel, | Brank, (brank) n. A bridle to gag scolding women, ¢ti
Z4n(HeABRZ0%)Brank, (brank) n. Buckwheat, a species of
polygonum, (Ki) =e, EE. Brankursine, (brank/-ur-sin) n. The plant
bear’s-breech, (Hi) Zee (JORG PARRA). : Branlin, (bran’-lin) n. See
Brandling, Bran-new, (bran’-new) a. Quite new, 新 fy. See Brand-
new. Branny, (bran’-ne) a. Resembling bran, PRK, Bene ky, eae Ay
Brant, (brant). The brand-goose, (&f) BF XE. EBrant-fox, (brant'-fox)
n. A kind of small fox, 小 狐 锂 . Brasen, (bra’-zn) a. See Brazen.
Brash, (brash)a. 1. Hasty, Pi Ara), i A935 impetuous， 激 烈 的 ， 愤
发 的 ， 火 性 的 ; 2. Brittle, any, Bray. Brash, (brash) n. 1. Rock
disintegrated into small fragments, KAM )E)E, 7; 2. Refuse boughs of
trees, sts 3. A rash or eruption, 32; 4. Fragments of ice, ok}p; Water
brash, BA, seme 5 Weaning brash, 小 儿 断 筷 向 所 起 之 下 执 .
Brasier, (braze’-vyer)n. 1. One who works in brass, Maife; 2. A pan
for holding . charcoal, Gk, Rb, PRs. Brasil, (bra'-zil or bra-zeel’) n.
See Brazil. Brass, (briis)n. 1. An alloy of copper and zinc, or anything
made of it, S94, RD St Ged FUSED TES) 5 2. A plate of it. inlaid on a
tombstone, RA_EAMAZIE SRK; 3. Money, #18; 4. Brazenness, 4 WE
ie; 5. pl. Musical instiuments in a band, Jae Zee (ARB ) 
 BRA 108 BRE Bragsage, (bras'saje) n. Sum levied for |
expenses of coinage, SHEE, SREEER (以 介入 |. WRAE RD). 7
Brassart, (bras’-sart) n. Armour protecting the upper arm, S42 dpm,
Gyan., Brass-hand, (bris'-band) n. A band with wind instruments of
brass, ARC Sa M4 EZ 如 区. Brasse, (bras) n. The pale-spotted perth,
Pa t Brasset, (bras’-set) n. Acagque, BE, iis. Brass-foil,.(bras'-foyl)
Brass-leaf, (briis’leef) n. Dutch leaf, S398, #3 brass beaten out thin,
Hs ZeAe. Brass-foundry, (briis'-fown-dre) n. PS TRE, TORE. Brassica,
(bras'-se-ké) n. Planta.of the cabbage family, 白 荣 , #89, HALA,
BME; brassica riibra, JFRE4R ; colewort, AEBEEE. Brassiness, (briis’-
se-nes) n. The quality of being brassy, P13ti, OBL, BBA HE SAZIK, BL
SMD. Brass-paved, (brds'’-payvd) a. brass, Sin BeoAy. Brass-visaged,
(briis’-via-ajd) a. Impudent, Aéneay; brazen-faced, KAT 县 的 ,
BAAS. Brassy，(bris'-e) ad. 1. Like or made of Drass， 介 黄 铜 的
， 黄 铅 所 岗 的 〗 hard as brass, 坚 若 黄岗 的 ; 2. Impudent, JE
ARSY. ASAE. Brat, (brat) n. A child, so called in contempt, SERS, FUR
(UBARNTZZ EF). Brattice, (brat’-is) n- See Brettices. Braul, (brawl) n.
Cloth with blue and white stripes, BAHIA. Braunite, (braw’-nite) n.
manganese, 保 娇 . Bravado, (bra-va'-do or bra-vi/-do) n. 1. A boast,
#1, #2; 2. An arrogant menace, BYSk, TERR. : Brave, (brave) a. 1.
Courageous, 大 有 照 的 ， BEA, 勇敢 的 ; fearless, i, 不 性 的 ;
gallant, S44ay; as, a brave fellow， 勇 士 , +L, 4 WRB a brave
soldier (or patriot), Hb, BH; 2. Showy, HF IRAY ARR BGA; of noble
mien, MBREN), 英雄 的 , SAL SpE; dignified, mi RAY, Weateys as a
brave or dignified deportment, Ba MMB : —n. 1. Amandaring beyond
discretion, Uk, Bk, WAZA, 勇敢 之 人 , 行 阶 省 , 挫 死者 ; 2. An
Indian warrior, 印 度 之 甩 士 :一 3. t. To encounter with courage
and fortitude, WF, #, 不 怕 险 ; to defy, Hi, 3, #3 as, to brave death,
Wt, 43h, TIA 3G; to brave danger, Wh, Wii to brave suspicion,
‘WYRE, ARREE; to’ brave ‘boisterous weather, Ff BA, 7G RA; to brave
cold, Hii#, WX; brave it, Ki, B TREE, 伴 局 也 大 ， Bravely, (brave’-
le) adv. Courageously, Tk, BUR, RA, Mow, aR. BIA, BA, 英 壮 之 状 .
Bravery, (brave’-er-e) n. 1.Thequality of “being brave, Ji, Bl REZ Ml,
BRIA. Be FL Hard as An ore of 英勇 , HM, Woy; gallantry, RAMs 2 |
Splendour, 4H, #4, 342, 3B. Bravo, (bri'-vo or bra'-yo) n.' A bandit,
强 徒 , 强 贼 ; a hired assasein, HA, Bik CHF, WF. Bravo, (bri’-vo)
Bravissimo, (brirvisremo} interj. - Well done! #b #8, 猪 Mt, et
Brayura, (bra-voo'-ra) n. An air requiring great vocal power and
spirited execution, (#f) Luh GUSH ERM SEK PHM) :一 c， Spirited,
difficult, and brilliant, Sees @ritMe ne wT RMAC ch ny. Brawl,
(braw!) v. t. and v. 7. 1. To quarrel noisily and indecently, MDH. RE,
GRR, mt / w5 2. To make a loud, confused noise, EPA, {Ente we; 3.
To scold, He, thin. 1. Anoisy contention, 4b, 口角 , MAR, MRS 2. A
kind of dance, Bi MH, MI Z—K. : Brawler, (brawl’-er) n. | Brawner,
(brawn’-er) 7. - Brawny, (brawn'-e) a. A pee fellow, Si ZA, OMA, me :
Brawling, (brawl’-ing) a. Noisy, vain, Weal ; quarrelaome, HFBRURM
LAF IAY- | Brawlingly, (brawl’-ing-le) adv. Ina brawling manner, MZ
IR Brawn, (brawn) 2. boar, 猪肉 ; a3, the ‘salted flesh of a boar,
BERKig3 2. A muscular part of the body, -| SLAKHZBS 3. Muscular
strength, | Sth, 54. The arm, FH. for the table, BURL. | Brawnineas,
(brawn!-e-nes) n.. The quality of being brawny, Att, H(t, AHA.
Strong, ane ny, KATHI HY; muscular, Mees, 强 有 力 的 Braxy, (braz'-
e)mn，1.,An inflammatory disease in sheep, # ZH; 2. Mutton of, a
sheep affected with it, AREY Py. Bray, (bra) ». . To pound or beat
small; i. AE, Be. ass (bra) v.74. 1, To bray as an ass, BR BH, HANG;
2. To make a harsh, disagree~ able, grating sound, (PRM i—v. t. To
utter with a bray, f6M@ag:—n. 1. The noise of an ass, BRAK, Kaw};
2. A barsh grating sound, FR2 %, WALZ. Brayer, (bra’-er) . 1. Qne
who brays like an ass， 出 误 如 矶 者 ; 2. An instrument to temper
ink，( 印 刷 ) IBZ ct. Braying, (bra’-ing) n. A loud bat senseless
clamour, 嘎嘎 ， Brayle, (bray!) n. See Brail. Braze, (braze) v. t. 1.
To solder with brags. and zinc, FARSAASEFE s 2. To harden to
impudence, #36, AM; 3. To harden, JK; 4. Tocover with brass, LIES,
LARS. Brazed, (bra’- zed ) a., With three cheverons clasping one
another, (0 有 SWeZIW, ates. Brazen, (bra'-zn) a. 1. Made of brass, 3
$A], 黄 疝 所 筑 的 as, a brazen vessel, Aisa 器 ; 2，Impudent， 佑
面皮 的 ， 不 车 协 的 3 The brazen age, PEATE, BIRMIET :—v. i. To
be impudent, ESR; to bully, Am. Brazenly, (bra’-zo-le) adv. In a
brazen manner, 插队 之 驮 . Brazenness, (bra’-zn-nes) n. The quality
of being brazen or insolent, 不 知 蓝 霓 或 BAZ. Beeson oad (bra’-zn-
browd) a. Shameless, 不 知 益 的 ; impudent, WMT Ait), Ba. Brazen-
face, (bra’-zn-fase) mn， An impudent person, jb@, Bige AME.
Brazier, (braze'-yer) fm。 See Brasier. Brazil, (bré-zil’ or bra-zeel 1.
The empire of Brazil, PGE. Brazil, (bra-zil’ or bra-zeel’) Brazilwood,
(bra-zil'-wood) n. A. wood for dyeing red, brought from Brazil, &c.,
(ffi) 巴西 Bezier, RA. Braziletto, (braz-il-et’-to) n. An inferior kind of
Brazil-wood, (Hi) Fa¢zK. Brazil-nat, (bra-zil’-nat), mn The fruit of |
the Brazil palm, (4) 2M. We. Brazilian, (bra-zil’-yan) a, Pertaining to
Brazil, 也 西国 的 . Breach, (breetsb) mi、 1. A breaking, 攻破 ， 打
破 ; 2. A break, geet, MH, BZ Rs the state of being broken, mf, 3 a
ate 20,20,%, @ () | a 3. ‘1 The flesh of a | A boar killed 7 make a
breach, or opening, a3 in the: wallg of a fortification, xkak, #7 at; as
to breach a wall, 7 et 58 Hit, Be wr IRs to breach a wall with
artillery, fig Beeschful, (breetsh’-fal}: a. -Full of breaches, BBS Wy,
多 所 破 狐 的 、 Breachy, (breetsh’-c) ec Apt to break fences, Bare
MBL); unruly, 3 TED, Me HY. Bread, (bred) n. 1. Food made of flour
or ground corn. baked, $2 fi, #4 5a, Fi 31 2? 或 米 业 所 氢 烤 成 之
食品 wheaten bread, 缚 重头 ; rye bresd， 小 砍 暂 其 ; a slice of
bread， — Ii i tL; 2，Food, 狂 含 , 伪 3, Wi livelihood, Ae, sf’ 2s, to
get one’s bread, #{OiRA 3. Bread and duuer, means of living. Stary,
日 用 之 食品 , KK, MOS The feast of the un~ leavened bread,
SREFH; 'tis no bread and butter of mine, 不 明 我 事 ， Bread-
baeket, (bred’-bisk-et) n. .下 he basket or tray for carrying bread, Bo
3, POLE, BW OCERD. Bread-chipper, (bred’-tship-per) 1 n A baker’a
servant, Mféift@; an under~ butler, REAR, WER. Bread-corn, (bred’-
korn) n. Cornofwhich bread is made, BH, BH, BGM. , Bread-fruit-
tree, (bred/-frute-tre) nm， A ttee of the South Sea Islands,
producing a fruit which, when roasted, is used as bread, (Hi) RUE,
SR, SUG (南海 各 BER MHZRIEZ THe). Breadlesa, (bred’-les)'a.
Without bread,” 人， SEHERGS destitute of food, Be Bread-room,
(bred’-room) n. An spartment in a ship's hold, where the bread and
bigeuils are kept, $9008, MACE (Ahk Br LEST). Broadstuff, {ored'-
stuffy n. Bread-corn, 五 $i; flour, pap. Breadth, (bredth) n. Measure
from side to side, WA, 9B, ITA, 0G (SEES Rp) 5 as, the breadth of
calico, a ~ 9% BE>. length and breadth, #24, HEA, $208 ; not a
hair's breadth, 阅 Bread-winner, (bred’ winner) n. The member of a
family whose earnings support it, Wee, 一 家 之 主 , TRA GB
EVDRER AH). Break, (brake) v. #.; pret. broke; pp. broke, broken. 1.
To shatter, FTE, aH 5 as, to break a glass bottle, 玻 殉 杯 打 成 粉 俯
; 2. To rend apart, 3301, 据 破 ; as, to break @ Tope, A¢MMA— HH;
3. To part by force, = ip 破 , FT, Bi, 用 力 分 阴 ; 4. To rupture, 1,
$B; 5. To disperse, BRK, ARES as, Cs break the ranks, 玻 其 行伍 , fit
Bem> 6. To weaken or impair, #4, WRhiGit. 使 之 脆弱 3 as, to be
broken down with 大 work, 过 劳 成 几 ; 7. Lo subdue, i aR, BEAD.
克服 ; as, to break one’s power, ESCHESS |; 8. To tame or make
tractable, SEN BAR, 2 IE | aa, to break a horse, TER MIR: 9. To
make bankrupt, (Ege, CEPIPY, tEakzE, HBR; as, to break a bank, 4%
#1 7F @) PA; 10. To dismiss or cashier, BAGR, iM, BAG, DAE, RAS TL
To violate, as a law, 9, RB, 不 守 (如 法 律 , 合同 之 据 ) ; as, to
break faith, KES 12. To interrupt, fuk, BH, ik, MB; as, to break one’s
sleep, #th7gme; to break. tion of a law, t at PRE, BBS, 7
infringement, 犯法 】 a3, A breach of duty, WT BT ATAR) A breach
of poet ORME, MAA; 4. Quarrel, PR, Wx, Py WR 23, A breach of
friendship, % M38, Wnts 5. Injury, UE, Maes 6i "breaking of waters,
RI; 7. (Med.) _ Rupture, (7) wi; 8. An assault, Me, MBWW, as, 4
breach of promise, iE ; ‘A breach | Of the peace, 妨害 公安 , BBR: —
v.t. To upa ting, RF; 13. To intercept, MB Ri, BAR; 14. “To lessen the
force, TAN, BE >, BBN; as, to break one’s courage, WEA; 15. To
make first ee of, as a scheme or tidings, ute, Bf, 告 (CDANST EE,
BIBRA) 5 To break the back, to ruin, SUM, 破败 ; ([Naut.] To break
the keel, to get through with the most part, (it) KEM; To break bulk,
to begin to unload, St 244, WITTE: To breakcover, to come forth
from a lurking-place, as ¢
 BRE 109 BRE hunted game, HRMR2 sai 98, 突出 ( 即 如
MAM); To break a deer, to cut it up |at table, Shay, ABLE DARI To
break ground, {OR, SL ia, BIE. BT, BUR; To break the heart, 伤心 ,
BG; To break a lance, $eetneH, bats To break the ice, FRR ALI,
HEDAO 5 To break wind, 放屁 ; To break silence, BUH, e003 xT To
break prison, 破 鉴 而 选 ; To break wpon the wheel, to stretch and
break the bones by torture upon the wheel, JH salar, $37) GAR) sv.
7. 1. To part in pieces, 粉碎 , W497, 4k (EMUE 5 2. To burst, 4B; 3.
Lo show the first light or dawn, M3 ChA, 昭 , WE. 天 明 ; 4. To burst
forth, RH, 3k, MHL; as, the storm broke, 风雨 狂 作 ; 5. To utter or
exclaim, SUL, RK, ABH; 6. To become bankrupt, ‘al FA, S&H, BH 7.
To decline in health ‘and strength, #29Uiie, Hid Hse; 8. To pore a ae
iat 突 造 , OW, HAs 9. To interrupt, as _ friendship， 交 情 间隔 ; to
fall out， 不 投机 BRM, HT, ARR to break from a company, #, AMS.
AE %. tt ak, WR IW; 10. To change, tt, WME (BM); To break down,
(a) to destroy, a. Bk. $8, 91; (b) to overcome FER; (c) to give way,
Wiha; to break down ina carriage, Hii, SRYEIPP; To break off, (a) to
part by breaking, #5, 断 , 分 】 (6) to abandon, #$ 45, 44 ME; (c)
to desist suddenly, PERSE PR, thik, MYR; To break up, (a) to dissolve
or to put an end to, 解 ,停止 , #3 (b) to open, or lay open, BA. 关 ,
25 (c) to separate or disband, fieitk, Bi, 2k; To break in, (a) to enter
by force, Fla WE; (0) to intrude, Jk; To break loose, (a) to escape
from captivity, REEREXPs {b) to shake off restraint, atiFye; To break
out, (a) to issue forth, 突出 , AEs (6) to digcover itself by its effects,
Hi, KEL, $2 (如 区) (c) to appear in eruptions, sti, eM (ag e)i. (d) to
throw off restraint, and become dissolute, FAK, WB HE ; to break out
into tears, 忽然 大 器 1; to break out, as fire, 失火 , 起 火 , WMA; to
break out, asa river, 水 过 河 其 , WTR YEH, WARE 5 to break out,
as war, Mes 2th, GF; To break with, (a) to part in enmity, 不 和 而 别
， A tk TG Bes (b) to cease to be friends, MAMAS, WAi—n. 1. A state
of being broken, 9%, S#8R, BUA. Biv, 4 t#; 2. An opening or
breach, maz 十 KE; 3. An interruption, BRIE, 斯 绝 ; A pause, SK,
AKO, RAR. SKE, BAG 4 A line in writing or printing, noting
suspension of the sense, or a stop, —fif, FTE FOES, HAZ AT ML, Da
eZ ME WARES) ; 5. The first appearance of light in the morning, or
the dawn, B, KAR, KM, RHE: 6 A drag or appliance to check motion,
3, filsyHRs 7. A strong-built carriage, used for breaking in horses,
and training them to draught, Sit GAGS IC At A 之 坚 车 , WARE
ZLEA, RRR ee | 用 者 ); 8. A break in architecture, [y#Breakable,
(brake’-a-bl) a. Capable of being broken, Waki, 如 折 的 . ee ane n.
1, A breaking, 打 雁 i 2. An allowance for things acsite broken,
We3k, SRR IAZ Breaker, (brake’-er) n. violator of the law, 犯法 者 ,
BEB; 2. A rock which breaks the waves, or the } wave in the act of
breaking, iA, wR, : WU, HARLIR: 3. Erection in a river 多 break
floating ice, 河中 破 流 凌 之 限 石 ， A machine for breaking rocks,
a 5. A water-cask, 水 惨 . Breakfast, (brek’-fust) n. The first meal in
the day, $38, FM, 22,47 0 -Z0Rs wea, wTiiat, 可 二 - CH | Breast-
casket, (brestr Kkaak-et) n. ABE 1. A violator, # , | Breast-high,
(brest’-hi) a. as, is breakfast ready ? SLIEtR(N ZH sv. 1. Take
breakiast, RY, RPM, MPM, il'E@k:—v.¢ To furnish a breakfast, hit AE.
F Breakfasting, (brek’-fust-ing) n. 1. The act of taking breakfast,
4705, 食 早 版 之 事 ; 2. A party at breakfast, Pg hii Z. Ay 同 食 早
艇 者 Breaking-in, (brake -ing-in) n. 1. Training, SEIN, BRK, DIK: 2.
Irruption, HA, MA, 插口 . Break- “joint, (brake’-joynt) n. The
disposition of the stonea or bricks, so that the joints shall not fall
immediately gver one another, ‘Quige:, MR ik, vt (RANE, (Hee eb ER
a ees (brake’-man) x. A brakesman, HAULS ZA . Breakneck, (brake'-
nek) n. 1, A fall that breaks the neck, Rti7MiH; 2. A steep place
endangering the neck， 危 踊 之 处， AYES DR (PRT).
Breakpromise, (brek’-prom-is) a. A promise-breaker, 背 钓 者 , RE.
Breakshare, (brek’-share) n. in sheep, 494. Breakwater,(brake'-waw-
ter) n. A mole, to break the force of the waves, and protect shipping,
viet, FRB (BLL WERE. LURE ZAREE). Bream, (breem)-n. A fresh-
water fish of the carp tribe, RkMH AMM: a fish, cyprinus, M05
cyprinus gilelioides, BAM. 5 the bluntheaded bream, cyprinus
abbreviatus 22h, BM 5 the red-tailed bream, cyprinus auratus, HN,
ALR. Bream, (breem) v.t, To burn off the seaweed, ooze, &c., from a
boat or ship’s bottom, #8 a (58 ce Mr i Sa, Bh HE AL ND. Breast,
(breat) n. 1. The fore part of the body, between the neck and the
abdomen, Wai, RAWTEE AS WE SCI Bh 了 用 之 一 部 ) ; as, to
expose one’s breast, iy fa, BU; to beat one's breast, 15%, Ring HAE;
2. The soft protuberance on the thorax, terminating in a nipple, Lag,
SL (MURA Ky, 如 鳃 崇 起 者 ) 3. The bosom, 胸 愧 ,局 抱 ;the heart
心 , 必 胸 ,五 中 ， the seatof the affections and passions, SE (HARE
ML) ; as, to keep carefully in one’s breast, @BAMB, 常 存 胸中 , 常
在 心 BA; to lay up in one’s breast, HR Oia, Si #1 Hh; 4. The front or
fore part, 前 部 或 上 部 ; To make a clean breast, to reveal all one
knows, #3 yh #, BAD ALR 5 To walk abreast, WAM :—v.t. 1. To meet
in front, $Engdi4&, HME, ih i 2. To face, @ Hf, Mit ABS; To breast up
a hedge, to cut the face of it, Mi, WAL . We Breast-band, (brest/-
band) n. A rope or belt of canvass passed round the body of the
man who heaves the lead in sounding, (ffi) 过 胸 带 - ， Breastbone,
(brest’-bone) n. The flat bone of the breast, Kay, HM; the thorax or
chest, fy I; ensiform cartilage, Ka FiN®A disease Breast-deep, a
deep) a. Up to the breast, 高 亚 胞 Breast-drill, pie dril) n. A drill |
worked against the breast, Hasft (fa520 LUA Zoe) Breasted,(brest’-
ed). 1, Havinga broad breast, 77 HHA, mae 2, Having fine. voice, 佳
音 的 ， Breastfast, (brest'-Hisl) n. Air in gentle motion, 微风 ,惠风 ,
和 斩 ; as, there is not a breath of air, —S2 RL SHIEK, SRI: 11, A
mete word, —B, 18, JE 12 Anexhalation, 香气, 芬芳; as, the breath
of flowers, 76%. | Breathable, (breeth'-a-bl) a. That may be
breathed, 可 以 呼吸 的 . 和 “Breathableneas， ( breeth’-a-bl-nes) n.
State of being breathable, 可 呼吸 之 情 状 . Breathe, (breeth) v.i. 1,
To inspire and expire air, MPI: SM, 呼吸 ; 2. To live, 有 生气 ,生存 ;
a5, a8 long as I breathe; 我 在 生 , 一 中, &— mz; he breathes no
more, $48, BIH; to breathe again, ff, 再 生 ， #455. To take a
breath or pause, ff i, BRS 4. To pass as air, MRAZ 去 , 吹 ; ag, to
breathe on one’s hand (to warm them), mR, mF 5 5.. To exhale, i, 吐
; to breathe nothing but vengeance, IRAE IRR; To breathe one's last,
to expire, M41. MU4B:—v. t. 1. To inhale, as air into the lungs, and
expel it, 呼吸 , WPA AL ( 吸 皂 人 肺 而 呼出 之 ) ; 2、 To inspire or
blow in, MA, MEA BRA A; 3, To utter softly, SG, WARE 4+. To give
vent to, 舒 , 泪 , 吐 ;5. To express, ， 辟 明 ， 介 明 ; 6. To
manifest， 话 列 ， 载 明 ; 9.fTo rest, BX. fii; 8. To cause to sound,
WRI4; 9. To utter, WR ETES. ‘Breathed, (bretht) a. 1. Possessed of
breath， 有 呼吸 的 , AMM; 2, Uttered with breath, DISA
RMESERYBreather, (breeth'-er).n. 1. One who breathes or lives, OF
0% 2, A i HH, A pin worn on~ 1, Armour:
 BRE 110 BRI 有 生命 者 ; 2 One who animates by
inspiration, RG, @ MH; 3. One who warms anything by breathing,
wt. Breathful, (breth’7i)} a. Full of breath, 1 BSA, Mok MAYS
fragrant, 香 的 , % 芳 的 , Biipag. Breathing，(bree 纺 -ing) a. As if
living, 话 的 , 有 气息 的 ， 如 生 的 ， 似 有 生命 的 :一 2 1.
Respiration, 呼吸 ; 2. A gentle breeze, WR, 38 A. ch i, H&L 3. Any
gentle influence, AEB); as. the breathing of the Spirit， 弄 和 神 之
感动 4. Exercise, i 动 , 体操 , 4S 5. A pause to 2 breath, GB, RRL 6.
An aspirate, $138 ( 重 MZ); 7. Aspiration, WZ, WZ, wv. Hl; 8. The
sound caused by breathing, FRE, 气 音 , ORE. Breathing-place,
(breeth'-ing-plase) n. A place to pause, #t, Ht (应 少 息 之 地 ).
Breathing-pore, (breeth’-ing-pore) n. A microscopic aperture in the
cuticle of plants, 植物 皮 阿 之 小 孔 , 横 物 皮卡 外 层 之 微 PIX.
Breathing-time, (breeth’-ing-time).n. 1. Time for a breath, #702),
BB; 2. A short interval of 1est， 承 问答 息 , BBR BLS BE. 2
Breathless,(breth’-les)a. 1. Out of breath, 气急 的 ， 气 喘 的 ; 2.
Dead, ABA, 死 的 ; without breath, 毒气 的 , FREA SAAT, HE #433.
Unable to breathe, AEM O47. Breathlessness, (breth’-les-nes) n. The
state of being breathless, 无 气 之 状 ,气喘 . Breccia, (bretsh'-ya) n.
Rock composed of agglutinated angular fragments of the same or
different rocks, #4, 48H (ADHD SHRAARZ EW). Brecciated, (bretsh’-
ya-ted) a. form of breccia, §A IER. Bredsore, (bred'-sore) n. A
whitlow, Hf? > aa. Breech,(britsh or breetsh) n. 1. The lower part of
the body bebind, 43,52 f%5 2. The hinder part of a eun or anything
else, SOR BRE Ly ZIM: as, a Dreech-loading gun, KPA ZH AVENE —v-
t. 1. To put into breeches, ##3,2¢7% 5 2. To whip on the breech,
#ti033, RUMER, 答 ; 3To furnish with breeching, as a gun, 34 $2
729P9; to breech a cannon, REP Breech-band,(britsh’-band)n. See
BreechIn the ing. Breeches, (bvitsh’-ez) n. pl. A garment worn by
men, covering the Jower part of the body, Bs, 19%, 35, 4. WAS as,
short breeches, #173 To wear the breeches, said of a wife who
usurps the authority of her husband, $i 81k, #4 NEEL KBE:
Bpeeching, (britsh’-ing) n. 1. A whipping, 镍 , 答 , 扑 ;2. The part of
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