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Choreographies of 21st Century Wars
Oxford Studies in Dance Theory
MARK FRANKO, Series Editor

French Moves: The Cultural Politics of le hip hop

Felicia McCarren
Watching Weimar Dance
Kate Elswit
Poetics of Dance: Body, Image, and Space in the Historical Avant-╉Gardes
Gabriele Brandstetter
Dance as Text: Ideologies of the Baroque Body, Revised Edition
Mark Franko
Choreographies of 21st Century Wars
Edited by Gay Morris and Jens Richard Giersdorf
Choreographies of 21st
Century Wars

E dited by Gay Morris

and

Jens R ichard G iersdorf

1
1
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers
the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education
by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University
Press in the UK and certain other countries.

Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press

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© Oxford University Press 2016

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
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rights organization. Inquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above.

You must not circulate this work in any other form

and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer.

Library of Congress Cataloging-╉in-╉Publication Data

Choreographies of 21st century wars /╉edited by Gay Morris and Jens Richard Giersdorf.
pages cm. —╉(Oxford studies in dance theory)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978–╉0–╉19–╉020166–╉1 (cloth : acid–╉f ree paper) —╉ ISBN 978–╉0–╉19–╉020167–╉8 (pbk. : acid–╉f ree
paper)â•… 1.╇Dance—╉Political aspects.â•… 2.╇Choreography—╉Political aspects.â•… 3.╇Dance
criticism.â•… I.╇ Morris, Gay, 1940–╉╅ II.╇ Giersdorf, Jens Richard. III. Title: Choreographies
of twenty first century wars.
GV1588.45.C47 2016
792.8—╉dc23
2015014751

9╇8╇7╇6╇5╇4╇3╇2╇1
Printed by Courier Digital Solutions, USA
CONTENTS

Preface╇ vii

Introduction╇ 1
Gay Morris and Jens Richard Giersdorf
1. Access Denied and Sumud: Making a Dance of Asymmetric Warfare╇ 25
Nicholas Rowe
2. Questioning the Truth: Rachid Ouramdane’s Investigation of
Torture in Des Témoins Ordinaires/Ordinary Witnesses╇ 45
Alessandra Nicifero
3. “There’s a Soldier in All of Us”: Choreographing Virtual Recruitment╇ 63
Derek A. Burrill
4. African Refugees Asunder in South Africa: Performing the
Fallout of Violence in Every Year, Every Day, I Am Walking╇ 85
Sarah Davies Cordova
5. From Temple to Battlefield: Bharata Natyam in the
Sri Lankan Civil War╇ 111
Janet O’Shea
6. Choreographing Masculinity in Contemporary Israeli Culture╇ 133
Yehuda Sharim
7. Affective Temporalities: Dance, Media, and the War on Terror╇ 157
Harmony Bench
8. Specter of War, Spectacle of Peace: The Lowering of Flags
Ceremony at the Wagah and Hussainiwala Border Outposts╇ 181
Neelima Jeychandran
9. A Choreographer’s Statement╇ 203
Bill T. Jones
10. Dancing in the Spring: Dance, Hegemony, and Change╇ 207
Rosemary Martin
vi Contents

11. War and P.E.A.C.E.╇ 223

Maaike Bleeker and Janez Janša
12. The Body Is the Frontline╇ 241
Rosie Kay and Dee Reynolds
13. Geo-╉Choreography and Necropolitics: Faustin Linyekula’s
Studios Kabako, Democratic Republic of Congo╇ 269
Ariel Osterweis
14. Re: Moving Bodies in the USA/╉Mexico
Drug/Border/╉Terror/╉Cold Wars╇ 287
Ruth Hellier-╉Tinoco
15. After Cranach: War, Representation, and the Body in William Forsythe’s
Three Atmospheric Studies╇ 315
Gerald Siegmund
16. The Role of Choreography in Civil Society under Siege:
William Forsythe’s Three Atmospheric Studies╇ 333
Mark Franko

Contributors╇ 351
Index╇ 359
PREFACE

GAY
This book began to take shape in the latter days of the American invasion
of Iraq. At the time, the nightly news was dominated by what seemed end-
less images of advancing tanks, house-╉to-╉house searches, distraught civilians,
and, finally, photos of every American soldier who had died the previous week.
Altogether, it was a heartbreaking sight of pain and destruction.
As I watched the news broadcasts, I began to consider this war in light of
research I had done earlier on the Second World War and Cold War (A Game
for Dancers: Performing Modernism in the Postwar Years, 1945–╉1960, 2006). To
my mind, this conflict was very different. Instead of nearly equal forces vying
with each other on a worldwide stage, this war pitted the most powerful mili-
tary in the world against what could only seem a puny enemy. And since I had
previously argued that dance played a role in 20th-╉century wars, I wondered
what kind of relationship it might have to contemporary warfare. To come to
grips with this question, I at first thought of developing an anthology of com-
parative essays, half the book dealing with the 20th century, the other with
the 21st. I invited Jens to act as a coeditor, since he had also done extensive
research on the Cold War (The Body of the People: East German Dance since
1945, 2013) and had lived through it in East Germany, where he also served in
the military.

JENS
Shadows of war were omnipresent while I was growing up in East Germany
in the 1970s. There was our missing grandfather, who hadn’t returned home
from war to my mother and grandmother, and the unacknowledged fact that
all members of my father’s family were refugees, displaced from what is now
Poland. All around us, cities had integrated the traces of war—╉empty areas
viii Preface

where houses once stood, ruined buildings that hadn’t been rebuilt even
decades after the war, facades that still showed signs of the heavy artillery
fights of the last days of World War II. It was normal that my parents never
threw away food; my siblings and I knew they had nearly starved for years at
the end and after the war.
The school year always started with the annual celebrations of the liberation
by the Red Army, our comrades in arms. It was the Cold War—╉and we learned
to hide behind our desks in the event of a nuclear attack, probably the same
way a child in Pittsburgh was instructed to do. We built gas masks out of dis-
carded plastic shopping bags and trained to use them as protective gear, heads
covered in bags printed with miscellaneous logos, a ridiculous sight even to
ourselves.
Eventually, in 1982, like every man in East Germany, I was drafted into the
army, serving at the border between the two Germanies. The border was the
symbol of Cold War divisions, and it was at that point armed with over a mil-
lion land and splatter mines. Border guards were stationed there not only to
prevent fellow citizens from escaping to the West; we were also trained as the
first defense against the capitalist aggressors. I trained to kill a person with
the bayonet on my Kalashnikov, to dig trenches that protected me from tanks
driving over me during joint military exercises of the Warsaw Pact countries,
and to assemble and shoot antitank defense missiles. It was the time of the
Polish Solidarity movement (Solidarność), and we were dispatched repeatedly,
never knowing if we would participate in the suppression of the movement in
the way the Soviet army did during the Prague Spring.
With the fall of the Berlin Wall and German reunification in 1989, the
remnants of these different wars were slowly cleaned up and erased. When I
thought about war again, it was mostly about the Cold War for my work on the
politics of dance in East Germany. When Gay approached me with her idea of
a project on dance and war, I assumed it would deal mainly with the Cold War,
since she had worked on that era from the other side.

GAY AND JENS

We soon realized that the 21st century warranted study on its own, and so
focused solely on contemporary warfare. We also shifted our gaze from what
is traditionally called dance to choreography, which, in many forms, has been
closely associated with war, and which is theoretically complex and compel-
ling. Yet we also understood that we needed to rethink what choreography
does in relationship to war, and we had to find contributors that were doing
this kind of rethinking from very different areas and in relation to distinct
parts of omnipresent contemporary wars. This was uncharted territory in
Preface ix

many ways. What would choreographic evidence suggest about contemporary

war, if anything? That is what we had to wait to learn from our contributors.
We were greatly impressed by the diversity and power of the essays that came
back to us. And they did indeed point in quite a different direction from the
Cold War choreography we had analyzed earlier. That evidence comprises the
content of this book, and our analysis of it appears in the introduction.
We would like to thank our authors not only for their commitment to their
individual essays but also for their contributions to new thinking in dance
studies and politics. We would also like to thank our editor at Oxford, Norman
Hirschy, our series editor, Mark Franko, production editor, Stacey Victor, and
our copyeditor, Ben Sadock.
Introduction

GAY MOR R IS A N D J E NS R IC H A R D GI E R S DOR F

It is now widely accepted that 21st-╉century wars differ to varying degrees from
the major conflicts of the 20th century. No longer are wars dominated by the
“great powers,” the sovereign states that took the world into two devastating
wars in the first half of the 20th century and then into the forty-╉year Cold
War. The major conflicts today are more amorphous and shifting than in the
last century, the boundaries and enemies less clear, the difference between war
and peace less distinct. Although these conflicts are often marked by an asym-
metry of forces, the mightier do not necessarily prevail. These wars go by a
variety of names, including fourth generation wars (4GW) (Hammes 2006),
small wars (Daase 2005), low-╉intensity wars (Kinross 2004), postmodern wars
(Duffield 1998), privatized or informal wars (Keen 1995), degenerate wars
(Shaw 1999), new wars (Kaldor 2006; Münkler 2003, 2005), and asymmetrical
wars (Münkler 2003, 2005). They may include state and nonstate combatants
in conflicts that include interstate wars, civil wars, insurgencies, counterinsur-
gencies, and revolutions.1
Choreographies of 21st Century Wars is the first book to examine the com-
plex relationship between choreography and war in this century. War and cho-
reography have long been connected through war rituals and dances, military
training and drills, parades, and formal processions. While the essays here
are concerned with such uses of choreography as components of war, as well
2 G ay M orris and J ens R ichard G iersdorf

as war as a subject matter of dance, they are more broadly concerned with the
complex structural relationship between choreography, war, and politics. We
ask: What work does choreography do in a world dominated by war, a world in
which war appears to be less a tool of politics than a driving force?
Viewing war through the concept of choreography is significant because
it shifts the focus of study away from the abstractions of political and mili-
tary theory to corporeal agency. At the same time, rethinking choreography
through a comprehension of the complexity of contemporary wars requires a
reconceptualization of what choreography does and is, while building on past
definitions of choreography as an organizational and meaning-╉making system.
In light of the shifting character of 21st-╉century wars, we ask how choreog-
raphy relates not just to wars themselves but to the politics of today’s wars. If
the 20th century was marked by the power of the nation-╉state, where the state
held a monopoly of power to make war, and if dance, and by extension chore-
ography, was governed in the 20th century by its relationship to the state as a
source of identity (Manning 1993, 1996; Franko 2012; Morris 2006; Kant 2007;
Kowal 2010; Giersdorf 2013),2 what does choreography do in the face of war
when the state loses its grip on the monopoly of power, or when the state fails
altogether—╉that is, in what Antonio Negri and Michael Hardt call the new
“global state of war”?3 Further, will the old models of choreographic analysis,
created to account for the power of the sovereign state, still hold?
In order to explore these questions we will first lay out some of the major
issues surrounding 21st-╉century wars, then move on to an investigation of
choreography as an organizational and meaning-╉making system in an envi-
ronment of constant war, and finally discuss how the individual chapters relate
to both 21st-╉century wars and critical choreographic analysis. The sixteen
chapters included in Choreographies of 21st Century Wars are geographically
diverse, ranging across the Middle East and Africa, Europe and the Americas.
They deal with violent conflict through the means of field notes, case stud-
ies, participant observations, and photographs, as well as in essays reflecting
on war issues and their relationship to choreographic practices. Thus, the
approach is interdisciplinary; contributors come from the fields of dance and
theater, performance and media studies, anthropology, sociology, and history.
Such broad geographical perspectives and viewpoints from a variety of disci-
plines move readers across localities and place them in relationship to bodies
that are engaged in or responding to warfare.

WAR
Much English-╉language commentary on contemporary war was writ-
ten in the aftermath of the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001. Here
Introduction 3

Islamic-​fundamentalist terrorism was sometimes transformed into a gen-

eral theory of 21st-​century war. So, for example, Philip Bobbitt in Terror and
Consent: The Wars for the Twenty-​First Century (2008) defines contempo-
rary war in terms of terrorism and primarily as Islamic jihad. Like Walter
Laqueur, Bobbitt places special emphasis on the dangers of terrorists obtain-
ing weapons of mass destruction (Bobbitt 2008; Laqueur 2002, 2006). We
sought a broader, more nuanced theory of contemporary war than Bobbitt
and Laqueur offer, one that could account for a range of conflicts, and in
which terrorism might become a part of the picture rather than its totality.
Political theorists such as Mary Kaldor and Herfried Münkler offer such a
view, as well as accounting for how contemporary wars differ from those of
the 20th century. Kaldor characterizes the evolution of what she calls the “old
wars” as being closely linked to the development of nation-​states beginning
in the 15th century, eventually evolving into the total wars of the 20th cen-
tury and the “imagined” Cold War, which were wars of alliances and blocs
(2006, 16–​17).4 Although these wars differed over time, they generally were
linked to the development of rationalized, centralized, hierarchically struc-
tured modern states with territorial interests. They conformed to Clausewitz’s
famous dictum of war being politics by other means. While such wars have
become an anachronism, according to Kaldor they still have a firm grip on
perceptions. She argues that violent conflict has changed, blurring the dis-
tinctions between war, organized crime, and large-​scale violations of human
rights (2006, 2). New wars, rather than being between nation-​states, are often
private and conducted for private gain, and they are frequently aimed at civil-
ians rather than soldiers.
Kaldor uses the general term “globalization” to help explain the worldwide
interconnectedness she finds in contemporary conflicts (2006, 3–​5, 95–​118).
These links are made possible by the development of cell phones and computers
that can instantly relay images and messages throughout the world, but they
also describe technological developments that allow for methods like drone
attacks. In the new wars there is a global presence in the form of mercenaries,
military advisors, private security businesses, diasporic volunteers, interna-
tional press, NGOs, and peacekeeping troops (2006, 5).5 Funding may come
from global sources as well, ranging from outside states to diasporic organiza-
tions and individuals. Kaldor speaks of a privatization of war in which weak
states cannot retain a monopoly of power, encouraging autonomous factions
to create and maintain conflicts (2006, 96–​102). Privatization is aided by the
ability to make war with inexpensive weapons and transport (the pickup truck
loaded with men carrying light arms). She argues that there has also been an
increasing privatization of violence as states lose their ability to enforce laws
and as regular armed forces disintegrate.
4 G ay M orris and J ens R ichard G iersdorf

Münkler, like Kaldor, emphasizes the privatization of war, but he also

stresses the increasing asymmetry of conflicts (2003, 7–╉9; 2005, 25–╉30). These
wars contrast with those of the 20th century, which tended to be symmetri-
cal in the sense that power was more or less equal between adversaries. Now
the level of force is more unequal, whether it be the United States fighting
against Saddam Hussein’s forces in Iraq or Libyans fighting against the army
of Muammar el-╉Qaddafi.
Antonio Negri and Michael Hardt deepen the discussion of 21st-╉century
wars through the linked concept of imperialism and empire. The old impe-
rial model that dominated the modern period was based on sovereign nation-╉
states that extended over foreign territory. This has given way to Empire, a new
order of networked power consisting of states, corporations, and institutions
that must cooperate to insure world order. However, the network is rife with
hierarchies and divisions that cause continual war, diminishing the difference
between war and peace. War has “flooded the whole social field” (Hardt and
Negri 2004, 7), eroding the old idea of war being an exception, when constitu-
tional rights are temporarily suspended, between periods of peace. Drawing on
Foucault’s concept of biopolitics, Negri and Hardt assert that war now domi-
nates all social relations, becoming a means of social control. Wars are thus
rendered indeterminate in time and space. Since they are a means of social
control, they cannot be won, and thus war and policing merge. Biopower not
only involves the ability to destroy on a massive scale, for example, through
nuclear weapons, but can be individualized. In its extreme individualized
form biopower becomes torture (19).
Roberto Esposito similarly references Foucault for a concept of biopower
that stresses immunization and autoimmunity as hallmarks of past and pres-
ent social conditions (2013). Modern nations have long attempted to immu-
nize themselves from danger outside their borders through various defensive
means, including war. This was successful enough during the 20th century,
but with globalization and the breakdown of boundaries through commu-
nication and economics it becomes impossible for nations to isolate them-
selves. The border between outside and inside is now porous. Although the old
immunization processes no longer work, nation-╉states do not seek new solu-
tions. Instead, they increase attempts at immunization, particularly through
“security” measures such as sending armies and machinery, including drones,
to fight conflicts outside the nation’s boundaries and instilling anti-╉immigra-
tion laws and walls aimed at keeping out intruders. Eventually this results in
what Esposito refers to as “autoimmunity,” when the body turns on itself. As
we saw in the American suspension of habeas corpus and the Geneva conven-
tions for enemy combatants during the Iraq War, as well as the invasions of
privacy by the US National Security Agency revealed by the Snowden papers,
Introduction 5

increasing attempts at immunization become threats to democracy. Political

analyst Christopher Coker, agrees: “Governments today have had to go into
the deterrence business no longer against states, but against their own pop-
ulation. The Patriot Act, Guantanamo Bay, and the whole apparatus of the
Department of Homeland Security, is about holding the citizen at bay, as well
as some external enemy. The battlefield used to be outside a country, in the-
atres of operation beyond one’s shore. ‘Theatres of external operations’ they
used to be called. Today, they are to be found in the metropolitan concentra-
tions at home” (2010, 120). Coker goes on to speak about the breakdown of
the civic contract between citizen and state. As individuals are increasingly
expected to look after themselves, society divides between those few who have
the means to do so and the majority who do not. Now, he says, insecurity is an
existential state (2010, 121–╉122).
Another vital aspect of current war is its mediatization. General Rupert
Smith calls today’s conflicts “war among the people,” in which “the people in
the streets and houses and fields—╉all the people, anywhere—╉are the battle-
field” (2008, 6). As such we exist in “a global theater of war, with audience
participation.” By this he means that “the people of the audience have come
to influence the decisions of the political leaders who send in force as much
as—╉in some cases more than—╉the events on the ground” (2008, 291). Smith
is primarily concerned with the global impact of the professional press, but
in today’s wars, every faction, from combatants, to the audiences across the
globe, to the civilians directly affected by the conflicts, is using media to tell
stories that support their views. The choreographies described in this book (a
large number of which can be seen on YouTube) are no exception to the global
profusion, nor are the chapters themselves, in an age when books are rou-
tinely produced or reproduced in digital form, making them instantly avail-
able worldwide.

CHOREOGR APHY
An extensive body of literature and visual records exist demonstrating how
choreography has aided in the training for war, in encouraging fighters and
warning enemies, and in celebrating victory in battle.6 Anthropologists have
recorded war and warrior dances among the Ndende of Zambia and other sub-╉
Saharan African peoples (Evans-╉Pritchard 1937; Turner 1957, 1967; Ranger
1975; Hanna 1977; Spencer 1985). In a Western context, the pyrrhike, pos-
sibly originating in Crete and later adopted by the Athenians, formed an ele-
ment of training for war among Spartan youths (Borthwick 1970; Sachs 1937,
239–╉240), while in Rome processional triumphs marked conquests of new
territory (Brilliant 2000; Bergmann and Kondoleon 2000). Dances, pageants,
6 G ay M orris and J ens R ichard G iersdorf

and processions celebrating military victories were part of Renaissance and

baroque court life, as well as of the French Revolution (McGowan 1984;
Chazin-​Bennahum 1981).
In the 20th century, dances that were once tribal transformed themselves in
urban environments: during the South African apartheid era, the traditional
toyi-​toyi war dance was performed in black funeral processions, unsettling
whites seeing it on the evening news (Seidman 2001, Twala and Koetaan 2006),
while the kongonya dance that served Zimbabwean independence fighters in
the bush became a weapon President Mugabe has continued to use to reinforce
his dictatorship (Gonye 2013). As for 20th-​century Western theatrical perfor-
mance, although surprisingly little research has been done on Futurist dance,
with its ecstatic embrace of war,7 there are numerous studies of Ausdruckstanz
and its relationship first to the antiwar Dada artists during World War I and
then to the Nazi regime (Richter 1965; Manning 1993; Karina and Kant 2003).
The turn to antifascist and patriotic subject matter in allied countries leading
up to and during World War II also has been studied (Warren 1998; N. M.
Jackson 2000; Foulkes 2002; Franko 1995, 2012). Choreography in relationship
to the Cold War years has begun to be examined (Prevots 1998; Morris 2006;
Kowal 2010; Ezrahi; 2012; Giersdorf 2013). Sally Banes discussed anti–​Vietnam
War choreography by Steve Paxton (Collaboration with Wintersoldier) and
Yvonne Rainer (WAR) (Banes 1977, 15, 63–​64), while artist Chris Burden has
commented on his own antiwar performances, the most famous of which was
Shoot (1971), in which he had himself shot with a .22 rifle.
Choreographies of 21st Century Wars adds to this literature through a focus
on contemporary war. At the same time, we move beyond what is tradition-
ally defined as dance to take a broader view of choreography. Since the 1960s,
Western artists, often working across media and boundaries of different per-
formance disciplines, have explored and expanded the definitions of dance
and choreography.8 More recently, performance studies scholars, in conver-
sation with cultural studies, have called for the questioning of disciplinary
boundaries to analyze performances across all disciplines and outside theatri-
cal institutions (Schechner 1985). Dance studies has expanded dance by high-
lighting choreography as a structuring system for any kind of movement with
inherent political potentiality and by rethinking it as a methodological tool
(Foster 1986, 1995; Franko 1993, 1995; Martin 1998).
While incorporating these broader concepts that move choreography
beyond the often narrowly confined definitions of dance, we try to avoid uni-
versalizing these strategies by centering attention on localized and cultur-
ally specific uses of choreography within the context of warfare and politics.
Thus, choreography can include soldiers participating in a mock battle on the
Indian/​Pakistani border, as a reminder of state rivalries; arranging hostage
Introduction 7

videos in the Israeli-​occupied Palestinian Territories to demonstrate to audi-

ences through comportment and movement the vulnerability of prisoners and
the might of captors; or videogames that develop embodied skills in players
in the United States that prepare them for real war under the guise of virtual
entertainment (while also promoting a romanticized idea of a painless war).
As these examples illustrate, for our conceptualization of the relationship
between contemporary war and choreographed movement we recognize cho-
reography as an organizational, decision-​making, and analytical system that
is always social and political. This incorporates established definitions of cho-
reography as purposeful stagings of structured, embodied movements that
aim to communicate an idea or create meaning for an actual, conceptual, or
purposefully absent audience for aesthetic and social reasons. Important for
this definition is the acknowledgement of training, technique, rehearsal, per-
formance, and reception as intrinsic parts of choreography, not only to reveal
labor and agency but also to examine discipline and resistance to it (Foster
1986). For this reason, choreography is situated outside any specific technique
and thus is not necessarily tied to dance. In other words, we see choreography
as an operational concept in addition to a spatial and temporal one.
Equally important is the understanding of choreography as a knowledge sys-
tem. With such an understanding, both term and practice become an explicit
methodology and a theorization in dance studies (Foster 2010, 5). Here, chore-
ography allows scholars to structure both historical and social traces of dance
and the scholars’ contemporary position to this material in relation to each
other. Such a comprehension of choreography attempts to emancipate both
dance and choreography from a Cartesian grip that establishes a clear binary
between, and hierarchy for, disembodied thinking and embodied practice.
Without erasing the distinctions between the written, the theorized, and the
choreographed, the understanding of choreography as a knowledge system
establishes both dance and choreography as thought and theory, and thus
broadens the permanent realm of writing and other textual and artistic prod-
ucts toward it. Choreography as a knowledge system no longer focuses exclu-
sively on performance and thereby addresses the issues of ephemerality and
disappearance, which have haunted dance and choreography in both theory
and practice (Schneider 2011).
Choreography as a knowledge system does not eliminate the problem of
its practice and theory as universalizing instruments, which do not always
acknowledge their ties to a specific cultural materiality. We are aware of this
problem and the seeming neutrality of choreography. There is no such sys-
tematic neutrality, as Michel Foucault demonstrated, and it is important to
recognize the possibility that such a concept of choreography can enable, or
at least be complicit with, colonial, postcolonial, and economically globalizing
8 G ay M orris and J ens R ichard G iersdorf

projects, as much as it can resist such projects (Foster 2010; Giersdorf 2009;
Savigliano 2009).
All these reconceptualizations of choreography need to be applied to the
use of choreography in relation to contemporary warfare. The rethinking of
permanence, continuity, and social ordering and organization, as well as the
political potential of choreography, is thus at the center of the investigations
performed by the essays in this anthology, and we want to reassess the rela-
tionship among these issues in the following considerations.
Dance scholarship historically has recognized choreography as an organiz-
ing principle related to social order. The Renaissance has been established as
the period where dance and warfare literally crossed paths in the training and
performance of both pursuits. Gerald Siegmund and Stefan Hölscher empha-
size the ordering capacity of dance and warfare, stating that “warfare, dance’s
notorious partner in the eternal duet of order and chaos, was to defend and
to safeguard the order of the state towards its external enemies, dancing was
designed to establish and keep an inner order by forging alliances and safe-
guarding the order by its playful work towards reproduction” (2013, 9). Rudolf
zur Lippe highlights the complex reordering and controlling of society, self,
and embodiment through dance and choreography in his socioeconomic anal-
ysis of early Italian merchantry and absolutism in French noble society (1981).
Similarly, Mark Franko sees choreography and dance technique at that time
as constitutive practices that affected political and social structures directly
(1993). All these scholars share an understanding of the extension of the pro-
ductive potential of choreography into social and contemporary practices.
Choreography is a Western concept whose name combines the Greek words
for dance and writing. Raoul Auger Feuillet created the term for his scoring of
dances around 1700. His dance notation depicted the structure and layout of
dance in relation to social standards and techniques of upper-​class conduct,
but the term later came to connote the original creation of dances. It is impor-
tant to stress that the terminology and practice of choreography functioned
as a textual organization that works primarily to reinforce a particular kind
of order in society. Bodies were literally trained and arranged in space and
in relation to each other to move in a harmonious way to reflect and instill
order, manifested through notation of geometrical horizontal patterns and an
expected emphasis on vertical posture. The choreographer ostensibly created
such choreographies through artistic musing and divine inspiration. With
the institutionalization of choreography and specifically dance as a theatri-
cal practice, the arrangements of steps and gestures in a staged space and to a
musical or seemingly natural rhythm served primarily as a mirroring device
for an emerging bourgeois society. The material for these choreographies was
drawn from an established academic vocabulary and technique, which the
Introduction 9

choreographer manipulated into varied arrangements. With the development

and eventual dominance of ballet as an institution, choreographers became
concerned with narrative and expressivity, which, it was assumed, permitted a
direct and universal communication with an audience present in the theater.
To accomplish all of this for spectators, the executing dancer had to be com-
petently trained and able to follow choreographic instructions in the rehearsal
process (Foster 1998).
With dance conceived as a mastery of technique in the middle of the 19th
century, Western choreography in ballet, and later in modern dance, engaged
with movement derived from nature and the vernacular, something folk forms
had always done (Garafola 1989; Daly 2002). In concert dance, choreography
expanded its capacity to influence society by incorporating female choreogra-
phers and by engaging with the newly defined psychological sphere (Tomko
1999; Daly 2002). The conscious, if unacknowledged, incorporation of non-​
Western or indigenous dance techniques and structures as primitive or exotic
Other was still considered a product of the choreographer’s genius rather
than of skillful borrowing. It was not until the middle of the 20th century
that practitioners and historians began to acknowledge the incorporation of
non-​Western and indigenous forms and structures into the movement pool
and process of choreography. This acknowledgment of multiple influences, as
well as a focus on improvisation and process, allowed for a departure from
the idea that it was the individual choreographer’s genius that propelled dance
forward (Savigliano 2009; O’Shea 2007; Novack 1990). With this shift, chore-
ography of the so-​called postmodern era became a varied decision-​making
process concerning all aspects of performances and social structures rather
than a safeguarding and structuring of steps or gestures for a performance.
However, even though the process could involve group or individual decisions,
reconstruction or revisiting of traditional material, or rearrangement of exist-
ing structures, it still acknowledged choreography as an organizational prin-
ciple, though often a critical and resistive one.9
It is also significant how in its changing incarnations choreography has
always been a social endeavor—​a lbeit with shifting objectives—​at the inter-
section of the aesthetic and the political, and did not emerge only with the
rise of the bourgeois public sphere as has been argued (Hewitt 2005, 17). To
understand that necessary social element means to acknowledge choreogra-
phy as text and metaphor, yet most importantly as embodied, and thus the
need to analyze it first and foremost from that perspective. All the authors in
this anthology share this conviction, even though they come from diverse dis-
ciplinary backgrounds and engage in a variety of methodologies. A significant
aspect of this understanding of choreography as above all embodied is a criti-
cal stance toward the above-​mentioned preoccupation with an ephemerality
10 G ay M orris and J ens R ichard G iersdorf

and disappearance of dance and performance (Schechner 1985; Blau 1982;

Phelan 1993; Lepecki 2006). Both Rebecca Schneider and Shannon Jackson
have revealed the institutional and disciplinary politics of these discourses
(Schneider 2011, 94–​99; S. Jackson 2004, 2011). Building on Schneider and
Jackson’s questioning of the value of the discourse of ephemerality and inter-
secting it with a rethinking of the critical and organizational capacity of cho-
reography in 21st-​century warfare, we want to identify how both ephemerality
and a focus on resistance in choreography might limit an understanding of the
politics of aesthetics.
In considering the issue of the ephemerality of dance and performance in
relation to politics, André Lepecki differentiates between Giorgio Agamben,
who sees every artistic practice as inherently political, and Jacques Rancière,
who postulates the need—​a lbeit confined to modernism—​of a moment of dis-
sensus for art to become political (Lepecki 2013). To use Rancière’s terminol-
ogy, for art to become political it must include a moment that “disconnects
sensory experience away ‘from the normal forms of sensory experience’ ”
(Lepecki 2013, 22). Such politics “has no proper place nor any natural subject”
(Rancière 2010, 39). In other words, art is political and productively disruptive
only when it establishes a discourse that undermines the norm or at least dem-
onstrates a difference outside the normative. Even though such demonstra-
tions of difference or dissensus can occur anywhere and can be performed by
anyone, and Rancière understands the political as corporeally constructive, he
also defines it as temporally ephemeral because dissent is always on the verge
of sinking back into the norm and thus is made invisible as dissent: “A political
demonstration is therefore always of the moment and its subjects are always
precarious. A political difference is always on the shore of its own disappear-
ance” (Rancière 2010, 39). Thus, the politics of the aesthetic is reduced to a
dissenting and resistive moment. Rancière emphasizes this reduction even
further by pointing out that a consensus on the nature of the relationship
between the political and the aesthetic might undermine precisely the poten-
tial of such fleeting resistive moments because they re-​establish them as the
norm (Lepecki 2013, 24). In simpler terms, if we all agree on the potentially
creative politics of aesthetic moments that undermine the status quo, then
these moments simply don’t undermine anything, because they themselves
become the norm. For those who argue for the ephemerality of dance, that
very ephemerality allows dance to be resistive and thus political.
We take issue with two aspects of the politics of aesthetics outlined above,
if we are to adequately investigate how choreography and 21st-​century war
not only share important structural and operative principles but inform each
other. The first is that the political can only appear as dissent or resistance, and
only in an ephemeral moment; the second is the emphasis on a (re)ordering of
Introduction 11

society through aesthetics exclusively in terms of organizing principles.10 We

want to outline how the chapters in this anthology complicate such assump-
tions by highlighting what Shannon Jackson calls “places where questions of
social contingency meet those of aesthetic contingency” (2011, 39). In other
words, we theorize the necessary framework for an understanding of how
the predominantly social structure of war impacts choreographies’ aesthetic
structures and when choreography executes a social and political agenda.
Even though Rancière has outlined a radically equalizing vision that dis-
mantles polarities in his work on spectatorship (1991, 2011), in his more general
investigations of politics and aesthetics he distinguishes between politics and
police (2010). While politics occurs in the resistive moment discussed above,
the police ensure the dominance of normative structures. Rancière gives an
example of police action when he says that police intervene in public spaces
not by asking questions of demonstrators but by breaking up demonstrations
(2010, 37). Even though adherence to the police is not necessarily passive, it
isn’t constructive or transformative either. Only the interruption of the police
by truly dissentist politics initiates change. Being troubled by this neoliberal
or romanticized reduction of the connection between politics and aesthetics
to momentary resistances to the normative, we want to imagine choreography
as ontologically political and thus question the antagonistic binary of norma-
tive versus resistive. This doesn’t mean that all choreography is political in the
same way, but all choreography is political, albeit in very specific ways and
through different mechanisms. So, for example, when rebel fighters used the
war dance, kongonya, in the 1970s to gain support for Zimbabwean indepen-
dence, it was political and productive (Gonye 2013). But so is Robert Mugabe’s
use of the same dance to threaten his enemies and solidify his power as presi-
dent of Zimbabwe. Mugabe’s use of kongonya may be abusive, but it serves a
political purpose and is productive in that sense.
Such ontological significance of politics for choreography engages with the
historical definition of the concept of politics, but also expands it into other
structures of social community. In other words, our investigation of chore-
ographies of 21st-​century wars requires the traditional application of politics
as relating to citizenry and its governance through the state. However, as we
established above, states and national entities are no longer the exclusive pro-
tagonists in contemporary warfare. This omnipresence of 21st-​century war
forces us to expand even Foucault’s famous inversion of Clausewitz’s dictum
in which he states that “politics is the continuation of war by other means”
(2003, 15) by seeing politics itself as determined by the structure of contem-
porary war. For the purpose of our analysis, politics is still attached to state
sovereignty, yet at the same time it can define reallocations of power and value
not necessarily determined by state governmental structures but rather by
12 G ay M orris and J ens R ichard G iersdorf

alternative communal entities. Recent revelations regarding the private secu-

rity companies Blackwater and G4S are examples, illustrating the need for an
expansion of the concept of politics. Both companies operate worldwide and
offer security services for private businesses and governments.11 Yet even when
such companies seem to operate in a civilian or corporate capacity, their con-
duct for the allocation of power is defined by warfare.
Based on this new understanding of politics detached from state power, we
also need to reconsider the ontology of choreography. We postulate possible
new ways of comprehending what choreography institutes in the 21st century,
which differ from concepts of choreography solely as a structuring device.
As established in the first part of this introduction, at the end of the last cen-
tury, warfare morphed from a temporary conflict between sovereignties for
the reorganization of social structures in the interest of these sovereign enti-
ties into an amorphous and semipermanent state of engagement between
numerous fluid entities, including media, that no longer permit an assump-
tion of organizing goals. Given this change in the character and objective
of warfare and the close association of choreography and warfare, the ques-
tions are now: Has choreography also changed in character and objective?
Does choreography necessarily empower mobilization, ordering, and resis-
tance (Martin 1998; Franko 1995; Foster 2010)? Or is there perhaps a need
to adjust our understanding of choreography to also incorporate a tempo-
rally, spatially, and conceptually metamorphous disorganization that might
include disorder not simply as an obstacle leading toward an end result or
enlightening a process but as an ontological state? Such choreography might
evade the consensus-​resistance binary, or, in Rancière’s terminology, police
and politics.
As the authors in Choreographies of 21st Century Wars work through the
complex engagement of choreography and contemporary warfare, they all
negotiate the shifting balance between the historical function of choreogra-
phy as an organizing principle and its inability to always make organization
coherently visible, or even to work within that paradigm. Although there have
always been aspects of choreography that functioned against established orga-
nizing structures, the chapters in this book speak to a lack of confidence in the
state that translates choreographically into disorder. Not only do the contribu-
tors suggest that states no longer protect citizens as they may have done in
the past; they often show a loosening of the ties that bind citizens to state, as
Christopher Coker asserts (2010), as well as states that fail citizens altogether.
As such, these essays offer a critique of present conditions. Equally important,
in demonstrating that choreography makes visible the disorder of the current
moment, they call into question analytic models that pose resistance as the
ultimate element of critique or, even more extreme, the single moment when
Introduction 13

art becomes political. We argue that choreography critiques present condi-

tions not through disturbing the norm, since the norm is a global state of war,
but by engaging with the disorder of the present moment, in which states fail
to act on behalf of their citizens.
As Gerald Siegmund vividly explains in his multifaceted analysis of
William Forsythe’s Three Atmospheric Studies, the choreography is not so
much what is visible onstage as what is left open and unintelligible by the
space and gaps that are created between the bodies, images, texts, translation
process, and audience reception of the events onstage, which all refuse to con-
verge into a coherent product or story. As Siegmund points out, even though
in Three Atmospheric Studies choreography is present in the traditional sense
as a structuring of movements and bodies onstage for the duration of the
piece, that is no longer its ontological purpose. Rather, choreography pur-
posefully shows a loss of control over bodies, notation, language, translation,
imagery, and perception, because only through this determined loss of orga-
nization can choreography have meaning within the context of 21st-​century
perpetual war.
All the essays in the anthology speak to different aspects of the urgent need
to rethink choreography in relation to warfare. Alessandra Nicifero, in her
essay on Rachid Ouramdane’s Ordinary Witnesses, demonstrates how the cho-
reographer comes to grips with the subject of torture, not by attempting to
impose order on it but by engaging with its very confusion and incompre-
hensibility. Like Forsythe, Ouramdane employs movement to disrupt both the
organizing narrativity of language and the structuring function of choreogra-
phy. He uses the empty stage and darkness to counter audience expectations
of comprehension and of what dance is in a theatrical setting, then goes on to
create movement that becomes ever more indefinable through its simultane-
ity of radically different modes of embodiment. Evoking the complex shared
spaces of dance performance, spectatorship, witnessing, dance analysis, and
criticism, Nicifero makes the point that critics and audiences need to rethink
their own strategies and functions, as choreography does when it begins to
critically address a world ruled by war.
Ruth Hellier-​Tinoco echoes a complex understanding of contemporary cho-
reography in relation to warfare by highlighting the narrative jumble, frag­
mentation, in-​betweenness, bordering, overlap, and incongruities of the global
war on drugs and the ongoing border conflicts between nation-​states. Rather
than reducing dichotomy and contradiction in the Mexican/​American copro-
duction Timboctou to fit within a coherent analytical frame, Hellier-​Tinoco
takes the multiplicities created by the discrepancies between bodily gestures,
spoken words, and staged imagery as a formal instigator for her fragmented
vignettes. Thus, in her chapter the form purposefully evades organizational
14 G ay M orris and J ens R ichard G iersdorf

coherence and highlights the disorder so important for choreography’s engage-

ment with 21st-​century war.
Sarah Davies Cordova examines disorder in her discussion of the South
African work Every Year, Every Day I Am Walking, which concerns the dis-
placement of refugees in central and southern Africa. She reveals how the work
conveys chaos or disarray through both narrative and movement structures
that are broken apart and confused, with fragments of those structures, like
shrapnel, often reappearing at a later time and in new locations. Choreography’s
ability to make events or ideas comprehensible through organized movement
patterns is refused. What is shown are the shattered remains of the refugees’
lives and their experience of what Achille Mbembe calls the “necropolitics” of
failed states.
Both Nicifero and Cordova also deal with memory in relationship to dis-
order, a recurring theme in the book. They each elucidate how the past never
entirely dies, nor simply influences the present, but keeps violently interacting
with it. For Ouramdane, the purpose of Ordinary Witnesses is not to expunge
the past but to convey its psychological and emotional effects on those who
experienced it. In the Magnet Theatre’s Every Year, Every Day I Am Walking,
the past recurs most delicately but persistently in embodied traces—​the way
a woman wraps a pagne, how she lifts food to her mouth. For the mother and
daughter protagonists, those traces are, with their memories, what endures of
their stable lives. In other instances, the past is ossified in the physicality of
objects, which once had a clear meaning and function but are now strewn over
space and resist repurposing or even recognition.
Janet O’Shea takes up the failure of choreography to reorder society in the
midst of conflict in her study of bharata natyam in the Sri Lankan civil war.
Tamils, particularly in the diaspora, used bharata natyam to mark cultural
difference and support the ongoing conflict with the Sinhalese majority. At the
same time, however, the dance has brought Tamil and Sinhalese rivals closer
together through its performance on both sides of the divide. Bharata natyam
acts as a reminder of cultural affinities and provides an opening for dialogue.
However, O’Shea notes that although tenuous strands of reconciliation have
been created through bharata natyam, they exist in an arena where war con-
tinues to smolder and erupt, and where choreography can be used by forces of
either side to enflame and perpetuate violence as well as to encourage peace.
Choreography participates at distinct and often conflicting areas in contempo-
rary warfare in Sri Lanka, and its impact resides not so much in its structuring
of social space as in the many contradictory intersections it generates within
war. This contradictory element of choreography permits O’Shea to remain
hopeful about choreography’s power to intervene, a stance she shares with sev-
eral other authors in the anthology.
Introduction 15

If Tamils in the diaspora used bharata natyam as a propaganda device to

garner support for war, several other essays in the volume take up the use
of choreography for propaganda purposes. Yehuda Sharim demonstrates how
choreography can be used as propaganda through technology that reaches
global audiences. Hamas, in a video of the captive Israeli soldier Gilad Shalit,
crafted Shalit’s comportment and movement to increase Israeli sympathy for
the prisoner in order to push the Israeli government to make an advantageous
hostage exchange. Yet, as Sharim argues, the exchange was also carefully cho-
reographed by the State of Israel to reflect ideas of a national masculinized
identity, embodied through military training, exercises, and drills. Israel’s
shifting approaches to training and participation in war thus determine
changing corporealities for its citizen body.
Derek Burrill deals with propaganda and the military, here with the US
Army’s variety of training forums aimed at instilling an enthusiasm for war
and a desire to join the military in (primarily) boys and young men. Embodied
movement is basic to these methods, which center on digitized games but
include other forms of “militainment” where participants can engage in
training-​as-​play through simulations of war. Yet these games can lead to par-
ticipation in actual warfare and, as Burrill shows, create a catastrophic dis-
juncture between the alienation from embodiment while gaming and the
destructive physicality of war. Here it is not the choreography of the games
or of organized warfare per se that is of crucial importance. Rather, it is the
obscuration and incomprehension of the relationship between these choreog-
raphies that define its impact on contemporary war.
Like Burrill, Harmony Bench addresses themes of technology and militain-
ment. However, she does not do this through choreography directly pertaining
to war. Rather, she argues her case through television dance shows and video-
games, demonstrating how they conform to wartime-​a ll-​the-​time, instilling
insecurity as an existential state of contemporary life. As Bench demonstrates,
contemporary war, civil technology, and entertainment media structure each
other and create distinct physicalized temporalities for contemporary society
that rely on the anticipation of threat as an important modus operandi. That
war invades all aspects of life in the 21st century resonates with Sharim’s essay,
in which Israeli anticipation of war becomes embodied in citizens through
physical choreographies of training and drill.
Maaike Bleeker and choreographer Janez Janša investigate the inter-
face between entertainment and warfare in a different way, focusing on two
interventionist theater works that address UN peacekeeping and contempo-
rary dance. P.E.A.C.E. is both satirical and serious, consisting of a proposal,
actually made to military and dance organizations, to provide contemporary
dance as entertainment for UN peacekeepers. The conceptual work argues for
16 G ay M orris and J ens R ichard G iersdorf

a relationship in the lives of peacekeepers and dancers in that both are what
Susan Foster calls “hired bodies” who are asked to do jobs that do not accord
with their training: peacekeepers are trained to fight, but are not allowed
to do so, while dancers are asked to be creative, yet their instrumentalized
training encourages homogenization. WE ARE ALL MARLENE DIETRICH
FOR: Performance for Peacekeeping Soldiers Handbook is at once a serious
consideration of the kind of entertainment provided for soldiers, a comment
on the theory that UN peacekeepers exist in part as entertainers (since they
are forbidden to fight), and, in its purposeful vulgarity, a dance performance
that riffs on the tension between the desire to create peace and the desire for
excitement that soldiering represents. Here again it is not the choreographic
structure or its context that create meaning, but rather the inability to do so
coherently in the context of the contemporary oxymoron of the “peacekeeping
soldier.”
Neelima Jeychandran’s essay on the Lowering the Flags ceremony at the
Indian/​Pakistani border crossings of Wagah and Hussainiwala resonates with
others in the collection in several ways. While the ceremony acts as a colorful
form of entertainment for audiences, at the same time, the past inhabits the
present, where conflicted memories are embodied in movement. The ritual-
ized drill of the border guards plays out the intractability of the conflict that
has gone on since partition, vying with a recognition, evoked in those same
movements, that the two rivals were once one. However, while spectators may
participate in a nostalgic remembrance of unity, they also witness an embodi-
ment of past wars and, even more importantly, a ritual that acts as a surrogate
for actual warfare, keeping alive the prospect of continuing conflict. That the
specter of war, as Jeychandran calls it, hovers over the borders is demonstrated
by ongoing eruptions of violence, including a 2014 suicide attack at Wagah,
which reinforces the idea that contemporary war never ends.
A recurrent theme throughout the collection is a marked lack of confidence
in the state and its relationship to its citizens, which can be seen whether the
state is failed or long established and stable. This speaks to the fluid, amor-
phous, and often contradictory dispersal of power in a globalized world,
which choreography transmits but cannot reorganize and make coherent. The
African refugees in Every Year, Every Day I Am Walking leave behind the dev-
astation of a country in collapse, but the democracy they flee to and discover
at the end of their harrowing journey is hardly reassuring. At the same time,
the violence and corruption of the US-​Mexico border wars, which is the focus
of Timboctou, implicate both democratically elected governments and drug
cartels that operate worldwide.
Nicholas Rowe calls the state into question in his chapter, which centers on
Access Denied, a dance work he facilitated as choreographer in the West Bank
Introduction 17

during the Second Intifada. Here the state is viewed on the one hand as occu-
pier and on the other as altogether absent, in the Israeli-​occupied Palestinian
Territories. Access Denied was created for a local audience to make visible the
chaos and routinely encountered hardships during the Intifada period. At the
same time, the work did not flinch from addressing tensions within Palestinian
society itself. This complex relationship of choreography to occupation and the
state makes it a valuable case study of the intersection of dance and contempo-
rary war. Rowe demonstrates how art and politics are inextricably entwined in
a society under siege, and examines his own role as a privileged outsider nego-
tiating local and global distributions of power in relation to asymmetrical war.
Rosemary Martin deliberates on citizens’ relationship to the state through
an investigation of different strategies used in the face of civil unrest and
censorship in the years surrounding the Arab Spring uprisings in Cairo in
2011. Her chapter centers on how dancers participated in and were affected
by the revolution that ostensibly brought democracy to the country. However,
as Martin relates, only a few short years after the uprising that swept Hosni
Mubarak from power, Egypt finds itself again under the sway of a military
strongman, bringing new violence to the country and leaving choreographers
and dancers to wonder what will happen to the freedoms they were just begin-
ning to enjoy.
In their chapter, Dee Reynolds and choreographer Rosie Kay explore the
intersection between art and politics, looking at the Iraq War through Kay’s
5 SOLDIERS: The Body Is the Frontline. They discuss the dance work’s focus
on the body of the soldier, and audience reaction to it, within the context of
the political disaffection of the British public in the face of the war. Kay and
Reynolds argue that choreography can embody a critique of war that engages
audiences who are otherwise politically apathetic. At the same time, the work
made an impact on soldiers who saw it, encouraging them to reflect on the
costs of war and the infliction of pain that war brings. This chapter, like many
others in the book, indirectly addresses the issue of the state’s inability to rally
support any longer on the basis of nationalism and patriotism. The soldiers
discussed by Kay and Reynolds did not mention fighting for country, in this
sense disconnecting themselves from the state. Rather, they emphasized loy-
alty to those small “bands of brothers” who fight together and whose lives are
in each other’s hands, something that 5 SOLDIERS stresses both in its title
and in the work itself; thus the choreography not only allows a liberal audi-
ence to see its antiwar stance reaffirmed, but additionally provides a platform
for soldiers who might have a contrary attitude toward warfare. The chapter
supports the idea that as confidence in the state falls away or is entirely absent,
individuals turn to nonstate sources for identity and support—​family, friends,
colleagues, like-​minded individuals and groups—​or dance.
18 G ay M orris and J ens R ichard G iersdorf

In a deeply personal meditation, Bill T. Jones traces his journey from a pub-
lic accounting of war to a more private sphere in his work. At the height of
the Iraq War, Jones made Blind Date (2005), a major antiwar piece. It was his
response to pent-╉up anger over the Bush presidency and the US promulgation
of that war. Structurally and thematically, Jones’s work has always been con-
cerned with political and social issues, from race and gender to human rights.
However, since Blind Date, he has increasingly turned inward, toward exam-
ining, in his words, “the nature of a life well-╉lived, courage, and what is worth
fighting for.” Echoing O’Shea’s hopefulness about choreography’s ability to
at least search for positionings—╉of the artist, the dance, the citizen—╉inside
an increasingly undetermined society, Jones turns back and toward composi-
tional strategies.
Ariel Osterweis affirms the constructive potential of choreography grap-
pling with contemporary warfare by broadening the term into what she calls
geo-╉choreography. Understanding choreography as not only a reordering of
vocabulary in time and space but an actual shaping of space itself, she ana-
lyzes Congolese choreographer Faustin Linyekula’s choreographic work in
conjunction with his conscious reordering of the chaotic spaces left by sev-
eral wars in the society and landscape of the Democratic Republic of Congo.
Linyekula does not attempt to make sense of past mass killings and the still
violent present. Rather, he reappropriates and salvages popular yet violent
dances such as the ndombolo for his choreographic work and abandoned
spaces for his teaching and training. Here again, choreography does not order
or make sense; its potential stems from the embracing of disorder and chaos.
Mark Franko concludes this anthology with wide-╉ranging comments con-
cerning choreography and politics in the context of 21st-╉century war. He contin-
ues Gerald Siegmund’s conversation on William Forsythe’s Three Atmospheric
Studies by centering attention on the citizen’s relationship to the state in this
time of war. His analysis of the Forsythe work brings into focus several argu-
ments raised by the authors of the previous essays. Citing Cathy Caruth, Franko
argues first that trauma cannot be fully perceived when it is occurring. Thus,
the fog of war makes the act of translation into critical debate nearly impossible.
In Franko’s analysis, Forsythe addresses the problem of the powerlessness of
civil society in the face of traumatic war. Certainly Siegmund’s contention that
Three Atmospheric Studies admits of no salvation would support Franko’s view.
The impossibility of translation is the code through which the work “depicts”
trauma, yet the broader implications of translation’s impossibility are also at
the root of 21st-╉century war itself. As Franko observes, this inability to trans-
late renders traditional choreography as a part of civil society powerless in the
face of contemporary wars where armies are no longer bound by states and
civilian casualties are the norm. Only choreography that “operates outside any
Introduction 19

symbolic practice of social order or organization” can create citizens critically

engaged with contemporary war.
Like the majority of the essays in Choreographies of 21st Century Wars,
Franko’s chapter reflects a dark view of our times. We have argued that what
choreography generates at this moment is disorder, the scrambling and dis-
assembling of old orders. The old answers, it would seem, are as useless in
states that rule by control as they are in states that fail to control on any level.
Protest, so hoped for as a way to initiate new beginnings with the Arab Spring
revolutions, the Occupy Wall Street demonstrations, and the mass demonstra-
tions in Iran, Bahrain, and Israel, has had disappointing results. If, as theorists
proclaim, the answers no longer lie in appeals to the state but in the forming
of global communities, we are uncertain how to create such communities or
make them work. If there is any light in the assessments seen in this collection,
it comes in the embodied nature of choreography. These essays suggest that
connections between people are effectively made through the body in motion,
where some real understanding occurs of how pain is inflicted and suffering
relieved. In making these connections visible, choreography gestures toward
the decisions humanity must make in the 21st century if it is not to perpetuate
endless violence.

NOTES
1. Accordingly, for the purposes of this book we define war as any armed conflict
involving, or having the potential to involve, a significant loss of life.
2. Mark Franko notes that 20th-╉century choreography was marked by themes and
subject matter associated with national identity (1995, 2012), that is, choreogra-
phy concerned itself with the power of the nation-╉state, whether it was Martha
Graham, who sought a definitive American dance, or ballet companies and folk
troupes throughout the world that sought to embody national styles.
3. See also Dudziak (2012).
4. Kaldor may have been the first to use the term “new wars” in New and Old Wars
(originally written in 1998, with a second edition in 2006), although how new
“new” wars are has been widely contested by historians (see for example, Strachan
and Herberg-╉Rothe 2007, 9, Holmqvist-╉Jonsäter and Coker 2010, and Strachan
and Scheipers 2011).
5. Although contemporary wars are sometimes compared to premodern wars that
continued for long periods, such as the Thirty Years War of the 17th century,
what separates today’s wars from earlier ones are the elements of globalization,
privatization, and often a lack of nation-╉building aims. In addition to Kaldor, see
Münkler (2005), 32–╉34, and Hardt and Negri (2004), 3–╉6.
6. For an overview of this subject see McNeill (1995).
7. F. T. Marinetti’s “Manifesto of Futurist Dance” (Marinetti 2009) was published in
1917. For essays on futurist dance, see Brandstetter 2015; Veroli 2000, 2009.
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
them, forbids the building of the tem|)le Seven chiefs of the Persians
slay tlip Magi Darius, son of Hystaspes, otherwise Ahasuerus,
acknowledged king of the Persians. Marries Atossa, the daughter of
Cyrus Haggai begins to prophesy ; reproaches the Jews for not
building the house of the Lord The Jews re-commence building the
temple About tills time Zcchariah begins to proi)hesy Htre, proprrh/,
end the sevej^t)/ years of cnptivitrj, fordold by Jeremiah, which
be^an A. M. 3146. Ezek. XXV. Jos. Ant. lib. x. c. 11. Ezek. xxix. 18 ;
Jos. Ant. lib. X. c. 11. 19 — xxxii. 32. Dan. iv. 1—27. 28—33. 34—37.
ili. 1—7. 8—30. Berosus, ap. Jos. cont. Ap. lib. i. 2 Kings XXV. 27-30 ;
Jer. lii. 31 — 34. Berosus, ap. Jos. cont. Ap. lib. i. et Euseb. Praep.
lib. ix. Dan. vii. vi. 1—9. — 10—24. Herod, lib. i. Cyrop. vi. vii.
2Chr.xxxvi.22,23;Ezra i. Xen. Cyrop. lib. viii. Apocrypha. Ezra ii. 1 —
iii. 7. Cyropedia, lib. viii. Ezra iv. 6—24. Ptol. Can. Her. ii. iii. Just. i.
c.9. Herod. lib. iii. 1 Esdras v. 73. Herod, iii. Just. i. c. 10. Haggai.
Ezra vi. 6 — 14. Zcch. i. 1.
 A CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF THE HOLY BIBLE. 969 3487
3488 3489 3495 349G 3519 3531 3537 353H 3550 3551 4948 4951
4895 4926 4947 4954 4967 35()3 3565 3580 49791 fi 4987 4991
4998 5038 5070 3654 3671 3672 3(573 3674 3681 3684 Calmet.
Hales. 513 512 511 463 460 516 505 504 481 485 469 464 463 457
462 450 444 449 437 435 432 424 420 420 413 373 341 346 329
328 327 326 319 316 FROM THE CREATION TO THE BIRTH OF
CHRIST. The feast of Darius,or Ahasuerus ; he divorces Vashti. He
espouses Esther The dedication of the temple of Jerusalem, rebuilt
hy Zeruhhahel The beginninjf of the fortune of Hanian He vo\vs the
destruction of the Jews, and procinxs from Ahasuerus an order for
their e.\tennination. Esther obtains a revocation of this decree.
Hainan hung on the gallous he had prepared for Mordecai The Jews
punish their enemies at Shushan, and ^ throughout the Persian
empire (j Darius, or Ahasuerus, dies ; Xerxes succeeds him.. . Xei-
xes dies ; Artaxerxcs succeeds him He sends Ezra to Jerusalem, with
several priests and Lcvites, the seventh year of Artaxerxcs Ezra
reforms abuses among the Jews, especially as to their strange wives
Nehemiah obtains leave of Artaxerxcs to visit Jerusalem, and to
rebuild its gates and walls The walls rebuilt Dedication of the walls of
Jerusalem Nehemiah prevails with several families in the country to
dwell in Jerusalem The Israelites put awaj' their strange wives
Nehemiah renews the covenant of Israel with the Lord Nehemiah
retm-ns to king Artaxerxcs Nehemiah comes a second time into
Judea, and reforms abuses Zcchariah prophesies under his
government ; also Malachi, whom several have confounded with
Ezra. Nehemiah dies. Eliashib, the high-priest, who lived under
Nehemiah, is succeeded by Joiada, who is succeeded by Jonathan,
who is killed in the temple by Jesus his brotlier: the successor of
Jonathan is Jaddus, or Jaddua. The exact j^ears of the death of
these high-priests are not known Artaxerxcs Ochus sends several
Jews into Hyrca- ) nia, whom he had taken captive in Egypt ^
Alexander the Great enters Asia He besieges Tj^re ; demands of tiie
high-priest Jaddus the succors usually sent to the king of Persia ;
Jad(Uis refuses Alexander ajiproarhes Jerusalem, sIjows respect to
the high-priest, is favorable to the Jews; grants them an exemption
fioni tribute every sabbatical year The Samaritans obtain Alexander's
permission to build a tcm|)le on mount Gcrizim. Alexander conquoi's
Egypt ; retm-ns into Pha?nicia ; ^ chastises the Samaritans, u'ho
had killed An- ( dromachus, his governor; gives the Jews j)art C of
their country / Darius Codomannus dies, the last king of the
Persians. Alexander the Great dies, first monarch of the Grecians in
the East Judea in the division of the kings of Syria. Ptolemy, son of
Lagus, conquers it ; carries many ? Jews into Egypt $ Esth. i. ij. 1—
18. Ezra vi. 15 — 22. Esth. iii. 1, 2. 3—15. IV. VII. ix, 1 — 16 ; Jos.
Ant. lib. xi. c. 6. Ptol. in Canone ; Africanus ; Euseb. &:c. Diod. Sic.
lib. xi. Justin, lib. iii. c. 1. Ezravii. 1, 7, 8. ix. X. Neh. i.— ii. 12. ii. 13
— vi. 19. xii. 27-^3. xi. ix. 2. viii. — X. vii. 1—4 ; Prid. xiii. 10. Jos.
Ant. lib. xi. c. 7 ; Chron. Alexand. Diod. Sic. Ill), xvi. Jos. cont. Ap.
lib. i. Pint, in Alex. Arrian, i. Diod. Sic. lib. xxii. Jos. Ant. lib. xi. c. 8.
Q. Curt. lib. iv. c. 8; Euseb. Chron. p. 177. Cedronus ; Jos. cont. Ap.
lib. ii. Pint, in Alexand. Q.Cnrt. lib. X. c. 5 ; Diod. Sic. lib. xvii. Jos.
Ant. lib. xii. c. 7. Arist. Diod. lib. xviii. 128
 970 A CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF THE HOLY BIBLE.
Calmet. Hales. 3690 3692 5070 310 30g 241 3727 3743 3758 273
257 242 3771 5090 5111 5120 5135 5161 3783 3785 3786 3787
5194 229 217 215 214 213 321 300 291 276 250 217 FROM THE
CREATION TO THE BIRTH OF CHRIST. 3788 3800 3802 3805 3806
3807 3812 3815 5216 212 200 198 195 194 193 188 18c 195
Antigonus retakes Judea from Ptolemy Ptolemy, son of Lagus,
conquers Demetrius, son of Antigonus, near Gaza ; becomes again
master of Judea Judea returns to the jurisdiction of the kings of
Syria; the Jews pay them tribute some time. Judea is in subjection to
the kings of Egypt under the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, if what
we read concerning the version of the Septuagint be true. The
Septuagint version supposed to be i-eally nmde about this time.
Antiochus Theos, king of Syria, begins to reign ; grants to the Jews
the privileges of free denizens throughout his dominions. Ptolemy
Euergetes makes himself master of Syria and Judea. The high-priest
Jaddus dying in 8682, Oriias I. succeeds him, whose successor is
Simon the Just, in 3702. He, dying in 3711, leaves his son Onias II.
a child ; his father's brother, Eleazar, discharges the office of high-
priest about thirty years. Under the priesthood of Eleazar the version
of the Septuagint is said to be made. After the death of Eleazar in
3744, Manasseh, great uncle of Onias, and brother of Jaddus, is
invested with the priesthood Manasseh dying this year, Onias II.
possesses the high-priesihood. Incurs the indignation of the king of
Egypt, for not paying his tribute of twenty talents ; his nephew
Joseph gains the king's favor, and farms the tributes of Coelo-Syria,
Plioenicia, Samaria and Judea Ptolemy Euergetes, king of Egypt,
dies; Ptolemy Philopator succeeds him Onias II. high-priest, dies ;
Simon II. succeeds him. Antiochus the Great wars against Ptolemy
Philo- ) pator ^ Ptolemy Philopator defeats Antiochus at Raphia in
Syria Ptolemy attempts to enter the temple of Jenisalem ; is
hindered by the priests. He returns into Egypt ; condemns the Jews
ui his dominions to be trod to death by elephants. God gives his
people a miraculous deliverance The Egyptians rebel against their
king Ptolemy Philopator ; the Jews take his part Ptolemy Philopator
dies; Ptolemy Epiphanes, an infant, succeeds him Antiochus the
Great conquers Phoenicia and Judea. Simon II. high-priest, dies;
Onias III. succeeds him. Scopas, a general of Ptolemy Epiphanes,
retakes Judea from Antiochus Antiochus defeats Scopas ; is received
by the Jews into Jerusalem Arius, king of Lacedemon, writes to
Onias III. and acknowledges the kindred of the Jews and
Lacedemonians. The year uncertain. Perhaps it was rather Onias I.
Antiochus the Great gives his daughter Cleopatra in marriage to
Ptolemy Epi])hanes, king of Egypt ; and as a dowry, Coelo-Syria,
Phoenicia, Judea and Samaria Antiochus, declaring war against the
Romans, is Plut. in Demet. Diod. Sic. lib. xix. App. in Syriacis. Jos.
Ant. hb. xii. c. 2; Euseb. in Chron. Jos. Ant. lib. xii. c. 3. Polyb. lib. ii.
p. 155; Justin, lib. xxix. e. 1 ; Euseb. in Chron. Polyb. lib. V. Justin,
lib. XXX. c. 1. Polyb. lib. V. 3Mac. i.ii. Jos. Ant. lib. xii. c. 4. Euseb. in
Chron. Chron. Alexand. Polyb. lib. V. Justin, lib. xx. c. 1, 2. Ptol. in
Canone; Euseb. &c. Polyb. lib. V. Jos. Ant. lib. xii. c. 3. Polyb. lib. xvi.
Jos. Ant. lib. xii. c. 3. Jos. Ant. lib. xii. c. 3.
 A CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF THE HOLY BIBLE. 971 3817
3828 3829 3831 3834 5216 5236 5239 3836 3837 183 172 171 169
166 195 175 172 3838 164 163 FROM THE CREATION TO THE
BIRTH OF CHRIST. 5248 162 163 overcome, nnd loses great part of
his dominions. He presen'es Syria and Judea Antiochus dies; leaves
Seleucus Pliilopator his ^ successor. Antiochus, his other son,
surnamed > afterwards Epiphanes, at Rome as a hostage ... 5
Heliodorus, by order of Seleucus, attempts to rifle the treasury of
the temple at Jerusalem. Is prevented by an angel. Onias III, goes
to Antioch, to vindicate himself against calumnies. Seleucus sends
his son Demetrius to Rome, to replace his brother Antiochus, who
had been a hostage there fourteen years. Antiochus journeying to
return into S3'ria, Seleucus is put to death by the machinations of
Heliodorus, who intends to usui-p the kingdom. Antiochus, at his
arrival, is received by the Syrians as a tutelai- deity, and receives the
name of Epiphanes. Jason, son of Simon II., high-priest, and brother
of Onias III., now high-priest, buys the high-priesthood of Antiochus
Epiphanes Several Jews renounce Judaism, for the religion and
ceremonies of the Greeks. Antiochus Epiphanes intends war against
Ptolemy Philometor, king of Egypt Is received with great honor in
Jerusalem. Menelaus offers three hundred talents of silver for the
high-priesthood more than what Jason had given for it ; he obtains a
gi-ant of it from Antiochus.. . . Menelaus, not paying his purchase-
money, is deprived of the high-priesthood : Lysimachus, his brother,
is ordered to perform the functions of it. Menelaus, gaining
Andronicus, governor of Antioch, in the absence of Antiochus
Epiphanes, causes Onias III. the high-priest, to be killed Lysimachus,
thinking to plunder the treasury of the temple at Jerusalem, is put to
death in the temple. Antiochus preparing to make war in Egypt.
Prodigies seen in the air over Jerusalem A report that Antiochus
Epiphanes was dead, in Egypt ; Jason attempts Jerusalem, but is
repulsed. Antiochus, being informed that some Jews had rejoiced at
the false news of his death, plunders Jerusalem, and slays 80,000
men ApoUonius sent into Judea by Antiochus Epiphanes. He
demolishes the walls of Jerusalem, and oppresses the people. He
builds a citadel on the mountain near the temple, where formerly
stood the city of David Judas 3Iaccabaeus, with nine others, retires
into the wilderness. Antiochus Epiphanes publishes an edict, to
constrain all the people of his dominions to uniformity with the
religion of the Grecians. The sacrifices of the temple interrupted ;
the statue of Jupiter Olympius set up on the altar of burntsacriiices
The martyrdom of old Eleazar at Antioch ; of the ? seven brethren
Maccabees, and their mother. . . \ Mattathias and his seven sons
retire into the moun- ? tains ; the Assideans join them ^ About tliis
time flourishes Jesus, sou of Sirach, author of the book of
Ecclesiastic us. Mattathias dies Justin, lib. xxxi. c. 6 — 8. xxxii. c. 2 ;
Strabo, lib. xvi. Ai)p. in Syriacis. 2 Mac. iv. 7 ; Jos, de Mac. c. 4, 23—
28. 34. 40—42. 1—3. 5, 6 ; Jos. Ant. 1. xii. c. 8. ll;Diod.Sic. lib.
xxxiv. 24—26 ; 1 Mac. i. 30—40 ; Jos. Ant. 1. xxii. c. 7. Jos. Ant. 1.
xxii. c. 7. 2 Mac. vi. vii. Jos. de Maccab. 1 Mac. ii. 29, 30 ; Jos. Ant.
lib. xii. c. 8. 70.
 972 A CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF THE HOLY BIBLE.
Calmet. Hales. 3838 3839 5248 162 161 163 3840 160 3841 159
:812 158 FROM THE CREATION TO THE BIRTH OF CHRIST. Is
succeeded by Judas Maccabajus. Judas defeats Apollonius, and
afterwards Seron Antiocluis Epiphanes, wanting money to pay the
Romans, goes to Persia. Nicanor and Gorgias, and Ptolemy, son of
Dorymenes, enter Judeaat the head of their armies Judas
Maccabseus defeats Nicanor. Gorgias declines a battle against Judas.
Lysias, coming into Judea with an army, is beaten, and forced to
return to Antioch. Judas purifies the temple, after three years'
defilement by the Gentiles. This is called Encoenia.. . Timotheus and
Bacchides, generals of the Syrian army, are beaten by Judas.
Antiocluis Epiphanes dies in Persia. His son, Antiocluis Eupator, aged
nine years, succeeds him ; under the regency of Lysias Judas wars
against the enemies of his nation in Idumea, and beyond Jordan
Timotheus, a second time, overcome by Judas. . . The jjeople
beyond Jordan and in Galilee consj)ire against the Jews. Are
supported by Judas and his brethren. Lysias, coming into Judea,
forced to make peace with Judas ; returns to Antioch A letter of king
Antiochus Eupator, in favor of the Jews. The Roman legates Avrite to
the Jews, and promise to support their interests with the king of
Syria. The treachery of Joppa and Samaria chastised by Judas. Judas
wars beyond Jordan. Defeats a general of the Syrian troojis, called
Timotheus, different from the former Timotheus Judas attacks
Gorgias in Idumea ; having defeated him, finds Jews, killed in the
fight, had concealed gold under their clothes, which they had taken
from an idol's temple at Jamnia Antiochus Eu|)ator invades Judea in
person ; besieges Bethshur, and takes it; besieges Jerusalem Philip,
who had been appointed regent by Antiochus E|)iphanes, coming to
Antioch, Lysias prevails with the king to make peace v/ith the Jews,
and to return to Antioch. But before he returns, he enters Jerusalem,
and causes the wall to be demolished that Judas had built to secure
the tempje from the insults of the citadel Menelaus, the high-priest,
dies; is succeeded by Alcimus, an intruder Onias IV. son of Onias III.
lawfid heir to the dignity of high-priest, retires into Egypt, where,
some time after, he builds the temple Onion. See 3854. Demetrius,
son of Seleucus, sent to Rome as a hostage ; escapes from thence,
comes into Syria, where he slays his nephew Eupator, also Lysias,
regent of the kingdom, and is acknowledged king of Syria 1 Mac. iii.
1, 13, 24 ; 2 Mac. viii. 1 ; Jos. Ant. hb. xii. c. 9. 42,&c.2aiac. viii. 34,
&c. Jos. Ant. lib. xii. c. 11. - iv.36,&c.2Mac. X. 1, &c. Jos. Ant. lib. xii.
c. 11. Appian, in Syriacis ; Euseb. in Chron, Jos. Ant. lib. xii. c. 14 ; ]
Mac. vi. 17 ; 2 Mac. ix. 29; X. 10, II. 1 Mac. v. 1, &c. 2 Mac. X. 14,
15, &c. 2 Mac. X. 24—38. xi. 1—15. 1 Mac. xii. 10, &c. v. 65, &c. vi.
48—54. 55-62 ; 2 Mac. xiii. 23. 2 Mac. xiv. 3 ; Jos. Ant. lib. xii. c. 15.
lib. XX. c. 8. IMac. vii. 1— 4;2Mac. xiv. 1,2; Jos. Ant. lib. xii. c. 16;
Appian in Syriacis ; Just.lib.xxxiv.c.3.
 A CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF THE HOLY BIBLE. 973 3842
5248 3843 158 157 163 5251 160 3SJ4 3846 156 154 3851 3852
149 148 5258 153 3854 146 FROM THE CREATION TO THE BIRTH
OF CHRIST. Alcimus intercedes with Demetrius for the confirmation
of the dignity of liigh-priest, which he had received from Eupator
Alcimus returns into Judea with Bacchides, and enters Jerusalem Is
driven from thence, and returns to Demetrius, who appoints Nicanor,
with troojjs, to take him back to Judea. Nicanor makes an
accommodation with Judas, and lives for some time on good terms
with him Alchnus accuses Nicanor of betraying the king's ^ interests.
Demetrius oi'ders Nicanor to bring > Judas to him ) Judas attacks
Nicanor, and kills about 5000 men. . . . Death of Rhazis. a famous
old man, who chooses rather to die by his own hand, than to fall
alive into the ])ower of Nicanor Judas obtains a complete victory, in
which Nicanor is killed Bacchides and Alcimus again sent into Judea
Judas gives them battle ; dies like a hero, on a heap } of enemies
slain by him ^ Jonathan Maccabseus chosen chief of his nation, and
? high-priest, in the place of Judas \ The envoys return, which Judas
had sent to Rome, to make an alliance with the Romans. Bacchides
pursues Jonathan ; he, after a slight com- ? bat, swims over the
Jordan in sight of the enemy. ) Alcimus dies Jonathan and Simon
Maccabseus are besieged in Bethbessen, or Beth-agla. Jonathan
goes out of the place, raises soldiers, and defeats several bodies of
the enemy Simon, his brother, makes several sallies, and opposes
Bacchides. Jonathan makes proposals of peace to Bacchides, } which
are accepted ^ Jonathan fixes his abode atMikmash, where he
judges the people Alexander Balas, natural son of Antiochus Epiph- )
anes, comes into Syria to be acknow ledged king. ^ Demetrius Soter,
king of Syria, writes to Jonathan, asks soldiers against Alexander
Balas. Balas also writes to Jonathan, with offers of fi'iendship, and
the dignity of high-priest Jonathan assists Balas, puts on the purple,
and performs the functions of high-priest, for the first time at
Jerusalem, which he makes his ordinary residence. In the year of the
Greeks 160 Demetrius's second letter to Jonathan Demetrius Soter
dies; Alexander Balas is acknowledged king of Syria Onias IV. son of
Onias III. builds the temple of Onion in Egypt A dispute between the
Jews and Samaritans of Alexandria, concerning their temples. The
Samaritans condenuied by the king of Egj'pt, and the temple of
Jerusalem preferred to that of Gerizim. Aristobuhis, a peripatetic
Jew, flourishes in Egypt, under Ptolemy Philopator. 1 Mac. vii. 5 — 9.
10, &c. 26—29. 27—32; 2 Mac. xiv. 26—29 ; Jos. Ant. 1. xii. c. 17. 2
Mac. XV. 27. xiv. 37—46. XV. 27, &c. 1 Mac. ix. 1, &c. Jos. Ant. lib.
xii. c. 19. 5—21 ; Jos. Ant. lib. xii. c. 19. . 28, &c. Jos. Ant. lib. xiii. c.
1. 43, &c. Jos. Ant. lib. xiii. a. 1. - — 54. 62, &c. Jos. Ant. lib. xiii. c.
1. — 70 ; Jos. Ant. lib. xiii. c. 2. — 73. X. 1 ; Jos. Ant. lib. xiii. c. 3. 3
—9,15—20; Jos. Ant. 1. xiii. c. 5. 21, &c. 24—45. — 50 ; Justin, lib.
XXXV. c. 1 ; Polyb. lib. iii.p, 161 ; Jos. Ant. lib. xiii. c. 5. Jos. Ant. lib.
xii. c. 6 ; lib. XX. c. 8 ; Bell. lib. vii. c. 30.
 974 A CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF THE HOLY BIBLE.
Calmet. Hales. 3854 5258 146 153 3858 3859 142 141 3860 140
3861 3362 5268 139 138 143 3364 3835 3836 38£9 3870 5275 136
135 134 131 130 136 FROM THE CREATION TO THE BIRTH OF
CHRIST. Demetrius Nicanor, eldest son of Demetrius Soter, ^ cotnes
into Cilicia to recover the kingdom of his > father ^ Apollonius, to
whom Alexander Balas had trusted his affairs, revolts to Demetrius
Nicanor He marches against Jonathan Maccabseus, who continues in
the intei-est of Alexander Balas. Apollonius is put to flight Ptolemy
Philometor, king of Egypt, comes into Syria, pretending to assist
Alexander Balas, but he really designs to dethrone him Alexander
Balas gives battle to Philometor and De- j) metrius Nicanor. He loses
it, and flies to Zab- > diel, king of Arabia, and cuts ofl'his head 3
Ptolemy Philometor dies in Syria. Cleopatra, his i queen, gives the
command of her army to Onias, > a Jew, son of Onias III ) Onias
restrains Ptolemy Physcon, son of Philo- } metor y Jonathan
besieges the fortress of the Syrians at Je- ? rusalem ^ Demetrius
comes into Palestine ; Jonathan finds means to gain him by presents
Demetrius Nicanor attacked by the inhabitants of Antioch, who had
revolted. Jonathan sends him soldiers, who deliver him Tryphon
brings young Antiochus, son of Alexander Balas, out of Arabia, and
has him acknowledged king of Syria. Jonathan espouses his interests
against Demetrius Nicanor Jonathan renews the alliance with the
Romans and ) Lacedemonians y He is treacherously taken by
Tryphon in Ptolemais, who some time afterwards puts him to death
Simon Maccabteus succeeds Jonathan Tryphon slays the young king
Antiochus Theos, and usurps the kingdom of Syria Simon
acknowledges Demetrius Nicanor, who had ^ been dispossessed of
the kingdom of Syria, and > obtains from him the entire freedom of
the Jews. ) The Syrian troops, that held the citadel of Jerusalem,
capitulate Demetrius Nicator, or Nicanor, goes into Persia with an
army ; is taken by the king of Persia Simon acknowledged high-
priest, and chief of the Jews, in a great assembly at Jerusalem
Antiochus Sidetes, brother of Demetrius Nicanor, becomes king of
Syria; allows Simon to coin money, and confirms all the privileges
the Syrian kings had granted to the Jews Return of the ambassadors
Simon had sent to Rome, to renew his alliance with the Romans
Antiochus Sidetes quarrels with Simon, and sends Cendebeus into
Palestine, to ravage the country. . Cendebeus is beaten by John and
Judas, Simon's sons. Simon killed by treachery, with two of his sons,
by Ptolemy, his son-in-law, in the castle of Docus Hyrcanus, or John
Hyrcanus, succeeds his father, Simon. Antiochus Sidetes besieges
Hyrcanus in Jerusalem . Hyrcanus obtains a truce of eight days to
celebrate 1 Mac, X. 67 ; Jos. Ant. 1. xiii. c. 8 ; Justin, 1. XXXV. c. 2.
Jos. Ant. 1. xiii. c. 8. 1 Mac. X. 69—87 ; Jos. Ant. 1. xiii. c. 8. xi. 1 —
5 ; Jos. Ant. 1. xiii. c. 8. xi. 15—17 ; Diod. Sic. in Excer. Phot. cod.
244. xi. 18 ; Polyb. in Excer. Val. p. 194. Strab. 1. xvi. p. 751. Justin,
lib. xxxviii. c. 8 ; Jos. cont. Ap. 1. ii. 1 Mac. xi. 20 ; Jos. Ant. 1. xiii. c.
8. 21—29. 43, 44. — 54—60; Jos. Ant. 1. xiii. c. 9. xii. 1 — 13 ; Jos.
Ant. 1. xiii. c. 9. — 39—53. xiii. 1—9. Diod. Sic. Legat. 31. 1 Mac. xii.
34— 42; xiv. 38—41 ; Jos. Ant. I. xiii. c. 11. xiii. 49—52. xiv. 1 — 3;
Justin, 1. xxxvi. c. 1 ; Jos. Ant. xiii. c. 9, 12; Orosiu.s, lib. y. c. 4. 26-
49. XV. 1, &c. — 15. — 26—36. — 38—40. xvi. 14 — 18 ; Jos. Ant.
1. xiii. c. 14. — 20—24 ; Jos. Ant. 1. xiii. c. 14.
 A CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF THE HOLY BIBLE. 97o
Caloiel. Hales. 3870 3S73 3874 3875 3877 3:^^4 3S98 5275 130
127 126 125 123 lOf) 105 102 136 5305 106 3899 3900 3901 3902
3906 3907 5306 101 100 99 98 105 3919 81 FROM THE CREATION
TO THE BIRTH OF CHRIST. the feast of Tabernacles. Makes peace
with Antiochus Hyrcaniis finds money in David's tomb; or rather tlie
hidden treasures of the kings of Jiidaii Antiochiis Sidetcs goes to war
against the Persians ; Hyrcanus accompanies him. Antiochus is
conquered and shiin Hyrcanus shakes off the yoke of the kings of
Syria, sets himself at perfect liberty, and takes several cities from
Syria He attacks the Idumeans, and obliges them to re ceive
circumcision He sends ambassadors to Rome, to renew hisaUiance
with the Roman power While the two kings of Syria, both of them
called Antiochus, war against each other, Hyrcanus strengthens
himself in his new monarchy He besieges Samaria ; takes it after a
year's siege. . . Hyrcanus dies, after a reign of twenty-nine years. . .
Under his government is placed the beginning of the three principal
Jewish sects, the Pharisees, the Sadducees and the Esseniaus, but
their exact epochas are not kno\vn. Judas, otherwise called
Aristobulus, or Philellen, succeeds John Hyrcanus, associates his
brother Antigonus with him in the government, leaves his other
brethren and his mother in bonds. Lets his mother starve in j '.ison ;
takes the diadem and title of king. Reigns one year He declares war
against the Itureans. Antigonus, his brother, beats them, and obliges
them to be circumcised Antigonus slain at his return from this
expedition, by onier of his brother Aristobulus Aristobulus dies, after
reigning one year. Alexander Jannseus, his brother, succeeds him ;
reigns twenty-si.x years. He attempts Ptolemais, but hearing that
Ptolemy Lathurus was coming to relieve the city, he raises the siege,
and wastes the country Ptolemy Lathurus obtains a great victory
over Alexander, king of the Jews Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, fearing
that Lathurus should give her disturbance in Egypt, sends the Jews
Helcias and Ananias, against him, with a ])owerful army. She takes
Ptolemais Alexander Jannjeus, king of the Jews, makes an alliance
with Cleopatra, and takes some places in Palestine Attacks Gaza,
takes it, and demolishes it. The Jews revolt against him, but he
subdues them. He wages several Avars abroad with success. His
subjects war against him during six years, and invite to their
assistance Demetrius Eucenis, king of Syria Alexander loses the
battle, but the consideration of his misfortunes reconciles his
subjects to him. Demetrius Eucerus obliged to retire into Syria. The
years of these events are not well known. Antiochus Dionysius, king
of Syria, invades Judea ; attacks the Arabians, but is beaten and
slain. Aretas, king of the Arabiajis, attacks Alexander; having
overcome him, treats with him, and retires. Jos. Ant. lib. xiii. c. 16 ;
Diod. Sic. xxxiv. p. 901. Jo3. Ant. lib. xiii. c. 16. Justin, I. xxxviii, c.
10. Jos. Ant. lib. xiii. c. 17 ; Strabo, lib. xvi. p. 76. XV. c. 11 ; Strabo,
1. xvi. p. 7G0. xiii. c. 17. c. 18. Euseb. in Chron. Jos. Ant. lib. xiii. c.
19 ; de Bell. lib. i.e. 3. Jos. ubi sup. c. 20. c. 20, 21. C.21. C.22.
 ^7Q A CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF THE HOLY BIBLE. 3920
3926 3933 3934 3935 3935 5306 5333 5342 80 74 67 66 65 3938
62 5342 3939 6] 3940 3941 5348 60 59 3947 53 105 78 69 69 63
FROM THE CREATION TO THE BIRTH OF CHRIST. Alexander
Jannseus takes the cities of Diou, Gerasa, Gaulon, Seleuci, &c.
Alexander Jannseus dies, aged forty-nine years Alexandra, otherwise
Salome, or Salina, his queen, succeeds him ; gains the Pharisees to
her party, by giving them great power. Reigns nine years. Aristobulus
II. son of Alexander Jannseus, heads the old soldiers of his father ;
is discontented with the government of his mother and the Pharisees
Takes possession of the chief places of Judea, during his mother's
sickness Alexandra dies. Hyrcanus, her eldest son, and brother of
Aristobulus, is acknowledged king. Reigns peaceably two years.
Battle between Hyrcanus and Aristobulus ; Hyrcanus is overcome at
Jericho. Hyrcanus had lieen highpriest under the reign of his mother
nine years; then is king and pontiff two years ; is afterwards only
priest nineteen years ; after wliich he is ethnarch four years. At last,
he is Herod's captive and sport eight years. So that he survived his
fatner, Alexander Jannajus, forty-eight years Peace concluded
between the brothers, on condition that Hyrcanus should liv'e
private, in the enjoyment of his estate, and Aristobulus be
acknowledged high-priest and king. Thus Hyrcanus, having reigned
three years and three montJis, resigns the kingdom to Aristobulus II.
who reigns three years and three months Hyrcanus, at the
instigation of Antipater, seeks protection from Aretas, king of the
Arabians. Aretas, king of the Arabians, undei-takes to replace
Hyrcanus on the throne '. Aristobulus is worsted, and forced to shut
himself up in the temple at Jerusalem. He sends deputations, first to
Galiinius, and then to Scaurus, who were sent by Pompey into Syria
; offers them great sums of money to engage on his sid'!, and to
oi)lige Aretas to raise the siege of the temj)le Scaurus writes to
Ai'ctas, and threatens to declare him an enemy to the Roman
people, if he does not retire. Aretas withdraws his forces ;
Aristobulus pursues him, gives him battle, and olitains a victory over
him. Pompey comes to Damascus, and orders Aristobulus and
Hyrcanus to appear before liim. Hears the cause of the two brothers,
and advises them to live in good understanding witii each other
Aristobulus withdraws into Jerusalem, and maintains the city against
Pompey, who besieges it. The city and temple taken. Aristobulus
taken prisoner. Hyrcanus made high-jiriest and prince of the Jews,
but not allowed to wear the diadem. Judea reduceil to its ancient
limits, and obliged to pay tribute to the Romans Alexander, son of
Aristobulus, having escaped from the custody of those who were
carrying him to Rome, comes into Judea, and raises soldiers End of
the kingdom of Syria. Augustus, afterwards emperor, is born.
Gabinius, a Roman commander, beats Alexander, and besieges him
in the castle of Alexandrion. Alexander sun-enders, with all his
strong places. Jos. Ant, lib. xiii. c. 23. 24. lib. xiv. c. 1 ; Bel. lib. i. c.
4. Jos. ubi sup. c. 3:Behlib.i.5. c. 4. c. 5. c. 5—7. Strab. lib. xvi. p.
762. Jos. Ant. lib. xiii. c. 10; Bel. hb. i c. 6.
 A CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF THE HOLY BIBLE. 977 3948
5348 3949 51 3950 3951 3[I52 5358 50 49 48 3955 45 3957 43
53G4 3958 42 G3 53 47 FROM THE CREATION TO THE BIRTH OF
CHRIST. 3959 41 Aristobulu?!, escaping from Rome, returns into
Jiulea, ami endeavors to repair the castle of Alexandrion. Is hindered
Ity tlie Romans, wlio disperse his httle army. lie flees to Machoeron,
determining to fortify it, but is presently besieged in it. After some
resistance, is taken, and sent a second time prisoner to Rome
Ptolemy Auletes, king of Egypt, by money, induces Gabinius to come
into Egypt, to restore him to the throne. Joiin Hyrcanus furnishes
Gabinius Avith provisions for his army, and writes to the Jews, in
Pelusium, to favor the passage of the Romans. . . . While Gabinius is
busy in Egypt, Alexander, son of Aristobulus, wastes Jiulea. Gabinius
defeats hmi at the foot of mount Tabor Crassus succeeds Gabinius in
the government of Syria Crassus, passing into Syria, and finding the
province quiet, makes war against the Parthians. lie comes to
Jerusalem, and takes gi-eat riches out of the temple He marches
against the Parthians : is beaten and killed by Orodes Cassius brings
the remains of the Roman army over the Euphrates, takes Tirhakah,
and brings from thence above 30,000 Jewish captives. He restrains
Alexander, son of king Aristobulus. Civil war between Ctesar and
Pompey Julius Caesar, making himself master of Rome, sets
Aristobulus at liberty, and sends him with two legions into Syria.
Those of Pompey's party poison Aristobulus. Scipio slays young
Alexander, son of Aristobulus. The battle of Pharsalia. Antipater
governor of Judea. The libraiy of Alexandria burnt. Antipater, by
order of Hyrcanus, joins Mithridates, who was going into Egjpt with
succors for Cassar, and assists him in reducing the Egyptians. Cajsar,
having finished the war in Egypt, comes into Syria ; confirms
Hyrcanus in the high-priesthood. Vitruvhis, the architect, flourishes.
Antigonus, son of Aristobulus, remonstrates to Ciesar ; but Cresar is
pn^judiced against hun by Antip'ater Antipater takes advantage of
the indolence of Hyrcanus ; makes his eldest son, Phazael, governor
of Jerusalem, and Herod, another of his sons, governor of Galilee
Herod is sunmioncd to Jerusalem to give an account of his conduct,
but, finding himself in danger of being condemned, retires to his
government. Hillel and Sameas, two famous rabbins, live about this
time. Sameas was master to Hillel. Jonathan, son of Uziel, author of
the Chaldee paral)hrase, was a disciple of Hillel. Josephus says, that
Pollio wr.s master of Sameas. Jerome says, that Akiba succeeded
Sameas and Hillel in the school of the Hebrews. CfBsar passes into
Africa. Cato kills himself at Utica. Reform of the Roman Calendar, in
the year of Rome 708. This year consisted of 445 days Hyrcanus
sends ambassadoi-s to Julius Caesar, to reJos. Ant. lib. xiv. c. 11 ;
Bel. lib. i. c. 6. Dion. Cas. lib. xxxix ; Plutarch in Anton. Jos. Ant. 1.
xiv. c. 11. Jos. ubi sup. Dion. Cas. lib. xxxix. Jos. Ant. lib. xiv. c. 12.
Dion. Cas. lib. xl. Pint, in Caes. etc. Dion. Cas. lib. xli. App. Bel. civ.
lib. ii. Jos. Ant. lib. xiv. c. 15 ; Bel. lib. i. c. 8. c. 17. Censorin. c. 20.
12.3
 978 A CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF THE HOLY BIBLE. 3960
3961 3962 3963 5364 40 39 38 37 47 3964 36 5371 5374 3965 35
3966 3967 34 33 FROM THE CREATION TO THE BIRTH OF CHRIST.
new alliance. The alliance renewed in a manner very advantageous
to the Jews. After the death of Julius Caesar, the ambassadors of the
Jews are introduced into the senate, and obtain their whole request.
The Jews of Asia confirmed in their privilege of not being compelled
to sei"ve in the wars. Cassius demands 700 talents from Judea.
Malichus causes Antipater to be poisoned Herod causes Malichus to
be killed, to revenge the death of his father Antipater. Felix, having
attacked Phazael, is shut up bj' him in a tower, whence Phazael
would not release him but on composition. The era of Spain, Spain
being now subdued to Augustus by Domitius Calvinus. Herod and
Phazael tetrarchs of Judea Antigonus 11. son of Ai'istobulus, gathers
an army, and enters Judea. Herod gives-him battle, and routs him.
Mark Antony coming into Bithynia, some Jews resort to him, and
accuse Herod and Phazael before him ; but Herod, coming thither,
wins the affections of Antony Mark Antony, being at Ephesus, grants
the liberty of their nation to such Jews as had been brought captive
by Cassius, and causes the lands to be restored that had been
unjustly taken away from the Jevvs. Mark Antony coming to Autioch,
some principal Jews accuse Herod and Phazael, but, instead of
hearing them, he establishes the two brothers tetrarchs of the Jews
The Jews afterwards send a deputation of a thousand of their most
considerable men to Antony, then at Tyre ; but in vain Antigonus,
sou of Aristobulus, prevails with the Parthians to place him on the
throne of Judea. The Parthians seize Hyi'canus and Phazael, and
deliver them up to Antigonus Phazael beats out his own brains ; the
Parthians carry Hyrcanus beyond the Euphrates, after Antigonus had
cut oft' his ears. Herod forced to flee to Jerusalem, and thence to
Rome, to implore assistance from Antony. He obtains the kingdom of
Judea from the senate, and returns with letters from Antony, who
orders the governors of Syria to assist in obtaining the kingdom. He
reigns thirty-seven years He first takes Joppa, then goes to Massada,
where his brother Joseph was besieged by Antigonus. . . He raises
that siege, and marches against Jerusalem ; but, the season being
too far advauced, he coidd not then besiege it He takes the robbers
that hid themselves in the caves of Galilee, and slays them.
3Iachcra, a Roman captain, and Josej)h, Herod's brother, carry on
the war against Antigonus, while Herod goes with troops to Antony,
then besieging Samosata After the taking of Samosata, Antony
sends Sosius, with Herod, into Judea, to reduce it After several
battles, Herod marches against Jerusalem ; the city is taken ;
Antigonus surrenders himself to Sosius, who insults him. Jos. Ant.
lib. xiv. c. 18. 19. C.23. C.22. c.23. •c.24,25. c.26. C.27.
 A CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF THE HOLY BIBLE. 979
Calmet. Hales. 3967 5374 33 39G8 39C9 3970 3973 3974 3975 3976
3978 3979 3982 3983 3984 3985 3988 3989 3990 3991 3993 3994
27 26 25 24 22 21 18 17 16 15 12 11 10 37 KROM THE CREATION
TO THE BIRTH OF CHRIST. Antigomis carr.ed prisoner to Antony, at
Antiocli, who orders him to be beheaded End of the rei^i of the
Asmoneans, which had lasted 126 years. Ananel higli-priest the first
time Hyrcanus is treated kindly by the king of the Partliians. Obtains
leave to return into Judea. Because Hi'rcanus could no longer
exercise the functions of the high-priesthood, Herod bestows that
dignity on Ananel Alexandra, mother of Mariamne and Aristobulus,
obtains of Herod, that Aristobulus might be made high-priest. Herod
causes Aristobulus to be drowned, after he had been high-priest one
year. Ananel high-priest the second time Herod is sent for by Antony
to justify himself concerning the murder of Aristobulus War between
Augustus and Mark Antony. Herod sides with Antony. Herod's wars
with the Arabians. A great earthquake in Judea The battle of Actium
; Augustus obtains the vie- ) tory over Antony s Herod seizes
Hyrcanus, who attempted to take shelter with the king of the
Arabians, and puts him to death. He goes to Rome to pay his court
to Augustus ; obtains the confirmation of the kingdom of Judea. ,
Antony and Cleopatra kill themselves. E7ul of the ki7igs of
Alexandria^ 294 years from the death of Alexander the Great.
Augustus comes into Syria ; passes through Palestine ; is
magnificently entertained by Herod. Herod puts to death his wife
Mariamne, daughter of Alexandra. Salome, Herod's sister, divorces
herself from Costobarus. Plague and famine rage in Judea. Herod
undertakes several buildings, contrary to the religion of the Jews He
builds Caisarea of Palestine. Agrippa, Augustus's favorite, comes into
Asia. Herod visits him Augustus gives Trachonitis to Herod. Herod
undertakes to rebuild the temple of Jerusalem Herod makes a
journey to Rome, to reconmiend himself to Augustus He marries his
two sons, Alexander and Aristobulus. Herod comes to meet Agrippa,
and engages him to visit Jerusalem. Domestic divisions in Herod's
family. Salome, Pheroras and Antipater at variance with Alexander
and Aristobulus Herod goes to Rome, and accuses his two sons,
Alexander and Aristobulus, to Augustus. The solemn dedication of
the city of Caesarea, built by Herod, in honor of Augustus. Jos. Ant.
lib. xiv. c. 27. XV. c. 2. — c. 2, 3. Jos. ubi sup. Jos. Ant. lib. xv. c. 4.
c.7; Bel. lib. i. c. 14. Dion. Cas. lib. li. Plut. in Ant. etc. Jos. Ant. lib.
xv. c. 11. c. 13. c. 14. xvi. c. 1. -C.6— 12.
 980 A CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF THE HOLY BIBLE. FROM
THE CREATION TO THE BIRTH OF CHRIST. Calmet. Hales. 3995
3996 3997 3998 3999 5374 37 5406 Augustus continues the Jews of
Alexajidria in their ancient rights and privileges. Herod, it is said,
causes David's tomb to be opened, to take out treasure. New
disturbances in Herod's family. Archelaus, king of Cappadocia,
reconciles his son-inlaw, Alexander, to his father, Herod. Archelaus
goes to Rome with Herod. Herod makes war in Arabia. Herod is
accused to Augustus of killing several Arabs. An angel appears to the
priest Zacharias. The conception of John the Baptist. September
24th. . . . iVnnunciation of the Incarnation of the Son of God, to the
Virgin Mary. March 25th Herod condemns and slays his two sons
Alexander and Aristobul us Antipater, son of Herod, aims at the
kingdom Herod sends Antipater to Rome. The artifices and tricks of
Antipater are discovered. Birth of John the Baptist, six months
before the birth of Jesus, June 24th Jos. Ant. lib. xvi. c. 15 Luke i. 9
—20. 26—38. Jos. Ant. 1. xvi. c. 17. 1. xvii. c. ] . Luke i. 57—80.
 A CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF THE HOLY BIBLE. 981 Vcir ct
World. Before Clirist. B.-f.,re A.D. Ye.ir of Chrisl. FRO.M THE BIRTH
OF CHRIST TO THE DESTRUCTION OF JERUSALEM. Caliaet. Hiles.
Calmcl. The l)iitli of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ, 4000 5 4 1
4001 3 December 25th Luke ii. 7. 21. Circumcision of Jesus, January
1 Antipater retmnis from Rome. Is accused and ) Jos. Ant. 1. xvii. c.
7, 9 ; convicted of a design to i)oison Herod ^ Bel. lib. i. c. 20, 21.
Wise men come to worship Jesus Matt. ii. 1—12. Purification of the
\'irgin Mary ; Jesus presented in the temi)ie, forty days after his
birth, Feb. 2d Luke ii. 22—38. Fhght into Egy|)t Matt. ii. 13—15.
iMa.-^sacre of the innocents at Bethleiiem 10, 17. Antipater put to
death by order of Herod. Herod dies, five days after Antipater Jos.
Ant. 1. xvii. c. 8 ; Euseb. Hist. Ec. i. 8. Archelaus appointed king of
Judea by the will of ) Herod ^ Jos. Ant. 1. xvii. c. 13 ; Matt. ii. 22.
Return of Jesus Christ out of Egypt. He goes to dwell at Nazareth
Matt. ii. 19—23. Archelaus goes to Rome, to procure from Augustus
the confirmation of Herod's will in his favor. The Jews revolt ; Varus
keeps them in their duty. Archelaus obtains a part of his father's
dominions. with the title of tetrarch, and returns to Judea. An
impostor assumes the character of Alexander, son of Herod and
Mariamne. 4002 1 2 Archelaus takes the high-priesthood from
Joazar, and gives it to Eleazar. The Vulgar ^ra, or Anno Domini ; the
fourth year of Jesus Christ, the first of which has but eight A. D. A.
D. days. 4009 7 6 9 Archelaus banished to Vienne in Gaul Jos. Ant.
1. xvii. c. 15. 4010 7 10 Enrolment, or taxation, by Cyrenius in Syria.
This was his second enrolment. Revolt of Judas the Gaulonite, chief
of the Ilerodians. 4012 10 9 12 Jesus Christ, at twelve years of age,
visits the temple at Jerusalem ; continues there three days, unknown
to his parents Luke ii. 46—48. 4013 10 13 Marcus Ambivius governor
of Judea Jos. Ant. 1. xvii. c. 15. 4017 14 17 Death of the emperor
Augustus ; reigned fifty-seven years, five months, and four days r
Vel. Pat. lib. ii. c. 123 ; Suet, in Oct. c. 100 ; Tacitus, 1. i. c. 5, 7.
Tiberius succeeds him ; reigns tw^enty-two years, six Jos. Ant. lib.
xviii. c. 3, months, and twenty-eight days &c. 4023 20 23 Tiberius
expels from Italy all who profess the Jewish religion, or practise
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