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 ISSN 0081-4539

2008
THE STATE
OF FOOD
AND
AGRICULTURE

BIOFUELS: prospects, risks and opportunities

Photos on front cover and page 3: All photos are from the FAO Mediabase, Giuseppe Bizzarri.

Copies of FAO publications can be requested from:

SALES AND MARKETING GROUP E-mail: [email protected]

Communication Division Fax: (+39) 06 57053360
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Web site: http://www.fao.org/catalog/inter-e.htm
Viale delle Terme di Caracalla
00153 Rome, Italy
 ISSN 0081-4539

2008
THE STATE
OF FOOD
AND
AGRICULTURE

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS

Rome, 2008
Produced by the
Electronic Publishing Policy and Support Branch
Communication Division
FAO

The designations employed and the presentation of material in this

information product do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever
on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)
concerning the legal or development status of any country, territory,
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ISBN 978-92-5-105980-7

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© FAO 2008
 iii

Contents

Foreword vii
Acknowledgements ix
Abbreviations and acronyms xi

PART I
Biofuels: prospects risks and opportunities 1

1. Introduction and key messages 3

Agriculture and energy 3
Opportunities and risks for liquid biofuels 5
Biofuel policies and objectives: is there a mismatch? 6
Key messages of the report 8
2. Biofuels and agriculture – a technical overview 10
Types of biofuels 10
Liquid biofuels for transport 11
Biofuel feedstocks 13
Biofuels and agriculture 14
The biofuels life cycle: energy balances and greenhouse gas emissions 15
Second-generation liquid biofuels 18
Potential for bioenergy 19
Key messages of the chapter 22
3. Economic and policy drivers of liquid biofuels 23
Biofuel markets and policies 23
Underlying objectives of biofuel policies 26
Policy measures affecting biofuel development 27
Economic costs of biofuel policies 30
Economic viability of biofuels 33
Key messages of the chapter 39
4. Biofuel markets and policy impacts 41
Recent biofuel and commodity market developments 41
Long-term projections for biofuel development 43
Medium-term outlook for biofuels 44
Impacts of biofuel policies 50
Key messages of the chapter 53
5. Environmental impacts of biofuels 55
Will biofuels help mitigate climate change? 55
Land-use change and intensification 59
How will biofuel production affect water, soils and biodiversity? 63
Can biofuels be produced on marginal lands? 67
Ensuring environmentally sustainable biofuel production 67
Key messages of the chapter 71
6. Impacts on poverty and food security 72
Food-security impacts at the national level 72
Food-security impacts at the household level – short-run effects 75
Biofuel crop production as an impetus for agricultural growth 79
Biofuel crop development: equity and gender concerns 83
Key messages of the chapter 85
iv

7. Policy challenges 87
Questions addressed by the report 87
A framework for better biofuel policies 88
Areas for policy action 90
Conclusions 94

VIEWS FROM CIVIL SOCIETY

Agrofuels or food sovereignty? 96

Biofuels: a new opportunity for family agriculture 97

PART II
World food and agriculture in review 99

Agricultural commodity prices 102

Agricultural production and stocks 104
Trade 107
Food aid and food emergency needs 109
Key factors driving future prices 110
Looking ahead 116

References 121
Special chapters of The State of Food and Agriculture 127

TABLES

1 Biofuel production by country, 2007 15

2 Biofuel yields for different feedstocks and countries 16
3 Hypothetical potential for ethanol from principal cereal and sugar crops 21
4 Voluntary and mandatory bioenergy targets for transport fuels
in G8+5 countries 29
5 Applied tariffs on ethanol in selected countries 29
6 Total support estimates for biofuels in selected OECD economies in 2006 32
7 Approximate average and variable rates of support per litre of biofuel
in selected OECD economies 34
8 Energy demand by source and sector: reference scenario 44
9 Land requirements for biofuel production 45
10 Water requirements for biofuel crops 64
11 Import bills of total food and major food commodities for 2007 and their
percentage increase over 2006 73
12 Net importers of petroleum products and major cereals, ranked by prevalence
of undernourishment 74
13 Share of net staple food-seller households among urban, rural and total
households 77
 v

BOXES

1 Other types of biomass for heat, power and transport 12

2 Biotechnology applications for biofuels 20
3 Biofuel policies in Brazil 24
4 Biofuel policies in the United States of America 30
5 Biofuel policies in the European Union 32
6 Main sources of uncertainty for biofuel projections 46
7 Biofuels and the World Trade Organization 52
8 Biofuels and preferential trade initiatives 53
9 The Global Bioenergy Partnership 58
10 Biofuels and the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 59
11 Jatropha – a “miracle” crop? 68
12 Agricultural growth and poverty reduction 80
13 Cotton in the Sahel 81
14 Biofuel crops and the land issue in the United Republic of Tanzania 84

FIGURES

1 World primary energy demand by source, 2005 4

2 Total primary energy demand by source and region, 2005 5
3 Trends in consumption of transport biofuels 6
4 Biofuels – from feedstock to end use 10
5 Uses of biomass for energy 11
6 Conversion of agricultural feedstocks into liquid biofuels 14
7 Estimated ranges of fossil energy balances of selected fuel types 17
8 Support provided at different points in the biofuel supply chain 28
9 Biofuel production costs in selected countries, 2004 and 2007 35
10 Breakeven prices for crude oil and selected feedstocks in 2005 36
11 Breakeven prices for maize and crude oil in the United States of America 37
12 Breakeven prices for maize and crude oil with and without subsidies 38
13 Maize and crude oil breakeven prices and observed prices, 2003–08 38
14 Price relationships between crude oil and other biofuel feedstocks, 2003–08 40
15 Food commodity price trends 1971–2007, with projections to 2017 42
16 Global ethanol production, trade and prices, with projections to 2017 47
17 Major ethanol producers, with projections to 2017 47
18 Global biodiesel production, trade and prices, with projections to 2017 48
19 Major biodiesel producers, with projections to 2017 49
20 Total impact of removing trade-distorting biofuel policies for ethanol,
2013–17 average 50
21 Total impact of removing trade-distorting biofuel policies for biodiesel,
2013–17 average 51
22 Life-cycle analysis for greenhouse gas balances 56
23 Reductions in greenhouse gas emissions of selected biofuels relative to fossil fuels 57
24 Potential for cropland expansion 60
25 Potential for yield increase for selected biofuel feedstock crops 62
26 Potential for irrigated area expansion 65
27 Agricultural trade balance of least-developed countries 73
28 Distribution of poor net buyers and sellers of food staples 76
29 Average welfare gain/loss from a 10 percent increase in the price of the
main staple, by income (expenditure) quintile for rural and urban households 78
30 Long-term food and energy price tends, real and nominal 102
vi

31 Commodity prices relative to income, 1971–2007 103

32 Changes in real rice prices in selected Asian countries,
October–December 2003 to October–December 2007 104
33 Agricultural production indices, total and per capita 105
34 Production of selected crops 106
35 Production of selected livestock products 106
36 Ratio of global stocks to use 107
37 Global food import expenditures, 1990–2008 108
38 Exports of selected crops 108
39 Imports of selected crops 109
40 Policy responses to high food prices, by region 110
41 Countries in crisis requiring external assistance, May 2008 111
42 Cereal food aid, 1993/94–2006/07 111
43 Effects on global agricultural prices of rising or falling biofuel feedstock use 112
44 Effects on global agricultural prices of rising or falling petroleum prices 113
45 Effects on global agricultural prices of a halving of GDP growth 115
46 Effects on global agricultural prices of a repetition of the 2007 yield shocks 115
47 Effects on global agricultural prices of higher and lower annual yield growth 116
 vii

Foreword

More than at any time in the past three food prices: weather-related production
decades, the world’s attention is focused shortfalls in major exporting countries,
this year on food and agriculture. A variety low global cereal stocks, increasing fuel
of factors have combined to raise food costs, the changing structure of demand
prices to the highest levels since the 1970s associated with income growth, population
(in real terms), with serious implications growth and urbanization, operations on
for food security among poor populations financial markets, short-term policy actions,
around the world. One of the most exchange rate fluctuations and other factors
frequently mentioned contributing factors also play a role. Given appropriate policies
is the rapid recent growth in the use of and investments, high prices can trigger a
agricultural commodities – including some response in terms of increased agricultural
food crops – for the production of biofuels. production and employment, which could
Yet the impact of biofuels on food prices contribute to poverty alleviation and
remains the subject of considerable debate, improved food security over the longer term.
as does their potential to contribute to The report also finds that the impact
energy security, climate-change mitigation of biofuels on greenhouse gas emissions
and agricultural development. Even while varies widely, depending on where and how
this debate continues, countries around the the various feedstock crops are produced.
world confront important choices about In many cases, increased emissions from
policies and investments regarding biofuels. land-use change are likely to offset or even
These were among the topics discussed exceed the greenhouse gas savings obtained
at FAO in June 2008 by delegations from by replacing fossil fuels with biofuels, and
181 countries attending the High-Level impacts on water, soil and biodiversity are
Conference on World Food Security: the also a concern. Good agricultural practices
Challenges of Climate Change and Bioenergy. and increased yields through technological
Given the urgency of these choices and the developments and improved infrastructure
magnitude of their potential consequences, can help reduce some of these adverse
participants at the Conference agreed that impacts. In the longer run, the emergence
careful assessment of the prospects, risks and of second-generation biofuels may offer
opportunities posed by biofuels is essential. additional benefits.
This is the focus of FAO’s 2008 report on the These are some of the main conclusions.
State of Food and Agriculture. What are their implications for policy?
The report finds that while biofuels Our starting point must be the current
will offset only a modest share of fossil situation of soaring food prices and
energy use over the next decade, they will the severe problems they pose for the
have much bigger impacts on agriculture poor. There is an urgent need to provide
and food security. The emergence of immediate relief and assistance to the
biofuels as a new and significant source of net food-importing developing countries
demand for some agricultural commodities most affected by higher food prices, as
– including maize, sugar, oilseeds and well as providing safety nets to poor net
palm oil – contributes to higher prices for food-buying households in developing
agricultural commodities in general, and countries. This is a shared responsibility of
for the resources used to produce them. national governments and the international
For the majority of poor households who community. However, it is advisable to
consume more food than they produce, avoid policies such as export bans and direct
higher prices can pose a serious threat to price controls, which may in fact worsen
food security – especially in the short term. and prolong the crisis by blocking price
But it is important to keep in mind that incentives for farmers and preventing them
biofuels are only one of many drivers of high from increasing output.
viii

There is also an urgent need to review rural areas. Particular attention needs to
current policies supporting, subsidising and be given to ensuring that farmers have
mandating biofuel production and use. A access to necessary inputs such as irrigation,
large share of the recent growth in biofuels fertilizers and improved seed varieties
has been driven by such policies, especially through market-supportive mechanisms.
in Organisation for Economic Co-operation Opportunities for developing countries to
and Development (OECD) countries. Many take advantage of biofuel demand would
of the assumptions underlying these policies also be greatly advanced by the removal
regarding beneficial impacts on climate of the agricultural and biofuel subsidies
change and energy security are now being and trade barriers that currently benefit
questioned, and unintended consequences producers in OECD countries at the expense
of rising food prices for poor consumers are of producers in developing countries.
being recognized. There seems to be a case The future of biofuels and the role they
for directing expenditures on biofuels more will play for agriculture and food security
towards research and development, especially remain uncertain. There are many concerns
on second-generation technologies, which and challenges to be overcome if biofuels
hold more promise in terms of reductions in are to contribute positively to an improved
greenhouse gas emissions with less pressure environment as well as to agricultural
on the natural resource base. and rural development. But just as hasty
Effective action must be undertaken decisions to promote biofuels may have
to ensure that biofuels provide a positive adverse unintended consequences on food
contribution to reductions in greenhouse gas security and the environment, so might
emissions while minimizing other negative hasty decisions to restrict biofuels limit
environmental impacts. There is a need, opportunities for sustainable agricultural
especially, for a much better understanding growth that could benefit the poor. As
of the effects of biofuels on land-use noted in the Declaration adopted at the
change, from which the most significant June 2008 High-Level Conference on World
impacts on greenhouse gas emissions Food Security, “It is essential to address
and other environmental impacts will be the challenges and opportunities posed by
derived. Criteria for sustainable production biofuels, in view of the world’s food security,
of biofuels can help ensure environmental energy and sustainable development needs.
sustainability. However, it is critical that such We are convinced that in-depth studies are
criteria be carefully assessed and applied necessary to ensure that production and use
only to global public goods, and they must of biofuels is sustainable in accordance with
be designed in such a way as to avoid the the three pillars of sustainable development
creation of additional trade barriers and and take into account the need to achieve
posing undue constraints on developing and maintain global food security … We
countries wishing to take advantage of the call upon relevant inter-governmental
opportunities offered by biofuels. organizations, including FAO, within their
When we look to the longer run, to mandates and areas of expertise, with the
the extent demand for biofuels leads to a involvement of national governments,
continued upward pressure on prices for partnerships, the private sector, and civil
agricultural commodities, we must be able society, to foster a coherent, effective and
to reap the opportunities this provides results-oriented international dialogue
for agricultural development and poverty on biofuels in the context of food security
alleviation. This requires overcoming and sustainable development needs.” It is
some of the long-run constraints which my hope that this report will contribute to
have hampered agricultural development better-informed dialogue and policy action
in too many developing countries for in this area of critical choices we face.
too long. The emergence of biofuels as
a new source of demand for agricultural
commodities strengthens the case for
enhanced investments, as well as increased
levels of development assistance, directed Jacques Diouf
towards the agriculture sector and the FAO DIRECTOR-GENERAL
 ix

Acknowledgements

The State of Food and Agriculture 2008 was of Hohenheim; and Eugenia Muchnik,
written by a core team led by Keith Wiebe Fundación Chile.
and comprising André Croppenstedt, Terri The team benefited greatly from a
Raney, Jakob Skoet and Monika Zurek, all wide range of consultations on biofuels,
of the FAO Agricultural and Development including: two Technical Consultations on
Economics Division of FAO; Jeff Tschirley, Bioenergy and Food Security, held in Rome,
Chair of the FAO Inter-Departmental 16–18 April 2007 and 5–6 February 2008,
Working Group on Bioenergy; and Merritt under the auspices of the German-funded
Cluff of the FAO Trade and Markets Division. Bioenergy and Food Security (BEFS) Project;
The report was co-edited by Terri Raney, the International Workshop on Economics,
Jakob Skoet and Jeff Tschirley. Bernardete Policies and Science of Bioenergy, jointly
Neves provided research assistance and sponsored by FAO and the International
Liliana Maldonado and Paola di Santo Consortium on Agricultural Biotechnology
provided secretarial and administrative Research in Ravello, Italy, 26 July 2007; and
support. two expert consultations on Bioenergy
In addition to the core team, several Policy, Markets and Trade and Food
people prepared background papers and Security and Global Perspectives on Fuel
analysis or drafted sections of the report: and Food Security in Rome, 18–20 February
Astrid Agostini, El Mamoun Amrouk, Jacob 2008. Several meetings of the FAO Inter-
Burke, Concepción Calpe, Patricia Carmona Departmental Working Group on Bioenergy
Ridondo, Roberto Cuevas García, David reviewed drafts of the report, and it was
Dawe, Olivier Dubois, Jippe Hoogeveen, Lea presented to the Economic and Social
Jenin, Charlotta Jull, Yianna Lambrou, Irini Development Department management
Maltsoglou, Holger Matthey, Jamie Morgan, team on 26 March 2008, all FAO staff
Victor Mosoti, Adam Prakash, Andrea members on 31 March 2008 and the FAO
Rossi, John Ruane, Gregoire Tallard, James senior management team on 26 May 2008.
Tefft, Peter Thoenes and Miguel Trossero, Many people gave valuable advice,
all of FAO; Uwe Fritsche, Oeko-Institute; suggestions and review comments on
Bernd Franke, Guido Reinhardt and Julia the report, individually or in the context
Münch, IFEU Institute; Martin von Lampe, of the above-mentioned consultations:
OECD; Ronald Steenblik, Global Subsidies Abdolreza Abbassian, Gustavo Anríquez,
Initiative, IISD; and Wyatt Thompson, Food Boubaker Benbelhassen, Jim Carle, Romina
and Agriculture Policy Research Institute. Cavatassi, Albertine Delange, Olivier
The report also drew on the joint OECD- Dubois, Aziz Elbehri, Barbara Ekwall, Erika
FAO Agricultural Outlook 2008–2017 and Felix, Margarita Flores, Theodor Friedrich,
policy scenarios that were prepared by Daniel Gustafson, Maarten Immink, Kaori
the FAO Trade and Markets Division on Izumi, Brahim Kebe, Modeste Kinane,
the basis of the AgLink-Cosimo model and Rainer Krell, Eric Kueneman, Preetmoninder
discussions with the OECD Secretariat. These Lidder, Pascal Liu, Attaher Maiga, Michela
contributions are gratefully acknowledged. Morese, Alexander Müller, Jennifer
The report was prepared under the overall Nyberg, David Palmer, Shivaji Pandey, Wim
guidance of Hafez Ghanem, Assistant Polman, Adam Prakash, Andrea Rossi,
Director-General of FAO’s Economic and John Ruane, Mirella Salvatore, Alexander
Social Development Department. Valuable Sarris, Josef Schmidhuber, Annika Söder,
advice was received from the members of Andrea Sonnino, Pasquale Steduto, Diana
the report’s External Advisory Board: Walter Templeman, Nuria Urquía, Jessica Vapnek,
Falcon (chair), Stanford University; Kym Margret Vidar, Andreas Von Brandt, Adrian
Anderson, University of Adelaide; Simeon Whiteman and Alberto Zezza, all of FAO;
Ehui, World Bank; Franz Heidhues, University and Ricardo Abramovay, University of


São Paulo; Dale Andrew, OECD; Melvyn Technology Centre; Francis Johnson,
Askew, Harper Adams University College; Stockholm Environment Institute; David
Mary Bohman, Cheryl Christiansen, Steve Lee, Cornell University; Bruce McCarl, Texas
Crutchfield and Carol Jones, USDA Economic A&M University; Enrique Manzanilla, US
Research Service; David Cooper and Markus Environmental Protection Agency; Teresa
Lehman, Convention on Biological Diversity; Malyshev, International Energy Agency;
Martin Banse, Agricultural Economics Ferdinand Meyer, University of Pretoria;
Research Institute (LEI); Eduardo Calvo, Willi Meyers, University of Missouri; José
IPPC WG III; Harry de Gorter, Cornell Roberto Moreira, University of São Paulo;
University; Hartwig de Haen; Daniel de Siwa Msangi and Gerald Nelson, IFPRI;
la Torre Ugarte, University of Tennessee; Martina Otto, UNEP; Joe Outlaw, Texas A&M
Ewout Deurwaarder and Paul Hodson, University; Jyoti Parikh, Integrated Research
Energy and Transport Directorate-General and Action for Development (India); Prabhu
of the European Commission; Asbjørn Pingali, Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation;
Eide, Norwegian Centre for Human Rights; Martin Rice, Earth System Science
Francis Epplin, Oklahoma State University; Partnership; C. Ford Runge, University of
Polly Ericksen, Oxford University; Andre Minnesota; Roger Sedjo, Resources for
Faaij, Utrecht University; Günter Fischer, the Future; Seth Shames, Ecoagriculture
International Institute for Applied Partners; Guy Sneyers, Common Fund
Systems Analysis (IAASA); Alessandro for Commodities; Steve Wiggins, ODI;
Flammini, Global Bioenergy Partnership Erik Wijkstrom, WTO; Simonetta Zarrilli,
(GBEP); Richard Flavell, Ceres, Inc.; Julie UNCTAD; and David Zilberman, University of
Flood, CABI; Thomas Funke, University of California-Berkeley.
Pretoria; Janet Hall, UN Foundation; Neeta The expert contributions of the editors,
Hooda, UNFCCC; Barbara Huddleston, translators, designers, layout artists
Stockholm Environment Institute; Tatsuiji and reproduction specialists of the FAO
Koizumi, MAFF, Japan; Samai Jai-in, Knowledge and Communication Department
Thailand National Metal and Materials are gratefully acknowledged.
 xi

Abbreviations and acronyms

EU European Union

CRB Commodity Research Bureau

GBEP Global Bioenergy Partnership

GDP gross domestic product

IRR internal rate of return

LDC least-developed country

LIFDC low-income food-deficit country

MFN most-favoured nation

Mtoe million tonnes of oil equivalent

NPV net present value

OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

TSE total support estimates

WTO World Trade Organization

 Part I
BIOFUELS:
PROSPECTS, RISKS
AND OPPORTUNITIES
 BIOFUELS: PROSPECTS, RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES

1. Introduction and key messages

When the initial preparations for the 2008

issue of The State of Food and Agriculture Agriculture and energy
began, two years ago, there were high
expectations surrounding liquid biofuels as Agriculture and energy have always been
a resource that could potentially mitigate tied by close links, but the nature and
global climate change, contribute to energy strength of the relationship have changed
security and support agricultural producers over time. Agriculture has always been a
around the world. Many governments cited source of energy, and energy is a major input
these goals as justification for implementing in modern agricultural production. Until the
policies promoting the production and use nineteenth century, animals provided almost
of liquid biofuels based on agricultural all the “horse power” used for transport and
commodities. farm equipment, and in many parts of the
Since then, there has been a marked world they still do. Agriculture produces the
change in perceptions of biofuels. Recent “fuel” to feed these animals; two centuries
analysis has raised serious questions ago, around 20 percent of the agricultural
regarding the full environmental impacts area in the United States of America was
of producing biofuels from an already used to feed draught animals (Sexton et al.,
stressed agricultural resource base. The 2007).
costs of policies aimed at promoting liquid The linkages between agriculture and
biofuels – and their possible unintended energy output markets weakened in the
consequences – are beginning to attract twentieth century as fossil fuels gained
scrutiny. Food prices have risen rapidly, prominence in the transport sector. At
sparking protests in many countries and the same time, linkages on the input
giving rise to major concerns over the food side strengthened as agriculture became
security of the world’s most vulnerable increasingly reliant on chemical fertilizers
people. derived from fossil fuels and machinery
However, biofuels are only one of many powered by diesel. Food storage, processing
factors that have driven the recent rise and distribution, too, are often energy-
in commodity prices. Also, biofuels have intensive activities. Higher energy costs,
other implications beyond their effect therefore, have a direct and strong impact on
on commodity prices. This issue of The agricultural production costs and food prices.
State of Food and Agriculture surveys the The recent emergence of liquid biofuels
current state of the debate on biofuels and based on agricultural crops as transport
explores these implications. It examines fuels has reasserted the linkages between
the policies being implemented in support energy and agricultural output markets.
of biofuels and the policies that would be Liquid biofuels have the potential to exert
needed to address their implications for the a significant effect on agricultural markets,
environment, food security and the poor. but they are, and are likely to remain, a
4 THE STATE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE 2008

FIGURE 1
World primary energy demand by source, 2005

35% Oil

25% Coal

21% Gas

10% Biomass and waste

6% Nuclear

2% Hydro

1% Other renewables

Source: IEA, 2007.

relatively small part of the overall energy sector, but even here they supplied
market. The world’s total primary energy only 0.9 percent of total transport fuel
demand amounts to about 11 400 million consumption in 2005, up from 0.4 percent
tonnes of oil equivalent (Mtoe) per year in 1990.
(IEA, 2007); biomass, including agricultural In recent years, however, liquid biofuels
and forest products and organic wastes have grown rapidly in terms of volume and
and residues, accounts for 10 percent of of share of global demand for transport
this total (Figure 1). Fossil fuels are by far energy. The growth is projected to continue,
the dominant source of primary energy in as illustrated by Figure 3, which shows
the world, with oil, coal and gas together historical trends as well as projections
supplying more than 80 percent of the total. to 2015 and 2030, as reported in the
Renewable energy sources represent World Energy Outlook 2007 (IEA, 2007).1
around 13 percent of total primary Nevertheless, the contribution of liquid
energy supply, with biomass dominating biofuels to transport energy and, even more
the renewable sector. The sources of so, to global energy use, will remain limited.
primary energy differ markedly across Global primary energy demand is, and will
regions (Figure 2). In some developing remain, overwhelmingly dominated by
countries, as much as 90 percent of the fossil fuels – with coal, oil and gas currently
total energy consumption is supplied by accounting for 81 percent of the total. This
biomass. Solid biofuels such as fuelwood, share is forecast at 82 percent in 2030, with
charcoal and animal dung constitute by coal increasing its share at the expense of oil.
far the largest segment of the bioenergy Biomass and waste products currently cover
sector, representing a full 99 percent of 10 percent of global primary energy demand,
all biofuels. For millennia, humans have a share that is forecast to decline slightly to
depended on the use of biomass for heating 9 percent by 2030. By the same year, liquid
and cooking, and developing countries in
Africa and Asia remain heavily dependent 1
The projection refers to the IEA’s so-called “Reference
on these traditional uses of biomass. Liquid Scenario”, which “is designed to show the outcome, on
biofuels play a much more limited role given assumptions about economic growth, population,
energy prices and technology, if nothing more is done by
in global energy supply and account for
governments to change underlying energy trends”. The
only 1.9 percent of total bioenergy. Their projections and underlying assumptions are discussed in
significance lies mainly in the transport Chapter 4.
 BIOFUELS: PROSPECTS, RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES

5
FIGURE 2
Total primary energy demand by source and region, 2005

World

Africa

Latin
America

Developing
Asia

OECD

0 500 1 000 1 500 2 000 2 500 3 000 3 500 4 000

Mtoe

Oil Coal Gas Biomass

and waste
Nuclear Hydro Other
renewables
Source: IEA, 2007.

biofuels are projected to represent the still on global agricultural markets, on the
modest share of 3.0–3.5 percent of global environment and on food security are
transport energy consumption. already generating debate and controversy.
This new source of demand for agricultural
commodities creates opportunities, but also
Opportunities and risks for liquid risks, for the food and agriculture sectors.
biofuels Indeed, the demand for biofuels could
reverse the declining trend in real commodity
Notwithstanding the limited importance prices that has depressed agricultural growth
of liquid biofuels in terms of global energy in much of the developing world over
supply, also compared with that of solid recent decades. As such, biofuels may offer
biofuels, their direct and significant effects an opportunity for developing countries –
6 THE STATE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE 2008

FIGURE 3
Trends in consumption of transport biofuels

Mtoe Percentage of total demand for transport energy

120 6

100 5

80 4

60 3

40 2

20 1

0 0
1990 2005 2015 2030

Mtoe As percentage of transport energy

Source: IEA, 2007.

where 75 percent of the world’s poor depend cellulosic feedstocks into commercial
on agriculture for their livelihoods – to production, thereby reducing competition
harness agricultural growth for broader rural with agricultural crops and the pressure on
development and poverty reduction. commodity prices.
A stronger link between agriculture and
the demand for energy could result in
higher agricultural prices, output and gross Biofuel policies and objectives:
domestic product (GDP). The development of is there a mismatch?
biofuels could also promote access to energy
in rural areas, further supporting economic Most recent growth in biofuel production
growth and long-term improvements in food has occurred in the Organisation for
security. At the same time, there is a risk Economic Co-operation and Development
that higher food prices could threaten the (OECD) countries, predominantly the United
food security of the world’s poorest people, States of America and the European Union
many of whom spend more than half of (EU) countries. An exception is Brazil,
their household incomes on food. Moreover, which has pioneered the development
demand for biofuels could place additional of an economically competitive national
pressure on the natural resource base, with biofuel sector based largely on sugar cane.
potentially harmful environmental and social In the OECD countries, biofuels have been
consequences, particularly for people who promoted by policies supporting and
already lack access to energy, food, land subsidizing production and consumption;
and water. such policies are now being introduced in a
Given current agronomic and conversion number of developing countries.
technologies, the economic viability of The main drivers behind OECD country
most liquid biofuels in many, but not all, policies have been the objectives of energy
countries is tenuous without support and security and climate-change mitigation
subsidies. However, improved crop yields, through reduced greenhouse gas emissions
area expansion and intensification could combined with a desire to support
expand feedstock production significantly agriculture and promote rural development.
and reduce costs. Technological innovation These concerns are not diminishing; indeed,
in biofuel processing could also lower climate change and future energy security
costs dramatically, potentially bringing continue to move higher up the international
second-generation biofuels derived from policy agenda. However, the role of biofuels
 BIOFUELS: PROSPECTS, RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES

7
in addressing these concerns, including the is the high cost of reducing greenhouse
appropriate policies to be applied, is now gas emissions through substitution of fossil
coming under closer scrutiny. Questions energy with biofuels (Doornbosch and
are being asked about the coherence of Steenblik, 2007). The cost-effectiveness
current policies and some of the underlying of achieving emission reductions through
assumptions, and new concerns are coming biofuel development is increasingly
to the forefront. questioned, especially if biofuel development
First of all, the policies being pursued is not integrated into a wider framework
are costly. Indeed, estimates of prevailing encompassing energy conservation, transport
biofuel subsidies are high considering the policies and the development of other forms
still relatively limited role of biofuels in of renewable energy.
world energy supply. Estimates by the Global Similarly, the technical efficiency of
Subsidies Initiative for the EU, the United biofuels in contributing to reduced emissions
States of America and three other OECD is also coming under scrutiny, depending on
countries (see Chapter 3) suggest a total level the type of biofuel and its origin in terms of
of support to biodiesel and ethanol in 2006 crop and location. Taking into account the
of around US$11–12 billion (Steenblik, 2007). complete production process for biofuels
On a per-litre basis, support ranges between and possible land-use changes needed to
US$0.20 and US$1.00. With increasing levels expand feedstock production may critically
of biofuel production and support, costs alter the presumed favourable greenhouse
could escalate. While it can be claimed that gas balance sheet for biofuels. Indeed, recent
subsidies are only intended to be temporary, research suggests that large-scale expansion
whether this will be the case will obviously of biofuel production could lead to net
hinge on the long-term economic viability increases in greenhouse gas emissions.
of biofuels. This, in turn, will depend on Other environmental sustainability issues
the cost of other energy sources, whether are also coming to the forefront. Although
they be fossil fuels or, in the longer term, bioenergy can provide environmental gains,
alternative sources of renewable energy. its production also has the potential to
Even taking into account recent rises in oil cause environmental damage. The impact
prices, among the major producers only of expanded biofuel production on land
Brazilian sugar-cane ethanol currently and water resources and on biodiversity is
appears to be competitive with fossil fuel the focus of increasing attention, as is the
counterparts without subsidies. question of how to ensure its environmental
Direct subsidies, however, represent only sustainability.
the most obvious cost; other hidden costs are Biofuel policies have generally been
the outcome of distorted resource allocation designed within a national framework with
resulting from selective support to biofuels little regard for unintended consequences
and quantitative tools such as blending at the national and international levels.
mandates. For decades, agricultural subsidies As the implications of biofuel development
and protectionism in numerous OECD for developing countries are scrutinized
countries have led to major misallocation more closely, one emerging concern is the
of resources at the international level, with negative impact of high food prices – which
heavy costs both to consumers in the OECD are partly a result of increased competition
countries and to developing countries. Such from biofuels for agricultural output and
misallocation risks being perpetuated and resources – on poverty and food security.
exacerbated by current biofuel policies in At the same time, increasing demand
OECD countries. for biofuels may offer opportunities for
Another cost dimension, in addition to farmers and rural communities in developing
the total cost consideration, is linked to the countries and thus contribute to rural
effectiveness in reaching stated objectives. development. However, their capacity to take
Biofuel policies are often justified on the advantage of these opportunities depends
basis of multiple, sometimes competing, on the existence of an enabling environment.
objectives, and this lack of clarity can lead to At the global level, current trade policies –
policies that fail to achieve their objectives characterized by high degrees of support
or do so only at very high costs. An example and protection – do not favour developing
8 THE STATE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE 2008

country participation or an efficient enough; investments in productivity

international pattern of biofuel production. and sustainability-enhancing research,
At the domestic level, farmers depend enabling institutions, infrastructure
critically on the existence of an appropriate and sound policies are also urgently
policy framework and the necessary physical needed. A strong focus on the needs of
and institutional infrastructure. the poorest and least resource-endowed
The report looks more closely at these population groups is crucial to ensure
issues in the light of the most recent broad-based rural development.
emerging evidence. • The impact of biofuels on greenhouse
gas emissions – one of the key
motivations underlying support to the
Key messages of the report biofuel sector – differs according to
feedstock, location, agricultural practice
• Demand for agricultural feedstocks and conversion technology. In many
for liquid biofuels will be a significant cases, the net effect is unfavourable.
factor for agricultural markets and for The largest impact is determined by
world agriculture over the next decade land-use change – for example through
and perhaps beyond. The demand for deforestation – as agricultural area is
biofuel feedstocks may help reverse the expanded to meet growing demand for
long-term decline in real agricultural biofuel feedstocks. Several other possible
commodity prices, creating both negative environmental effects – on
opportunities and risks. All countries land and water resources, as well as on
will face the impacts of liquid biofuel biodiversity – occur largely because of
development – whether or not they changes in land use. Accelerated biofuel
participate directly in the sector – because production, pushed by policy support,
all agricultural markets will be affected. strongly enhances the risk of large-scale
• Rapidly growing demand for biofuel land-use change and the associated
feedstocks has contributed to higher environmental threats.
food prices, which pose an immediate • Harmonized approaches for assessing
threat to the food security of poor net greenhouse gas balances and other
food buyers (in value terms) in both environmental impacts of biofuel
urban and rural areas. Many of the production are needed to achieve
world’s poor spend more than half of desirable outcomes. Criteria for
their household incomes on food, and sustainable production can contribute to
even in rural areas the majority of the improving the environmental footprint
poor are net purchasers of food. Safety of biofuels, but they must focus on
nets are urgently needed to protect the global public goods and be based on
world’s poorest and most vulnerable internationally agreed standards and
people and to ensure their access to must not put developing countries at
adequate food. But safety nets should a competitive disadvantage. The same
be carefully targeted and should not agricultural commodities should not be
block the transmission of price signals to treated differently according to whether
agricultural producers. they are destined for biofuel production
• In the longer term, expanded or for traditional uses such as human
demand and increased prices for consumption or feed.
agricultural commodities may represent • Liquid biofuels are likely to replace
opportunities for agricultural and only a small share of global energy
rural development. However, market supplies and cannot alone eliminate
opportunities cannot overcome existing our dependence on fossil fuels.
social and institutional barriers to Land requirements for feedstock
equitable growth – with exclusion production would be too extensive
factors such as gender, ethnicity and to allow displacement of fossil fuels
political powerlessness – and may on a larger scale. The introduction
even worsen them. Moreover, higher of second-generation biofuels based
commodity prices alone are not on lignocellulosic feedstocks could
 BIOFUELS: PROSPECTS, RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES

9
greatly expand potential, but for the particular, could significantly enhance
foreseeable future liquid biofuels would the future role of biofuels.
still be able to supply only a small • Policy interventions, especially in
portion of global transport energy and the form of subsidies and mandated
an even smaller portion of total global blending of biofuels with fossil fuels,
energy. are driving the rush to liquid biofuels.
• Production of liquid biofuels in many However, many of the measures being
countries is not currently economically implemented by both developed
viable without subsidies, given existing and developing countries have high
agricultural production and biofuel- economic, social and environmental
processing technologies and recent costs. The interactions among
relative prices of commodity feedstocks agricultural, biofuel and trade policies
and crude oil. The most significant often discriminate against developing-
exception is sugar-cane-based ethanol country producers of biofuel feedstocks
production in Brazil. Competitiveness and compound impediments to the
varies widely according to the specific emergence of biofuel processing
biofuel, feedstock and production and exporting sectors in developing
location, and economic viability can countries. There is a need to review
change as countries face changing current biofuel policies and carefully
market prices for inputs and oil, as assess their costs and consequences.
well as through technological advances • Ensuring environmentally, economically
in the industry itself. Technological and socially sustainable biofuel
innovation can lower the costs of production requires policy action in the
agricultural production and biofuel following broad areas:
processing. Investment in research and – protecting the poor and food-insecure;
development is critical for the future – taking advantage of opportunities for
of biofuels as an economically and agricultural and rural development;
environmentally sustainable source of – ensuring environmental sustainability;
renewable energy. This applies both to – reviewing existing biofuel policies;
the field of agronomy and to conversion – making the international system
technologies. Research and development supportive of sustainable biofuel
on second-generation technologies, in development.
10 THE STATE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE 2008

2. Biofuels and agriculture –

a technical overview

Traditional biomass, including fuelwood, poverty and who use this energy mainly
charcoal and animal dung, continues to for cooking. More advanced and efficient
provide important sources of energy in conversion technologies now allow the
many parts of the world. Bioenergy is the extraction of biofuels – in solid, liquid and
dominant energy source for most of the gaseous forms – from materials such as
world’s population who live in extreme wood, crops and waste material. This chapter
provides an overview of biofuels. What
are they, what is their potential and what
FIGURE 4 are their implications for agriculture? The
Biofuels – from feedstock to end use main focus, however, is on liquid biofuels
for transport, which are now gaining in
prominence as a result of the rapid increase
RESOURCES in their use.
Land Nutrients
Water Energy
Labour … Types of biofuels
Seeds

PRODUCTION Biofuels are energy carriers that store the

energy derived from biomass.2 A wide range
of biomass sources can be used to produce
bioenergy in a variety of forms. For example,
FEEDSTOCKS food, fibre and wood process residues from
the industrial sector; energy crops, short-
Sugar cane Palm oil rotation crops and agricultural wastes from
Sugar beet Jatropha
Maize Switchgrass
the agriculture sector; and residues from the
Wheat Willow forestry sector can all be used to generate
Rapeseed ... electricity, heat, combined heat and power,
PROCESSING and other forms of bioenergy. Biofuels may
be referred to as renewable energy because
they are a form of transformed solar
energy.
Biofuels can be classified according to
BIOFUELS
source and type. They may be derived from
Ethanol Bagasse forest, agricultural or fishery products or
Biodiesel Biogas municipal wastes, as well as from agro-
Fuelwood ... industry, food industry and food service
Charcoal
by-products and wastes. They may be solid,
CONSUMPTION such as fuelwood, charcoal and wood
pellets; liquid, such as ethanol, biodiesel
and pyrolysis oils; or gaseous, such as
biogas.
END USE

Transport Electricity
Heating ...
2
For a review of terminology relating to biofuels, see FAO
Source: FAO. (2004a).
 BIOFUELS: PROSPECTS, RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES

11
FIGURE 5
Uses of biomass for energy

80% Residential use

18% Industrial use

2% Transport

Source: IEA, 2007.

A basic distinction is also made between Ethanol

primary (unprocessed) and secondary Any feedstock containing significant amounts
(processed) biofuels: of sugar, or materials that can be converted
• Primary biofuels, such as firewood, wood into sugar such as starch or cellulose, can be
chips and pellets, are those where the used to produce ethanol. Ethanol available in
organic material is used essentially in its the biofuel market today is based on either
natural form (as harvested). Such fuels sugar or starch. Common sugar crops used as
are directly combusted, usually to supply feedstocks are sugar cane, sugar beet and,
cooking fuel, heating or electricity to a lesser extent, sweet sorghum. Common
production needs in small- and large- starchy feedstocks include maize, wheat
scale industrial applications. and cassava. The use of biomass containing
• Secondary biofuels in the form of solids sugars that can be fermented directly to
(e.g. charcoal), liquids (e.g. ethanol, ethanol is the simplest way of producing
biodiesel and bio-oil), or gases (e.g. ethanol. In Brazil and other tropical countries
biogas, synthesis gas and hydrogen) currently producing ethanol, sugar cane is
can be used for a wider range of the most widely used feedstock. In OECD
applications, including transport and countries, most ethanol is produced from
high-temperature industrial processes. the starchy component of cereals (although
sugar beet is also used), which can be
converted fairly easily into sugar. However,
Liquid biofuels for transport3 these starchy products represent only a
small percentage of the total plant mass.
In spite of their limited overall volume Most plant matter is composed of cellulose,
(see Figure 5), the strongest growth in hemicellulose and lignin; the first two can be
recent years has been in liquid biofuels for converted into alcohol after they have first
transport, mostly produced using agricultural been converted into sugar, but the process is
and food commodities as feedstocks. The more difficult than the one for starch. Today,
most significant are ethanol and biodiesel. there is virtually no commercial production
of ethanol from cellulosic biomass, but
substantial research continues in this area
3
This section is based on GBEP (2007, pp. 2–10) and IEA (see the section on second-generation
(2004). biofuels on pp. 18–19).
12 THE STATE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE 2008

BOX 1
Other types of biomass for heat, power and transport

Biomass for heat and power significant environmental and health

A range of biomass resources are used benefits. Methane is a greenhouse gas
to generate electricity and heat through that has a global-warming potential that
combustion. Sources include various forms is 22–24 times more powerful than that of
of waste, such as residues from agro- carbon dioxide. By trapping and utilizing
industries, post-harvest residues left on the methane, its greenhouse gas impacts
the fields, animal manure, wood wastes are avoided. In addition, heat generated
from forestry and industry, residues from during the biodigestion process kills the
food and paper industries, municipal pathogens present in manure, and the
solid wastes, sewage sludge and biogas material left at the end of the process
from the digestion of agricultural and provides a valuable fertilizer.
other organic wastes. Dedicated energy
crops, such as short-rotation perennials Gasification
(eucalyptus, poplar, willow) and grasses Through the process of gasification, solid
(miscanthus and switchgrass), are also biomass can be converted into a fuel gas
used. or biogas. Biomass gasifiers operate by
Several processes can be used for heating biomass in a low-oxygen, high-
power generation. Most biomass-derived temperature environment that breaks it
electricity is produced using a steam- down to release a flammable, energy-rich
cycle process: biomass is burned in a synthesis gas or “syngas”. This gas can be
boiler to generate high-pressure steam burned in a conventional boiler, or used
that flows over a series of aerodynamic instead of natural gas in a gas turbine to
blades causing a turbine to rotate, turn electric generators. Biogas formed
which in response turns a connected through gasification can be filtered to
electric generator to produce electricity. remove unwanted chemical compounds
Compacted forms of biomass such as and can be used in efficient “combined-
wood pellets and briquettes can also cycle” power-generation systems that
be used for combustion, and biomass combine steam and gas turbines to
can also be burned with coal in the generate electricity.
boiler of a conventional power plant to
yield steam and electricity. The latter is Biogas for transport
currently the most cost-efficient method Untreated biogas is unsuitable as a
for incorporating renewable technology transport fuel owing to its low methane
into conventional power production content (60–70 percent) and high
because much of the existing power plant concentration of contaminants. However,
infrastructure can be used without major it can be treated to remove carbon
modifications. dioxide, water and corrosive hydrogen
sulphide and to enhance its methane
Biogas for heat, power and transport content (to over 95 percent). When
Anaerobic digestion compressed, treated biogas has properties
Biogas can be created through the similar to those of compressed natural gas,
anaerobic digestion of food or animal making it suitable for use in transport.
waste by bacteria in an oxygen-starved
environment. The resulting biogas
contains a high volume of methane along
with carbon dioxide, which can be used
for heating or for electricity generation in
a modified internal combustion engine.
The conversion of animal wastes and
manure to methane/biogas can bring Source: based on GBEP, 2007.
 BIOFUELS: PROSPECTS, RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES

13
Ethanol can be blended with petrol or As with ethanol, diesel also contains only a
burned in its pure form in slightly modified negligible amount of sulphur, thus reducing
spark-ignition engines. A litre of ethanol sulphur oxide emissions from vehicles.
contains approximately 66 percent of the
energy provided by a litre of petrol, but has Straight vegetable oil
a higher octane level and when mixed with Straight vegetable oil (SVO)4 is a potential
petrol for transportation it improves the fuel for diesel engines that can be produced
performance of the latter. It also improves from a variety of sources, including oilseed
fuel combustion in vehicles, thereby crops such as rapeseed, sunflower, soybean
reducing the emission of carbon monoxide, and palm. Used cooking oil from restaurants
unburned hydrocarbons and carcinogens. and animal fat from meat-processing
However, the combustion of ethanol also industries can also be used as fuel for diesel
causes a heightened reaction with nitrogen vehicles.
in the atmosphere, which can result in a
marginal increase in nitrogen oxide gases.
In comparison with petrol, ethanol contains Biofuel feedstocks
only a trace amount of sulphur. Mixing
ethanol with petrol, therefore, helps to There are many supply sources of biomass
reduce the fuel’s sulphur content and for energy purposes, scattered across large
thereby lowers the emissions of sulphur and diverse geographical areas. Even
oxide, a component of acid rain and a today, most energy derived from biomass
carcinogen. used as fuel originates from by-products
or co-products of food, fodder and fibre
Biodiesel production. For instance, the main by-
Biodiesel is produced by combining products of forest industries are used to
vegetable oil or animal fat with an alcohol produce fuelwood and charcoal, and black
and a catalyst through a chemical process liquor (a by-product of pulp mills) is a major
known as transesterification. Oil for biodiesel fuel source for bioelectricity generation in
production can be extracted from almost countries such as Brazil, Canada, Finland,
any oilseed crop; globally, the most popular Sweden and the United States of America.
sources are rapeseed in Europe and soybean A considerable amount of heat and power
in Brazil and the United States of America. In is derived from recovered and/or recycled
tropical and subtropical countries, biodiesel woody biomass and increasing amounts of
is produced from palm, coconut and jatropha energy are recovered from biomass derived
oils. Small amounts of animal fat, from from cropland (straw and cotton stalks) and
fish- and animal-processing operations, forest land (wood chips and pellets). In sugar-
are also used for biodiesel production. The and coffee-producing countries, bagasse and
production process typically yields additional coffee husks are used for direct combustion
by-products such as crushed bean “cake” (an and to produce heat energy and steam.
animal feed) and glycerine. Because biodiesel In terms of bioenergy, however, the big
can be based on a wide range of oils, the growth area in recent years has been in the
resulting fuels can display a greater variety production of liquid biofuels for transport
of physical properties, such as viscosity and using agricultural crops as feedstocks. The
combustibility, than ethanol. bulk of this has taken the form of ethanol,
Biodiesel can be blended with traditional based on either sugar crops or starchy crops,
diesel fuel or burned in its pure form in or biodiesel based on oil crops.
compression ignition engines. Its energy As shown in Figure 6, a range of different
content is 88–95 percent of that of diesel, crops can be used as feedstock for ethanol
but it improves the lubricity of diesel and and biodiesel production. However, most
raises the cetane value, making the fuel global ethanol production is derived from
economy of both generally comparable. The sugar cane or maize; in Brazil, the bulk of
higher oxygen content of biodiesel aids in ethanol is produced from sugar cane and in
the completion of fuel combustion, reducing the United States of America from maize.
emissions of particulate air pollutants, carbon
monoxide and hydrocarbons. 4
Also referred to as pure plant oil (PPO).
14 THE STATE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE 2008

FIGURE 6
Conversion of agricultural feedstocks into liquid biofuels

SUGAR CROPS
Fermentation
Sugar cane and
Sugar beet distillation
Sweet sorghum

STARCHY CROPS

Maize
Wheat
Barley ETHANOL
Rye
Potatoes Saccarification,
Cassava fermentation
and distillation
CELLULOSIC MATERIALS

Switchgrass
Miscanthus
Willow
Poplar
Crop stover

OIL CROPS

Rapeseed Extraction
Oil palm and BIODIESEL
Soybean esterification
Sunflower
Peanut
Jatropha

Source: FAO.

Other significant crops include cassava, rice, significant is the sector’s increasing role as a
sugar beet and wheat. For biodiesel, the provider of feedstock for the production of
most popular feedstocks are rapeseed in the liquid biofuels for transport – ethanol and
EU, soybean in the United States of America biodiesel. Modern bioenergy represents a
and Brazil, and palm, coconut and castor oils new source of demand for farmers’ products.
in tropical and subtropical countries, with a It thus holds promise for the creation of
growing interest in jatropha. income and employment. At the same time,
it generates increasing competition for
natural resources, notably land and water,
Biofuels and agriculture especially in the short run, although yield
increases may mitigate such competition
The current expansion and growth of in the longer run. Competition for land
energy markets, as a result of new energy becomes an issue especially when some of
and environment policies enacted over the the crops (e.g. maize, oil palm and soybean)
past decade in most developed countries that are currently cultivated for food and
and in several developing countries, is feed are redirected towards the production
reshaping the role of agriculture. Most of biofuels, or when food-oriented
 BIOFUELS: PROSPECTS, RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES

15
agricultural land is converted to biofuel topping the list of in terms of biofuel output
production. per hectare and India not far behind. Yields
Currently, around 85 percent of the global per hectare are somewhat lower for maize,
production of liquid biofuels is in the form but with marked differences between yields,
of ethanol (Table 1). The two largest ethanol for example, in China and in the United States
producers, Brazil and the United States of of America. The data reported in Table 2 refer
America, account for almost 90 percent only to technical yields. The cost of producing
of total production, with the remainder biofuels based on different crops in different
accounted for mostly by Canada, China, countries may show very different patterns.
the EU (mainly France and Germany) and This is discussed further in Chapter 3.
India. Biodiesel production is principally
concentrated in the EU (with around
60 percent of the total), with a significantly The biofuels life cycle: energy
smaller contribution coming from the balances and greenhouse gas
United States of America. In Brazil, biodiesel emissions
production is a more recent phenomenon
and production volume remains limited. Two of the main driving forces behind
Other significant biodiesel producers include policies promoting biofuel development
China, India, Indonesia and Malaysia. have been concerns over energy security and
Different crops vary widely in terms a desire to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
of biofuel yield per hectare, both across Just as different crops have different yields in
feedstocks and across countries and terms of biofuel per hectare, wide variations
production systems, as illustrated in Table 2. also occur in terms of energy balance and
Variations are due both to differences in crop greenhouse gas emission reductions across
yields per hectare across crops and countries feedstocks, locations and technologies.
and to differences in conversion efficiency The contribution of a biofuel to energy
across crops. This implies vastly different land supply depends both on the energy content
requirements for increased biofuel production of the biofuel and on the energy going
depending on the crop and location. into its production. The latter includes the
Currently, ethanol production from sugar energy required to cultivate and harvest
cane and sugar beet has the highest yields, the feedstock, to process the feedstock into
with sugar-cane-based production in Brazil biofuel and to transport the feedstock and

TABLE 1
Biofuel production by country, 2007
COUNTRY/COUNTRY
ETHANOL BIODIESEL TOTAL
GROUPING

(Million litres) (Mtoe) (Million litres) (Mtoe) (Million litres) (Mtoe)

Brazil 19 000 10.44 227 0.17 19 227 10.60

Canada 1 000 0.55 97 0.07 1 097 0.62

China 1 840 1.01 114 0.08 1 954 1.09

India 400 0.22 45 0.03 445 0.25

Indonesia 0 0.00 409 0.30 409 0.30

Malaysia 0 0.00 330 0.24 330 0.24

United States of 26 500 14.55 1 688 1.25 28 188 15.80

America
European Union 2 253 1.24 6 109 4.52 8 361 5.76

Others 1 017 0.56 1 186 0.88 2 203 1.44

World 52 009 28.57 10 204 7.56 62 213 36.12

Note: Data presented are subject to rounding.

Source: based on F.O. Licht, 2007, data from the OECD–FAO AgLink-Cosimo database.
16 THE STATE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE 2008

TABLE 2
Biofuel yields for different feedstocks and countries
GLOBAL/NATIONAL
CROP BIOFUEL CROP YIELD CONVERSION EFFICIENCY BIOFUEL YIELD
ESTIMATES

(Tonnes/ha) (Litres/tonne) (Litres/ha)

Sugar beet Global Ethanol 46.0 110 5 060

Sugar cane Global Ethanol 65.0 70 4 550

Cassava Global Ethanol 12.0 180 2 070

Maize Global Ethanol 4.9 400 1 960

Rice Global Ethanol 4.2 430 1 806

Wheat Global Ethanol 2.8 340 952

Sorghum Global Ethanol 1.3 380 494

Sugar cane Brazil Ethanol 73.5 74.5 5 476

Sugar cane India Ethanol 60.7 74.5 4 522

Oil palm Malaysia Biodiesel 20.6 230 4 736

Oil palm Indonesia Biodiesel 17.8 230 4 092

United States of
Maize Ethanol 9.4 399 3 751
America

Maize China Ethanol 5.0 399 1 995

Cassava Brazil Ethanol 13.6 137 1 863

Cassava Nigeria Ethanol 10.8 137 1 480

United States of
Soybean Biodiesel 2.7 205 552
America

Soybean Brazil Biodiesel 2.4 205 491

Sources: Rajagopal et al., 2007, for global data; Naylor et al., 2007, for national data.

the resulting biofuel at the various phases sometimes, for a feedstock/fuel combination,
of its production and distribution. The fossil depending on factors such as feedstock
energy balance expresses the ratio of energy productivity, agricultural practices and
contained in the biofuel relative to the fossil conversion technologies.
energy used in its production. A fossil energy Conventional petrol and diesel have fossil
balance of 1.0 means that it requires as much energy balances of around 0.8–0.9, because
energy to produce a litre of biofuel as it some energy is consumed in refining crude
contains; in other words, the biofuel provides oil into usable fuel and transporting it to
no net energy gain or loss. A fossil fuel markets. If a biofuel has a fossil energy
energy balance of 2.0 means that a litre of balance exceeding these numbers, it
biofuel contains twice the amount of energy contributes to reducing dependence on
as that required in its production. Problems fossil fuels. All biofuels appear to make a
in assessing energy balances accurately derive positive contribution in this regard, albeit to
from the difficulty of clearly defining the widely varying degrees. Estimated fossil fuel
system boundary for the analysis. balances for biodiesel range from around 1
Figure 7 summarizes the results of several to 4 for rapeseed and soybean feedstocks.
studies on fossil energy balances for different Estimated balances for palm oil are higher,
types of fuel, as reported by the Worldwatch around 9, because other oilseeds must be
Institute (2006). The figure reveals wide crushed before the oil can be extracted,
variations in the estimated fossil energy an additional processing step that requires
balances across feedstocks and fuels and, energy. For crop-based ethanol, the estimated
 BIOFUELS: PROSPECTS, RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES

17
FIGURE 7
Estimated ranges of fossil energy balances of selected fuel types

FUEL FEEDSTOCK
PETROL

Crude oil
DIESEL

Crude oil

Soybean
BIODIESEL

Rapeseed

Waste vegetable oil

Palm oil

Sweet sorghum

Maize

Sugar beet
ETHANOL

Wheat

Sugar cane

Cellusosic

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Fossil energy balance (ratio)

Note: The ratios for cellulosic biofuels are theoretical. Sources: based on Worldwatch Institute, 2006,
Table 10.1; Rajagopal and Zilberman, 2007.

balances range from less than 2 for maize to Biofuels are produced from biomass; in
around 2–8 for sugar cane. The favourable theory, therefore, they should be carbon
fossil energy balance of sugar-cane-based neutral, as their combustion only returns
ethanol, as produced in Brazil, depends not to the atmosphere the carbon that was
only on feedstock productivity, but also on sequestered from the atmosphere by the
the fact that it is processed using biomass plant during its growth – unlike fossil fuels,
residues from the sugar cane (bagasse) as which release carbon that has been stored
energy input. The range of estimated fossil for millions of years under the surface of
fuel balances for cellulosic feedstocks is even the earth. However, assessing the net effect
wider, reflecting the uncertainty regarding of a biofuel on greenhouse gas emissions
this technology and the diversity of potential requires analysis of emissions throughout
feedstocks and production systems. the life cycle of the biofuel: planting and
Similarly, the net effect of biofuels on harvesting the crop; processing the feedstock
greenhouse gas emissions may differ widely. into biofuel; transporting the feedstock
18 THE STATE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE 2008

and the final fuel; and storing, distributing on developing efficient and cost-effective
and retailing the biofuel – including the ways of carrying out the process. The lack
impacts of fuelling a vehicle and the of commercial viability has so far inhibited
emissions caused by combustion. In addition, significant production of cellulose-based
any possible co-products that may reduce second-generation biofuels.
emissions need to be considered. Clearly, As cellulosic biomass is the most
therefore, fossil energy balances are only abundant biological material on earth, the
one of several determinants of the emissions successful development of commercially
impact of biofuels. Critical factors related viable second-generation cellulose-based
to the agricultural production process biofuels could significantly expand the
include fertilizing, pesticide use, irrigation volume and variety of feedstocks that can
technology and soil treatment. Land-use be used for production. Cellulosic wastes,
changes associated with expanded biofuel including waste products from agriculture
production can have a major impact. For (straw, stalks, leaves) and forestry, wastes
example, converting forest land to the generated from processing (nut shells, sugar-
production of biofuel crops or agricultural cane bagasse, sawdust) and organic parts
crops displaced by biofuel feedstocks of municipal waste, could all be potential
elsewhere can release large quantities of sources. However, it is also important to
carbon that would take years to recover consider the crucial role that decomposing
through the emission reductions achieved biomass plays in maintaining soil fertility and
by substituting biofuels for fossil fuels. texture; excessive withdrawals for bioenergy
Chapter 5 discusses further the relationship use could have negative effects.
between biofuels and greenhouse gas Dedicated cellulosic energy crops hold
emissions and reviews the evidence that the promise as a source of feedstock for second-
impact of biofuels on climate change may generation technologies. Potential crops
vary and may not necessarily be positive – or include short-rotation woody crops such
as positive as is often initially assumed. as willow, hybrid poplars and eucalyptus
or grassy species such as miscanthus,
switchgrass and reed canary grass. These
Second-generation liquid biofuels5 crops present major advantages over first-
generation crops in terms of environmental
Current liquid biofuel production based on sustainability. Compared with conventional
sugar and starch crops (for ethanol) and starch and oilseed crops, they can produce
oilseed crops (for biodiesel) is generally more biomass per hectare of land because
referred to as first-generation biofuels. A the entire crop is available as feedstock for
second generation of technologies under conversion to fuel. Furthermore, some fast-
development may also make it possible growing perennials such as short-rotation
to use lignocellulosic biomass. Cellulosic woody crops and tall grasses can sometimes
biomass is more resistant to being broken grow on poor, degraded soils where food-
down than starch, sugar and oils. The crop production is not optimal because of
difficulty of converting it into liquid fuels erosion or other limitations. Both these
makes the conversion technology more factors may reduce competition for land with
expensive, although the cost of the cellulosic food and feed production. On the downside,
feedstock itself is lower than for current, several of these species are considered
first-generation feedstocks. Conversion of invasive or potentially invasive and may
cellulose to ethanol involves two steps: the have negative impacts on water resources,
cellulose and hemicellulose components biodiversity and agriculture.
of the biomass are first broken down Second-generation feedstocks and
into sugars, which are then fermented to biofuels could also offer advantages in
obtain ethanol. The first step is technically terms of reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
challenging, although research continues Most studies project that future, advanced
fuels from perennial crops and woody and
5
This section is based on GBEP (2007), IEA (2004) and agricultural residues could dramatically
Rutz and Janssen (2007). reduce life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions
 BIOFUELS: PROSPECTS, RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES

19
relative to petroleum fuels and first-
generation biofuels. This stems from both Potential for bioenergy
the higher energy yields per hectare and
the different choice of fuel used in the What is the potential for bioenergy
conversion process. In the current production production? The technical and economic
process for ethanol, the energy used in potential for bioenergy should be discussed
processing is almost universally supplied in the context of the increasing shocks
by fossil fuels (with the exception of sugar- and stress on the global agriculture sector
cane-based ethanol in Brazil, where most and the growing demand for food and
of the energy for conversion is provided by agricultural products that is a consequence
sugar-cane bagasse). For second-generation of continuing population and income growth
biofuels, process energy could be provided by worldwide. What is technically feasible to
left-over parts of the plants (mainly lignin). produce may not be economically feasible
While cellulosic biomass is harder to break or environmentally sustainable. This section
down for conversion to liquid fuels, it is also discusses in more detail the technical and
more robust for handling, thus helping to economic potential of bioenergy.
reduce its handling costs and maintain its Because bioenergy is derived from
quality compared with food crops. It is also biomass, global bioenergy potential is
easier to store, especially in comparison with ultimately limited by the total amount of
sugar-based crops, as it resists deterioration. energy produced by global photosynthesis.
On the other hand, cellulosic biomass can Plants collect a total energy equivalent of
often be bulky and would require a well- about 75 000 Mtoe (3 150 Exajoule) per year
developed transportation infrastructure for (Kapur, 2004) – or six to seven times the
delivery to processing plants after harvest. current global energy demand. However, this
Significant technological challenges includes vast amounts of biomass that cannot
still need to be overcome to make the be harvested. In purely physical terms,
production of ethanol from lignocellulosic biomass represents a relatively poor way of
feedstocks commercially competitive. It is harvesting solar energy, particularly when
still uncertain when conversion of cellulosic compared with increasingly efficient solar
biomass into advanced fuels may be able to panels (FAO, 2006a).
contribute a significant proportion of the A number of studies have gauged the
world’s liquid fuels. Currently, there are a volume of biomass that can technically
number of pilot and demonstration plants contribute to global energy supplies.
either operating or under development Their estimates differ widely owing
around the world. The speed of expansion to different scopes, assumptions and
of biochemical and thermochemical methodologies, underscoring the high
conversion pathways will depend upon the degree of uncertainty surrounding the
development and success of pilot projects possible contribution of bioenergy to future
currently under way and sustained research global energy supply. The last major study
funding, as well as world oil prices and of bioenergy conducted by the International
private-sector investment. Energy Agency (IEA) assessed, on the basis
In summary, second-generation biofuels of existing studies, the range of potential
based on lignocellulosic feedstocks present bioenergy supply in 2050 from a low of
a completely different picture in terms 1 000 Mtoe to an extreme of 26 200 Mtoe
of their implications for agriculture and (IEA, 2006, pp. 412–16). The latter figure
food security. A much wider variety of was based on an assumption of very rapid
feedstocks could be used, beyond the technological progress; however, the IEA
agricultural crops currently used for first- indicates that a more realistic assessment
generation technologies, and with higher based on slower yield improvements
energy yields per hectare. Their effects on would be 6 000–12 000 Mtoe. A mid-range
commodity markets, land-use change and estimate of around 9 500 Mtoe would,
the environment will also differ – as will according to the IEA, require about one-
their influence over future production and fifth of the world’s agricultural land to be
transformation technologies (see Box 2). dedicated to biomass production.
20 THE STATE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE 2008

BOX 2
Biotechnology applications for biofuels

Many existing biotechnologies can be Application of biotechnologies for

applied to improve bioenergy production, second-generation biofuels
for example, in developing better biomass Lignocellulosic biomass consists mainly
feedstocks and improving the efficiency of of lignin and the polysaccharides
converting the biomass to biofuels. cellulose (consisting of hexose sugars)
and hemicellulose (containing a mix of
Biotechnologies for first-generation hexose and pentose sugars). Compared
biofuels with the production of ethanol from
The plant varieties currently used for first- first-generation feedstocks, the use
generation biofuel production have been of lignocellulosic biomass is more
selected for agronomic traits relevant complicated because the polysaccharides
for food and/or feed production and are more stable and the pentose
not for characteristics that favour their sugars are not readily fermentable
use as feedstocks for biofuel production. by Saccharomyces cerevisiae. In order
Biotechnology can help to speed up the to convert lignocellulosic biomass to
selection of varieties that are more suited biofuels the polysaccharides must
to biofuel production – with increased first be hydrolysed, or broken down,
biomass per hectare, increased content into simple sugars using either acid or
of oils (biodiesel crops) or fermentable enzymes. Several biotechnology-based
sugars (ethanol crops), or improved approaches are being used to overcome
processing characteristics that facilitate such problems, including the development
their conversion to biofuels. The field of of strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae
genomics – the study of all the genetic that can ferment pentose sugars, the
material of an organism (its genome) – is use of alternative yeast species that
likely to play an increasingly important naturally ferment pentose sugars, and the
role. Genome sequences of several first- engineering of enzymes that are able to
generation feedstocks, such as maize, break down cellulose and hemicellulose
sorghum and soybean, are in the pipeline into simple sugars.
or have already been published. Apart Apart from agricultural, forestry and
from genomics, other biotechnologies that other by-products, the main source
can be applied include marker-assisted of lignocellulosic biomass for second-
selection and genetic modification. generation biofuels is likely to be from
Fermentation of sugars is central to “dedicated biomass feedstocks”, such as
the production of ethanol from biomass. certain perennial grass and forest tree
However, the most commonly used species. Genomics, genetic modification
industrial fermentation micro-organism, and other biotechnologies are all being
the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, cannot investigated as tools to produce plants
directly ferment starchy material, such as with desirable characteristics for second-
maize starch. The biomass must first be generation biofuel production, for
broken down (hydrolysed) to fermentable example plants that produce less lignin
sugars using enzymes called amylases. (a compound that cannot be fermented
Many of the current commercially into liquid biofuel), that produce enzymes
available enzymes, including amylases, themselves for cellulose and/or lignin
are produced using genetically modified degradation, or that produce increased
micro-organisms. Research continues on cellulose or overall biomass yields.
developing efficient genetic yeast strains
that can produce the amylases themselves,
so that the hydrolysis and fermentation Sources: based on FAO, 2007a, and The Royal
steps can be combined. Society, 2008.
 BIOFUELS: PROSPECTS, RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES

21
More important than the purely technical production. Nevertheless, this illustrates that,
viability is the question of how much of the even under a second-generation scenario, a
technically available bioenergy potential hypothetical large-scale substitution of liquid
would be economically viable. The long-term biofuels for fossil-fuel-based petrol would
economic potential depends crucially on require major conversion of land. See also
assumptions concerning the prices of fossil Chapter 4 for a further discussion, including
energy, the development of agricultural regional impacts.
feedstocks and future technological The potential for current biofuel
innovations in harvesting, converting and technologies to replace fossil fuels is also
using biofuels. These aspects are discussed in illustrated by a hypothetical calculation
further detail in Chapter 3. by Rajagopal et al. (2007). They report
A different way of looking at the potential theoretical estimates for global ethanol
for biofuel production is to consider the production from the main cereal and sugar
relative land-use requirements. In its crops based on global average yields and
“Reference Scenario” for 2030 in World commonly reported conversion efficiencies.
Energy Outlook 2006, the IEA projects an The results of their estimates are summarized
increase in the share of the world’s arable in Table 3. The crops shown account
land devoted to growing biomass for liquid for 42 percent of total cropland today.
biofuels from 1 percent in 2004 to 2.5 percent Conversion of the entire crop production
in 2030. Under its “Alternative Policy to ethanol would correspond to 57 percent
Scenario”, the share in 2030 increases to of total petrol consumption. Under a more
3.8 percent. In both cases, the projections are realistic assumption of 25 percent of each
based on the assumption that liquid biofuels of these crops being diverted to ethanol
will be produced using conventional crops. production, only 14 percent of petrol
Should second-generation liquid biofuels consumption could be replaced by ethanol.
become widely commercialized before 2030, The various hypothetical calculations
the IEA projects the global share of biofuels underline that, in view of their significant
in transport demand to increase to 10 percent land requirements, biofuels can only
rather than 3 percent in its Reference be expected to lead to a very limited
Scenario and 5 percent in the Alternative displacement of fossil fuels. Nevertheless,
Policy Scenario. Land-use requirements would even a very modest contribution of biofuels
go up only slightly, to 4.2 percent of arable to overall energy supply may yet have
land, because of higher energy yields per a strong impact on agriculture and on
hectare and the use of waste biomass for fuel agricultural markets.

TABLE 3
Hypothetical potential for ethanol from principal cereal and sugar crops
GLOBAL GLOBAL BIOFUEL MAXIMUM PETROL SUPPLY AS SHARE OF 2003
CROP
AREA PRODUCTION YIELD ETHANOL EQUIVALENT GLOBAL PETROL USE1

(Million ha) (Million tonnes) (Litres/ha) (Billion litres) (Billion litres) (Percentage)

Wheat 215 602 952 205 137 12

Rice 150 630 1 806 271 182 16

Maize 145 711 1 960 284 190 17

Sorghum 45 59 494 22 15 1

Sugar cane 20 1 300 4 550 91 61 6

Cassava 19 219 2 070 39 26 2

Sugar beet 5.4 248 5 060 27 18 2

Total 599 ... ... 940 630 57

Note: ... = not applicable. Data presented are subject to rounding.

1
Global petrol use in 2003 = 1 100 billion litres (Kim and Dale, 2004).
Source: Rajapogal et al., 2007.
22 THE STATE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE 2008

Key messages of the chapter • Even though liquid biofuels supply only
a small share of global energy needs,
• Bioenergy covers approximately they still have the potential to have a
10 percent of total world energy significant effect on global agriculture
supply. Traditional unprocessed biomass and agricultural markets because of the
accounts for most of this, but commercial volume of feedstocks and the relative
bioenergy is assuming greater land areas needed for their
importance. production.
• Liquid biofuels for transport are • The contribution of different biofuels to
generating the most attention and have reducing fossil-fuel consumption varies
seen a rapid expansion in production. widely when the fossil energy used as an
However, quantitatively their role is only input in their production is also taken
marginal: they cover 1 percent of total into account. The fossil energy balance
transport fuel consumption and 0.2– of a biofuel depends on factors such as
0.3 percent of total energy consumption feedstock characteristics, production
worldwide. location, agricultural practices and the
• The main liquid biofuels are ethanol and source of energy used for the conversion
biodiesel. Both can be produced from a process. Different biofuels also perform
wide range of different feedstocks. The very differently in terms of their
most important producers are Brazil and contribution to reducing greenhouse gas
the United States of America for ethanol emissions.
and the EU for biodiesel. • Second-generation biofuels currently
• Current technologies for liquid biofuels under development would use
rely on agricultural commodities as lignocellulosic feedstocks such as
feedstock. Ethanol is based on sugar wood, tall grasses, and forestry and
or starchy crops, with sugar cane in crop residues. This would increase
Brazil and maize in the United States of the quantitative potential for biofuel
America being the most significant in generation per hectare of land and
terms of volume. Biodiesel is produced could also improve the fossil energy and
using a range of different oil crops. greenhouse gas balances of biofuels.
• Large-scale production of biofuels However, it is not known when such
implies large land requirements for technologies will enter production on a
feedstock production. Liquid biofuels can significant commercial scale.
therefore be expected to displace fossil
fuels for transport to only a very limited
extent.
 BIOFUELS: PROSPECTS, RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES

23
3. Economic and policy drivers
of liquid biofuels

Agriculture both supplies and demands From the point of view of an individual
energy; hence, markets in both sectors have farmer, it is unimportant what end use
always been linked. The nature and strength a prospective buyer has in mind for the
of these linkages have changed over the crop. Farmers will sell to an ethanol or
years, but agricultural and energy markets biodiesel processor if the price they receive
have always adjusted to each other, with is higher than they could obtain from a
output and consumption rising or falling in food processor or a feeding operation. If
response to changing relative prices. Rapidly the price of biofuels is high enough, it will
increasing demand for liquid biofuels is bid agricultural commodities away from
now tying agriculture and energy more other uses. Because energy markets are
closely than ever. However, policy plays an large relative to agricultural markets, a
influential role in defining the linkages small change in energy demand can imply
between them. Many countries intervene a large change in demand for agricultural
in both markets through a range of policy feedstocks. Therefore crude oil prices will
measures aimed at addressing a diverse drive biofuel prices and, in turn, influence
range of goals. This chapter addresses agricultural commodity prices.
the fundamental economic relationships The close link between crude oil prices
among agriculture, energy and biofuels. and agricultural prices, mediated by
It also reviews the policies being pursued to biofuel demand, in fact establishes a floor
promote biofuels and discusses the way in and a ceiling for prices of agricultural
which they affect the relationship between commodities – determined by crude oil prices
agricultural and energy markets. (FAO, 2006a). When fossil fuel prices reach
or exceed the cost of producing substitute
biofuels, the energy market creates demand
Biofuel markets and policies for agricultural products. If the demand
for energy is high relative to markets for
A discussion of the economics of liquid agricultural commodities and agricultural
biofuels must start from the allocation biofuel feedstocks are competitive in the
of resources among competing uses in energy market, this will create a floor price
the energy and agriculture sectors. This effect for agricultural products determined
competition occurs at several levels. In by fossil fuel prices. At the same time,
energy markets, liquid biofuels such as however, agricultural prices cannot increase
ethanol and biodiesel are direct competitors faster than energy prices or they will price
with petroleum-based petrol and diesel. themselves out of the energy market. Thus,
Policies such as mandated blending of as energy markets are very large compared
biofuels with petrol and diesel, subsidies with agricultural markets, agricultural prices
and tax incentives can encourage biofuel will tend to be driven by energy prices.
use, while technical constraints such as a In practice, the link between energy
lack of vehicles that run on biofuel blends and agricultural commodity prices may be
can discourage their use. Leaving aside such less close and immediate than in theory,
factors for the moment, biofuels and fossil at least until biofuel markets become
fuels compete on the basis of their energy sufficiently developed. In the short run, a
content, and their prices generally move number of constraints limit the capacity of
together. the biofuel sector to respond to changes in
In agricultural markets, biofuel processors relative prices of fossil fuels and agricultural
compete directly with food processors and commodities, for example bottlenecks
animal-feeding operations for commodities. in distribution, technical problems in
24 THE STATE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE 2008

BOX 3
Biofuel policies in Brazil

Around 45 percent of all energy development of new plantations and a

consumed in Brazil comes from renewable fleet of purely ethanol-fuelled vehicles. A
sources, reflecting the combined use of series of tax and financial incentives was
hydroelectricity (14.5 percent) and biomass introduced. The programme induced a
(30.1 percent); the use of sugar cane in the strong response, with ethanol production
internal renewable energy supply in 2006 rising rapidly along with the number of
represented 32.2 percent of renewable vehicles running exclusively on ethanol.
energy and 14.5 percent of total internal Subsidies provided through the
energy supply (GBEP, 2007). programme were intended to be
Brazil has been a pioneer in national temporary, as high oil prices were
regulatory efforts for the bioenergy expected to make ethanol competitive
sector and has accumulated significant with petrol in the long run. However,
experience and expertise in the area of as international oil prices fell in 1986,
biofuels, particularly concerning the use of the elimination of subsidies became
ethanol as a transport fuel. The Brazilian problematic. In addition, rising sugar
experience of using ethanol as a petrol prices led to scarcity of ethanol, and in
additive dates back to the 1920s, but it 1989 severe shortages in some of the
was only in 1931 that fuel produced from main consuming centres undermined the
sugar cane officially began to be blended credibility of the programme.
with petrol. In 1975, following the first The period from 1989 to 2000 was
oil crisis, the Government launched the characterized by the dismantling of the
National Ethanol Programme (ProAlcool), set of government economic incentives
creating the conditions for large-scale for the programme as part of a broader
development of the sugar and ethanol deregulation that affected Brazil’s entire
industry. The programme was aimed at fuel supply system. In 1990, the Sugar and
reducing energy imports and fostering Ethanol Institute, which had regulated the
energy independence. Its main goals were Brazilian sugar and ethanol industry for
to introduce into the market a mixture over six decades, was extinguished, and
of petrol and anhydrous ethanol and to the planning and implementation of the
provide incentives for the development industry’s production, distribution and
of vehicles that were fuelled exclusively sales activities were gradually transferred
with hydrated ethanol. Following the to the private sector. With the end of the
second major oil shock, in 1979, a more subsidies, the use of hydrated ethanol as
ambitious and comprehensive programme fuel diminished drastically. However, the
was implemented, promoting the mixture of anhydrous ethanol with petrol

transportation and blending systems or capable of running on ethanol–petrol blends

inadequate plant capacity for conversion of and a national distribution network for
feedstocks. The more flexibly demand and ethanol (FAO, 2006a).
supply can respond to changing price signals, While agricultural feedstocks compete with
the more closely prices on energy and fossil fuels on the energy market, agricultural
agricultural markets will be linked. Today, the crops also compete with each other for
Brazilian sugar-cane ethanol market is the productive resources. For example, a given
most developed and most closely integrated plot of land can be used to grow maize for
with energy markets. Contributory factors ethanol or wheat for bread. When biofuel
include the existence of a large number of demand bids up the prices of commodities
sugar mills able to produce either sugar or used as biofuel feedstock, this tends to bid
ethanol, highly efficient energy conversion up the prices of all agricultural commodities
systems with co-generation of ethanol and that rely on the same resource base. For
electricity, a large share of flex-fuel vehicles this reason, producing biofuels from non-
 BIOFUELS: PROSPECTS, RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES

25

was boosted with the introduction in 1993 to be accomplished by 2008 and 2013,
of a mandated blending requirement respectively. Reflecting social inclusion and
specifying that 22 percent of anhydrous regional development concerns, a system
ethanol must be added to all petrol of tax incentives was established for the
distributed at retail petrol stations. The production of raw materials for biodiesel
blending requirement is still in place on small family farms in the north and
today, with the Inter-Ministerial Board northeast regions of Brazil. Under a
for Sugar and Ethanol establishing the special scheme, the “Social Fuel Seal” (Selo
required percentage, which can range Combustível Social) programme, biodiesel
from 20 to 25 percent. producers who buy feedstocks from small
The most recent phase of the Brazilian family farms in poor regions pay less
ethanol experience began in 2000 with federal income tax and can access finance
the revitalization of ethanol fuel and from the Brazilian Development Bank. The
was marked by the liberalization of farmers are organized into cooperatives
prices in the industry in 2002. Ethanol and receive training from extension
exports increased further as a result workers.
of high oil prices in the world market. Current bioenergy policies in Brazil
The dynamics of the sugar and ethanol are guided by the Federal Government’s
industry began to depend much more on Agroenergy Policy Guidelines, prepared
market mechanisms, particularly in the by an interministerial team. Linked to the
international markets. The industry has overall policy of the Federal Government,
made significant investments, expanding the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and
production and modernizing technologies. Food Supply has prepared a programme to
An important factor in domestic market meet the bioenergy needs of the country.
development in recent years has been the The goal of the Brazilian Agroenergy
investment of the automobile industry in Plan 2006–2011 is to ensure the
bi-fuel or dual-fuel alcohol–petrol cars, competitiveness of Brazilian agribusiness
also referred to as flex-fuel vehicles, which and support specific public policies, such as
are able to run on a blend of petrol and social inclusion, regional development and
ethanol. environmental sustainability.
Biodiesel, by contrast, is still an infant
industry in Brazil, and biodiesel policies
are much more recent. The biodiesel law
of 2005 established minimum blending Sources: based on GBEP, 2007, and Buarque de
requirements of 2 percent and 5 percent Hollanda and Poole, 2001.

food crops will not necessarily eliminate the of developing countries – are promoting
competition between food and fuel; if the biofuels for three main reasons: strategic
same land and other resources are needed concerns over energy security and energy
for both food and biofuel feedstock crops, prices, concerns over climate change, and
their prices will move together even if the agricultural support considerations.
feedstock crop cannot be used for food. One justification made for providing policy
Given current technologies, the costs of support to a new sector is that it is needed
producing crops and converting them to to overcome the initial costs of technological
ethanol or biodiesel are too high in many innovation and market development
locations for biofuels to compete with fossil required to enable a sector to become
fuels on a commercial basis without active competitive. This is the “infant industry”
government support to promote their argument for subsidies. But subsidies for
development and subsidize their use. Many a sector that cannot ultimately achieve
countries – including a growing number economic viability are not sustainable and
26 THE STATE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE 2008

may serve simply to transfer wealth from one the incentive to identify and promote
group to another while imposing costs on alternative sources of energy for transport,
the economy as a whole. heating and power generation. Strong
Subsidies can also be justified when demand from rapidly growing developing
the social benefits of developing a sector countries – especially China and India – is
outweigh the private economic costs. This adding to concerns over future energy prices
may be the case, for example, if liquid and supplies. Bioenergy is seen as one means
biofuels generate social benefits in the form of diversifying sources of energy supply and
of lower carbon emissions, greater energy reducing dependency on a small number
security or revitalized rural areas. Such policy of exporters. Liquid biofuels represent the
interventions entail costs, however, and their main alternative source that can supply the
consequences are not always as intended. transport sector, which is overwhelmingly
These costs include the direct budgetary costs, dependent on oil, without more radical
borne by taxpayers, and market costs, borne changes to current transport technologies
by consumers, and involve the redistribution and policies.
of resources towards the favoured sector. The second important factor driving
Distributional effects can extend beyond the bioenergy policies is the increasing concern
country implementing the policy to have about human-induced climate change,
an international dimension – just as the as the evidence of rising temperatures
agricultural support and protection policies and their anthropic origin becomes ever
of many OECD countries have complex more compelling. Few now dispute the
impacts on producers and consumers in need to take action to reduce greenhouse
other countries. In addition, because policy gas emissions, and many countries are
interventions divert resources from other incorporating bioenergy as a key element
social and private investments, they often in their efforts to mitigate climate change.
have indirect opportunity costs. In some Bioenergy has been perceived as offering
cases, other policy interventions that target significant potential for emission reductions,
the stated objectives of the biofuel policies relative to petroleum-based fuels, in
more directly could be less costly and more electricity, heating and transportation,
effective. although actual net impacts on greenhouse
gas emissions may vary significantly
depending on factors such as land-use
Underlying objectives of biofuel change, feedstock type and related
policies agricultural practices, conversion technology
and end use. Indeed, recent analyses suggest
As noted above, several countries have that large-scale expansion of biofuel
introduced policies promoting the production could cause a net increase in
development of liquid biofuels. High emissions.
and volatile petroleum prices, increased While climate-change concerns have
awareness of fossil fuels’ contribution to been among the strongest incentives for
global climate change and the desire to promoting bioenergy development, other
promote economic revitalization in rural environmental concerns have also played a
areas are the most commonly expressed role – not least the wish to reduce urban air
reasons underlying these policies (FAO, pollution. Burning biomass using modern
2007b). technologies or using liquid biofuels in
Secure access to energy supplies is a engines may reduce emissions of regulated
longstanding concern in many countries. air pollutants relative to fossil fuel use. Also,
Reducing vulnerability to price volatility and the generation of energy from residues and
supply disruptions has been an objective wastes, such as the biodegradable parts
behind the energy policies of many OECD of municipal solid waste, represents an
countries for several decades, and many environmentally friendly means for their
developing countries are equally concerned disposal. The implications of liquid biofuel
about their dependence on imported production and use for the environment,
sources of energy. The recent increases in including greenhouse gas emissions, are
prices, mainly of oil, have strengthened discussed further in Chapter 5.
 BIOFUELS: PROSPECTS, RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES

27
Supporting the farm sector and farm policy instruments and types of related
incomes has been a key – if not the most support applied at different stages may have
important – driving factor behind biofuel very different market impacts. Generally,
policies in several developed countries. policies and support directly linked to
In countries with heavily subsidized farm levels of production and consumption are
sectors, the revitalization of agriculture considered as having the most significant
through its role as provider of bioenergy market-distorting effects, while support to
feedstocks has been widely viewed research and development is likely to be the
as a solution to the twin problems of least distorting.
oversupply of agricultural produce and
declining global market opportunities. The Agricultural policies
possibility of boosting farm incomes while Agricultural and forestry policies that predate
reducing income support and subsidies the liquid biofuels era have had a strong
has considerable appeal for policy-makers influence on the bioenergy industry. Indeed,
(although the latter part of this strategy agricultural subsidies and price support
has been difficult to achieve). While several mechanisms directly affect both production
OECD countries, particularly in Europe and levels and prices of first-generation biofuel
North America, have long embraced the feedstocks and feedstock production
potential of biofuels to support agriculture, systems and methods. Most OECD countries
an increasing number of developing have applied policies of subsidization and
countries also claim rural development – protection in agriculture, which international
along with energy security – objectives for trade negotiations within the framework
their biofuel policies (FAO, 2007b). of the World Trade Organization (WTO)
have not succeeded in eliminating, although
some discipline on agricultural policies and
Policy measures affecting biofuel agricultural protection has been introduced.
development Such policies have had significant implications
for agricultural trade and geographic
Biofuel development is influenced by a patterns of agricultural production at the
wide range of national policies in multiple international level, as they will for the
sectors, including agriculture, energy, production of biofuel feedstocks.
transport, environment and trade, as well
as broader policies affecting the overall Blending mandates
“enabling environment” for business and Quantitative targets are key drivers in the
investment. Policies applied to bioenergy, development and growth of most modern
particularly liquid biofuels, significantly bioenergy industries, especially liquid
influence the profitability of biofuel biofuels for transport, where blending
production. Identifying the relevant policies mandates are increasingly imposed. Table 4
and quantifying their impact in specific cases summarizes the current voluntary and
is difficult because of the variety of policy mandatory blending requirements for liquid
instruments and ways they are applied; biofuels in the G8+5 countries,6 although it
however, they have generally translated into should be noted that policies in this area are
(sometimes very significant) subsidies aimed in rapid evolution.
at supporting biofuels and influencing the
financial attractiveness of their production, Subsidies and support
trade and use. Support to distribution and use are key policy
Subsidies can affect the sector at different components in most countries that promote
stages. Figure 8, adapted from the Global the use of biofuels. Several countries are
Subsidies Initiative (Steenblik, 2007), shows subsidizing or mandating investments
the various points in the biofuel supply chain in infrastructure for biofuel storage,
where direct and indirect policy measures
6
can provide support for the sector. Some of The G8+5 group comprises the G8 countries (Canada,
France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the Russian Federation, the
these factors are interrelated, and assigning
United Kingdom and the United States of America), plus
policies to one category or another may be the five major emerging economies (Brazil, China, India,
somewhat artificial in practice. Different Mexico and South Africa).
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 INDEX nos. 1-12, 1926 — Persia crowns new shah who
seized throne. 18111. Basinger (M. T.) ing Dolloyd. 18112. Bassette
(FF. A.) co. sheets. 28578. Basshe (HK. J.) pseud. man (Kmmanuel)
Bassi (Luigi) pseuwd. _ muerte. 34110. Bassick mfg. co. Price list of
Alemite and Alemite-Zerk. 18118. Bastia (Jean) Conrad. 10255.
Bastian (G. C.) News editing manual for teachers. 53223. Bastian-
Blessing co. Rego welding & cutting apparatus. 11253, 18114. Basye
(P. E.): Cost per 1000 See Condenada a Geom. ete. 34111-34113.
Math. 18115, 28585, 28586. Physics. 23999. Batavia, N. Y., direct.
211. Batchelder (Mildred) Topsy turvy tales. 24000. Batchelder (S. F.)
Cambridge, Mass., map. 28004. Bate (H. C.) Monkey wrench. 46358.
Bates (C. A.) ;: Analysis-plan-sales. ete. 18116— 18120. Bus secrets.
58220. Gold is where you find it. 28579. Seven crops a yr. 53224.
Sight draft on the Sultan. 47077. Bates (C. BE.) & co. Mundelein.
28580. Bates (C. J.): Bargain in sex. 52395. God & I. 17195. Bates
(Dorothee) Bandit. 57332. Bates (E. W.): Christmas cradle. 63284.
City of God. 57861. Bates (Harry): Dentists & pals. 40931.
Homeward bound. 63388. Bates (Sanford) Romance of right. 212.
Bath (John) & co. Bath internal micrometers, etc. 28581, 28582.
Bath, Me., direct. 58221. Bathlot (W. W.) Story of the great scenic
highway. 34114. Batik Worker. 34115. Bator (Gabriella) Intruders.
63406. Battelle pub. co. How to run a serv' ice station at a profit.
34116. Batterman (H.) co.: Advertisement. ete. 213-230. And they
lived happily ever after. ete. 11254-11269. Are these your children?
etc. 18121-18134. Direct. for dressJochelBattey (H. C.): Ask dad.
57327. Twisting the law. 52668. Battle (C. de) Conte d’amour. 4968.
Battle Creek, Mich., direct. 11270. 3 Battle Creek chamber of
commerce. To factory executive. 64178. Baude (W. A.) Bus.
forecasting. 34117. Bauer (W. W.) Pictures of health. 18135.
Bauerlein, inc. Yes! 100 ways to enjoy bananas. 5944. Bauersfeld (A.
G.) Buck (R. O.) Chicago high schls. 4866, 4867. Baughan (EH. A.):
Ancient Egyptian order of mystic Oriental sons. Ritual. 41981.
Supreme grand organization dept. Ancient Egyptian order mystic
oriental sons. 23915. Baum (D. J.) Harmony in home design. 28329.
Baum (F. J.) Visualizing. 58222. Baum (K. G.): Baum’s classified adv.
or want ad portfolio. 28583. Baum’s classified checking system.
5945. Baum (Vicki) Christsternlein. 40915. Baum (W. J.) Baseball
play. 10222. Catholic and su34118. Thought test Baumann (Emile)
pernatural novel. Baumeister (Hmeline) readers. 51076-51080.
Baumer (M. E.): Gilly. 10322. Half-way man. 10338. Married six
months. 10426. Baumgartner (J. H.) Baumgartner system of
producing monogram borders. 47078. Baur (Erwin) Schaffung neuer
sorten von kulturpflanzen die befahigt sind maximale diingergaben
zu _ verwerten. 47079. Bausch & Lomb optical co. hints. ete. 34119-
34122. Bawden bros., ine. Sturtevant-Baker co. Sally & Billy in ice
cream land. 32639, 40062-40066. Baxley (L. M. C.) valentine. 11271.
Baxter (KE. H.): Cost of crime from a bus. standpoint. ete. 64179-
64182. Stop crime at its source! 58223, 58224. Baxter (Garrett) : Art
of politics. 42082. Government. 231. Influence. 18136. Baxter
Springs, Kan., map. 33489. Helpful Sweetest, be my ete. 2223
 INDEX Bay (H. C.) co. style bk. 5946. Bay City, Mich., direct.
58225. Bay City, Tex., map. 27995. _ Bay City bank.: Christmas
34123-34125. Partners in saving. 47080. H. C. Bay pianos
suggestion. ete. Tested investment for savings. 28584. Bay path inst.
Blazing a trail to success. 64183. Bay Point, Calif., map. 10646. Bay
Ridge Ferry, N. Y., map. 10751. Bay state fishing co. 40 fathom fish.
64184-64189. Bayard (L. R.) Directions & suggestions for producing
the Tidings. 11272. Bayard, Ia., map. 46507. Bayfield (St. Clair) Lion
hunter. 69480. Bayless bros. & co., inc. Never sold before for less
than $3.00. 11273. Bayley (A. E.) Queens of Avalon. Maids of
Avalon. Jr. branch. Maids of Avalon. 39260. Bayley (F. J.) Maypole (R.
A.) Detailed explanation of the developments of a piano playing
contest. 57308. Bayside Gables, inc. Bazan , (G..0RPCZ.) flower.
23293. Bazin (René) : Baltus le Lorrain. Some thoughts 24001. |
Beach (KE. L.) jr. 40845. Beach» (G. H.) ©c0., ine. charts. ete.
34126-34129. Beach (H. D.) Trip through Yellowstone Park. 28587.
Beach (H. L.) Secret of successful selling. 64190. Beach (Lewis) See
Beach (BE. L.) jr Beach (T. L.)' To guard the purity of your milk.
66117-66134. Beacon ad. service. Local butchers and grocers assn.
Cyclone isn’t the greatest calamity. 20104. Beacon press, inc. : Bates
(Sanford) right. 212. Carter (R. G.) His majesty William Smith.
11749, 18548, 24322-24328, 29051. Crothers (S. M.) Learning by
our failures. 6422. Eliot (C. W.) Address to young men. 1020.
Franklin (Ethel) Friendly world. ete. 54273-54275. Gables. 42083.
Man with the 11274, 18137. on the _ novel. Airs, I say, airs!
Washout Romance of pt. 1,0. s., v.23 Fuller (A. T.) Childhood &
youth. 6837. _ ’ Morgan (A. E.) Building for the future. 7853.
Pousland (A. E.) Friendly world. ete. 54273-54275. Unitarian hist.
soc. 32804. Twenty-fifth anniversary of the installation of Reverend
Paul Revere Frothingham. 68905. Beacon system, ine. What it is.
34130. Beadle (M. A.) Let it ring. 23274. Beahan (Charles) Little
orchid AnProceedings. nie. 63443. Beal (J. M. C.) Our own. 18138.
Beale (C. W.) Skeleton biography form. 11275. Beale (J. H.) flict of
laws. Comentaries on conete. 18139, 18140. Beale (W. M.) Beaie
tours. While en route. 28588. Beale tours. While en route. 28589—
28592. . ; Bealer (R. M.) Problem in boat making. 42084. Beall (1.
C.) leghorn 11276. Beall’s pedigreed white leghorn farm, Ann.
catalosue. 11276. Beals (H. H.) ‘Tribute to Indiana. 34131. ( Beals
(Marie) Social reg. 4309. Beals, McCarthy & Rogers. hardware,
metals. 64191. Beard (D. C.): Beard (Dan) outdoor schl., ine. 1926
bklet. 5947. ; Recipe for scouting. 5948. Beard (E. R.) When the
opera company came to town. 33471. Beard (J. T.) Rope haulage in
coal mining. 47081. Beard (Patten) 4954. Bearden, Ark., map. 5312.
_ Beardsley (Mrs. M. F.) Sesqui-centennial exposition. 11277.
Beardsley & Piper co.* Sandslingers. 34132. Beardsley’s (J. pauper
to prince. Beardstown, Iil., direct. Beall’s pedigreed white farm. Ann.
catalogue. Steel, Children’s bookshelf. W.) sons. 24002. 34133. From
Beaton (K. C.) Ye towne gossip. 42085-42097, 47082. Beattie (—)
Progress lang. form test. 66105. Beattie, Kan., map. 17402. Beatty
(Wilbur) : Burglars. 27718. Contest. 27730. 2224
 INDEX nos:1-12; 1926 Beauchamp (A. C.): Minn. the fair &
other poems. 47083. North star state. Beaumont (Gerald) 64192.
Betty’s a lady. 64193, 64194. Beaumont (R .H.) co. Beaumont skip-
lift. 42098. Beaumont, Calif., map. 57649. Beaumont Enterprise:
Asthma. etc. 34134—34139. Baby on vacation. ete. 28589-— 28592.
Cure guaranteed. etc. 11278, 11279. Drugless healers. ete.
1814118144. Malaria. ete. 24003, 24004. Beaumont high — schl.
Caduceus. 28995. Beaumont Leader. Special feature section. 11280.
Beaunash. pseud. See Bryan (A. §S.) Becerra (L. L.) See Linares
Becerra (Luis) Bechtelheimer (A. R.) My dream house bv the sea.
11281. Beck (B: R.) Santa Claus joke. 52616. Youth. 18145. Little
Black Sambo. Beck (Cameron) Beck (F. V.) 42099. Beck (H. A.)
Romola. 42100. Beck (J. M.) America’s influence in world
reconstruction. 5949. Beck (Max) verlag. Drei midel von heute.
63321. Beck (N. P.) Think. 24005. Beck (R. L.) Instr. How to build &
operate. 34140. Beck (W. E.) jr. Co-operative patent procedure.
18146. Becker (D.) & sons. Hints on the care of fine furniture.
53225. Becker (F.) asphaltum roofing co.: Amer. home. ete. 28593,
28594. Increase the value of your home. 34141. Becker (M. O.)
Becker (W. H.): Maricopa Co., Ariz., map. 33582. Salt River Valley.
Ariz.. map. 69807, 69808. Becker (W. 8S.) Casa Grande Valley, Ariz..
map. 57660. Becker-Shippee (Eva) dad. 41042. Beckett, Mass.
direct. 28595. Beckhardt & Beckhardt. Prospectus. 11282.
Beckington (L. B.) Columbia readers. 34271, 34272, 47158. Beckley
(W. R.) Activated sludge process of sewage treatment. 64195. Merry
wives. 23298. Leave it to Beckley (Zoe) ete. 58226. Beckley-Cardy
co: Dines with captain. Browns’ merry Christmas. 4941. Burglar-
proof. 4944. Children’s bookshelf. 4954. Christmas at Dinky Flats.
4956. Christmas at Joyville Junction. 4958. Christmas plays &
comedies. 4961. Deming (A. G.) Silent reading seat work. 895-902.
Heath (J. F.) Hygienic pig. 1542. How grandma caught the Christmas
spirit. 5046. Jolly junior dialogues. Mechanical dolls. 5122. Parry
(Jessie) Hunt & find. 3683. Taylor (F. L.) Adventures in Storyland.
68849. Three little runaway trees. 10383. 5248. Tommy’s.
Thanksgiving dinner. 5254. Uncle Caleb’s quiet Christmas. 5267.
Beckley, Ralston co. Beckley-Ralston co. 34142. Beckwith (Henry)
Comparison of Cuyahoga Co. estates. 47084. Beckwith co. Watch
campaign. 5950. Beckwith’s almanac. 282. Becton, Dickinson & co.
B-D products manual. 18147. Beda. pseud. See Lochner (Fritz)
Bedford, Pa., map. 69661 Bedinger (S. B.) United fire prevention
club. Slogan&formula. 40361. Bedini (Jean) : Bulldarino. 33231.
Hello—goodbye. 46277. I won’t go. 46291. Proverbs. 463899. Bee
Dee stock medicine co. Bee Dee bulletin. 58227. Beecher (A. C.)
Skeleton in the closet. 63554. Beecher (B. B.) My dream & I. 5143.
Beecher (Betty) pseud. See Miller (Betty) Beecher (R. W. D.) 57869.
Beecher adv. service. Bill was certainly lucky. ete. 34148-34154.
Beeckman (Mrs. Cornelius) Correct manners. 11283-11293, 28596-
28606, 47085-47091, 53226-53228, 58228—58231, 64196-64200.
Beehler (William) own bus. 953229. Amazing Mazie. ine. Bldg. your
Beem (F. M.) Animals in pencil. ete. 64201, 64202. Beeman (B. O.)
Skooting skeeter skit. 27657. Beer (Georges) Azais. 69333. 2225
 INDEX Beers-Tapman, ine. Beers’ built specialized steel
bldgs. 18148. Beery (Jesse) co. Beery (R. C.) Playbox guide to
knowledge. 64203. Beery (R. C.) Playbox guide to knowledge.
64203. Beeson (E. B.) Harvest of his years. 28607. Beggs
Quadrangle, Okl., map. 5313. Beglinger (N. J.) Word builder. 11294,
Begovic (Milan): . Adventurer at the eatic! Abenteurer vor dem tor.
God incarnate. 23228. 33194. 63230. Behr (Teddy) novelty co. Little
(Jack) Little Jack Little radio log. 13910. Behrman (S. N.): Love is like
that. 46332. Man who forgot. 27838. Night’s work. 41113. Toreador.
23400. Behrman’s Jewish bk. Alper (Michael) shop: Introd. to the
Bible. 638976. Levinger (E. E.) Great Jews since bible times. ete.
661387— 66139. —— My confirmation. ete. 25424, 25425. Beith (I.
H.) See Beith (J. H.) Beith (J. H.): Fernande. 63348. Sport of kings.
69595. Békeffy (Laszl6) Bazsardzsa. 69340. Bekins van & storage
co.: Fresno, Calif., map. 52738. Movies of the mover. 18149. Béla
(Szenes) See Szenes (Béla) Belanger (J. W.) Property management.
40787. Belasco (David: All the way from Texas. 40849. Central
problem. 68277. Fanny. 33270. Just you, Sue. 46315. Lily Sue.
52524. What never dies. 41280. Belden (G. T.) Wonderful mother 0
mine. 28608. Beldon (Betty) pseud. styne (Kathreen) Belen News.
Special feature section. ~ 84155. Belgian asbestos corp. Belgo best
metaltone asbestos. 11295. Belgium, map. 23436. Béliard (Octave)
Volupté qui 53230. Bell (A. G.) Adventures of the Cameron kids.
2338, 5951. Bell (C. A.) Where theres life. 24006. Bell (C. HE.)
Hamot. See Van AIltue, theres soap 35996. Bell (HE. T.) pt. 1, 0..8.,
7.23 Dixie. ete. 18150-18154. It can’t be done. 33323. Distribution
of burden. Bell (F. E.) Bell (G. L.) 53281. Bell (J. C.) Game of math.
42101. Bell (Marion) Aristocrat. 5952. Bell (S. J.): It can’t be done.
Our dogs. 46386. Bell (Ulric) Europe balks at U. S. plan on world
court. 34156. Bell investment co., inc. When in need of money ring
the Bell. 58232. Bell publ. St. guide of Tampa. 18155. Bell telep. co.
of Nev. Telep. ae 28609, 28610, 582338, 58234. Bell telep. co. of
Pa.: Bell telep. co. of Pa. & associated eos. Classification of
employees. 5954, 24011-24024. —— Modification switching. 11297. '
Classification of employees. 58235-58298. Bell telep. co. of Pa.
Telep. direct. 234-239, 5953, 11296, 18156, 18157, 24007-24010,
28611-28614, 3415734174, 42102, 47092, 64204-64211. Bell telep.
labs., ine. Hng. economics. 34175 Bellamy 5063. Bellamy 53282.
Bellamy-Neff co. Int. acct. for the man of affairs. ete, 240, 241. Belle
Plaine, Kan., map. 33490. Belle Plaine Quadrangle, Okla., 17403.
Belleair, Fla., direct. 34871. Bellefontaine, O., map. 52701.
Bellerophon. 28615. Belleville, N. J., direct. 47093. Belleville, N. J..
map. 57650. Bellevue, Ky., direct. 18844. Bellgarde (H. R.): Paddy
helps. 11298. Seme coo coo baseball definitions. 34176. Terrible
escapade. 34177. Belling (P. E.) Is it hazardous for the deaf to drive
an auto? 64212. Bellingham, Wash., map. 10647, 46508. Belloe
(Hilaire) : Boycott. 58299. . Cheerful thoughts on 64213. Companion
to Mr. Wells’ Outline of hist. 242, 243, 11299-11305. 33320. for
machine ete. (fF. L.) Jongleur’s story. (Russell) Miss Fire Fly. map.
Christmas. On the novel. 113803. On the word scientific. 53233.
Bellows-Reeve co. Tuttle (EH. M.) Bk. of rural life. 45832. Bells,
Tenn., map. 57651. 2226
 INDEX ‘nos. 1-12, 1926 Belluardo (Jobn) 10208. Bellville,
O., map. 69662. Bellwood Bulletin. Special feature ~ssection. 34178.
Belmar (Henry) Lifer. 41047. Belmont (E. M.) People don’t do such
things. 33403. Belnap (C. M.) Belnap envelope co. Belnap service.
18158. Belnap envelope co. Belnap service. 18158. Belo (A. H.)
corp.: Dallas Morning News. Gathering of 1926 cotton crop in Texas.
53883-53886. Amor di patria. Texas almanac & state indus. guide.
16488. Texas cotton crop estimate lowered. 58300. Texas, map.
52835. Beloit, Wis., map. 27996. Beloit daily news . Whimwhams
antholcgy. 5955. Belotti (A: L.) Silver fox industry. 28616. Belting &
leather products assn., ine. Reglas practices para escoger. 18159.
Belton, Tex., map. 27997. Beltramelli (Antonio) Vie del signore.
41266*. Bemis Heights, N. Y., map. 17404. Ben-Adam (Abu) pseud.
(Jacob) Benavente (Jacinto): Alfilerazos. 17096. Nuevos yernos.
17272. Saturday night. 69584. Teairo, ~Zooo2*: Bender (Arthur)
Derrill (Merben) Romance of the beautiful. 23109. Bender (EH. F.)
Bender-Parker music pub. co. Choice collection of the world’s
funniest riddles. 244. Bender (Matthew) & co., inc. Bender’s lawyers’
diary ref. bk. & direct. 64214. Bender (W. H.) tiplied. 18160. Bender-
Moss co. How money is mulB.-M. co.’s cumulative current code
annot. 28522, 47033. Bender-Parker music pub. co. Choice collection
of the World’s funniest riddles. 244. Bender’s lawyers’ direct. 64214.
Bendix (Ludwig) Germany’s economic development during the first
half of the yr. 1926. 47094. Bendix brake co.: Bendix brakes. 58301.
Bendix mech. brakes. 538234. dairy ref. bk. & See Faller Instrs.,
Bendix brakes, crank & lever controls. 5956. Benedict (C. J.): Grace
Episcopal church. 47095. Little things. 11304. Benedict (D. P.) Alaska
Dawn. 40846. Benedict (E. P.): Twelve privately owned federal
reserve banks. 10173. Why banks fail. 53235. Benedict (Samuel)
Catechism. 53236. Benedict press. Benedict (C. J.) Grace Episcopal
church . 47095. Beneficial loan soc. of Pittsburgh. $150,000 par.
28617. Beneficial operating bur. Odone (Francis) . Beneficial home
budget. 26578. Benelli (Sem) Love of the 3 kings. 69491. Benevolent
association of Royal men & women of America. Ritual. 245. Benge
(Herbert) Coast o’ Maine. 28618. Bengtson (N. A.) Geog. of Neb.
42104. Bengue (Jules) Leeming (Thos.) & co., ine. Baume bengué.
1879. Benignus (Wm.) : Des ewigen liedes morgenklang. 28619.
Epik und lyrik der grossen amerikanischen nationalparke. 47096.
Geist der Shoshone-Fiille. 5957. Grand canyon des _ Colorado.
11305. Nacht und Sonnenaufgang. 18161. Rand des Grand Canyon
von Arizona. 34179. Benington (Harold) Detection of frauds. 34180.
Benjamin (I. A.) Russian dressing. 52614. Benjamin & Kentnor co.:
Special Eastern representatives of daily newspapers. 16275. Special
western representatives of daily newspapers. 24025. Benjamin
electric mfg. co. Contractordealer discount. 11306. Benjamin Franklin
hotel. Benjamin Franklin. 53237. Benjamin Franklin univ. Benjamin
Franklin univ. schl. of accountancy. 58302. Benkert (W. R.) Benkert
line-breeding chart. 34181-34183. Benn (M. A. G. M. L. V. de) Sow’s
ears. 10541. Benner (H. D.) A-B-C of the stars. 53238. Bennetch (H.
C.) Faith vs. science. 34184. 2227
 INDEX Bennett (Arnold) life and - death. 34185. Bennett
(C. D.) Gold tooth. 27774. Bennett (C. E.) Antill’s ride ushering in the
spirit of ’76. 246. Bennett (EH. A.): Biggest thing in life. Louder and
funnier. Quick action. 233483. Things that happen every day. 23395.
Bennett (EH. W.) Adventures of Billy. 28620. Bennett (Edward)
trodynamics for engineers. 5958. Bennett (F. H.) biscuit co.
Cinderella of the pantry shelf. 5959. Bennett (FEF. P.) & co., inec.:
Bennett (F. P.) jr. Partner to banking. 58303. What we think of Morris
Fire, 10229. 25280. Introductory elecplan. 28621. Legal for savings
banks. 64215. Bennett (George) Where are my wildflowers? 53239.
Bennett (H. H.) studio. Wisconsin River. 34186. Bennett (J. E.) & co.
Grain indemnity insur. 16504. Bennett (J. O’D.) gress. 42105.
Bennett (Joseph) Deceit. 4982. Bennett (R. C.) Repayment. 57554.
Bennett (R. H.) lumber co., ine.: Bennett bargain bk. 58304. Bennett
better-built, ready-cut homes. 247. Bennett (R. J.) Auditing. 47097.
Bennett (R. L.) & sons: Distributing cotton seed. 53240. How our
wholesale customers distribute our newest cotton seed. ete. 34187-
34189. R. L. Bennett & sons. 42106. Bennett (T. W.) Instrs. for the
use of the spot-angle system. 64216. Bennett associates, inc.
Florida, map. Dells of the Eucharistic con23511. Bennett direct. co.
Evansville, Ind., direct. 1092. Bennett’s travel bur., inc.: European
individual travel. 11307. European travel hints. 18162. Bennis,
Madison Co. Tenn. map. 41332. Benoit (Pierre) Micheline et amour.
24097. Benrimo (Joseph) Fairy fingers. 58305. Bensenville, Ill., map.
52702. Benson (B. D.) & sons, ine. Rolnik (Max) Your 1925 income-
tax. 15936. Benson (C. C.) home. 5960. pt: 1, nist v.23 Benson (L.
F.) It may be a Christmas carol. 64217. Benson (V. H.) Lake CGo.,
Minn., map. 28073. Ga ere ptg. co. Benson jr. annual. Bentley (H. C.)
Fundamentals of double entry bkkeeping. 47098. Bentleyville, Pa.,
map. 5314. Benton (F. W.) Calif. the wonderland. 47099. Benton (W.
HE.) Human nature at a glance. 34190. Benton (William) Colored
indus. union age keeper. 64218. Benton, [ll., map. 5315. Benton-
Bailey co., ine. Broadside. 534538, 58417. Benton Harbor, Mich.,
direct. 53241. Benton Harbor, Mich., map. 57652. Benton publ. co.
Huntington Beach, Orange Co., Calif. 249. Bentrick (S. J.) 64 reasons
why a homesite at Oaklihurst. . 64219. Benuzzi (Valerio) Sister
reveals love tragedy of Rudy’s youth. 42107. Benziger bros., New
York: Chureh goods. ete. 18163, 18164. Coleman (Caryl) Little
flower treasury. 64665. Curtis (T. A.) ed. Teacher’s manual to ace.
Amer. cardinal readers. 47664, Finn (F.J.) Boys’ & girls’ prayer bk.
65263. Hannan (J. D.) Religion hour. 48339. James Stanislaus
(Sister) Teacher’s manual. 60116. Kennedy (W. H. J.) Teacher’s
manual to accompany America’s story. ete. 48741, 48742. Lacey (C.
V.) Rosary novenas. 7408. M. HBleanor (Sister) Little flower’s love for
the Holy Eucharist. 20149. McDonough (M. V.) Christ. 7555.
McLaughlin (EH. M.) ed. Ready to read. 36925. Short life of Madden
(Margaret) Teacher’s manual. 60116. Mary Joseph (Sister) Teacher’s
manual to accompany America’s story. ete. 48741, 48742. Moffatt (J.
EH.) Morning sacrifice. 49380. Taggart (M. A.) Wonder offering.
27297. Berak (Paul) Vandormadarak. 63605. Heaven will be my |
Beraud (G. F. M.) Beraud fig recipes. 11308. 2228
 INDEX nos, 1-12, 1926 Béraud (Henri) Allemagne telle que
je Vai vue. 64220. Berchtold (Rud.) & co. Zauberbaum (L’arbre
enchanté) 27976. Bereovici (Konrad) : ' Volga boatman. 24026. Why
Europeans hate us. Youth to youth. 58306. Berding (A. H.) Front
page stuff. 23219. Berdrow (Asa) univ. 11309. Berend (David)
lessons on tenor-banjo. 42108. Eternal fact of the Complete course
of 58367. Berens (B. B. B.) Liberty key. 30118. Berg (A. E.)
Gentlemen unafraid. 27766. Berg (A. T.) Seattle’s off. union label
guide. 28622. Berg (Alice) Co-operative employment service.
Employer’s rec. T17. Berg (J. S.) Amer. credo. 5961. Berg sales co.:
Weeks (John) & son co. Chart to determine radiation. 22939. Weight
chart. 24027. Bergen (G. H.) Suzanne goes gunning. 46457. Bergen
(H. M.): Catastrophic spectacle. 28628. Diatom. 18165. Walking-
beam song, 47100. Bergen Co., N. J., map. 63641. Bergengren (R.
F.) Credit unions. 18167. Bergengren (Ralph) : Happy recovery of
Mrs. Tinkerman’s silver’ thimble. etc. 64221-64223. John Henry Rugg
comes to visit. 18166. Suzette’s uncle brings her some kittens. 250.
Bergengruen (Werner) Retter des zaren, 17318. Berger (C. L.) &
sons, ine.: Catalog of eng. 24028. Manual, Berger instruments of
precision for engineers. 34191. Berger (Harry) shirt co.: Do you sell
radium silk shirts? 34192. Pastel broadcloth shirts. Berger (J. A.)
28624. Foreign branch acctg. 2k, Berger (Ludwig) : Luise, k6nigin
von Preussen. VERA Luise, kronprinzessin von Preussen. 27832.
Berger (William) & eco. Contest of home decoration. 18168. Berger
& co. (Bali-verlag) See Baliverlag, Berger & co. Berger bros. Co. :
Dese. & measuring direct. 64224-64230. Eternal question—How
young is Anne? ete. 5383808, 58309. Figures may appear to be
identical. 28625. Great actress points the way to lasting youth.
42109. If you want to look young you ete. must feel young. ete.
34193— 34194. In defense of dressmakers. 53242. Now that women
are women again. 5962. She knows how to wear smart clothes. ete.
24029-24032 There is no substitute for a corset. 252. Bergling (J.
M.) Gen. style chart. 18169. Bergmann (Jean) Jean Bergmann’s
univer. calculator. 18170. Bergstrom (A. B.) How to increase property
values. 64231. Beringer (Vera) Blue-stockings. 57344. Berkeley
(Reginald) : Dweller in the darkness. Mister Abdulla. 33362.
Berkeley, Calif., direct. 55957. Berkeley, Calif., map. 10648. Berkley,
Mass., direct. 66050. Berkley, Mich., direct. 56482. Berkowitz
envelope co.: Bilt-to-fit envelopes. 34195. Excess postage. 58310.
Berkshire life insur. co. income. ete. 2538, 254. Berkshire Co., Mass.,
direct. 58311. Berkson (I. B.) Outline of modern Jewish hist. 64232.
Berlet (L. 8.) Berlet (R. EH.) Pointed paragraphs for real estate
owners. etc. 64233, 64234. Berlin, Wis., map. 69663. Bermann (R.
B.) Gay impersonator. 63323. Retirement 28626-28628, 34196-
34203, 42110, 42111. Bermuda, map. 10649. Bernard (Gabriel)
Espionne aux chevyeux dor. 58312. Bernard (Georges) A travers les
bouges de Paris. 53248. Bernard (Herman) Bernard, ete. 53244-
53245. Bernard (J. J.): Ame en peine. 4910. Secret (Le) dArvers.
52622. Bernard (Tristan) : Franches lippées. 57393*. Perdreau de
l’année. 33404, 411438. Bernauer . (Rudolf) Garten Eden. pan
yepeyds 2229
 INDEX pt.3,n.8., v.38 Bernd (Florence) Music in the hist.
course. 64235. Bernéde (Arthur) Incendiaire. 53246. Bernhard (Emil)
Jagd Gottes. 46304. Bernoulli (C. A.) Ritt nach Fehrbellin. 63533.
Bernstein (Abraham) House with the green shutters. 63392.
Bernstein (E. E.): As Adam awakens. 53247. As the ages pass with
the night. 47101. Rock of understanding & other writings. 11310.
Bernstein (H. H.) Marrying parson. 10480. Bernstein (Henry): Félix.
17174. Galerie des glaces. 23220. Bernstein (Herman) : Chief thing.
17133. Command to love. 40921. Four devils. 23216. Man who
laughs. 41061. Radio kiss. 23344 . Ship of the saints. 17332.
Bernstein (T. M.) Pa value. 57519. Bernwall (A. E.) Empress Florida.
ete. 5963-5965. Berr (Georges) : Azais. 4918. Maitre Bolbec et son
mari. 638451. Berrini (Nino) Avvocatina Goldoni. 46165. Berry (C. A.)
New trails. 41111. Berry (Daniel) Sore, but satisfied. 57578. Berry
(EK. A.) Sunflower poultry farm & hatchery. Sunflower poultry
turning eggs to gold. 9772. Berry (Htta) Bleeding heart whoHoosier
blues. 18171. Berryville, Ark., map. 27998. Berse (Harry) co. Chain
store question & our ans. 24038. Berstl (Julius) Dover-Calais. 69397.
Bert E. Collyer’s pocket manual yr. bk. 25D: Bertati (G.) Mariage
secret. 27841. Bertelli (C. F.): Blond hair linked to Dodge breakup.
ete. 28629-28631. Heir to keep wife, return to capital. ete. 583818,
58314. Berthé (Madame) Caution. 113811. Berthold (V. M.) United
States, map. 41608. Bertine (HE. K.) Normalizing exercises. 256.
Berton (René) Cible. 40916. Bertram (M. HE.) Evening story. 5966-
5995, 18172-18175. Bertrand (Bert) : Black cat cafe. 4931.
Mysterious attic. 5145. Three a.m. 10568. Bertrand (Louis) Retour
d’Hgypte. 257. Besander (I. E.) Personal expense & surplus ree. 258.
Besnard (Lucien) : Cabinet noir. 52409. Maitre cog. 5102. Bess
(Gustavus) Univer. 18176. Bessee (C. EF.) North Bend, Or., map.
33633. letters. Besselievre (W. C.) Isn’t the country > just wonderful.
23253. Bessemer, Ala., direct. 47102. Besser sales co. Opportunities
in the manufacture of concrete products. 34204. Bessler
disappearing stairway co. Bessler disappearing stairways. 5996. Best
(A. M. co., ine.: Best’s illus. ete. 18177, 18178. Best’s . life insurance
_ reports. 24034, 28632. Suppl. to Best’s illus. ete. 3420534207.
Best (E. HE.) Chiropractic message to those seeking health. 53248.
Best & @o., inc.: neg Best & co. presents. etc. 2863328643. Best’s
English hats. ete. 11312, 11313. Children’s chinchilla coats. ete.
53249-53252. Gift from Best’s. ete. 5997-6009. New Nada footwear.
18179. School clothing for the _ welldressed boy. ete. 47103-47108.
Best univer. lock co. Best univer. locking system. 11314. Bethards.
(W. V.) Comprehensive tickler for collections. . 259. Bethea (Jack)
Cecil Houston—the killer of Flat Top. ete. 28644, 28645. Bethel,
Conn., direct. 6481. Bethel, N. C., map. 63642. Bethlehem
shipbuilding corp., ltd.: Bethlehem corrosion detector. etc. 11315-
11318. Bethlehem evaporators. etc. 47109, 47110. Bethlehem
multiflow surface feedwater heaters. etc. 34208, 34209. Bethlehem
Pervac motor-driven vertical centrifugal pumps. 58315. Bethlehem
steam boilers. 53253. 2230
 INDEX nos. 1-12, 1926 Bethlehem steel co.: Bethlehem
auxiliary locomotive. 28646, 28647, 34210, 34211, 58316.
Bethlehem rolled steel slabs. ete. 11319, 11320. Bethlehem stainless
steel. 53254. Condensed catalogue of stand. structural shapes.
47111. Lackawanna steel sheet. 6010. Mine & indus. track
equipment.. 64236. Better bread. 260, 261, 6011, 11321, 18180,
24035, 28648, 34212, 42112, 47112, 53255, 58317, 64237. Better
bldg. registry. Mann (C. A.) Initial code of rating bldgs. 27684. Better
Bus. News. 262. Better food inst. inc.: Foltis’ fundamental foods.
42113. Health intelligence & Fischer foods. 28649. How do you score
’em? ete. 47113, 47114. Better homes in America, inc. Guidebk. 263,
53256, 58318. Better homes service bur. 1926 spring home-builders’
suppl. 6012. Better tires co.: Better radio catalog. ete. 5831958321.
Better tires catalog. 264, 11322, 11328, 18181, 34213, 34214,
47115, 47116. Bettinger (B. E.) ) Recording angel, A. W. O. L.
41178. Betts (C. T.) Opinion upon aluminum, 47117. Betts. (F. B.), jr.
Mushingum Co., O., map. 63699. Betz (F. S.) co.: Betzeo line. 53257.
Hdbk. of instr. ete. 384215, 34216. Kilduffe (R. A.) Condensed
manual of urinalysis. 48639. Pre-inventory sale. 58322. Betz (J. H.)
Mont. songs, soc. songs, sacred songs & poems. 42114. Betzing:
(Billy): Astounding announcement. 24036. One thousand dollars
reward. 28650. Beuoy (George) Capon gold. 11324. Bevan (N. H.)
Modulus, 1925-26. 44114. Bevans (M. T.) Shimmering tail. 52625.
Beveridge (M. H.) When bus. is bad pep it up with an ad. 34217.
Beverly Hills, Calif., map. 63648. Beverly Hills, chamber of
commerce. Beverly Hills direct. 28651. Bevis (St. Clair) Employers
liability assurance corp. Contract. 12489. 50358—27——4. Bexar Co.,
Tex., map. 69664. Beyer (Thomas) Fiend of the sea. 18182. Beyer
(W. H.) 52483. Beyond the veil press. Overbury (E. HK.) From
beyond the veil. 56010. Bibb (Joseph jr. pseud. See Levick (Milnes)
Biberman (H. J.) 46213. Bible: Bible stories from the New Testament.
538259. Bible stories from the Old Testament. 53258. Bk. of Daniel.
34218. Healings of the Old Testament. 265. Bible (H. W.): Aaron
Burr. 57314. John Harvey’s desk. Satan’s son. 52617. Bible corp. of
America. Hats & Bibles. 24037. Bible institute colportage assn. of
Chicago: : Biederwolf (W. EH.) They have taken away my Lord. ete.
6013, 6014. . Branch (H. F.) How to have a happy home. 11406.
Dawson (W. B.) Evolution con‘trasted with Scripture truth. 6505.
Seriptures, and the mistakes of the critics. 47730. Dolman (D. H.)
Potter & the Heaven & damnation. Dance of youth. 63417. clay.
35306. Evans (William) Naomi of Ruth. 58984. Pope (H. W.) Tom
Bennett's transformation. 68107. Reitz (A. 8.) Let not your heart be
troubled. 51147. Bibliographical society of America. Papers. 266.
Bickel (Joseph) Lucky ring. 41055. Bickford (Charles) : Curb-cruisers.
4974. Sandy Hooker. 23359. Biddle-Gaumer co. Lighting fixtures.
34219. Biddulph (Mrs. F.C.) Poinsettia blossom. 267. Bidwell (Raye) :
Highlights of evening. 69452. Light fantasy. 69479. Love complex.
27828. Then & now—Now & _ then. 52648. Biederwolf (W. E.) away
my Lord. Bierer (lL. E.) Bierly (G. M.) They have taken ete. 60138,
6014. Strike. 6015. Merry wives. 23298. 2231
 INDEX Bigelow (L. 8.) Handy-bk. 58328. Bigelow (M. A.)
'Teacher’s manual to acc. Health for every day. 64238. Bigelow-
Hartford carpet. co.: Color & design. 53260. Helping to build bus.
28652. Hotel Winthrop of Tacoma. 18183. In Fla. Bigelow-Hartford
carpets & rugs. 64239. Bigelow’s sales-extension service. Household-
appliances. 268, 6016, 11325, 18184, 28653, 34220, 34221, 42115,
53261, 58324, 64240, 64241. Biggerstaff (R. L.) Chanticleer for
1926. 34712. Biggs (E. M.) Biggs contracts for use in the teaching of
U.S. hist. 64242. Bike web mfg. co. Bike elastic products. 47118.
Billa(AcnCas: Atom. 58325. Jew & Henry Ford. 64248. Message of
the bee. 24038, 28654. Revolution in science & religion. 53262. Bill
(J. A.) Minette. 34222. Billings (Mrs. H. E.) Katrina. 5072. ‘Billman (J.
I.): Fascinating personality. 53268. Your personality glands. 64244.
Bills:( B.A.) : Bills realty, inc. Indian Hill estates. 6022. Brite Monday
repts. to bankers. 6017-6021. Bills (M. A.) Measuring office output.
18185. Bills realty, ine. Indian Hill estates. 6022. ; Binders bd. mfrs.
assn. Porter (O. M.) Bound to last. 68111. Binet-Valmer (Gustave) :
Ceux qui he voient pas. FantoOmes. 64245. Prosper Bourguillard.
240389. Quand ils furent nus... 269. Bing (HE. J.) Stillmans
reconciled & off to Paris. ete. 6023-6024. 34223. Bingham Co., Id.,
direct. 1630. Bingham’s (Samuel) son mfg. co. Printers’ rollers. ete.
18186-18189, 34224. Binghamton, N. Y., direct. 34225. Binghamton
press co. Mill (R. E.) Truth about Fla. today. 66626. Binney (George)
: Among hidden crevasses in heavy fog. 34226. On a disabled plane
in Arctic seas. 24040. Binney & Smith co. ber compounding. Binz (G.
A.) Sales dept. Biochemic inst. of health. phosphate. ete. 6026-8040.
Black art of rub6025, 42116. 47119. Calcium 223 nt..1, 02S. v.20
Birabeau (André) : De l’audace. 23179. _ Déjeuner de soleil. Petit
péché. 57527. Plaire. 10484, 57530. Birchard (C. C.) & co.: Keith
(Alice) Listening in on the masters. 59734. King (M. P.) Mus. speech
& the making of personality. 65940. Shepherd (Arthur) Listening in
on the masters. 59734. Vandevere (J. L.) Amaryllis. ete. 45919-
45923. Dragon of Wu Foo. 68959. Birchard (F. G.) Romance of the
vacuuo-centrific airship. 64246. Bircheraft, ine. Klay kraft polychrome
art. 11326. Birchwood, Wis., map. 52703. Bird (C. B.) Rhythms.
18190. Bird (J. M.) Telepsychic phenomena & cerebral radiations.
270. Bird (William) : Amateurs helped Byrd reach Pole. 34227. Byrd
at Kings Bay, landing his planes. ete. 24041-24055. Byrd polar
expedition nearing King’s Bay. ete. 18191, 18192. Bird-Archer co.
Boiler water treatments. 47120. Birdland District, Fla., map. 23487.
Birmingham, Ala., direct. 24056. Birmingham, Ala., map. 23438-
23442, 41333, 63644. Birmingham, Mich., direct. 34228.
Birmingham, Mich., map. 63645. Birmingham eccentric:
‘Birmingham, Mich., direct. Bloomfield, Mich., direct. Birmingham
Post: Bethea (Jack) Cecil Houston— the killer of Flat Top. ete. 28644,
28645. Conner (B. U. L.) Love story of Vulean & Electra. 29193,
29194. Leech (HE. T.) Love story of Vulcan & Electra. 438780.
Birmingham water works €o.:Agency appointment. ete. 271, 272. To
our customers. 4893. Biro (Lajos) : French quadrille. Hotel Imperial.
Bisbee, Ariz., direct. Bisch (lL. E.): Instincts. ete. 34229-34235. Life’s
hurdle, ete. 273-290, 6041-— 6064, 11327-11334, 18193, 18194,
24057-24060, 28655-28661, 4211 7— 42126, 4712247126, 53264-
53267, 64247, 64248. Over life’s hurdles. 23181. 34228. 34228.
52458. 17212. 47121. ete. 58326. ad
 nos. 1-12, 1926 INDEX nn Bishop (A. E.) Hello papa.
40998. Bishop (A. L.) Life insur. for bus. - protection. 34236. Bishop
(HE. F.) Devil dogs. 23185. Bishop (G. A.) My movie scrap bk. Bishop
(J.) & co., platinum works. ~ One ten-thousandth. 18195. Bishop (J.
L.) Name—Jesus. 18196. Bishop (M. C.) Practical map exercises.
24061. Bishop (Mabel) 53268. Bishop (W. A.) Early hist. of Co. filled
with live interest. 47127. Bishop (Wallace) Dick & his dad. 11335-
11344, 28662, 28663. Bishop, Calif., map. 27999. Phys. & hygiene.
Bishop & Babcock sales co. Mass. modified squirrel cage fans. 34237.
Bishop pub. co. Bishop (G. A.) My movie scrap bk. 64249. Bishops A.
B.*: ©)’ ‘guide '’'¢o., Bishop’s A. B. C. guide. 18197. Bissell (F.) co.
Blec. supplies. 291. Bissell (W. L.): Brothers. 23154. . Kingdom of
books. Bissell & Land, inc. ine. 23262. Anatomy of a salesman.
47128. Bissell shorthand co., inc. | Bissel shorthand. 18198. Bisson
(Alexandre) Docteur. 63531. Bisson (André) Rosaire. 17316, 17317.
Bitney (M. R.): Fifty humorous monologues. 40962. Jolly Christmas
dialogues & recitations. 41028. Pageants & plays for 57521.
Valentine gayety bk. 34238. See also Irish (Marie). Bixby (R. R.) ine.:
Corres. course trust dept. operations & administration. 4212742129,
58269-53271, 58327, 64250, holidays. 64251. Trust dept.
operations. ete. 34239, 34240. Bixby Quadrangle, Okl., map. 17405.
Bjorkman (Edwin) ed. Books. 58328— 58330, 64252, 64253. Blabon
(G. W.) co.: Adler (H. H.) Planning the color schemes for your home.
53021. Blabon’s linoleum & linoleum accessories. ete. 47129, 47130.
Floor for the modern home. etc. 53272, 53278. - Flooring —
linoleum — Babon’s. 58331. Merchant’s Viewpoint. 30815-— 30819,
37106, 49281-49283, 60318, 66542. Black (Archibald) : ; Scheduled
air transport operators in the U. 8. 53274. Soon-nothing blocks the
air. 11345. United States, map. 17573, 23666, BAY aay Black (HE.
C.) Othello. 52474. Black (HE. J.) Tate (Robert) Rev. Robert Tate’s
hist. 4498. Black (F. W.) Ptg. costs money. 53275. Black (H. C.)
Thomas Jefferson. 64254. Black (Harman) Real North America
pocket guide bk. 42130. Black (J. H.) Selling your services. 18199.
Black (Jack) Breaking the shackles. 292. Black (Joe) Black’s annual
base-ball schedule. 24062. Black (N. H.) Pract. physics. 47131. Black
(Stephen) Golden calf. 17198. Black. (T.;1)., H.).., Fanatic..,,.10302;
PH TES Black (W. C.) Hays-Donnelly-Hamilton co. Touchstone.
13166. Black & Decker mfg. co. States, map. 52838. Black Cat.
34241. Black Hawk Co., Ia., map. 28000. Black River Falls, Wis.,
map. 23448. Blackford (C. E.) jr. Instrs. for using the budget check
bk. 11346. Blacksburg, S. C., map. 33491. Blackstone (A.) lumber co.
Beautiful summer homes. 58332. Blackstone bedding works.” Price
list. 6065. Blackwell (Therese) 63234. Blagge (J. H.) Staking a life.
58333. Blain (J. 8.) ine. Fla. homeseeker’s lease. ete. 28664, 28665.
Blaine (A. M.) State trust co. ing up with the Joneses. 32552. Blaine
(J. J.) Blaine tells how he won exposing world court sham. 47132.
Blain. - (h«G-) : Blair (J. C.) musie pub. club. If you are not for me.
28667. To the music world. 293, 28666. United Adorable rebel.
Keep32541-— Blair (J. L.) Dear Friend: Before giving his offer wide
publicity. 11347. Blair (Robert) Some phases of violin playing. 18200,
24063, 34242. 2233
 INDEX pt. 1,.n.s:, v.28 Blair (Sam): Cremaldi’s companion
tells story. 342438. Police rout 500 in march. 64255. Blair ptg. co.
Rabbit keeping for beginners. 42131. Blake (C. E.) Paul Rader’s
kerchief in seized chest. 58334. Blake (C. G.) Open natl. lawn
bowling tournament. 294. Blake (Sid) Morals of Madeline Trelawney.
233804. Blake specialty co. catalogue. 295. Blakely (Albert)
Consecrated kingdom, peace & govt. of God. 53276. Blakely (Jennie)
Consecrated kingdom, peace & govt. of God. 53276. Blakeslee (T.
W.) Beauty & health of woman. 24064. Blakiston’s (P.) son & co.:
Hawk (P. B.) Physiological chem. 48370. Weld (L. D.) 32998.
Blanchard (C. E.): Bulletin of Ambulant Proctology. 58531, 64404.
Food anal. chart with suggested menus. 471338. Blanchard (Carrie)
postum. 296. Blanchard (Evelyn) 46244. Blanchard (F. unfit. 64256.
Blanchard (FF. E.) compositions. 297. Blanchard (F. K.) ine. Abrasive
materials, mill supplies, machine shop supplies, garage supplies.
47134. Blanchard (H. F.): Auto varnish that an amateur can Blake
specialty Ans. to problems. How I made Fledgling. C.) Eliminating
the Announcing new apply. ete. 53277-53281. Automatic
transmission. ete. 11348-11351. Convertible roadster-coupe. _ ete.
28668, 28669. Cooling engines by steam. ete. 18201-18204. Don’t
outdrive your eyes to be careful motorist. ete. 24065-— 24067. Eng.
developments in auto. indus. 64257. New headlights to make night
driving safe. ete. 34244, 34245. Revarnishing the old car. 58335.
Blanchard (Harold) Cutting down cost of building bodies. ete.
4213242136. Blanchard (M. E.) Hempstead audit eo. Lights full on.
7047. Blanchard (William ) jr. 28670. Oaks. Blanchard, Okl., map.
28001. Blanchard press, inc.: Allen (B. W.) Oil or coal for heating my
home? 57992. Pratt (V. E.) Cyniec’s dict. 45081. Blanchet (E. R.)
Maugham (W. §S.) Passe dangereuse. 37055. Blanchon (Jean)
Bourgeoise romanesque. 17119. Blanck (N. M.) 42137. Bland (R. H.)
anty co. 22775. Blandford, Mass., direct. 46048. Blandin phonograph
co., inc. Biandin » radio cabinets. 34246. Blandinsville, Ul., map.
63646. Blane (A. M.): Lady so white. Market. 57477. | Two imposters
& Tinker. 57604. Blaney (C. E.): Beautiful shop girl. 63253. Dancer &
the king. 4978. White lights of Broadway. 63624. Blaney (H. C.):
Straight crooks. 23382. Thou shalt not squeal. 23399. Blanford, Ind.,
direct. 42568. Blank (Roy) : Latin American women strike at their
chains. 34247. Pacific foe takes 2 forts. 11352-11354. Ridicule Borah
demand. 28671. Tug wins 46 day battle with sea as ships hunt it.
6066. Blankenhorn (M. B.) How the shoes were danced to pieces.
52495. Blanks (J. D.) Naked facts. 64258. Blanton (M. G.) Speech
measurements. 34248. ; Blanton (Smiley) © Speech measureBuy
the golden way. U. S. fidelity & guarGuaranteed attorneys list.
57463. ete. ments. 384248. Blanton, Fla., direct. 42713. Blaschke
(Karl) Kreuz und quer durch die Wienerstadt. 18205. Blasco Ibafiez
(Vicente) : Roi Lear, imprimeur. 53282. See also Ibafiez (V. B.)
Blatchford (E. W.) co. A BC of the Blatchford plate mounting system.
18206. Blatchford calf meal co. Feeding direct. 47135. Blatchley (R.
L.) Binding of Satan. 64259. Blatsios (J. T.): Gallup, N. M., map.
52741, 52742. Santa Fe old trails, map. 23639. Blatt (W. M.): How
love began. 33312. That's too bad. 10562. 2234
 INDEX nos. 1-12, 1926 Blaufox (J. D.): Golden prune.
33292. Love dub. 41051. Blauner’s affiliated stores, inc. Kramer
(Sam) Concentrated view points of the girls with the Blauner’s
affiliated stores. 59830. Blaw-Knox co. Road bldg. equipment. 298.
Blethen (C. B.): Defense of Paris. ete. 18207-— 18212. Recent
warfare shows Mitchell exaggerates airplane effectiveness. 24068.
Stockholders in 29 Seattle banks listed. 47136. Blind Bud. pseud.
See Hartman (Bud). Bliss (H. A.) ince. Winnsboro blue granite.
53283. Bliss (J. H.) Credits and collections. 40788. ; Bliss (V. R.)
Some thoughts on furnishing a hotel. 47187. Bliven (R. M.)
Honeytime apiaries. Open up! 48407. Blizzard pub. co., inc. Dr.
Barnes reviews attack on ice gorge. 18213. Bloch (Bertram) : All
God's chillun 27696. And that’s that. 23127. He wasn’t a plumber.
2382388. See America first. 27909. Tough & tender. 23401. Bloch
(Blanche) Nothing ever happened. 17271. Bloch (Felix) erben:
Dame, welche. 27735. Doppelte Moritz. 46226. Durchgiingerin.
10288. Garten Eden. 23222. Goldene kalb. 46268. Jenny’s bummel.
46305. Leichtbekleidete Adele. got coughs. 33307. Stdépsel. 23381.
Susanne. 238387. Veronika. 10594, 33465. Volpone. 27959. Zurich—
1917. 63637. Bloch pub. co. inc. Hebrew eal. 36062. Block (Elsie)
Life & money. 5090. Block Island. map. 33492. Blockdel realty co.,
ine. Highlands. 28672. Bloeki (Fritz) Would you? 69645. Blocksom &
co. Why curled hair should be used in every auto. 11355. Blodgett
(H. A.): Dollar educa. plan. 58355. Getting Ahead. 29827, 59249.
ete. 58336— 'Blondin (Leo) Bloomfield, Mich., direct. Westwood !
Getting ahead monthly. 1364, 6864, 12860, 12861, 29828, 35815,
43186, 48190, 54343. How to become a financial success. _ ete.
53284-53292. Milwaukee. First Wis. trust co. Art of spending. 14284-
14290. Keep your money out of danger. ete. 20532, 20536. Natl.
bank & trust co. of Norwich. Anticipating the reorganization of your
estate. ete. 7910-7921. Natl. bank of Norwich. Appreciation. ete.
14465-14474. Bloeser (Walt) & co.: Gumshan auto products co.
Damn that glare. 6964. Zeller lacquer mfg. co. plexion. 10156. Blogg
& Littauer. Mat & copy service for your news. ete. 11356-11359. Life
& fall of Jesse Car comJames. 10403. Blood (Adele) : Delight o’ the
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