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A Primer on
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A Primer on
Microeconomics, Volume II
Competition and Constraints

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Thomas M. Beveridge
A Primer on Microeconomics, Volume II: Competition and Constraints
Copyright © Business Expert Press, LLC, 2018.

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 Abstract
Economics, far from being the “dismal science,” offers us valuable lessons
that can be applied to our everyday experiences. At its heart, economics
is the science of choice and a study of economic principles that allows us
to achieve a more informed understanding of how we make our choices,
regardless of whether these choices occur in our everyday life, in our work
environment, or at the national or international level.
The present two-volume text represents a commonsense approach
to basic microeconomic principles. It is directed toward all students,
but particularly toward those within business school settings, including
students beginning an advanced business degree course of study. It will
deliver clear statements of essential economic principles, supported by
easy-to-understand examples, and uncluttered by extraneous material, the
goal being to provide a concise readable primer that covers the substance
of microeconomic theory.
Over the course of the two volumes, the text will look at the effi-
cient operation of competitive markets and what may cause those markets
to fail, the benefits derived from trade, profit maximization, the conse-
quences of choice, and the implications of imperfect competition.

Keywords
comparative advantage, consumer surplus, demand and supply, economic
efficiency, elasticity, equilibrium, imperfect competition, marginal ben-
efit, market failures, monopoly, opportunity cost, perfect competition,
producer surplus, profit maximization
 Contents
Preface...................................................................................................ix
Acknowledgments....................................................................................xi
Chapter 5 Production, Costs, and Revenue.....................................139
Chapter 6 Perfect Competition in the Long Run............................175
Chapter 7 Monopoly......................................................................203
Chapter 8 Between Perfect Competition and Monopoly.................235
Chapter 9 Market Failures and Solutions........................................259

About the Author.................................................................................283

Index..................................................................................................285
 Preface
This two-volume Primer on Microeconomics has been long in the writ-
ing. It has been shaped by after-class discussions with students over many
years while we tried to break down economics into understandable con-
cepts and examples. A former student, Dr. Jeff Edwards, now Chairman
of the Economics Department at North Carolina A&T State University,
requested that I write an introductory text, and advised, “Make it like
your lectures.”
No book, at least no book that I’m capable of writing, can capture
the immediacy and intimacy of a classroom environment, but equally, no
classroom environment permits the opportunity to dwell on detail quite
as effectively as the pages of a book. As with everything in economics,
there are trade-offs.
I’ve devised this Primer to help you to master the concepts in what
may to be your first, and perhaps only, economics course. I’ve given you
opportunities to apply these concepts in real-world situations. Most econ-
omists stress the need for competence in three major areas—the applica-
tion of economic concepts to real-world situations, the interpretation of
graphs, and the analysis of numerical problems.
Throughout the text, I’ve attempted to maintain the sense of a
­dialogue—there are frequent “THINK IT THROUGH” pauses, with
which you can review and check your grasp of the topic under discussion
and relate it to real-world applications.
I hope that this book will ignite in you a passion for economics that
will blaze for a lifetime. Economics surrounds us—it fills the airwaves, our
daily lives, our hopes and dreams. Learning how to apply economic con-
cepts to our world creates a better and more durable understanding, and
a reasonable goal for a noneconomics major is to have sufficient insight
to evaluate the economic content of articles in The Wall Street Journal or
The Economist or the views expressed by commentators on CNN or Fox.
x PREFACE

This Primer has been written with the hope that long after you have
turned the final page, you will retain a deeper understanding of the eco-
nomic issues that confront us and the tools to analyze the exciting and
challenging concerns that we all must address in our contemporary world.
My best wishes to you in your study of economics. You will find it
a rewarding and worthwhile experience, and I trust that this Primer will
stimulate you in your endeavors.
 Acknowledgments
Through the years, many students have asked me questions, and by doing
so, have given me deeper insights into the difficulties that arise when
economics is first approached. I am grateful to all of them. Much of the
material included in this book springs from such “after-class” discussions.
The efforts of reviewers Phil Romero and Jeff Edwards have added
greatly to the quality of the final product. A former student, Jonas Feit,
now thriving in Washington, DC, critiqued early drafts of the first edi-
tion. Scott Isenberg and Charlene Kronstedt provided stalwart support.
Rene Caroline Balan of S4Carlisle Publishing Services deserves great
credit for keeping things moving smoothly by encouraging and cajoling.
Denver Harris was reliable in converting a misshapen poorly written first-
edition manuscript into an orderly text. Needless to say, any remaining
lapsi calami are my responsibility.
This Primer is dedicated, with love, to the memory of my parents, to my
wife, Pamela, (a software instructor with Microsoft Certification), to our
son, Andrew (whose surprises are no longer shocks but delights), and to the
dogs and cats, and especially for Snowball, for whom all lunches are free.

Thomas M. Beveridge
Hillsborough, North Carolina
 CHAPTER 5

Production, Costs,
and Revenue

Chapter Preview: This chapter moves from the decisions of utility-

maximizing households to examine the behavior of profit-maximizing
producers. In Chapter 4 of Volume I, while examining price elasticity of
supply, we discovered that the ability of producers to respond to changes
in prices is affected by the passage of time. We defined two conceptual
time periods—the short run and the long run—that will be important
for us in this volume. In this chapter, we focus on production matters in
the short-run time period. This chapter introduces many key economic
topics—including productivity, costs, and economic profits—that will be
reused in subsequent chapters.

By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

• Distinguish the short run from the long run.
• Define marginal, total, and average product and explain the
relationships between them.
• State the law of diminishing marginal productivity and explain
why it is a short-run law.
• Explain how the specialization effect and congestion effect
influence marginal productivity.
• Define, distinguish, and explain the relationships among total
cost, total fixed cost, and total variable cost; and among average
total cost, average fixed cost, and average variable cost.
• Define marginal cost and explain its behavior using your
knowledge of marginal product.
140 A PRIMER ON MICROECONOMICS, VOLUME II

• Explain how the assumptions underlying the perfect

competition model determine that the perfectly competitive
firm will be a “price taker.”
• Define marginal revenue and explain why it is constant in
perfect competition.
• Define economic cost and economic profit and discuss the
meaning of positive, zero, and negative economic profit.
• State how firms determine the profit-maximizing level of
output and explain why profit is maximized at that production
level.
• Explain what determines whether a firm should shut down or
not shut down when short-run losses occur.
• Explain why the marginal cost curve above the average variable
cost curve is the firm’s short-run supply curve.

In Volume I, we identified the major elements and models that econo-

mists use to study our world of choices—the chief being, of course,
­demand and supply analysis. In this volume, we shall dig deeper into
these principles and use them to discover how competition and con-
straints in markets influence the well-being of the individual and
society.
Opening a company requires commitment, skill, and a product
or service to sell. To make it survive and grow requires these same fac-
tors, and also, some luck. Each January, Las Vegas hosts the Consumer
Electronics Show, a trade show that displays thousands of new gadgets.
Although many of the innovations and applications have been developed
by big companies, others have been created by hopeful young entrepre-
neurs, who will have already committed great energy, time, and expense
into designing and financing their products. Will any of these products be
successful? Only time can tell, but each product embodies the hopes of its
developer. Each will be faced with the same daily decisions and challenges
as any other entrepreneur—Steve Jobs, Bill Gates, Sam Walton, Henry
Ford—striving to make a profit. Such decisions include choices about hir-
ing resources, resource mix, pricing, promotion, product development,
and so on. Can economics offer insights?
 Production, Costs, and Revenue 141

Brain Teaser: Folk wisdom includes the sayings “There’s no point cry-
ing over spilt milk,” and “Too many cooks spoil the broth.” Both of these
adages will be illustrated in this chapter. Spot them!

The Law of Diminishing Marginal Productivity:

Production in the Short Run
Firms operate from day to day, but also act strategically. Although, as we
saw in Chapter 4, these time periods are more conceptual than calendar
in nature, the day-to-day functioning of a firm can be thought of as its
“short-run” operations whereas strategic planning is “long run.”
In this initial section, we introduce some new concepts and estab-
lish a basic law of production that governs the short-run behavior of any
firm—large or small.

The Short Run and the Long Run: A Review

The long run is a period long enough for the firm to alter any and all of
its factors of production—all resources are variable in the long run. In the
short run, at least one resource is not variable—that is, at least one resource
is fixed in quantity. In the short run, although resources can be used more
or less intensively, the firm has a fixed scale of production. In the long run,
new firms can enter or leave the market, but in the short run, they can’t.

Learning Tip: The best way to distinguish between the short run and
the long run is to understand the long run first. In the long run, the firm
can adjust all of its resources. Put simply, the short run is anything less.

THINK IT THROUGH: As a student, you resemble a firm. Your

“product” is your grade (although educationalists would argue that
it’s your increased knowledge). With an exam approaching in one
hour’s time, how can you improve your grade? Most of your produc-
tive resources are fixed—the die is almost cast. With more time, more
options open up—late-night cramming, study groups, visits to your
instructor during office hours. Unless your learning resources are com-
pletely unconstrained, you are operating in the short run.
142 A PRIMER ON MICROECONOMICS, VOLUME II

Production Concepts: A Family of Products

In our following discussion, we examine the firm’s output as it changes its

usage of resources such as workers. It is assumed that each unit of labor
(worker) is identical in quality. The same assumption is made for every
class of resource—each unit of capital is identical in abilities. Is this true?
Of course not, but removing this assumption would substantially compli-
cate the analysis without significantly changing our conclusions.
First, consider a firm—Freda’s Family Pies. Freda is operating in
the short run—she has some variable resources (labor) and some fixed
resources (her ovens and other capital stock, the premises she rents, and
so on).
Total Product (TP) is the firm’s total output. If we were to graph Fre-
da’s supply curve, then total product is identical to “quantity supplied” (q)
on that diagram. The terms (and abbreviations) are interchangeable and
we shall use either one as intuition dictates. Typically, we would expect
total product to increase as more units of the variable resources are hired
and combined with the fixed resources.
Consider Table 5.1, which shows how Freda’s total product changes
as additional workers are hired. With no workers, total product is zero—
there is no one to operate the machines. This table is a production
function.

Table 5.1 Freda’s daily production function

Number of Workers Total Product
1 8
2 18
3 30
4 40
5 48
6 54
7 57
8 59
9 60
10 60

A production function shows the relationship between inputs and

output. It can be represented as a table, a graph, or even as a mathematical
 Production, Costs, and Revenue 143

equation, but in essence, it simply shows the total product at different

levels of usage of the variable and fixed resources.
The production function can be shown graphically as in Figure 5.1.
Total product (TP) is on the vertical axis and units of the variable resource—
labor (L)—are on the horizontal axis. The typical shape of a production
is as shown—an elongated S-shape. The reason for this shape will be dis-
cussed later in this chapter.

THINK IT THROUGH: The production function is drawn based

on the assumption that only the number of workers changes. What
would happen to the function if other production conditions change?
For example, what would happen to the curve if labor productivity
increased through a training program? The function must begin at the
origin (no workers, no production). However, the function will rotate
and become steeper as, at any other level of hiring, total product will
be greater with more resources applied. A similar result would occur if
more productive machines were made available to workers.

The Average Product (AP) of a resource (labor, for example) is the

total product divided by the number of units of that resource. For labor,

AP = TP/L = q/L

If Freda produces 40 pies and employs 4 workers, then the aver-

age product of labor is 10 pies—each worker averages 10 pies. We can
calculate the average product for any resource; for example, if Freda

TP
TP

0 Number of workers (L)

Figure 5.1 Freda’s daily production
function
144 A PRIMER ON MICROECONOMICS, VOLUME II

has 2 ovens and produces 40 pies, then the average product of each oven
is 20 pies.
The Marginal Product (MP) of a resource (such as labor) is the
change in total product divided by the change in the number of units of
that resource. For labor,

MP = ΔTP/AL = Δq/AL

We can see from Table 5.2 that if Freda hires a fifth worker, total
product increases by eight pies (from 40 to 48)—the marginal product of
the fifth worker is eight pies. The marginal product of the seventh worker
is 3 pies—total product increases from 54 pies to 57 pies as the quantity
of labor increases by 1. The marginal product of the tenth worker is zero.

Table 5.2 The relationship between total product, average product,

and marginal product
Number of
Workers Total Product AverageProduct Marginal Product
1 8 8.0 8
2 18 9.0 10
3 30 10.0 12
4 40 10.0 10
5 48 9.6 8
6 54 9.0 6
7 57 8.1 3
8 59 7.4 2
9 60 6.7 1
10 60 6.0 0

Comment: Mathematically, the relationship between marginal prod-

uct and total product is exactly the same as the relationship we found
between marginal utility and total utility. Marginal product is the deriva-
tive of the production function, or, less technically, marginal product is
the slope of the production function. When the function’s slope increases,
marginal product is positive and increasing; whereas when the function’s
slope rises less rapidly, marginal product is positive but decreasing.
Slope is “rise over run.” In Figure 5.1, the “rise” is how much total
product changes whereas the “run” is how much labor changes. With the
 Production, Costs, and Revenue 145

tenth worker, when marginal product is zero, the change in total product,
therefore, is zero. Verify the other marginal product values in the table.
The Behavior of Marginal Product: In our example, marginal prod-
uct increases, peaks, decreases, and then, becomes zero. This is the typical
pattern of behavior for marginal product. Why? There are two conflict-
ing effects occurring as additional workers are hired—the specialization
­effect and the congestion effect.

The Specialization Effect

In a very famous passage in The Wealth of Nations, Adam Smith described his
visit to a factory making pins. The workers were practicing division of labor—
instead of doing every job involved in the production of pins, each worker
had an allotted specialized task, and Smith observed that because of this,
production levels were very high. He noted that if each worker had to do all
of the tasks necessary to make a pin, moving from job to job, from location
to location, and handling the variety of tools required, production would be
low. Similarly, if two (or more) workers each followed the production of a pin
through from start to finish, production would remain low. However, addi-
tional workers permit greater specialization, and in turn, specialization per-
mits increased proficiency and decreased unproductive time between jobs.
The specialization effect, which makes output increase, occurs because
as extra workers are added, it becomes increasingly possible to split up tasks
and to allocate and train workers to perform particular skills where their
speed of operation can be increased and spoilage reduced. Through division
of labor and specialization, marginal productivity increases. In terms of the
production function, the slope of the function increases when the special-
ization effect dominates.

The Congestion Effect

Marginal productivity, however, can’t increase indefinitely. In the short

run, we have fixed constraints—a given number of machines or a given
factory size, for instance. Eventually, with fewer machines or less work-
space available for new workers, marginal productivity will decrease. In
addition, worker concentration may decrease, discontent and low effort
may increase, and repetitive motion injuries may become more preva-
lent. These elements are aspects of the congestion effect. The flagging
146 A PRIMER ON MICROECONOMICS, VOLUME II

THINK IT THROUGH: Suppose we have a mechanic’s garage with one

inspection bay containing all the usual equipment. These are our fixed
resources. If we hire one mechanic (our variable resource), then he will be
responsible for completing every task. At any time, though, much of the
equipment will be underutilized. A second m ­ echanic permits specializa-
tion and teamwork—much more productive. Each worker is likely to
select jobs for which he has a particular aptitude, spending less time on
jobs at which he is less effective. A third m
­ echanic may assist or relieve her
coworkers and increase the number of work orders completed, but with
only one bay and a limited number of tools, she may be underemployed
as she waits for a necessary tool to become available. While a fourth
worker still may contribute to getting jobs done a little faster, he could
get in the way or start unproductive conversations. In fact, four workers
milling around in a small space may not just be unproductive—it may be
dangerous. The fifth worker is overkill: Too many cooks spoil the broth.

marginal product when the congestion effect dominates the specialization

effect is shown as a production function that becomes less steep.
French economist Jacques Turgot recognized this second, negative,
effect of adding workers and coined the law of diminishing marginal
productivity. This law states that if equal units of a variable resource
are added to a given quantity of fixed resources, then, after some point,
marginal productivity will decrease. Note that this law applies only in the
short run because, by definition, there are no fixed resources in the long
run. If we see marginal productivity declining in the long run, then a dif-
ferent explanation will be required.

THINK IT THROUGH: After some point, marginal productiv-

ity ­decreases as more workers are hired. It is tempting, but incorrect, to
­assume that the productivity decline is because the new hires are somehow
less talented than the first workers chosen. Ricardo and Malthus explained
diminishing marginal productivity using this rationale—after all, wouldn’t
we seek to hire the most efficient workers first? But no! The law of dimin-
ishing marginal productivity specifies that the ­inputs are “equal” in ability
and motivation. The productivity decline is due to the dominance of the
congestion effect, not because of a ­decline in the quality of the workers.
 Production, Costs, and Revenue 147

THINK IT THROUGH: “Speed dating,” where singles assemble

to meet each other for short periods, and possibly follow up after-
ward, is related to the law of diminishing marginal productivity. After
the initial few minutes of a traditional first date, time spent together
yields sharply diminishing returns in terms of information gained with
­respect to whether an individual is worth following up whereas speed
dating maximizes the exchange of important information in the mini-
mum amount of time. “Speed networking” for business connections
is a similar practice.

The reason that marginal product increases, reaches a maximum

value, and then, decreases is because of the interplay between the special-
ization effect and the congestion effect. Initially, with many underused
fixed resources, the specialization effect dominates and marginal product
increases, but eventually, as workers jostle for fixed resources, the conges-
tion effect wins the day and marginal product decreases. Marginal product
could decrease to zero or, theoretically at least, even become negative—
hiring the additional worker would reduce total product!
The Shape of the Production Function: The interplay between the
initially dominant specialization effect and the ultimately dominant
congestion effect gives us the reason for the “elongated S” shape of the
production function. Marginal product is the slope of the production
function, so as marginal product increases, the slope of the production
function becomes steeper; as marginal product decreases, so the produc-
tion function’s slope becomes less steep until, when marginal product
is zero, total product is maximized. The relationship between marginal
product and the slope of the production function is shown in Figure 5.2.
The relationship between marginal product and average product is
governed by the average-marginal rule, which pops up throughout your
microeconomics course. If the marginal (extra) value exceeds the average,
then the average will increase. For example, if your GPA is 3.0 and you earn
an “A” in this course, then your average will rise. If the marginal value is less
than the average, then the average will decrease—a “D” in this course will
make your average fall. If the marginal value equals the average, then the
average will not change. Finally, for the first observation (the very first course
you take in college), the marginal value and the average value must be equal.
148 A PRIMER ON MICROECONOMICS, VOLUME II

TP MP decreasing TP

Quantity of pies
MP maximized TP maximized
MP zero

MP increasing

0 Labor (L)

MP,
AP
Quantity of pies

AP

0 1 3 4 10 Labor (L)
MP
Figure 5.2 Relationships between total,
average, and marginal product

In our example, the marginal product of Freda’s first worker is eight pies—
this must also be the first worker’s average product. Because of the specializa-
tion effect, the second worker’s marginal product exceeds that of the first, and
this makes average product increase too. As marginal product declines, it drags
down average product. The maximum value for average product must occur
with the worker whose average product and marginal product are equal.

THINK IT THROUGH: If marginal product exceeds average prod-

uct, then average product must be rising. If marginal product is less
than average product, then average product must be falling. Average
product, therefore, must neither be rising nor be falling—must be at
its maximum—when marginal product is equal to it.

The Short-Run Cost Picture: Costs in the Short Run

Economic Cost

In economics, cost ultimately means opportunity cost—the value of the

next most preferred alternative relinquished. For convenience, we shall use
 Production, Costs, and Revenue 149

dollars to measure cost throughout this chapter and the chapters that follow,
but keep in mind that economic cost is a deeper concept. Recall, too, that,
for an economist (but not for an accountant), costs include an adequate
reward for the entrepreneur—a normal profit is included in economic cost.

THINK IT THROUGH: We examined this issue of a normal profit

in Chapter 1 of Volume I, when we considered Juan, Carlos, and trad-
ing incentives. Revisit that example to review the link between normal
profit and the entrepreneur’s opportunity cost.

To see the distinction between accounting cost (which includes only

the explicit payments made for the use of resources) and economic cost
(which counts explicit costs and implicit costs), consider the following
example. Asa, an accountant who earns $70,000 per year in salary and
benefits, quits his job, and opens a firm selling environmentally friendly
sandals. The sandals are a success! At the end of the year, after paying his
workers, materials suppliers, and so on, Asa calculates his profit to be
$25,000. His wife, Ella, who has an economics degree, is not impressed
and tells him that he has made an economic loss, the sandals firm is
a failure, and that he should reapply for his old job. From Asa the
­Accountant’s viewpoint, his income exceeded his outlays, by $25,000,
and therefore, he made a profit. From Ella the Economist’s viewpoint,
Asa gave up $70,000 to make $25,000, and therefore, he’s $45,000 in
the hole.

Total Variable Cost, Total Fixed Cost, and Total Cost

In the short run, a firm has some variable resources and at least one fixed
resource. Accordingly, the firm also has variable costs and fixed costs.
Labor is Freda’s variable resource, which she hires at a wage rate of $30
per worker per day, and her ovens are her fixed resource—we assume that
Freda is contractually obligated to rent two ovens at a charge of $25 per
day per oven, for some period of time, whether or not she uses them.
Total Variable Cost (TVC) is the total cost of Freda’s variable
resources—in this example, her wage bill. When she hires no workers,
Freda’s wage bill is zero. With one worker, Freda will pay $30; with two,
$60, and so on, as shown in Table 5.3. With nine workers, the total cost
of Freda’s variable resources will be $270.
150 A PRIMER ON MICROECONOMICS, VOLUME II

Table 5.3 Freda’s total costs and marginal cost

Total Total
­Number of Total Marginal Variable Fixed Total Marginal
Workers Product Product Cost Cost Cost Cost
0 0 – 0 $50 $50 –
1 8 8 $30 $50 $80 $30/8
2 18 10 $60 $50 $110 $30/10
3 30 12 $90 $50 $140 $30/12
4 40 10 $120 $50 $170 $30/10
5 48 8 $150 $50 $200 $30/8
6 54 6 $180 $50 $230 $30/6
7 57 3 $210 $50 $260 $30/3
8 59 2 $240 $50 $290 $30/2
9 60 1 $270 $50 $320 $30/1

We can graph TVC in Figure 5.3, with total variable cost on the verti-
cal axis and total product (quantity) on the horizontal axis. When output
is zero, Freda will reduce the amount of her variable resource to zero and
her variable costs will be zero. After that, as output increases, TVC will
increase as shown in Figure 5.3. As we shall see, the shape of the TVC
curve is determined by the interplay of the specialization effect and the
congestion effect.

THINK IT THROUGH: How would the TVC function change if

the wage increased to $40 per worker? At zero output (and zero work-
ers), total variable cost would still be zero, but as workers are hired,
the wage bill would increase more rapidly than before—graphically,
the TVC function would pivot upward from the origin and become
steeper. At 40 units of output and 4 workers, for instance, TVC would
be $160 instead of $120.

Total Fixed Cost (TFC) is the total cost of Freda’s fixed resources—in
this example, her contractual payment for two ovens. TFC does not vary
with output. If Freda produces no pies and the ovens are idle, she must
still meet her obligation of $50 per day. If Freda produces 60 pies per day
and the ovens are in continual use, her obligation remains at $50. TFC is
constant as output changes as shown in Figure 5.4.
 Production, Costs, and Revenue 151

TVC

Cost
0 Quantity of pies

Figure 5.3 Total variable cost

Cost

$50 TFC

0 Quantity of pies

Figure 5.4 Total fixed cost

Sunk Costs

In passing, we ought to consider sunk costs. Sunk costs are often confused
with fixed costs, but they are different. A sunk cost is a one-time outlay
that is not recoverable by the firm. Paying a consultant to develop the logo
for your firm is an example. The logo is of no use to any other firm, and
if you go out of business, then its value is zero. Once a sunk cost has been
incurred, the payment made should have no impact on future economic
decisions because the firm has already lost the opportunity to reallocate
the funds to another purpose. Conceptually, then, fixed costs and sunk
costs differ—if a firm ceases operations, it may be able to sell off some of
its fixed resources. That option is absent with sunk costs. To simplify our
model, we shall assume that firms do not encounter any sunk costs.
Total Cost (TC) is the total cost of production—the sum of TVC and
TFC at each output level.

TC = TVC + TFC
152 A PRIMER ON MICROECONOMICS, VOLUME II

If Freda produces no pies, then her total cost will equal her TFC. If she
produces 40 pies, then total cost will be $170–$120 for the four workers
and $50 for the two ovens. Freda’s Total Cost curve is shown in Figure 5.5.
TC

$170
TVC
Cost

$120
$50 TFC

0 40
Quantity of pies
Figure 5.5 Total variable cost, total fixed
cost, and total cost

Comment: Note that the slope of the TC function and that of the
TVC function are identical. Because TFC doesn’t change as output level
changes, only TVC affects the behavior of total cost as output changes. In
addition, at each output level, the vertical distance between the TC func-
tion and the TVC function is constant—it’s the unchanging value of TFC.
Marginal Cost (MC) is the change in total cost caused by the produc-
tion of one additional unit of output. More generally,

MC = ΔTC/ΔTP = ΔTC/Δq

If Freda’s fourth worker increases total cost by $30 and increases total
output by 10 units, then the marginal cost of each of those units is $3.00.
In Table 5.4, the marginal cost values are presented conventionally but, in
Table 5.3, the marginal cost values are presented as fractions. By inspec-
tion, we see that marginal cost decreases as output level initially increases,
but then, starts to increase—a U-shaped curve, as shown in Figure 5.6.
Why does marginal cost have a U-shaped curve? Consider the frac-
tional values. The numerator is constant ($30) and is equal to the change
in TVC, so any variation in marginal cost must derive from the denomi-
nator. Note that the values in the denominator are the values for marginal
product. Marginal cost can be expressed as:

MC = ΔTVC/MP
 Production, Costs, and Revenue 153

MC

Cost
0 Quantity of pies
Figure 5.6 Marginal cost

Marginal cost decreases as marginal product increases, and increases

as marginal product decreases. When marginal product is maximized,
with Freda’s third worker, marginal cost is minimized. Ultimately, the
behavior of marginal cost is due to the struggle between the specialization
effect and the congestion effect. Initially, with the specialization effect
dominant, marginal cost decreases, but eventually, with the congestion
effect dominant, marginal cost increases.

Average Variable Cost, Average Fixed Cost, and Average Total Cost

Average Variable Cost (AVC) is TVC divided by quantity (or total prod-
uct). When 40 pies are produced, TVC is $120 and AVC is $3.00. See
Table 5.4 for the other values.

Table 5.4 The link between production and costs

­Number Average Average Average
of Total Marginal Marginal Variable Fixed Total
Workers Product Product Cost Cost Cost Cost
0 0 – – – – –
1 8 8 $3.75 $3.75 $6.25 $10.00
2 18 10 $3.00 $3.33 $2.78 $6.11
3 30 12 $2.50 $3.00 $1.67 $4.67
4 40 10 $3.00 $3.00 $1.25 $4.25
5 48 8 $3.75 $3.13 $1.04 $4.17
6 54 6 $5.00 $3.33 $0.93 $4.26
7 57 3 $10.00 $3.68 $0.88 $4.56
8 59 2 $15.00 $4.07 $0.85 $4.92
9 60 1 $30.00 $4.50 $0.83 $5.33
154 A PRIMER ON MICROECONOMICS, VOLUME II

AVC = TVC/q

Average variable cost graphs as a U-shaped curve. This shape fol-

lows from the average-marginal rule that we saw earlier in this chapter.
Note that for the batch of pies produced by the first worker, AVC equals
marginal cost at $3.75 per pie. This is no accident. The rule states that
for the first observation, the marginal value and the average value must
be equal—both marginal cost and AVC are associated with TVC. See
Figure 5.7. After the first observation, marginal cost decreases, which pulls
down the ­associated AVC. Eventually, marginal cost increases, becoming
greater than AVC, therefore making AVC increase. When marginal cost
and AVC are equal, the AVC is minimized. As with marginal cost, AVC’s
shape is due to the interaction of the specialization and congestion effects.

MC = AVC for MC
first value
AVC falling AVC
because MC < AVC
Cost

AVC rising
because MC > AVC

min AVC point

MC = AVC
0 Quantity of pies
Figure 5.7 The relationship between marginal cost
and average variable cost

Average Fixed Cost (AFC) is TFC divided by quantity (or total prod-
uct). When 40 pies are produced, TFC is $50 and AFC is $1.25. As
output increases, overhead costs are spread over greater numbers of units,
and AFC decreases. See Table 5.4 for the other values.

AFC = TFC/q

Average fixed cost graphs as a continually downward sloping curve—

a rectangular hyperbola—as shown in Figure 5.8. (A rectangular hyper-
bola has the same area under the curve at all points.) The AFC curve
cannot become zero because if it did, this would imply that TFC also
was zero.
 Production, Costs, and Revenue 155

Cost
AFC

0 Quantity of pies
Figure 5.8 Average fixed cost

Average Total Cost (ATC) is total cost divided by quantity (or total
product). When 40 pies are produced, total cost is $170 and ATC is
$4.25. See Table 5.4 for the other values.

ATC = TC/q = TVC/q + TFC/q

Or,

ATC = AVC + AFC

Average total cost (the sum of AVC and AFC) graphs as a U-shaped
curve. Initially, as output expands, both AVC and AFC decrease—ATC
must decrease. Eventually, though, AVC starts to increase, and despite
AFC’s continuing decline, this causes ATC to increase. The intersection
of the AVC function and the AFC function determines the output level
at which ATC is minimized. See Figure 5.9.
We can explain ATC’s U-shaped appearance in another way. Marginal
cost is the addition to total cost caused by an extra unit of production.
We can see that initially, marginal cost is less than average total cost—we
are reminded by the average-marginal rule that ATC therefore must
­decrease. Eventually, however, marginal cost increases, becoming greater
than ATC and, therefore, making ATC increase. When marginal cost and
ATC are equal, ATC is minimized.

Comment: As we saw with AVC, ATC’s behavior is due to marginal

cost, and therefore, ultimately, to the interplay of the specialization and
congestion ­effects. Figure 5.10 illustrates the relationships between AVC,
ATC, and marginal cost.
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Preston " ('ath J sten 2436 c Preston " Chas lab 1715 Clarkson "
Chas* (Mamie) porter h718 Dolphin " (Clinton elk ,■(10 s East av "
Cora M 1611 Lemmon " David T prod 33 Belair Mkt h Glen Arm "
Delia (wid Robt) 17 w Preston " Delia (wid John) hl358 Washington
blvd WEFU Up-to-date LiitttN of any business or profeNNion, address
envelopes and mail oireiilars. R. L. POLK 8c CO. 253 EQUITABLE
BLDG.
The text on this page is estimated to be only 15.76%
accurate

1447 THE MANN & PARKER LUMBER CO. ALL LUMBER

UNDER COVER Hardwoods, Poplar, Cypress Lumber Office and
Sheds, 709-719 S. Eden St. QUINN " Xyi« mach 15 n Calhoun " EUz
(wid Geo* h2u29 «• Balto " EIlz opr 815 Somerset " Ella hlOll n
Guilford av " Ellen M (wid Wm) 1034 n Eden " Emily il (wld Bernardi
1107 Greenmt av " Emma hair tlrsr 117 ii Bentalou h do " Etta J («ld
Cichl A) h2217 St Paul " Fred (Gertrude) elk 851 Park av " Francis F
(Elizi eng hll29 Greenmt av " Francis L (Louise) route agt h2642
McElderry " Fiajicls SI chauf 1129 Greenmt av " Francis P eng 106 e
Clement " Fredk M (Margt) elk h3203 Westwood av " Geo' (Susie)
lab hl314 Argyle av " Geo* lab hll28% e Lexington " Geo J plshr
1527 Poplar Grove " Geo N (Maret H) mldr 2454 Hudson " Geo V
(Martlnia) 436 e Lanvale " Grover C (Martha) h2668 Dulaney "
Hannah M nurse J H U " Hazel B 1013 Woodley " Helen 17 w Preston
" Ira pkr 2009 e Preston " Irene elk 310 s East av " Isabel (wid Jas)
939 Harford av " J Francis (Ruth) waiter 1627 Frlendsbury " J Louis
(Agnes L) acct h4100 Maplewood av ': Jas (Ethel) h8 e Read " Jas
mariner h541 n Fremont av " Jas (Ella E) watchmn h2603 e Fayette "
Jas A lab 406 e Clement "Jas E elk 2009 e Preston " Jas J (Rena)
hl924 e 31st n " Jas J (Mary) blksmlth h2009 e North av " Jas J
(Bertha) reptinn hl915 Shersvood av " Jas P (Mary) carp hl2 e Blddle
" John (Mamie) blr mkr hl326 James " John (Lena) hat fnshr hlll3 w
Hamburg " John lab 112 w Lee " John (Mary) lab h821 w Mulberry "
John mach 883 w Lombard " John police 117 w Bentaloiv " John
slsmn 2442 n Calvert " John slsmn 207 s 6th " John A (Susie) Iron
wkr 3503 e Balto " John C (Jessie) chauf hl332 McHenry John D
(Martha) phys 1507 n Fulton av h do G (Mary R) formn h409
Augusta av J elk 1523 e 28th n J (Josephine) dispatcher h412 n
Payson J feeder 1107 Greenmt av J lab 406 e Clement John J
(Gertrude) lab h826 e Madison John J (Gertrude) mach hnd h837
Willow Joim J steel wkr 1924 e 31st John M (Anna) molder h801 s
Bouldin John P flremn 1129 Greenmt av John P (Mary) pres Neser &
Quinn Co hl725 Darley av Jos chauf 321 e North av Jos pkr 2009 e
Preston Jos (Blandie) slsmn h210 n Fulton av Jos E ballttr SuT>reme
Bench Balto City King* (Margt) shoemkr 836 Harford av h do
T^wrence forester 1819 Covington Lawrence B (Edwardine: Chase
Tire & Rul>l;er Co) 1208 n Ensor Lena (wid John) h324 s Woodyear
Leonilla tchr 2634 Hudson Lloyd S police 2033 Guilford av Louise
janitress 5ns Herkimer w 11th Morrel Pk Louise K tchr 2911 Eastern
av Marcella E sten 406 e Clement Margt 1005 e Preston Margt
smstrs 2436 e Preston Martin (EUz) chauf h212 e Eager Martin
uphlstr 2012 Hllldale av Martin A lab 705 Forrest Maiitln J (Marj)
mtrmn h807 s Bond Martin F (Mary) (Kearney & Qulnn) h705 Fomtt
Martin L (Ethel C) contr h5308 York rd Mar\- 705 Forrest ' Mar>- elk
2009 e Preston ' Mary sten 183fi \Valtmeyer Mary A (wid Wm J) 810
Harlem av ' Maiy A tele opr 1107 Greenmt av ' Mary J hair drsr 423 e
Chase ' Mary F sten 212 e Eager ' Marv M tchr hl614 w Hollins '
Mathlas (Margt) hatter hl034 n Eden ' Matthew (Marj) lleut police
hl253 w Cross ' Mlchl J auto mech 212 e Eager • Michl J (Mary R elk
P O 1819 Covington ' Nettie (wld (^eo) h815 Somerset ' Nora (wid
Jas) hl7 w Preston ' Patk hl819 Covington ' Patk (Julia) 1326 WUcox '
Patk lab 1012 w Favette ' Patk J (Mary) pkr hl317 Mt Royal av ' Peter
(Annie) stone ctr hl225 James ' Peter R (Loretto M) h2915 n Calvert '
Philip (Margt) molder hSlll Fleet ' Raymond (Minnie) lab 505 s
Linwood av ' Robt (Helen I electn h2601 e Preston John John John
John John QUINN " Kobl E carrier P O 3964 Falls rd " Robt J (Lillian)
(Chase Tire & Rubber Co) h2812 Kennedy' av " Ruse (wid Lake)
h2911 Eastern av " Rose (wid John W) 1836 Waltemeyer ct " Russell
T elk hSlO Harlem av " Saml V chauf 321 s Woodyear " Sarah (wld
John) 406 e Clement " Thos G grinder 1358 Washington blvd "
Tl>03 P sec-treas Hyle Oil Burner Co Inc h CatonsvUle " Vernon 324
Woodyear " Wm A 321 e Norlh av " Wm A (Cath) hlpr h942
Burgundy " Wm B (Charlotte T) plmbr h741 McCabe av " Wm D
(Mardia) riveter hll45 Washington blvd " Wra E (Inez) wtchnin 100 s
Mount " Wm F (Irene) chauf h851 Reinhart " Wm F (Nellie A) elk
hl038 Brentwood av " Wm J (Margt) chauf 802 e North av " Wm J
(Mary) lab h933 Ensor " Wm J (Helen R) mdse broker h 1st w s
Beechfleld s Fdk av " Wm J jr lab 933 Ensor " Wm J jr (Evelyn) mgr
Hotel Belvedere h do " Wm L (Evelyn G) elk 103 Keene av " Wm P
lab 2124 Wllhelm " Wm T (Mars- G) teleg opr h2436 e Preston
Qulnnt Agnes G furrier 1807 e Lafayette av h do " Fianlv lab 473
Augusta av " Helen elk 2456 w Balto " Jdm H (Mary A) paper ruler
h2456 w Balto " Jos A (Agnes G) cable splicer hl807 e Lafayette av "
Wm A (Jessie) asst mngr h2636 Edmondson av CJuinsler Viola oper
1511 Madison Quint Loney 1046 w Barre Quinters Enrique E (Anna
E) dentist hl05 Falruaks av h do Quintllian Francesco lab h21 n Hare
Quintlllani Patsy (Rose) stone mason h913 Stiles Qulnto John tailor
112 s Robinson " V mach 112 s Robinson Quirk Ada G smstrs 22 s
Robinson ' Albert M (Naomi M) hl711 e AisQulth ' Cath hl831 n Bond
' Ed\v elk Alhel av and Fredk rd ' Edw L (Annie) plmbr h2607
Greenmt av ' Henry Inspr 1737 Montpelier ' Jerrj- J pkr 813 w
Lombard ' Jos P horse shr 818 e Madison h941 Harford av ' Julia
1430 n Eden ' Lydla (wid Jas) h22 s Robinson ' Margt 1430 n Eden '
Margt H folder 1002 e Eager ' Mary G h941 Harford •» ' Thos lab 413
e Biddle ' Thos W detective 318 n Monro* Qulmibach Wm J (Rose)
barber 2707 Pa av h5122 Palmer av Qultt Abr (Annie) gro 1200 e
North av h do " Cella tchr 2512 Madison at " Saml (Eva) butcher h41
Lloyd " Wm (Minnie) dentist se cor North and Linden avs h2512
Madison Quitter Margt (wid Geo) 2702 «• Balto Quivey O Kenneth
gen agricultural agt B & O R R 1104 B & O bldg 809 Cathedral
Qughly J caulker 403 Markland av Quong Chow Co Chinese goods
209 v; Mulberry h do " Hlng Long laundry 303 s Hanover h do " King
Lung Ohong Kee & Co Chin Quon mgr Chinese goods 114 Park av "
Kee laundry 1524 Pa av " Shing laundrj- Hamilton av nr Harford rd "
Wing laund 1006 w Belvldere a? Quynn Kittle S sten 1810 St Paul "
Lloyd S police 2033 e North av R SEE also "Too Lates" page 19 R S
Tailoring Co (Harry Singer) 109 w Redwood R & G Sanitar>- Grocery
(Chas Goldman) 920 CatJiedral R & H Auto Repair Shop (Ho\vard H
Russel. Geo C HalnmlUer) 3354 Greenmt av R & V Motors of
Maryland H A Holder pres Geo M Watson treas 1720 n CTharles R &
W Tailoring Co (Albert & Hyman Rosenthal) 529 w Balto Raab Albert
baker 920 n Central av " Benj (Anna M) lab 6 e Hamilton av "
Bernard (Mary) butcher h804 s 7tli e " Carl F M elk 2841 Clifton av "
Cora (wid John) h204 n Fdk " Cora 1202 Riverside av " Edw (Margt)
mach hl742 Light " Frank M plmbr 816 n Calhoun " Geo (Tlieresa)
wheelwright hl025 Poplar Grov» " Geo B (Madeline) mtrmn h402 n
Chapel " Geo P contr Rockdale and Hazelwood av h do " Geo W
(Mao- L) baker hl900 Rlggs av " Geo W (Lillie) inspr hl043 Ashburton
" Ham- (Bes^iei elk 3901 Lloyd av " Henry W (Florence) C & P
teleph hl07 w Woodland " Josephine bottle mapper 1025 Poplar
Grove " Louise (wld Fred) 1534 Bnyle " Louisa 841 n Central av
CHARLES MORTON, Incorporated We Buy and Sell Houses, Farms
and Ground Rents 215-217 St. Paul Place Telephones Plaza 0924-
0925 "0 r > TJ N X >0 to m en o N9 w ' PI W PI D H PI O £. 3 ?" 73
St, « ? Ct »* ft - n c n < • c" S* • S- o s §.3 3 frj » c w 3 n A 3 3 3
r* « CO 2" •5' Steamship TICKETS Tours "sT Blaustein & Son 821
East Baltimore St. North at Linden Ave*.
The text on this page is estimated to be only 17.34%
accurate

14-18 Income TAX Consultants and AUDITORS Accountants

Appraisers Systematizers Financial Reports Merchants &
Manufacturers Audit & Tax Service Munsey Bldg. Calvert 4720
YELLOW CABS phone HAIL THEM ANYWHERE, OR 1212 CONTAINS
A Full and Complete List of Banks Bankers Trust Companies AND
Savings Banks IN THE United States and Canada ALSO Other
Valuable Data Concerning Banks, Etc. FOR SALE BY R. L POLK & CO.
onaoiT RAAB " Maiguerile K sten :;S41 Clifton av " Marie drsmkr 204
t. Fdt h do " Mary smstrs 1202 Riverside av •' Mathias G (Cath) pntr
h2841 Clifton et " Pauline inspr 1025 Poplar Grove " \Vm H (Eliza I)
formn hl548 Gorsuch av Raabe Aug iMary) carrier P O h309 n
PaysOQ " Chas clb G3S w Lombard " Chas K (Caroliue* sec Wm
Deiches & Co Inc hl802 Rutland av " Eliz elk 1034 w Lombard ' Fred
W (KaUi) plmbr 600 n Milton av h do " Gustave C (Laura K) fire dept
li533 n Bruce " Harrj- (Anna) eng 421 n Rose " Helfrich P (EditJi)
inspr hSlo Garrison la " Henr\- J (Lula E) credit mn li411 Cedareroft
rd " Hilda C sec 411 Cedareroft rd " Howard (Catli) lai 1005 w Balto "
Howard G (Carroll Specialty Co) hl222 Jamea ' John F h2101 Boone "
Marie masseuse 1709 w Lanvale " Sydney elk 419 n Rose " Theo
(Rose) baker h2423 e Monument " Wm (Anna) n-tchmn 419 n Rose
" Wm L elev opir 315 Garrison la Raake Fredk M (Josephine) carp
h230 n Monroe Raap Ernest (Mae) 708 e Blddle " Irvin L pharmacist
3136 Leeds " J Louis (Alta M) lawyer 211 n Calvert h4405 Groveland
av " Louis butcher h3136 Leeils " Raymond A acct 3136 Leeds
Raasch Alex L mgr National Sales Co h2473 (Jallow Rab Jacob
lawyer and justice of peace 4 s Exeter h do " Nathan (Rab & Co)
h821 Madison av " Saml (Rab & Oo) h821 Madison av " & Co
(Nathan and Saml Rab) costumers 821 Madison av Rabaek Harry
(Edith) prsr 303 n Bdway Rabali French Bakery (John Rabai) 2004
Edmondson " John (Mary) (Rabais French Bakery) h2004
Edmond&]n av RABBE CONRAD C (Louise IW) Vice-President and
Treasurer Broadway Savings Bank, h Osborne av, Catonsville, Phone
Catonsville 476-J Rabbitl Antliony auto mech 427 s Dallas " Frame
(Cecelia) mlnr 324 s Bdway " Hblen (wid Peter) 427 s Dallas " Wm
elk 427 s Dallas Rabe Fredk J H butcher 1510 n Regester " Geo W
(Pauline M) madi 1510 n Regester " Henry (Mary) pntr hlSlO n
Montford av " John elk 1510 n Regeater " Pauline 14.35 Holbrook
Rabel Chas S (Augusta) ins h2740 w Fairmt av Kabenau Aug A
(Man-) lab hl501 n Cliapel " Casper hamessmkr 1030 n Washington "
Philip conf 900 n Milton av h do " Teresa elk 560 n Gay " Wm (Cath)
dyer 560 n Gay h do Rahenstein Christina (wid Chas) hl20 s 5th e
Raber Betran C (Lillian) mach h717 s Potomac ■' Minnie F bkpr 1614
Pennington av C B ' Wm (Elsie) slsmn h93tt Pennington av C B
Kabillon Leonce ins broker and French consul 129 e Redwood h407
Park av " Marguerite 407 Park av Raijineau Jacob (Essie) jwlr h2842
Boarman av rtaldnovich Benj (Dora) confr 1218 e CSiase h do
Ra))inovltz Benj butcher h4011 Reistcrstnwn rd ■' David gro 549 w
Preston h205 e 23d n " Chas (Annie) presser h3733 Pai-k Hts av "
I>avld opr 3733 Park Hts av " Jos (Rachel) dry gds 911 e Fayette
h227 w Woodland av •' Matilda elk 20."> e 23d " Mishael ctr 3733
Park Hts av " Saml (Central Metal & Rubber Co) hl418 e Fayette
Uablhowich Jag A (Rabinowioh & Sons) 2418 Lake" Saml G (Lena:
Saml G Rablnowleh & Sons) h2418 I.akevlevv av RABINOWICH
SAMUEL G A SONS (Samuel Q, Sol and James Rabinowich).
Furniture 930-932 > Charles. Phone South 1124, and 3518-3520
Eastern av. Phone Wolfe 7329 " Sol (Saml G Rablni/wlch & Sons)
2418 Lakevlew a? Rablnowltz .\br slsmn 2125 e Falnnt av " Benj
(Jennie) tailor h520 Sanford pi " BemaTxl (Cella; Rabino»'it7, &
Berkowllz) h823 • Balto " Bessie confr 1218 e Chase h do ■' David
(Sara R) gro 205 e 23d n h do " Hannah (wid Morris) 2032 Orleans "
Herman (.Sarah) gro 1701 Keyser h do " Ida 2550 MeCuUoh " Max
Ullor 2128 e Balto " Minnie opr 136 n Exeter '• Moses R
The text on this page is estimated to be only 19.73%
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RADCLIFFE " J Sewell buyer Maynara apts " John* (Anna)

soft drinks 1501 Eastern av h do " John R weaver 922 n Duncan "
Keith B elk 712 n Fulton av " Lawrence* lab 1723 Carlvle pi " Pauline
B (wiu Saml) 1013 e Blddle " Rlehd A (Helen G) produce 316 HollUis
Mkt h Woodlawn Md " Roy E (Eliz) cond hl7(J5 Dukeland av " Virginia
slsldy 609 Park av " Warfield E 1420 Harlem av " AVlllia (Hid Danli
802 n Gilmor " Wm elk lOOi n Bway " Wni A (Emma) slsnm h603
Brlce Raddatz Gustav (Martlia) blksmlth h31H Fait av Radeckc Cath
car clnr 2547 Ashton RADEOKE CHARLES J (H F Radeeke « Sons), hi
421 Edmondson av " iEnima 1421 Edniondson av RADEOKE H F «
SONS (Charles J and Herman J Radeeke), Box Manufacturers cor
Bush and Ridgely. Phone South 0335 (See page 139) " Henry F
(Radeeke & Bro) h Radeeke av nr Hamilton av RADEOKE HERMAN J
(H F Radeeke « Sons), h 1421 Edmondson av " Ida 1421
Edmondson av " Mary C (Radeeke & Bro) h Radeeke av nr Hamilton
av " & Bro (Henrj- F and Mary C Radeeke) prod 130153 Lexington
Mkt Radecki Jc*in (Victoria) lab 1109 s Streeper " Jacob (Mary) lab
hll09 s Streeper Radej Geo (Theresa) lab h905 n Port " Geo C lab
905 n Port " John lab 905 n Port Radek Antone (Agnes) tailor h957 n
Washington Radeke John elk h840 Harlem av Rador Andrew
(Barbara H) Ironwkr hl754 Montpeller " Anna drsmkr 1902 Federal h
do " Chas (Rosa) butter 615 Baker " Chas F butter 805 Lexington
Mkt b2242 Pa av " Chester S (Amy) mach h719 n Pulaski " Geo A
(Anna) lab hla02 e Federal " Geo C ctr 1612 n Chester " Jacob buyer
h615 Bakcr " Jas P (Agnes; Rader & Robertson) h540 s ISth e " John
(Alberta) cooper hl026 Granby " John A (Eliz) carp h3436 s Belair rd
" Jos lab 708 s 5th e " Kath 613 Baker " Lottie M phone opr 3436 s
Belair rd " Mary (wld Fredk) h2227 Pa av " & Robertson (Jas P Rader,
Henry L Robertson) plmbrs 1632 e Oliver Rades John (Eva) gro 900
s Orcy h do Radesky Florence sten 2129 LLiden av " Geo slsmn 2129
Linden av " Harry slamn 12 s Green " laadore (Anna) gro 12 s Green
h do " Louis B slsmn 12 s Green " Morris slsmn 12 s Green " Myer
(Sadie) trav h642 s EUwood av " Ray slsldy 2129 Linden av " Sadie
dry gds 642 s EUwood av h do " Wm baker 12 s Green Badezky Jos
slsmn h2129 Linden av Radford Eug C elk 1116 Homewood av "
Frank pires Frank Radford & Co Llntlilcum Hts RADFORD FRANK &
CO. Frank Radford President, Jack Holloway Secretary and Treasurer.
Associate Dealers Haynes Motor Cars 1700 n Charles, Phones Vernon
5152-5153 " Jas (Dora) hl712 e' Lanvale " John (Bessie) carp h953
Franklin id " John T office 1018 Ashland av hll21 Valley " John T Co
Thos J O'Connor pres waste 1018 Asiiland av " Waste Co (Wm J
Radford) 9 s Carlton " Wm J (Anna: Radford Waste Co) hll29 Valley "
-Wright- Sanders Co John W Sanders mgr millwork 1126 s Ho\vard
Radias J lab 1124 Low Radice Wm B elk h874 w Balto RADIENT
GLOW HEATERS. Edward Hoerieh* Distributor. 403 s Paca, Phone
Calvert 1631 Radigan Eleanor («id Mlchli h723 Mura Radiger John elk
hl640 w North av Radiloff Jacob iJennie) tailor h2512 McCulloh Radio
American Corr> The Inc Harry Relneberg pres radio supplies 110 n
Liberty " Center Milton Reiner mgr 329-31 w Balto " Corp of America
Wesley P Kelland mgr 120 s Gay " Inspector U S Custom House "
Supply Co (Wm E and Elmer Y Johnson. O L Butler) 1724 n Charles
Radium Creamer>- Co The (Isidor and Joseiphus C Greenberg) 1134
Hollins Radke Edw C lab 130 n Chapel " Bmll (Katie) brklyr hll8 n
Port " Esther 2703 e Fayette " Gustav brklyr h2703 e Fayette RADLEY
Hadlev Edw J lab 1118 Greenmt av Radlick Max (Radlick Bros) hl626
e Pratt Radomer Russian-Poland Unterstuetzungs Verein Aisqulth cor
Lexington Radoon Saml (.Sophie) tailor h4760 Plmlico rd Rados
Steph (Bellos & Rados) hl048 Pa av Radov Angelo soft drinks 1013
Hlllen h do Kadowski Stanley (Frances) Ironwkr hl244 Hull " Steph
(Mary I lab h703 s 1st e Radowsky Barbara gro 637 n Lakewood av
h do Radtka Amelia (wld Clias) 3123 Elliott " Chas soft drinks 3225
Elliott h do " Fredk G (Sadie) soft drinks 308 n High 3225 Elliott "
Gustav (Cath) lab h3222 Elliott Radulovich Christopher (Thekla) eng
h2209 Jefferson " John B (Henrietta) printer h211 n Streeper
Radutiky Harry (Sarah) tailor 2017 Ashton Radwlteh Geo J elk 3400
Piedmont av " Harry A (Rose; John Radwlteh & Son) h2006 t>
Preston " John (Eliz; John Radwlteh & Son) h250O e HoSfman "
J,;hn & Son (John and Harry A) hdw 2500 e Hoffman " LeRoy J elk
2006 e Preston " Mildred sten 2006 e Preston Radwosky Jos caip
,637 n Lakewood av h do Radj- Geo H slsmn 2129 Linden av
Radziszewski Aug (Helen) archt h735 • Llnwood av John (Helen) lab
h26 Elm C B Louis mach 804 s Milton av Mirhl (Adamina) polishei
h804 s Milton av Rae Adele M elk 153 e Randall Arthur brasswkr
h2507 Lauretta av -Lite Mfg Co plating 11 e Blddle Louise elk 1616
Harlem av ilary A dk 153 e Randall Robt H cIU 153 e Randall Wm J
(Mary A) hl53 e RandaU Raehjchulte Omrad formn 939 s 2d e Fredk
(Freda) h939 s 2d e Rudolph ftr 939 s 2(1 e Raeke Chas (Tillie)
mach h5320 Maple av Louise (wld Wm) h520 n Bj-ice Robt diemkr
831 Woodwar* Theo lab 520 n Bilce Raesler Aug (Anna) lab hl360
Andre " Henry J (Anna) lab 122 s Regester Raessel AVm H lab 2707
e Monument Raeuchle Chas (Lilly) formn hl34 n EUwood av Rafalsky
Jos bkpr r44 n Patterson Pk av " Sol (Jennie) delicatessen h44 n
Patterson Pk ai h do Raff Edw (Margt A) elk hl5a7 Ensor " Hattle elk
746 n Fulton av " Marion G student Tnidhelm Hall " Tlllle (wid Ellas
A) hl517 Eutaw pi Raffael Lurie presser 919 Watson Raffee Colacce
(Marie) carp 515 w Lexington Raffel Anna Aliiambra apts " Arthur S
slsmn 3517 Sprlngdale av " Beni (Rose) tailor 1646 e Balto 2228 e
Lombard " Benj tailor 205 n Chester " Bertha (wld Jacob) h3517
Sprlngdale av " Danl student 3517 .Sprlngdale av " J M Co Jos W
Weiss pres N F Colton sec paper boxes 8th oor e Falrmt av " Leon
student 205 n Qietter " Morris clothing 1204 e Balto h2910 Sprlnghlll
av " Morris (Fannie) tailor h205 n Chester " Saml (New Union
Pressing Club) hl438 e Balto " Saml tailor 205 n Chester " Sol gro
3522 Chestnut av h do " Sophie Alhambra apts Rafifelman Jos J elk P
O 1520 Poplar Grove Rafferty Agnes 906 e Preston " Annie C opr
3043 Huntingdon av " Barton (Mary) mach 875 HoUlns " Cath (wid
Frank P) 2817 Overland av " Chas lab 808 e Pratt " Chas B
electrotvper Brighton " Clewell E (Sadie) diauf h2315 Barclay "
Clinton E (Cath) lab Brighton " David W (Nellie) acet h637 McKenln
av " Ella elk 446 Lorraine av " Frank J (Anna) slsmn hl839 n Castle "
Geo W mach 902 Binney " Harry (Bertha) 1614 n Calvert " Irene
1835 Aiken " Jas lab 311 e West " Jas wtehmn hl49 n Curley " Jas B
(Anna) electn h511 s Robinson " Jas B (Margt) farmer h Brighton "
Jas F sec-treas Buchwald Delivery & Express Co h Cockeysville Md "
Jemiie E mach opr 3043 Huntingdon av " John C cond h446 Lorraine
ar " John P (Dora) hdw 2001 Edmondson av h St Georges rd cor
Edmondson av Ten H " John T brkmn h3043 Huntingdon av " John
W elk Edmondson av cor St Georges rd Ten H " .John W electn
Brlehton " Jos elk Buchwald Delivery & Express Co h Cockeysville Md
SCHELLHASE & PIPITONE TAILORS «]VOT HIGH PRICED, BUT
GOOD AND STYLISH" Telephone Calvert 1988.W 210 North Calvert
St. L I S T S OF ANY PROFESSION BUSINESS OR TRADE for ANY
LOCALITY BUR EXCEP. TIONAL FACILITIES AS DIRECTORY
PUBLISHERS INSURES AN ACCURACY IN OUR LISTS THAT CANNOT
BE EQUALED Write for Booklet list of Lists' R.LPOLK &C0. DETROIT
The text on this page is estimated to be only 16.25%
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14o0 O 1^ e in V o B 0. S N C/2 0^ (0 Qu c NY, Mechani 2

O 0 a. < -: o a.i 2 S ^ < H o ° h 2 55' bJ > on O l 2 OS 1 < % O J O
3 2 cn ■ 18 UJ ^ ■ ^ 5 X 00 c 0 " It O C9 ■^ d ARIZI LIST ; 00 ^CS
UJ C9 2: ^ .J L CIR MAILI s D3 < ^ ». J2S - ti UJ c-^< "* • CO CJ^
? ' \r> ^oo T z M c/> — Z ^ o CD>2-* 1— 2f 2^ li -J v.o -x.^ = lOu
CO UJ 1— \ti CALVERT BANK HOWARD & SARATOGA STREETS In
the Shopping District SPECIAL DEPARTMENT FOR LADIES'
EXCLUSIVE USE. SEE ADVT. IN BANK DEPT. RAFFERTY " Jos G
(Hannah) electn hll»2 Barclay " Mae R steu 905 e Biddle " Marie C
sten 905 e Biddle " Mar>- F (wid Jolxnt 905 e Biddle " Mary I 3043
Huntingdon av " Patk lab 305 e West " Peter (Cath) formn hl835
Aiken " Peter A ivtchmn hlll9 s Cliarlea " T crane opr hl05 Blumberry
" Walter W D bkpr 905 e Biddle " Wm elk 149 n Curley " Wm laJb
1S35 Aiken Raffia Frank blksmlth 430 Colvin Rafflo Rocco (Rose)
blrmkr hl415 Gough Raffle Clinton B 711 Belgian av " Etliel E B (wid
Claude B) 4004 Belle 37 RafTo Domlnlck fruits 1220 e Madison " Ellz
tailor 1220 e Madison " Frank (Theresa) fruit 570 Belair Mkt hl220 e
Madison " Saml (Mary T) fruits hl223 e Madison Rafleld Wm (Eva)
\vtohmn h825 St Paul Rafman Abr 2260 Brookfield av " Hyman
(Bessie) tailor h2260 Brookfield av " Ray 2260 Brookfield av Raft
John mach 324 s Hanover Rafterj- Thos (Martina) elee eng hl05
Bloomsberry Bagan Agnes O elk 926 e Chase " Anna M Mrs glasswkr
2315 James Morrell pk " Frank P (Margt M) elk hl018 e Biddle " Jas
W lab 926 e Chase " Mary (wid Frank) h926 e Chase " Vivian E
student h Glitner Hall Ragel Edw (Ruth) auto niech 1534 Appleton
Raaen Geo D (Noima) electn h533 w 27th n " Geo F (Mary) buyer
hl24 a Washington Rager Alice B nurse 10 s Bvvay h do " Francis K
(Bessift) slsmn 1031 Harlem av Raggan Jas rigger 926 e Chase
Ra'gges Louise Mrs binder 128 w 24th Raglan Frank E (Pearl) agt
1613 w Lanvale RaRland Clarence W (Grace) Ins 2006 e 31st n " Eug
W (Gladys) slsnm h611 Roland av " Jos P* (Bessie) lab 1008 n
Mount " King D* (Sarah) lab h514 Gold " Martha E sten 3028 Abell
av " Milton* (Mar>-) lab hl33 w West " Mollie* h2318 Hunter " Orin
K (Lottie) supt h522 n Decker " T Ellsworth (Pauline J) prop Guilford
Pharmacy h2801 Guilfoid av " W Harn- (Irene E) ydmstr h3028 Abell
av Ragnckas Clias barber 807 Curtis av C B h do Ragno Steph (Irent)
tailor 2 e Centre h505 e 29th Ragollo Girolamo lab 316 s High Ragon
G 1) wlrcmn 2727 Atkinson av Ragsdale John* lab 307 n Caroline "
Man- L student Fensal Hall " RIchd R (Mal)el) electn 2055
Wcodberrj- av Raguie Ellz h946 Bennett pi Raha Frank lab 912 n
Castle ■' John (Mary) cementer h912 n Castle " John elk 912 n
Castle " Jos J chauf 912 n Castle Rahak I»ul3 C police 3127 e
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sec-treas John O Elchman Mfg Co h531 Ravenwood av " John G
(Clara) mgr h3936 Prisby " I>ouis slsmn 1604 Lemmon " Louis W
(Caroline) shoemkr 3021 Greenmt av h505 e 28th n " Mary E (wid
Chas M) h602 Fair Oak av Rahea Eleanor examiner 2224 e Oliver "
Wm H (Anna M) carp h2224 e Oliver " Wm J elk 2224 o Oliver
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Christina slsldy 2221 Bank " Henn- L lab 2221 Bank " Ida (wid Wm Jl
hl013 Grecnmt av " John (Rose) blrmkr h2221 Banli " Margt (wid
Wm) h29n7 Orleans Raiillnccr Hose smstrs 420 n Luzerne av Rahll
Clara (wid Wilson) 311 Wyman av " Mary cashr 311 Wypian av Rahm
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h3909 Foster av Raines Bessie confr 300 e Randall h do " Ellen (wid
Edgar) hl7I9 Aisaultli " Geo E (Bessie) lal) 300 e Randall " Jas R
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" Mary Mrs 532 n Bond " Paul H electn 1719 Alsqulth " Rohl lab 1427
Henry POLK'S STREET DIRECTORY Gi«-iiiK (leHcription, location,
number and intersection of each Htreet, and the neareitt ear line to
each number on the Mtreet. r POCKET SIZE PRICE, 25 CENTS
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H. c. McGOMAS COAL GO. coal - Coko - Wood Light and

Lee Streets THE CLEAN DOMESTIC FUEL TELEPHONES SOUTH
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(Marie A) forian hl47 Dorchester a? " Wm H (Anna E) slsmn 2607 n
Calvert Rainess Hyman (Beulah) gro 100 n Ourley h ito " Julius hlpr
1239 e Lexington " Julius tailor 100 n C'urley Ralney Albert P bkpr
841 n Eutaw " Ceicile tchr 7 n Carey " Edmund O (Hilda) rogr 1115 n
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Frank 2558 w Balto " Jas (Lola) barber 639 w Pratt h do " Jas B
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wirewkr hl642 e Eager " Jos H (USA) h Pa av Graceland Pk " Margt A
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1113 n Mount " Maurice lab 1642 e Eager " Randall (Grace) carp
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billiards 1424 Eastern av h do " Saml J (Cella) pJmbr hl707 Riggs av
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student 3401 Hudson " Annie confr 34011 Hudson h do " Emanuel
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H A (Mary L) carrier P O h3525 Greenmount av Rainy Day
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B hl064 Falls rd Raiser Jos (Frances) lab 2314 Cambridge Raisin
Geo* (Ida) lab h303 Ringgold Raiski Chester (Emma) blksmith h828
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1637 Division Raith Anna (wld Chas) h412 Lyndhurst " Apartments
sw cor Fulton and Pa avs " Chas olotliing ctr 412 Lyndhurst " Oias
(Eliz) pres Raith's Ine h3340 Clifton av RAITH CHAS (Elizabeth), Real
Estate of Merit, Loans Negotiated Raith BIdg, sw cor Fulton and
Pennsylvania avs. Phone Madison 5760, h2806 Pennsylvania av (See
page 227) " Eliz elk 412 Lyndhurst " Jos (Theresa) 2318 w Fayette "
Robt M sec Raith's Inc 2806 Pa av " Susan R (wld Clias) h2806 Pa av
" Wm J (Edna) v-pres Raith's Inc h2806 Suffolk av RAITH'S INO,
Chas Ralth President, William J Raith Vice-President, Robert M Raith
Secretary and Treasurer. Meat Packers and Sausage Manufacturers
2804-2806 Pennsylvania av. Phone Madison 2125 Ralther ttas M
(ManO lab b527 n Castle " John A (Emma) opr h2923 McElderry "
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904 n Bond Rajch Paul (Cath) lab 2 QiurcJi C B Rajnysz Adolph
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Barney (Josephine) elk 1600 Aliceanna " Benj (Oliristine) tailor 122 s
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h711 Newlngton av J. DASHEW 417 W. BALTO. ST. Special Sewing
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Martin (John Mitchell & Co) h715 w Lexington Raldo Saml fruits 669
Belalr Mkt h507 Colvln Raleigh Andrew lunchroom 887 n Howard h
do " Ajina R (wid Percy) 311 s Monroe RALEIGH G PITTS, Vice-
President Drovers A Mechanics National Bank, h The Burford Apts •"
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(Annie) lab 1119 Briscoe " Wm H h4010 Sprlngdale av " Wm S contr
1719 Windsor Mill rd h do Raley Bernard H (Raley & Roach) nw cor
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Cedar av " Elmer C (Mary) mtrmn hl923 Ollfton " Hayes (Pearl) lab
1833 Edmondson av " John* lab 1523 w Lexington " Jos B (Grace)
pntr hl211 w Lanvale " Jos L oik 3160 Elmora av " Lisettl (wid
Walter) hl029 William " Ijuke A driver 1801 w Lexington " Ora E (wld
John D) h616 w University pkway " Stanley C (Southern Launch Co)
2506 Francis " Stanley L elk P O 2506 Francis " Walter jr examiner P
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shoenikr 2325 Eastern av h do " John slioemkr 3704 Eastern av
h2325 do Ralls Geo R 619 s Kenwood av Rally Adam elk 424 s Wolfe
" Benj (Ella) soft drinks 1622 Shakespeare h do Ralph Bernard* tchr
506 n Eden " Geo S* probation officer 1632 n Mount " Harry R slsmn
26 w Lexington " Jas* (Theresa) caulker h506 n Eden " Leonard*
caulker 506 n Eden " Wm B elk 3850 Falls rd Ralston Belle (wid
Henry) 1218 Bloomlngdale rd " Frank J sec h218 Augusta av " Jas J
elk 218 Augusta av " Margt (wld Jas W) h29 s Carey " Marie elk 218
Augusta av " Thos L (Martha L) sten 346 s Loudon av Raltary John
car repr 1418 Haubert Raly Geo (Carrie) slsmn h2548 Fleet Rama
Michael (Mary) boilermkr h918 n Central av " Mlehl L (Rama &
Currerl) h918 n Central av " & Currerl (Miclil L Rama, Saml Curreri)
prod 124 Belalr Mkt Ramasjano Anton (Pauline) lab h740 s Decker av
Ramage Geo W (Eari) USA 611 s WoWe Ramakis Adam (Masgie)
tailor hll63 Washington blvd " Ambrose tailor 730 w Fayette " Jos
(Mary) tailor h708 w Fayette Ramberg Marion (Sarah) maoh opr
1028 w Lanvale Ranibey Claude car repr 218 e Randall Ramble Jacob
wtchnm 1900 Bayard " Kate gro 1900 Bayard h do Rambo Carroll F
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agt Atlantic Coast Line h Washington D C " Jas F elk P O 2122 e
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Wm A (Evelyn) aud 3440 Auchentoroly ter Ramey Albert M teleg opr
13 n Monroe " Arthur D carp 1514 n Regester " Danl (Grace) brkmn
h2930 Cedar av " Edw H (Eliz) mach 3124 Foster av " Eliz A (wid
Albert) 530 Rose Hill ter " Emerson E (Helen) fuel eng B & O R R
h2917 Ulman av RAMEY FRANK F (Mary E W), Lawyer 225-232 New
Amsterdam BIdg, Phone Plaza 3205, hl3l8 Linden av. Phone Madison
0464 " Gaston dog trainer Fdk rd nr North Bend " Hany M (Sallie)
cashr h4018 Brookline av " Jas E* plstr 2645 Boone " John H (Lillian)
lunch room 3018 O'Donnell hll24 8 Potomac " Saml* (Mary E) plstr
h2645 Boone h do Ramft Jos L (Anna) magistrate h3428 Edmondson
av ■" Jos L jr student 3428 Edmondson av Ramia Arnold E (Margt)
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PLAZA 0700 Robinson RAMINSKE Raminsbe Bernard mach 431 s
Robinson " Frank (Mary) formn h431 s Robinson Ramm Harry
mariner lOOU s Caroline •• Katie (wid Chasi 231 Scott ^. ^ „ ^ •'
Saml (Mary) tailor h2550 ilcCulloh Rammel Geo X jr (Amelia) Ironwkr
h40, Rammes Edw lab 2207 e Chase " Geo C brassfnr 2207 e Chase
" Herman R lab 2207 e Chase o,.f,„„ Ramming Geo J (Monica;
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(Mary) cabtmkr hlo(M Holllns " Henry W eng 270S Harford rd " John
(Regina) tllestr hl769 Abbottston n " John A The News Annapolis rd "
Mary C (wid Adam) hl228 Belmont av " Philio gro 2706-08 Harford rd
h do •> Robt A (Madeline) bkbndr h3166 Wilkens av " Rudolph C
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pres Paige-Jewett Co 4032 Belle av " John C ranges 112 n Greene
h721 w Lexington " Jos (Alycel elk h2940 Clifton av ■■ Margl J ("id
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Namiie L 217 Club rd R P RAMSAY ROBERT. President Robert
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Ramsay President. Charles E Scarlett Vice-President and Secretary,
Job Herbert Treasurer, Steamship Agents and Brokers 701-703
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