The Speaker S Primer 3rd Edition Stephen W. Valenzano PDF Download
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The Speaker s Primer 3rd Edition Stephen W. Valenzano
Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Stephen W. Valenzano, Joseph M., Broeckelman-Post, Melissa A.,
Braden
ISBN(s): 9781680368772, 168036877X
Edition: 3
File Details: PDF, 104.87 MB
Year: 2020
Language: english
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ISBN: 978-1-68036-877-2
Most handbooks on public speaking claim to have the same mission, so what
makes this book any different? The answer is simple: context. This book still
addresses all the nuts and bolts of crafting and delivering different types of
presentations, just like other handbooks, but it also takes those principles
and offers guidance for how to speak in particular professional arenas. For
example, throughout the book you will find informational boxes where we
address the importance and application of particular public speaking prin-
ciples within the areas of business, health care, education, politics, and the
STEM fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics.
Our book tries to not just introduce communication to students whose major
area of study is not communication, but show them why it is essential to their
long-term success in those fields. That is why when we cover informative
speaking, we discuss it in terms of how to deliver complicated information to
an audience of nonexperts. This is surely something doctors, teachers, and
engineers do on a daily basis. We discuss persuasion as advocacy for a posi-
tion and detail how to try and use persuasive principles to ethically appeal to
others. Marketing and sales professionals, as well as politicians, do this on a
daily basis. Regardless of which field you choose to launch your career, you
will need to know how to speak well, and this book aims to help you under-
stand how to do this in specific contexts.
Handbooks, however, are essentially quick guides, and so the chapters are
designed to be short and to the point. You will not find many stories here-
just tips. tricks, guidelines, and suggestions to help you become a successful
speaker. To do this, you will notice the book has lots of tables, bullet points,
and lists rather than extended narrative discussions. Key vocabulary is often
highlighted to help you reference important terms and concepts. The book is
also structured so that each chapter relates to and builds upon the previous
ones.
In the beginning of the book, we address some basic concepts and issues,
such as anxiety, ethics, culture, diversity, and civility in communication. We
detail the important role listening plays in public speaking for both present-
ers and audience members. We then move on to preparation, where we dis-
cuss selecting a topic, audience analysis, and researching information. Once
you gather information, it must be organized, and so we cover outlining and
creating a strong speech structure through introductions, conclusions, and
the body of the message next. We then address the different types of speeches
you might be called upon to deliver (informative, persuasive, epideictic)
while also addressing reasoning and how it relates to effective messages. We
cover topics most connected to the actual speech itself, like delivery, presen-
tation aids, language, and the importance of prior practice. Finally, we use
up-to-date research to help explain group presentations and communica-
tion, as many people will eventually find themselves delivering talks in this
format.
We feel this book and our efforts fill a gap in the current textbook offerings
for public speaking and oral communication. As schools move toward a more
integrated general education curriculum, communication instruction has
never been more important. We feel by creating a handbook that links basic
principles of communication and public speaking to the varied disciplinary
interests of our students, we will make communication courses appear more
applicable to their educational experience. In short, students will see and
read about why they should be in a public speaking course. We believe this
book will help the future doctors, sales professionals, engineers, senators,
teachers, industry professionals, and others in our classes become more eth-
ical and more effective public speakers.
2 SPEECH ANXIETY 13
Communication Apprehension 14
Physical Effects of Communication Apprehension 16
Rise in Blood Pressure 16
Shortness of Breath 16
Galvanic Skin Tightening and Sweat 17
Visibility of Communication Apprehension 17
Combating Communication Apprehension 19
Practice, Practice, and Practice 19
Employ Relaxation Techniques 20
Visualize Success 23
Dialogue With the Audience 23
Systematic Desensitization 24
4 CIVILITY 43
Defining Civility 44
Politeness 44
Good Manners 45
Courtesy 46
Respect for Others 46
Assertiveness 47
Foundational Civil Behaviors 48
Mutual Respect 48
Listening 48
Disagree Without Being Disagreeable 49
Contemporary Contexts for Civility 50
Civility in the Classroom and on Campus 50
Civility in Interpersonal Relationships 51
Civility in Business 52
Civility and Social Media 52
5 SPEAKING IN YO
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E..R
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5
Contextual Factors 56
External Environment 57
The Speaking Format 58
General Audience Characteristics 59
Speaking in Different Fields and Professions 59
Politics and Speech 60
Speaking for Educators 61
Speaking in the STEM Fields 62
Speaking in Business Settings 64
Speaking in Health Care Settings 65
6CUITUREAN~D~D
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V~ER~S~Irr
~------~6~
7
Understanding Culture 67
Race and Ethnicity 70
Sex, Gender, and Sexual Orientation 71
Age 72
Physical and Cognitive Diversity 73
Ideological Diversity 74
Religious Diversity 75
Socioeconomic Status 76
Communication, Culture, Diversity, and Dialogue 76
7 TOPIC SELECTION 81
General Purpose Statements 81
Choosing Your Topic 83
Narrowing the Topic 84
Determining the Specific Purpose 87
General Guidelines for Specific Purpose Statements 90
8 RESEARCH AND PREPARATION 93
Information Literacy 93
Characteristics of Information Literacy 94
Types of Information 97
Background Information 98
Unique Information 98
Evidentiary Information 99
Places to Research 99
Libraries 99
The Internet 101
Interviews 103
Documenting Your Research 107
Modern Language Association Style Guide (MLA) 108
American Psychological Association Style Guide (APA) 110
Chicago Manual of Style (CMS) 112
Oral Citations 115
14 REASONING 183
Types of Reasoning 183
Deductive Reasoning 184
Inductive Reasoning 185
Forms of Reasoning 186
Reasoning by Cause 186
Reasoning by Example 186
Reasoning by Analogy 187
Reasoning by Sign 188
Reasoning Fallacies 189
Ad Hominem 189
Ad Verecundiam 189
Sli ppery Slope 189
Non Sequitur 190
Straw Man 190
Hasty Generalization 191
Either-Or 191
False Cause 192
Red Herring 192
Begging the Question 192
15 INFORMATIVE SPEECHES
~--------------------
195
Types of Informative Speeches 196
Speeches about Objects 196
Speeches about Processes 197
Speeches about Events 198
Speeches about Concepts 198
Organizational Patterns 199
Chronological 200
Cause-Effect 200
Problem-Solution 201
Spatial 201
Topical 202
Explaining Difficult Concepts 203
Difficult to Understand 204
Difficult to Picture 205
Difficult to Believe 206
Strategies to Help Your Audience Understand 207
Use Repetition 207
Give Rewards 207
Show and Tell 207
Build on What Your Audience Already Knows 208
Use Humor 208
Check for Understanding 209
Goals and Strategies for Informative Speeches 209
Tips for Informative Speeches about Objects 209
Tips for Informative Speeches about Processes 210
Tips for Informative Speeches about Events 210
Tips for Informative Speeches about Concepts 211
~
16~P~E~R~
S~U~
AS~I~
VE~SP~E~E~
C~HE~S~------------------~
213
The Persuasive Process 213
Stage 1: Issue Awareness 214
Stage 2: Comprehension 214
Stage 3: Acceptance 215
Stage 4: Integration 215
Types of Credibility 216
Initial Credibility 216
Derived Credibility 217
Terminal Credibility 217
Types of Persuasive Speeches 218
Questions of Fact 218
Questions of Value 219
Questions of Policy 219
Refutation 220
Persuasive Speech Organizational Patterns 220
Problem-Solution 220
Problem-Cause-Solution 221
Comparative Advantages 222
Monroe's Motivated Sequence 222
Adjusting to the Audience During the Speech 224
Adapting to a Favorable Audience 224
Adapting to a Neutral Audience 224
Adapting to a Hostile Audience 225
19 LANGUAGE 249
Language Characteristics 249
Arbitrary 250
Ambiguous 250
Abstract 250
Hierarchical 251
Spoken Versus Written Language 251
Structuring Language 252
Repetition 252
Alliteration 252
Parallelism 252
Antithesis 253
Language Devices 254
Similes 254
Metaphors 254
Narratives 255
Guidelines for Using Language 256
20 DELIVERY 261
Modes of Delivery 261
Memorized Speeches 261
Manuscript Speeches 262
Impromptu Speeches 263
Extemporaneous Speeches 263
Components of Delivery 264
Verbal Delivery 264
Physical Delivery 266
Functions of Physical Delivery 268
Tips for Good Delivery 269
21 PRACTICE 273
Quality and Quantity 273
Mirror, Mirror 273
Friends and Family, Gather 'Round 274
Lights, Camera, Practice! 274
Stages of Practice 275
Early Stages: Organization 275
Middle Stages: Feedback 275
Final Stages: Refining Your Speech 276
Good Practice Sessions 277
UNDERSTA DING
PUBLIC
COMMUNICATION
Objectives
0 Understand how communication works
0 Differentiate between conversation and formal presentations
0 Dispel myths about public speaking
The ability to use symbols, create meaning, and communicate ideas defines
what it means to be human. To be sure, many different species communicate
in their own way-dogs bark, snakes hiss, and some species of insects dance-
but human beings are unique in our complex use of symbols to define our-
selves and the world in which we live. Even more so, we influence people
and move them to action through the creative and effective presentation of
our ideas. Think about the different contexts in which we do this-contexts
specific to the human world.
When we think of public speaking, the first context that comes to mind is
politics. Public speaking is certainly an integral part of any democracy, and
it remains one of the more commonly understood venues in which peo-
ple deliver remarks to audiences. Debates, campaign events, presidential
addresses, and a myriad of other situations provide politicians with oppor-
tunities to speak to audiences. However, the political realm is not the only
one in which public speaking skills are a necessity.
At some point in all our lives, we will attend a wedding and a funeral. We may
also go to an anniversary celebration, awards ceremony, or some other func-
tion where we hear, and perhaps even deliver, speeches. Each of these situa-
tions requires us to know how to properly develop and deliver remarks to a
specific audience in much the same way that political and business contexts
demand we do. Quite simply, the use of symbols through speech is a central
part of what it means to be human. In this handbook, we will help you learn
how to create and convey effective presentations so that you can maximize
your ability to deliver information, change minds, and influence audiences.
COMMUNICATION MODELS
We use theories to explain most, if not all, human behaviors. The field of
communication has several models that illustrate how communication func-
tions between people. It is essential to understand how these models work
because they inform the choices we make in preparing and performing a
speech. In this section, we will cover three different models, each of which is
a valid way of explaining communication in different contexts. First, we dis-
cuss the most basic model of the communication process, the linear model of
communication. Then we explain the interactive model of communication,
which complicates the linear model by introducing a few new variables to
the communication process. Finally, we delve into the transactional model
linear model of of communication, which is a bit more involved than the interactive model.
communication
theory that views
communication as a
one-way process in Linear Model of Communication
which a source conveys
an encoded message The first model developed to explain the communication process was the
through a channel to
a receiver, who then
linear model of communication (Figure l.l), which is also known as the
decodes that message Shannon and Weaver model of communication or the action model of
communication. This model views communication as something that one
person does to another. In this model, communication flows in one direction
only, much like a river. The idea is very basic and, at its most complicated,
contains seven elements.
source
the person responsi
Figure 1.1 Linear model of communication for inventing the ide
on which he or she
The first of these elements is the source, which in terms of public speaking is intends to speak an1
crafting that idea to
the speaker. The speaker is the person responsible for inventing the idea on audience
which he or she intends to speak and crafting the message that conveys that encoding
idea to an audience. When the speaker converts the idea into words, he or taking an abstract
notion and providin:
she is encoding it. This encoding process is simply taking an abstract notion meaning
and giving it meaning through the application of symbols. The end result of message
the content or idea
the encoding process is a message, which is the content or idea the source that the source trie~
initially wanted to provide to the audience. This message is then delivered convey to the audie1
through a channel, which in the case of public speaking is the voice. A per- channel
the medium througt
son's voice is the channel through which a source's encoded message travels which an encoded
to an audience in a presentation. message is transmit
from a source to a
receiver
So far this sounds fairly simple, and you may be wondering how it could get
confusing or how a person's message could be misinterpreted. Well, even
in that simple initial stage of encoding and delivery through the channel,
speakers can make poor word choices that do not accurately reflect the
meaning they wish to convey. The speaker may also use words the audience
does not understand when encoding the message. These are two small ways
this seemingly easy process can get confusing. Problems, however, are not
limited to the source in the linear model, so let's take a look at how the linear
model explains what happens after the message travels through the channel receiver
the person or audie
to its destination. that a message is
being transmitted tc
When a message is sent, it is also received, and the audience, also called the decoding
the process of draw
receiver, processes those symbols. The processing done by the receiver is
meaning from the
called decoding, which essentially takes the symbols used to encode themes- symbols that were
used to encode a
sage and draws meaning from them. This is much like what some kids do message
with decoder rings in cereal boxes. To understand the message, you need the
key to understand how it was encoded. In terms of public speaking, receivers
need to understand the symbol system, or language, used by the speaker
when sending the message.
As before, this may seem easy, but all of us have been in a situation where,
as the receiver of a message, we did not exactly understand what was being
said. Tilis can occur in a classroom during a lecture, in a debate between two
political candidates, and even in a casual conversation with a friend. We may
be speaking the same language, but when we have different definitions of
words we process them differently than the speaker might intend, result-
ing in confusion. What leads to the interruption or inaccurate decoding of
a message sometimes comes not from a person's listening ability but from
some other force.
noise The other force that can impede the delivery and proper decoding of a mes-
anything that can
change the message sage is called noise, and noise is the final component of the linear model of
after the source communication. Noise refer s to anything that can change the message after
encodes and sends it
the source encodes and sends it. There are a variety of different types of
noise, some physical and some psychological, but all throw a wrench into the
communication process. Table 1.1 shows the different types of noise speakers
and audiences might encounter during a presentation.
Table 1.1
TYPES OF NOISE
PHYSICAL NOISE PSYCHOLOGICAL NOISE
Other sounds Preoccupation with other thoughts
Visual barriers Emotional reaction to the topic
Poor volume and projection Prejudice or ill will toward the speaker
Distractions in the room Unwillingness to listen
Hunger, tiredness, and other bodily Resistance to the message
limitations
decodes the sender's message, the interactive model does not; here we will
see the sender and receiver are both responsible for encoding and decoding
messages.
The main way in which the interactive model is different from the linear feedback
model is in the concept of feedback. Feedback occurs after the receiver the receiver's resp
to a message that
decodes the sender's message and is essentially the receiver's response to the sent to the sender
message. This new message then flows linearly back to the sender, who
becomes the receiver of the feedback to the original message.
CONTEXT
When you say something to the receiver, the receiver processes your message
and responds either verbally or nonverbally. You then receive that response,
thus completing the communication process. The introduction of feedback
creates a fuller picture of what happens when two or more people interact.
ENVIRONMENTAL ELEMENTS
Beliefs Physical setting
Context Relationships
History Values
Participants
•A·N••·'mugn•
Channel
..... _______ _
Figure 1.3 Transactional model of communication
Table 1.3
We all know how to talk to each other, and rarely does a day go by when we
don't have a casual conversation with someone. Certain aspects of those
interactions also color public speaking situations. First, both conversations
and speeches are audience-centered. By this we mean that we pay attention
to the audience when making choices regarding our speech. In conversations
as well as speeches there are certain topics we address only with particular
people or groups. We also pay attention to the feedback we receive from the
receivers in both situations so we know how to respond. Both conversation
and speech are activities centered upon the audience.
Other documents randomly have
different content
blessés aborde ; il en descend un intendant supérieurement
galonné.
— Qui est-ce qui dirige le service ici?
— C'est moi, dit M. Lasègue.
— Combien de lits?
— Quarante-cinq.
— Vous en avez cent.
— Quarante-cinq.
— Je vous dis que vous en avez cent.
M. Lasègue, froissé de la roideur et de l'impertinence de ce
monsieur qui ne savait pas un mot de l'état des choses, lui répondit
froidement en remettant ses bulletins dans sa poche :
— S'il y a cent lits, cherchez-les. Et il lui tourne le dos en fumant
son cigare.
L'intendant appela les brancardiers qui attendaient des ordres.
— Brancardiers, portez vingt blessés au théâtre du Châtelet.
— Il n'y a plus une place.
— Alors, allez à Saint-Merry.
— Tout est plein.
Le monsieur aux galons regarda d'un air furieux le bateau, les
brancardiers, planta là les blessés et le bateau, et disparut sans rien
dire.
Personne, depuis, n'en entendit oncques parler. Immédiatement,
la distribution des bulletins commença, et les trente-cinq blessés (il
n'y en avait pas plus sur le bateau) furent placés chez l'habitant.
L'ambulance du Ier arrondissement, pendant son fonctionnement,
a soigné 2,680 malades ou blessés. Elle trouva dans M. Méline,
adjoint au maire, un concours aussi actif qu'intelligent et dévoué ; il
débarrassa, dans les limites du possible, cette institution charitable
de toutes les entraves administratives qui lui étaient suscitées.
Il est probable que c'est pour la première fois que vous entendez
parler des ambulances du Ier arrondissement, tandis que vous avez
eu les oreilles rebattues des faits et gestes de quelques autres
ambulances.
Ne mesurez pas la somme du bien produit à l'intensité du tapage
qui se fait autour des choses. Les gens dont je vous parle n'ont vu
que le devoir et l'ont accompli noblement, simplement, gratuitement,
sans bruit. Ils fuyaient la réclame et eussent été profondément
blessés de voir leur conduite célébrée aux sons de la grosse caisse.
Avec des sommes véritablement insignifiantes, ils ont accompli des
choses énormes. Ceux-là peuvent dévoiler sans crainte au public le
mobile de leurs sentiments et surtout leurs livres de comptes. Plus
d'un philanthrope et plus d'une ambulance en ce monde ne
pourraient pas en faire autant.
Alors surgit l'intendance, qui ne sait guère jouer que le rôle de
« bâton dans les roues. » Plus d'une fois les intendants avaient fait
leur apparition dans nos bureaux. Mais, à leur sujet, la consigne était
générale : ne jamais discuter, trouver parfait et accepter leurs idées
trop souvent saugrenues, mais n'en tenir absolument aucun compte.
L'intendant se retirait enchanté, et on ne le revoyait jamais, car
c'est une particularité caractéristique de l'histoire naturelle de
l'intendant. Il parle, donne des ordres, et croit que cela suffit.
Presque jamais il ne vérifie si ses intentions ou ses ordres ont été
exécutés : c'est ce qui explique l'admirable chaos, l'ineffable
brouillamini, l'inextricable désordre qui caractérisent les actes de
cette institution.
L'intendance était au comble de la surprise. Malgré son
intervention, l'ambulance du Ier arrondissement fonctionnait toujours
admirablement. Mais il y avait un citoyen, préfet de la Seine, du nom
de Jules Ferry, un vrai préfet des pièces du Châtelet, et que je
confonds toujours avec Hurluberlu XIV. Ce magistrat municipal aurait
dû comprendre que son premier devoir était de sauvegarder ses
administrés du militarisme bouton de guêtre de l'intendance, et que
la charité privée n'a rien à gagner à l'intervention d'un corps égoïste,
incapable, sans cœur, qui envahit, non pas pour faire mieux que ce
qu'il remplace, mais uniquement pour accroître sa puissance, pour
affirmer sa domination envahissante.
Mais M. Ferry n'est point homme à se préoccuper de pareils
détails. Sans savoir un mot de la question, sans réfléchir à
l'absurdité des mesures qu'il prenait, il signa sous la dictée de
l'intendance une série de décisions qu'Hurluberlu XIV n'eût point lui-
même osé signer, sans réunir trois fois son conseil des ministres.
Il déclara qu'il se souciait assez peu de la charité privée qui
nourrissait les blessés ; on n'avait nul besoin de cela. Désormais
l'intendance se chargerait de ce soin. Ce qu'il demandait, c'était des
lits, beaucoup de lits vides, et le reste le regardait. De plus, les
arrondissements furent divisés en lopins appartenant aux secteurs et
dépendants de l'hôpital de ces secteurs : il était expressément
interdit aux ambulances de prendre des blessés, sinon ceux envoyés
par l'hôpital.
Le Ier arrondissement, divisé avec une logique particulière, se
trouvait dépecé entre trois secteurs et avait pour hôpitaux
répartiteurs Beaujon, Lariboisière et l'Hôtel-Dieu.
Voici maintenant le mode de fonctionnement : un blessé était
d'abord conduit à l'hôpital, par exemple à Beaujon, puis de là
renvoyé à l'ambulance, qui de là l'expédiait à destination.
Intelligente complication!
Pour la nourriture, c'était une autre histoire. Chaque jour,
l'habitant qui n'avait plus le droit de nourrir son malade à ses frais,
était fort empêché pour le nourrir aux frais de l'intendance ; car, en
ce temps de réquisition, on n'avait pour son argent des vivres qu'au
moyen d'une carte, et les cartes pour blessés étaient supprimées.
Donc, l'habitant charitable du Ier arrondissement était obligé
d'aller tous les matins à Beaujon ou à Lariboisière, chercher un bon
de cent grammes de viande qu'on lui faisait attendre parfois fort
longtemps ; puis, muni de ce bon, il continuait son voyage et allait
se faire servir, à quelques lieues de là, ses cent grammes de viande,
en faisant naturellement une nouvelle queue à la porte de la
boucherie de l'intendance.
Il est vrai que ses cent grammes de viande (quand il y avait de la
viande) ne lui coûtaient absolument rien — que la perte de sa
journée tout entière. Même cérémonie pour le pain et pour tout ce
qui était nécessaire aux blessés. Il était du reste absolument
défendu à un logeur de blessés de représenter ses voisins ; chacun
devait perdre sa propre journée et faire le voyage pour son compte.
Hélas! combien de gens donnèrent alors leur démission d'âmes
charitables!
Et dire qu'une époque qui a produit dans l'ordre moral tant de
flibustiers éminents, a pu produire en même temps dans l'ordre
administratif des administrateurs d'une aussi haute capacité, et
encore ils n'avaient pas l'excuse d'être hydrocéphales!
Toute la journée c'était une procession de gens qui arrivaient à
l'ambulance exaspérés :
« Mais, monsieur, j'ai chez moi quatre ou six, ou dix blessés qui
meurent de faim. Je meurs de faim aussi ; avec quoi voulez-vous
que je les nourrisse? »
L'intendance, qui laissait nos soldats valides crever de faim et de
misère, alors qu'ils avaient encore assez de voix pour faire retentir
leur colère, osait prendre la responsabilité de nourrir de malheureux
blessés qui ne pouvaient faire entendre leurs souffrances.
Ah! Monsieur Ferry, certaines sottises dans la vie privée ne sont
que des sottises, dans la vie publique elles peuvent devenir des
crimes.
Peu à peu, et grâce à l'énergie des municipalités, cette
organisation stupide fut un peu modifiée et fonctionna d'une façon
moins impraticable, mais l'élan de la charité privée était brisé, et il
devint fort difficile vers la fin d'y avoir recours.
IV
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