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Revolutionary America 1763–1815

“Cogliano and Phimister’s outstanding collection of primary sources on the eras of

the American Revolution and Early Republic will be a tremendous asset for students
of American history. The sources they have included in this collection are not only
important, but also, in many cases, quite unexpected—shedding new light on an
important subject.”
—Richard R. Beeman, Professor of History, University of Pennsylvania
“This sourcebook narrates American nation-building from many perspectives, relay-
ing all the drama and uncertainty of a revolutionary age. Readers confront the fraught
relationship of personal liberty and governmental authority, a tension that remains at
the heart of American civic culture.”
—Seth Rockman, Professor of History, Brown University

Revolutionary America 1763–1815: A Sourcebook is a collection of dynamic primary

sources intended to accompany the second edition of Revolutionary America 1763–1815:
A Political History. While the structure of this collection parallels the textbook, it can be
used independently as well to bring a more personal perspective to the revolutionary
period of American history.

Each chapter begins with a brief introduction and contains excerpts of original docu-
ments from the Revolutionary period, including government documents, letters, and
diary entries, as well as numerous images. A companion website holds a wealth of primary
source document resources, including many of the documents from within this book,
as well as links to other valuable online resources. This collection helps give students
a sense of the human experience of that turbulent time, bringing life to the struggle to
found the United States.

For additional information and classroom resources for both the text and the sourcebook
please visit the Revolutionary America companion website at
www.routledge.com/textbooks/revolutionaryamerica.

Francis D. Cogliano is Professor of American History at the University of Edinburgh

where he specializes in the history of revolutionary and early national America. He is
the author of Revolutionary America 1763–1815: A Political History.

Kirsten E. Phimister holds a Ph.D. in American history from the University of

Edinburgh.
Revolutionary America
1763–1815
A Sourcebook

Edited by
Francis D. Cogliano
Kirsten E. Phimister
First published 2011
by Routledge
270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016

Simultaneously published in the UK

by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2010.

To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s
collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.

© 2011 Taylor & Francis

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by
any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying
and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from
the publishers.

Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are
used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Revolutionary America 1763–1815 : a sourcebook / edited by Francis D. Cogliano and Kirsten E.
Phimister.
p. cm.
Companion to: Revolutionary America 1763–1815 : a political history / Francis D. Cogliano.
Includes index.
1. United States—Politics and government—1775–1783—Sources. 2. United States—Politics and
government—To 1775—Sources. 3. United States—Politics and government—1783–1865—Sources.
I. Cogliano, Francis D. II. Phimister, Kirsten E. III. Cogliano, Francis D. Revolutionary America.
E210.R485 2010
973.3—dc22
2009043886

ISBN 0-203-85290-7 Master e-book ISBN

ISBN 10: 0-415-99711-9 (hbk)

ISBN 10: 0-415-99712-7 (pbk)
ISBN 10: 0-203-85290-7 (ebk)

ISBN 13: 978-0-415-99711-9 (hbk)

ISBN 13: 978-0-415-99712-6 (pbk)
ISBN 13: 978-0-203-85290-3 (ebk)
To My Parents
—KEP
 Contents

Figures xiii
Acknowledgments xv
Introduction 1
Chapter 1 Native Americans and the American Revolution 7
1. Southern Indians during the Seven Years’ War 8
2. Petition from the Paxton Boys, 1764 10
3. Logan’s Lament, 1775 12
4. Congress Appeals to the Six Nations, July 13, 1775 12
5. Joseph Brant Speaks to Lord George Germain,
March 14, 1776 15
6. Joseph Brant, 1786 16
7. A Missionary Speaks on Behalf of the Oneidas and
Onondagas, 1777 17
8. Treaty with the Delawares, 1778 18
9. Chickasaw Chiefs Appeal to Congress, 1783 20
10. The Eve of War, 1811 22
11. Aftermath of the War of 1812 24

Chapter 2 British North America in 1763 27

1. Bill of Rights, 1689 28
2. Benjamin Franklin, Observations Concerning the Increase
of Mankind, Peopling of Countries, 1751 30
3. Servants and Slaves in Virginia, 1722 33
4. Advertisements for Runaways, 1752, 1766 36
5. Albany Plan of Union, 1754 36
6. Join, or Die, 1754 39
7. Treaty of Paris, 1763 40
8. Governing a New World 43
vii
viii • Contents

Chapter 3 The Imperial Crisis 47

1. The Stamp Act, March 22, 1765 48
2. Virginia Resolves, May 29, 1765 50
3. The Stamp Act Congress Asserts American Rights and Grievances,
October 19, 1765 51
4. The Death of Liberty, October 31, 1765 53
5. New York Stamp Act Riot 54
6. Examination of Benjamin Franklin Before the House
of Commons, 1766 55
7. Parliament Repeals the Stamp Act, March 18, 1766 61
8. Parliament Declares Its Authority, March 18, 1766 61
9. The Boston Massacre 62
10. Paul Revere’s Engraving of the Boston Massacre 64
11. First Continental Congress, Declaration of Rights and Grievances,
October 14, 1774 65
12. New Hampshire Non-Importation Agreement, 1774 69

Chapter 4 Revolution, 1775–1776 73

1. Patrick Henry, Give Me Liberty or Give Me Death, March 23, 1775 74
2. The Battles of Lexington and Concord, April 19, 1775 76
3. Battle of Lexington, 1775 77
4. General Gage’s Proclamation, June 12, 1775 78
5. Bunker’s Hill or America’s Head Dress, 1776 80
6. Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms,
July 6, 1775 81
7. Olive Branch Petition, July 8, 1775 85
8. George III Proclaims the Americans in a State of Rebellion,
August 23, 1775 88
9. Thomas Paine, Common Sense, 1776 89
10. Jefferson’s Original Rough Draft of the Declaration of
Independence 94
11. Statue of George III Demolished, July 9, 1776 98

Chapter 5 Winning Independence: The Wars of the American Revolution 101

1. A British View of the Siege of Boston 102
2. George Washington Reflects on His Appointment to Command
the Continental Army 102
3. Harassment of Loyalists in South Carolina 104
4. Observations of a New Hampshire Loyalist 104
5. Congress Resolves to Protect Loyalists, June 18, 1776 107
6. Washington Reflects on the Challenges Facing the Continental
Army 108
7. Letters from a Rebel Prisoner 112
7a. William Russell to Benjamin Edes, July 1780 112
7b. William Russell to Mary Richardson Russell, March 4, 1781 113
 Contents • ix

8. Treaty of Paris, 1783 113

9. A Loyalist Returns 116
9a. Samuel Curwen to William Pynchon, London,
November 28, 1783 117
9b. Samuel Curwen, Diary, September 25, 1784 118

Chapter 6 African Americans in the Age of Revolution 119

1. Virginia Revolutionaries Defend Slavery 120
2. Lord Dunmore Promises Freedom to Virginia Slaves 121
3. Thomas Jefferson on Slavery and African Americans 122
3a. Rough Draft of the Declaration of Independence, July 1, 1776 123
3b. Notes on the State of Virginia, 1781–1782 123
3c. Benjamin Banneker to Thomas Jefferson, Baltimore County,
August 19, 1791 127
3d. Thomas Jefferson to Benjamin Banneker, August 30, 1791 129
4. Massachusetts Slaves Petition for Freedom 130
5. Rebel Soldiers 131
6. Gradual Abolition in Pennsylvania 131
7. Freedom Certificate, 1783 132
8. Pennsylvania Abolitionists Petition Congress, 1790 133
9. An Account of Toussaint L’Ouverture 134
10. Revolution in Haiti 136
11. Ben Woolfolk, Testimony in the Trial of Gabriel, October 6, 1800 137
12. Rebel’s Statement from Gabriel’s Conspiracy, September 25, 1804 138

Chapter 7 The Confederation Era 141

1. John Adams Calls for New Constitutions, 1775 142
2. Pennsylvania’s New Constitution—A Critical View 143
3. Massachusetts Voters Reject a Constitution 144
4. Massachusetts Tries Again, 1780 145
5. The Articles of Confederation (1777) 147
6. Alexander Hamilton Decries the Weakness of Congress 149
7. Banknotes 152
8. Shays’s Rebellion 154
9. The Shaysites Make Their Case 155
10. Massachusetts Pursues a Contradictory Strategy in Response
to the Rebels 157
11. “A Little Rebellion Now and Then Is a Good Thing”: Jefferson
Reacts to Shays’s Rebellion 159

Chapter 8 Creating the Constitution 163

1. Madison on the Flaws of the Articles of Confederation 164
2. The Virginia Plan 168
3. The New Jersey Plan 170
4. Franklin Addresses the Constitutional Convention 173
5. Federalist Number 10 174
x • Contents

6. Political Creed of Every Federalist 180

7. Opposition to the Constitution in Pennsylvania 180
8. The Grand Federal Edifice 184
9. Bill of Rights, 1789 185

Chapter 9 American Women in the Age of Revolution 189

1. Deborah Franklin Describes the Stamp Act Riots 190
2. Benjamin Franklin to Deborah Franklin, London,
April 6, 1766 192
3. Deborah Franklin: Power of Attorney, October 14, 1768 193
4. Boston Women Boycott Tea, 1770 194
5. The Edenton Tea Party, 1774 195
6. Abigail Adams to John Adams 196
7. The Sentiments of an American Woman, 1780 198
8. The Deposition of a Female Spy, 1781 200
9. Petition of Rachel Wells to the Continental Congress, 1786 202
10. Benjamin Rush, Thoughts upon Female Education, 1787 204
11. Diary of Hannah Callender, July 4, 1788 207
12. Extracts from the New Jersey Constitution, 1776, 1844 207
13. Declaration of Sentiments, 1848 208

Chapter 10 The Federalist Era 211

1. A Federalist Vision of Economic Development 212
1a. The Report on Public Credit 212
1b. The Report on Manufactures 215
2. “Those Who Labor in the Earth”: Jefferson’s Opposition
to Manufacturing 217
3. Opposition to Hamilton’s Program 218
4. The Whiskey Rebellion 219
5. Washington’s Farewell Address 220
6. The Alien and Sedition Acts 225
6a. An Act Concerning Aliens, June 25, 1798 225
6b. An Act Respecting Alien Enemies, July 6, 1798 226
6c. An Act in Addition to the Act, Entitled “An Act for
the Punishment of Certain Crimes Against the United
States” 227
7. The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions 228
7a. Virginia Resolutions, December 21, 1798 228
7b. Kentucky Resolutions, December 3, 1799 229

Chapter 11 An Empire of Liberty, 1801–1815 233

1. The Ordinance of 1784 234
2. Thomas Jefferson, First Inaugural Address, March 4, 1801 236
3. Mad Tom in a Rage, 1801 239
4. Instructions to Lewis and Clark 240
5. The Constitutional Implications of the Louisiana Purchase 245
 Contents • xi

6. Thomas Jefferson, Third Annual Message to Congress,

October 17, 1803 246
7. “Ograbme” Cartoon, c. 1808 250
8. A Boxing Match, or Another Bloody Nose for John Bull, 1813 251
9. Francis Scott Key, “Star-Spangled Banner,” September 14, 1814 252
10. The Hartford Convention, 1814 253
11. The Battle of New Orleans 256

Appendix 259
1. The Declaration of Independence 259
2. The Constitution of the United States 263
3. The Bill of Rights 274

Permissions and Sources 277

Index 289
 Figures

1.1 Joseph Brant, 1786, by Gilbert Stuart. 17

2.1 Join, or Die, 1754. 40
3.1 The Stamp Act, 1765. 53
3.2 The Boston Massacre, 1770. 65
4.1 The Battle of Lexington, 1775. 77
4.2 Bunker’s Hill Cartoon, 1776. 80
4.3 The Statue of George III Demolished, 1776. 98
6.1 Soldiers in Uniform, 1781–1784, by Jean Batiste Antoine de Verger. 131
6.2 Freedom Certificate, 1783. 133
6.3 Revenge taken by the Black Army for the Cruelities practiced
on them by the French. 137
7.1 Massachusetts Banknote, 1780. 153
Georgian Banknote, 1777. 153
Continental Currency, 1779. 154
8.1 The Grand Federal Edifice. 184
9.1 Boycott of British Tea. 196
11.1 Mad Tom in a Rage, 1801. 240
11.2 Embargo Cartoon, 1811. 251
11.3 A Boxing Match, or Another Bloody Nose for John Bull. War of 1812
Cartoon, 1813. 251

xiii
 Acknowledgments

We are enormously grateful to Kimberly Guinta and Matthew Kopel at Routledge

for their patience and perseverance with the preparation of this volume. They
have been an unfailing source of support and advice throughout the duration
of this project. We would also like to thank Lynn Goeller and her team for their
careful copyediting, typesetting, proofreading, and indexing of the manuscript.
A special thanks must also go to Nora Allavoine Duncan, for transcribing and
translating French material, and to Bo Clarke, for his assistance with preliminary
proofreading. Finally, we would like to thank family and friends for providing
support, encouragement, and light relief in the compilation of this volume.

xv
 Introduction

There is no better or more enjoyable way to study the era of the American
Revolution than through the eyes and thoughts of those who experienced it.
Students of the Revolution are blessed with an astounding amount of primary
source material which is readily accessible in print and on the Internet.1 These
sources are a crucial starting point for any serious study of the Revolution. This
volume intends to provide students with samples of this material so that they can
experience, first-hand, the raw materials which historians use to interpret the
past. The eleven chapters in this volume parallel those in its companion, Francis
D. Cogliano, Revolutionary America 1763–1815: A Political History, 2nd edition.
While each of the books may be read independently, interested readers may read
the chapters together. The main text provides an overview and interpretation
of key events while the sourcebook allows readers to consider the sources upon
which those interpretations rest and to render judgments of their own.
This volume begins with a set of documents which consider the experience
of Native Americans during the half-century from 1763 to 1815. This period
was decisive in Native American history as it witnessed the final military defeat
of Native Americans east of the Mississippi and the beginnings of the policy of
their displacement which culminated in the removal policy of the Jacksonian era.
The documents in chapter 1 recount this sorrowful story. It also demonstrates
one of the main challenges of Indian history—the relative dearth of sources
from the Native American perspective. Historians are compelled to reconstruct
Native American history by reading between the lines of sources produced by
their European and American allies and adversaries such as Thomas Jefferson’s
account of Logan’s Lament or missionary Samuel Kirkland’s response to Bur-
goyne’s defeat on behalf of the Oneidas and the Onondagas.
In 1763 British North Americans reveled in their Britishness and celebrated
Britain’s victory over France in the Seven Years’ War. The documents in chapter

1
2 • Introduction
2 set the scene for the coming upheaval in British North America. Benjamin
Franklin’s Observations on the Increase of Mankind notes the steady growth of
the population of British America, widely regarded as a measure of power in the
eighteenth century. This growth suggests that the American colonies, a source
of wealth and power, might also become a problem for the British government.
In 1763 most colonial Americans considered themselves to be loyal British
subjects and the inheritors of the legacy and language of the rights to which all
Britons were entitled, as articulated in the 1689 Bill of Rights. Political coordi-
nation among the colonies seemed unlikely given the failure of the Albany Plan
of Union—which Franklin proposed for the common defense of the colonies
at the outset of the Seven Years’ War in 1754. Nonetheless, when the colonists
felt that their rights, as stipulated in the Bill of Rights, had been traduced they
banded together to protest. The documents in chapter 3 trace the deteriorating
relationship between the colonies and Britain between the adoption of the Stamp
Act in 1765 and the imposition of martial law in Massachusetts in 1774. Included
among these documents is Benjamin Franklin’s testimony before Parliament in
1766 when the Pennsylvanian testified to the strength and mutual benefits of the
transatlantic relationship which had been endangered by the Stamp Act. We see
the first attempts by the colonies to overcome their differences and to cooper-
ate in the resolutions of the Stamp Act Congress and can measure how far the
colonial position had evolved nearly a decade later with the First Continental
Congress’s 1774 Declaration of Rights and Grievances.
In 1774 colonists opposed to British taxation and other parliamentary acts
found themselves pulled in two directions. On one hand they asserted that the
colonies should be free to govern themselves and should not be subject to in-
terference from a Parliament in which they were not represented. On the other
hand they also declared themselves loyal, and subservient, to King George III.
The events of 1775 and 1776, covered by the documents in chapter 4, allowed
rebellious Americans to resolve this Janus-like dilemma. During these two crucial
years open warfare broke out between British forces and rebels in America (by no
means all of the colonists, it must be remembered). Although Congress appealed
to George III for assistance to resolve the crisis, it also took on the attributes of
a national government and waged war against Britain—which explains why the
king rejected their petition and declared the colonists to be in rebellion. Faced
with war and formally cast as rebels by their monarch, the colonists undertook
a debate about their relationship with Britain—the question first raised by the
Stamp Act a decade before. Perhaps the most important contribution to the
debate was Thomas Paine’s pamphlet, Common Sense, published in January
1776, which made a powerful case for independence. In June 1776 Congress
began to debate independence and appointed a committee to prepare a draft
Declaration of Independence. Thomas Jefferson prepared the draft. After voting
on independence, Congress adopted Jefferson’s draft after making significant
amendments to the text—both documents are included here. With its adoption
the United States was created.
 Introduction • 3
Declaring independence and winning it were different matters altogether.
Chapter 5 presents a series of documents which illustrate the lengthy military
struggle which the Declaration of Independence necessitated. William Campbell,
the last royal governor of South Carolina, reminds us that the War of Indepen-
dence was a brutal civil war as he describes the lynching of a free African Ameri-
can and the tarring and feathering of a suspected Loyalist by Patriots. The letters
and diaries of William Russell, a rebel imprisoned by the British, and Samuel
Curwen, a Loyalist who went into exile, reveal the human cost of the war.
The creation of the American republic on the declared premise that “all men
are created equal” raised crucial ethical and political questions in a society in
which one-fifth of the population were enslaved Africans. The documents in
chapter 6 examine the experience of African Americans during the age of the
American and French revolutions. A 1777 petition by Massachusetts slaves dem-
onstrates that some slaves were conversant with the Whig ideology at the heart
of the American resistance movement and sought to highlight the contradiction
between the American protests in favor of liberty and chattel slavery. Dunmore’s
Proclamation shows that in many cases, especially in the South, it was the Brit-
ish, not the rebels who offered the best chance for freedom to American slaves.
Slavery exposed a sectional rift in the revolutionary movement as suggested
by the debates in the Constitutional Convention and the subsequent compro-
mises made over the issue in the resulting Constitution. Although each of the
northern states abolished slavery during the Revolution and the early years of
the new republic, slavery survived in the South, sowing the seeds for persistent
sectional conflict and eventually war in the nineteenth century. The inability
of the revolutionaries to adequately address the contradiction between their
stated principals and slavery is probably their greatest failure, a failure which
had disastrous consequences for millions of Americans.
One of the significant achievements of the American revolutionaries was
the establishment of enduring republican governments. The creation of these
governments—through the drafting of written constitutions—is the major theme
of chapters 7 and 8. Independence required each of the new states to draft a new
constitution, and they experimented with different forms. At the same time that
they were creating new state constitutions, American republicans also struggled
to forge a national government. Received wisdom suggested that it was impossible
to have a geographically extensive republic and Americans strove to create a last-
ing government that could govern a large country. The first national constitution,
the Articles of Confederation, created a loose pact among the sovereign states.
The 1780s were characterized by a degree of economic and political instability
which some conservative republicans blamed on the democratic excesses in the
states and the apparent weakness of the national government under the Articles
of Confederation. They set about replacing the Articles of Confederation with
a new national government. The documents that follow relate to the drafting of
the Constitution at the Constitutional Convention and the intense debate over
its ratification in the states.
4 • Introduction
Women were largely excluded from the revolutionary constitutional settle-
ment. As chapter 9 shows, this exclusion arose despite the myriad contributions
of women to the Revolution. Newspaper accounts and the letters of Deborah
Franklin attest to the vital role played by women in the pre-war movement against
British taxation. The letters of Abigail Adams, as well as those of Baron Otten-
dorf, present accounts of how the War of Independence affected women. After
the war, republicans, particularly males, struggled to conceptualize the place of
women in the new American polity. The extract from Benjamin Rush’s address,
Thoughts upon Female Education, illustrates the redefinition of women’s place
in American life as Republican Mothers, responsible for inculcating republican
values through the promotion of virtue. This was a concept which could benefit
women through the improvement of female education, but also largely rendered
female political participation to the household. For exceptions see the extracts
from the New Jersey constitutions of 1776 and 1844 which chronicle early female
voting in America. The Revolution did provide women with the language and
principles to assert a claim to greater equality as evidenced by the 1848 Declara-
tion of Sentiments with which the chapter concludes.
The documents in chapters 10 and 11 trace the early years of the United
States under the new constitution. Chapter 10 begins with Alexander Hamilton’s
policy papers, his reports on credit and manufactures which laid the founda-
tion of Federalist political economy. Eventually opposition to Hamilton’s fiscal
and political program coalesced around Thomas Jefferson and James Madison.
Included is an extract from Jefferson’s Notes on the State of Virginia, which out-
lined a vision of the social, economic, and political development for the United
States which was very different from that of Hamilton and the Federalists. In
his valedictory Farewell Address, Washington called on Americans to eschew
foreign entanglements. The wars of the French Revolution made this impossible.
After the conclusion of the Jay Treaty and the election of John Adams, war with
France appeared to be inevitable and the Federalist-dominated Congress adopted
the Alien and Sedition Acts in anticipation of the conflict. These restricted civil
liberties and prompted Madison and Jefferson to draft the Virginia and Kentucky
Resolutions which asserted the right of states to nullify federal legislation which
they deemed unconstitutional.
Jefferson, elected president in the controversial election of 1800, adopted a
more liberal view of presidential power after he assumed office. He was commit-
ted to the westward expansion of the United States. As early as the Ordinance of
1784, he sketched a plan for the orderly expansion of the republic and the addi-
tion of new states to the union. As president he was able to realize this ambition
through the Louisiana Purchase and the Lewis and Clark expedition which are
illustrated in several of Jefferson’s letters. Notwithstanding his diplomatic triumph
in Louisiana, Jefferson’s second administration was marred by constant interna-
tional tensions as France and Britain interfered with American trade. In response,
Jefferson induced Congress to adopt a trade embargo in 1807 which proved
 Introduction • 5
disastrous for the American economy and politically unpopular as evidenced by
the “Ograbme” cartoon in the chapter. Jefferson was unable to solve the foreign
policy challenges facing the United States, and his successor, James Madison,
asked Congress to declare war on Britain in June of 1812. Notwithstanding its
difficulties on the battlefield, the United States experienced a surge in nationalism
during the war as illustrated by contemporary cartoons and poetry. The war also
prompted a political crisis within the Federalist opposition which flirted with
secession at the Hartford Convention, the journal of which is reproduced here.
The war ended with the resounding American victory at New Orleans—news
of which was spread by broadsides such as the one in this chapter. The victory
at New Orleans, a triumph over Britain of course, seemed a vindication of the
United States and the republican experiment launched in 1776.
We have endeavored to provide documents in their entirety or in lengthy
extracts. We feel this is vital to give students a sense for the era of the American
Revolution through its documents. This means that they will encounter the
sometimes irregular usage and spelling of the eighteenth and early nineteenth
centuries which often strike modern readers as idiosyncratic. We have retained
these to give students a feel for the language of the period. Owing to space
constraints it has not always been possible to provide complete documents. In
such cases we have often provided links to the full texts of key documents at
this volume’s companion website (http://www.routledge.com/textbooks/revolu-
tionaryamerica/). At the website interested readers will find links to additional
documents as well as study questions to guide their reading.
We have endeavored to reproduce the documents faithfully. In the interests
of clarity, however, we have introduced modern and consistent capitalization.

Note
1. For an overview of the primary sources relating to the revolutionary era see Francis D. Cogliano,
Revolutionary America 1763–1815: A Political History, 2nd edition (New York: Routledge, 2009),
287–291.
 CHAPTER 1
Native Americans and
the American Revolution

Introduction
At the end of the Seven Years’ War native power in eastern North America, as
measured by population and land, was still substantial. James Glen’s 1761 account
(document 1) of South Carolina’s relations with Indian tribes in the southeast,
particularly the Choctaws, Creeks, Chickasaws, and Cherokees is testimony
to the strength and autonomy of those tribes. Glen’s report, nonetheless, pres-
ages future challenges confronting Native Americans. These challenges became
acute at the end of the Seven Years’ War as numerous British American settlers
pushed westward, encroaching on Indian lands. The grievances of the Paxton
Boys (document 2) arising, in part, from anti-Indian animus resulted in violent
conflict which the British found difficult to contain. When racial conflict oc-
curred it was difficult to distinguish friend from foe—the Paxton Boys massacred
peaceful Christian Indians who had been taken into protective custody. Similarly
when Dunmore’s War (1774–75) broke out in the Ohio-Pennsylvania-Virginia
borderland, settlers slaughtered the family of the Mingo war chief Tachnedorus
(known to whites as Logan) despite the fact that Logan had been friendly to
settlers (document 3).
Tensions between European settlers and Native Americans were subsumed by
the subsequent conflict between the British and their North American colonists.
When the War of Independence began, Native Americans found themselves in a
position of relative (and temporary) power as both the British and the American
rebels sought to cultivate their support (documents 4, 5, and 7). Mediators and
leaders like Joseph Brant (documents 5 and 6) emerged as important players in
the complex dynamic of power relations between and among Native Americans,
the rebels, and the British. Although many tribes sympathized with the British,

7
8 • Native Americans and the American Revolution

concluding that a British victory would be less threatening to them than a rebel
triumph, many were compelled by necessity to conclude agreements with the
United States (documents 7 and 8). With the rebel victory in the war, Native
Americans were confronted by a new, more dangerous situation. The United
States, which had secured capacious boundaries at the Peace of Paris, and, pos-
sessed of a growing and population determined to settle western lands, posed a
mortal threat to the Native Americans, who could no longer count on the support
of Britain (document 9). The United States government compelled tribes to make
land and trade concessions. Native Americans resisted these encroachments
by force in the 1790s and through religious and cultural revival movements
in the first decade of the nineteenth century. Western Indians attempted to
unite under Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa and to offer military resistance (with
British backing) during the War of 1812 (document 10). At the war’s end, the
United States used this resistance to justify and force still more land conces-
sions (document 11). By 1815 the power and autonomy of Native Americans
east of the Mississippi, described by James Glen in 1761, had vanished. Within
a generation many thousands would be forcibly removed from their land and
forced to move west.

1. Southern Indians during the Seven Years’ War1

James Glen (1701–1777) served as governor of South Carolina from 1743 to 1756.
Based on his lengthy service, he wrote a lengthy descriptive analysis of the colony
which includes his observations of Native American tribes in the region. Glen em-
phasizes the political, economic, and diplomatic significance of Native Americans
to the government of the colony during the Seven Years’ War.

The concerns of this country are so closely connected and interwoven with
Indian affairs, and not only a great Branch of our Trade, but even the Safety of
this Province, do so much depend upon our continuing in Friendship with the
Indians, that I thought it highly necessary to gain all the Knowledge I could of
them; and I hope that the Accounts which I have from Time to Time transmitted
of Indian Affairs will shew, that I am pretty well acquainted with the Subject.
However, I think it expedient upon the present Occasion to give a general
Account of the several Tribes and Nations of Indians with whom the Inhabitants
of this Province are or may be connected in Interest; which is the more neces-
sary, as all we have to apprehend from the French in this Part of the World, will
much more depend upon the Indians than upon any Strength of their own; for
that is so inconsiderable in itself, and so far distant from us, that without Indian
Assistance, it cannot, if exerted, do us much Harm.
There are among our Settlements several small Tribes of Indians, consisting
only of some few Families each; but those Tribes of Indians which we, on Account
of their being numerous and having Lands of their own, call Nations, are all of
 Native Americans and the American Revolution • 9

them situated on the western Side of this Province, and at various Distances, as
I have already mentioned.
The Catawbaw Nations of Indians hath about Three Hundred fighting Men;
brave Fellows as any on the Continent of America, and our firm Friends; their
Country is about Two Hundred Miles from Charles-Town.
The Cherokees live at the Distance of about Three Hundred Miles from Charles-
Town, though indeed their hunting Grounds stretch much nearer to us; they have
about Three Thousand Gun-Men, and are in Alliance with this Government.
I lately made a considerable Purchase from that Indian Nation, of some of
those hunting Grounds, which are now become the Property of the British
Crown, at the Charge of this Province; I had the Deeds of Conveyance formally
executed in their own Country, by their head Men, in the Name of the whole
People, and with their universal Approbation and good Will.
They inhabit a Tract of Country about Two Hundred Miles in Extent, and
form a good Barrier, which is naturally strengthened by a Country hilly and
mountainous; but said to be interspersed with pleasant and fruitful Vallies, and
watered by many limpid and wholesome Brooks and Rivulets, which run among
the Hills, and give those real Pleasures which we in the lower lands have only
in Imagination.
The Creek Indians are situated about Five Hundred Miles from Charles-Town;
their Number of fighting Men is about Two Thousand Five Hundred, and they
are in Friendship with us.
The Chickesaws live at the Distance of near Eight Hundred Miles from Charles-
Town; they have bravely stood their Ground against the repeated Attacks of the
French and their Indians; but are now reduced to Two or Three Hundred Men.
The Chactaw Nation of Indians is situated at a somewhat greater Distance
from us, and have till within this Year or Two been in the Interest of the French;
by whom they were reckoned to be the most numerous of any Nation of Indians
in America, and said to consist of many Thousand Men.
The People of most Experience in the Affairs of this Country, have always
dreaded a French War, from an Apprehension that an Indian War would be the
Consequence of it, for which Reasons I have, ever since the first breaking out
of War with France, redoubled my Attention to Indian Affairs; and, I hope, not
without Success.
For notwithstanding all the Intrigues of the French, they have not been able
to get the least Footing among our Nations of Indians; as very plainly appears by
those Nations still continuing to give fresh Proofs of their Attachment to us; and
I have had the Happiness to bring over and fix the Friendship of the Chactaw
Nation of Indians in the British Interest.
This powerful Engine, which the French, for many years past, played against
us and our Indians, even in Times of Peace, is now happily turned against them-
selves, and I believe they feel the Force of it…
I shall be particularly cautious of doing any Thing inconsistent with the Peace
10 • Native Americans and the American Revolution

so lately concluded; but I think it incumbent on me to say, that it will be impos-

sible to retain those Indians, or any other, in His Majesty’s Interest, unless we
continue to trade with them.
And since War and Hunting are the Business of their Lives, both Arms and
Ammunition, as well as Cloaths and other Necessaries, are the Goods for which
there is the greatest Demand among them; I therefore hope to receive Instruc-
tions in this particular, as a Rule for my Conduct.
There are a pretty many Indians among the Kays, about the Cape of Florida,
who might be easily secured to the British Interest; but as they have little Com-
munication with any others on the main Land, and have nor any Goods to trade
for, they could not be of any Advantage either in Peace of War: There are also a
few Yamasees, about Twenty Men, near St. Augustine; and these are all the Indians
in this Part of the World that are in the Interest of the Crown of Spain.
The French have the Friendship of some few of the Creek Indians, such as
inhabit near the Holbama Fort; and some of the Chactaw Indians have not as yet
declared against them; They have also some Tribes upon Mississippi River and
Ouabash, and in other Parts; but most of these, and all other Indians whatsoever,
inhabit above a Thousand Miles from Charles-Town; and yet it may be proper
to give Attention even to what happens among those who are so far from us;
for to an Indian, a Thousand Miles is as One Mile, their Provisions being in the
Woods, and they are never out of the Way; they are slow, saying the Sun will rise
again to morrow, but they are steddy…
If ever the French Settlements on the Mississippi grow great, they may have
pernicious Effects upon South Carolina, because they produced the same Sorts
of Commodities as are produced there, viz. Rice and Indigo; but hitherto, the
only Inconvenience that I know of, is, their attempting to withdraw our Indians
from us, and attacking those who are most attached to our Interest.
I beg Leave to assure you, that I shall never do any thing inconsistent with
that good Faith which is the Basis of all His Majesty’s Measures; but it is easy for
me at present to divert the French in their own Way, and to find them Business
for double the Number of Men they have in that Country.
However, this, and even the Tranquillity of South Carolina, will depend upon
preserving our Interest with the Indians, which it will be very difficult to do,
unless the Presents are continued to them, and those Forts built which I have
formerly proposed, or at least, one of them, and that to be in the Country of
the Cherokees.

2. Petition from the Paxton Boys, 17642

At the end of the Seven Years’ War tensions increased along the frontier. Native
Americans took up arms in Pontiac’s Rebellion to resist encroachment on their lands
by white settlers whose numbers increased steadily following the British victory in
the war. In December 1763 a group of Scots-Irish vigilantes from Paxton Township,
 Native Americans and the American Revolution • 11

Pennsylvania, murdered six peaceful Conestoga Indians whom they suspected of

supporting the hostile tribes. The so-called Paxton Boys then marched on Phila-
delphia to demand greater protection from Indians. This petition from two of the
Paxton Boys to the government of Pennsylvania enumerates their grievances and
reveals the depth and virulence of anti-Indian sentiment among some settlers as
well as their hostility toward the government.

…During the late and present Indian Wars, the Frontiers of this Province have
been repeatedly attacked and ravaged by Skulking parties of the Indians, who
have with the most savage Cruelty, murdered Men, Women and Children, without
distinction; and have reduced near a Thousand Families to the most extream
Distress. It grieves us to the very Heart, to see such of our Frontier Inhabitants
as have escaped from savage Fury, with the loss of their Parents, their Children,
their Husbands, Wives, or Relatives, left destitute by the Public, and exposed to
the most cruel Poverty and Wretchedness; while upwards of One Hundred and
Twenty of the Savages, who are with great Reason suspected of being guilty of
these horrid Barbarities under the Mask of Friendship, have procured themselves
to be taken under the Protection of the Government, with a view to elude the
Fury of the brave Relatives of the Murdered; and are now maintained at the
public Expence: Some of these Indians now in the Barracks of Philadelphia are
confessedly a part of the Wyalusing Indians, which Tribe is now at War with us;
and the others are the Moravian Indians, who living among us under the Cloak of
Friendship, carried on a Correspondence with our known Enemies on the Great-
Island. We cannot but observe with Sorrow and Indignation, that some Persons in
this Province are at pains to extenuate the barbarous Cruelties practiced by these
savages on our Murdered Brethern and Relatives, which are shocking to human
Nature, and must pierce every Heart but those of the hardened Perpetrators or
their Abettors. Nor is it less Distressing to hear others pleading, that altho’ the
Wyalusing Tribe is at War with us; yet that part of it which is under the Protec-
tion of the Government may be friendly to the English, and Innocent. In what
Nation under the Sun was it ever the Custom, that when a neighbouring Nation
took up Arms, not an individual of the Nation should be touched, but only the
Persons that offered Hostilities? Who ever proclaimed war with a part of a Na-
tion, and not with the Whole? Had these Indians disapproved of the Perfidy of
their Tribe, and been willing to cultivate and preserve Friendship with us, why
did they not give Notice of the War before it happened, as it is known to be the
Result of long Deliberations, and a preconcerted Combination amongst them?
Why did they not leave their Tribe immediately, and come amongst us before
there was ground to suspect them, or War was actually waged with the Tribe?
No, they stayed amongst them, were privy to their Murders and Ravages, untill
we had destroyed their Provisions, and when they could no longer subsist at
Home, they came, not as Deserters, but as Friends, to be maintained thro’ the
Winter, that they may be able to scalp and butcher us in the Spring…
12 • Native Americans and the American Revolution

We humbly conceive that it is contrary to the Maxims of good Policy and ex-
treamly dangerous to our Frontiers, to suffer any Indians of what Tribe soever, to
live within the inhabited Parts of this Province, while we are engaged in an Indian
War; as Experience has taught us that they are all Persidious, and their Claim to
Freedom and Independency puts it in their Power to act as Spies, to entertain
and give Intelligence to our Enemies, and to furnish them with Provisions and
warlike Stores. To this fatal Intercourse between our pretended Friends and open
Enemies we must ascribe the greatest Part of the Ravages and Murders that have
been committed in the Course of this and the last Indian War…

3. Logan’s Lament, 17753

During the summer of 1774 a conflict, known as Dunmore’s War, arose between
settlers and Indians in western Pennsylvania and Ohio. The war began when Vir-
ginians massacred the family of a Mingo war chief, Tachnedorus, known to whites
as John Logan at Yellow Creek on April 30, 1774. At the end of the war Logan is
said to have delivered this speech, reflecting on his loss. Thomas Jefferson included
Logan’s Lament, which appeared in newspapers in 1782 in The Notes on the State
of Virginia as an example of Native American oratory. When the speech appeared
some commentators queried its authenticity and historians have continued to
dispute whether Logan delivered it.

I appeal to any white man to say if he ever entered Logan’s cabin hungry, and
he gave him not meat; if he ever came cold and naked and he clothed him not.
During the course of the last long and bloody war, Logan remained idle in his
cabin, an advocate for peace.
Such was my love for the whites, that my countrymen pointed as I passed,
and said, “Logan is a friend of the white man.” I have even thought to live with
you but for the injuries of one man, Colonel Cresap, who last spring in cold
blood and unprovoked murdered the relatives of Logan, not even sparing his
wife and children.
There runs not a drop of my blood in the veins of any living creature. This has
called on me for revenge. I have sought it; I have killed many; I have fully glutted
my vengeance. For my country, I rejoice in the beams of peace.
But do not harbor a thought that mine is the joy of fear. Logan never felt fear.
He will not turn on his heel to save his life. Who is there to mourn for Logan?
Not one.

4. Congress Appeals to the Six Nations, July 13, 17754

At the outset of the War of Independence, both the British and the rebels realized
that Native American support would be vital to the war effort. Relatively small num-
bers of Native Americans could cause either of the belligerents to divert substantial
 Native Americans and the American Revolution • 13

resources away from the main theater of conflict along the eastern seaboard. For
their part Native Americans viewed the conflict as an opportunity to stop or reverse
the encroachment of white settlers onto their lands. Many tribes viewed the British
as the best potential allies because they were less likely to threaten native lands and
they could provide Indians with a steady supply of arms and other trade goods.
The rebels sought to cultivate alliances with Native Americans or, at least, to secure
Indian neutrality in the conflict. This is a message which Congress delivered to the
Iroquois Six Nations, probably the most powerful Indian Confederacy in eastern
North America, attempting to discourage their intervention in the war.

A Speech to the Six Confederate Nations, Mohawks, Oneidas, Tuscaroras, Onon-

dagas, Cayugas, Senekas, from the Twelve United Colonies, convened in Council
at Philadelphia.

Brothers, Sachems, and Warriors,

…in our consultation we have judged it proper and necessary to send you this
talk, as we are upon the same island, that you may be informed of the reasons
of this great council, the situation of our civil constitution, and our disposition
towards you our Indian brothers of the Six Nations and their allies.
(Three Strings, or a small Belt.)

…Brothers, Listen!
Notwithstanding all our entreaties, we have but little hope the king will send
us any more good talks, by reason of his evil counsellors; they have persuaded
him to send an army of soldiers and many ships of war, to rob and destroy us.
They have shut up many of our harbours, seized and taken into possession many
of our vessels: the soldiers have struck the blow, killed some of our people, the
blood now runs of the American children: They have also burned our houses
and towns, and taken much of our goods.
Brothers! We are now necessitated to rise, and forced to fight, or give up our
civil constitution, run away and leave our farms and houses behind us. This must
not be. Since the king’s wicked counsellors will not open their ears, and consider
our just complaints, and the cause of our weeping, and hath given the blow, we
are determined to drive away the king’s soldiers, and to kill and destroy all those
wicked men we find in arms against the peace of the twelve United Colonies
upon this island. We think our cause is just; therefore hope God will be on our
side. We do not take up the hatchet and struggle for honor and conquest; but to
maintain our civil constitution and religious privileges, the very same for which
our forefathers left their native land and came to this country.

Brothers and Friends!

We desire you will hear and receive what we have now told you, and that you
will open a good ear and listen to what we are now going to say. This is a family
14 • Native Americans and the American Revolution

quarrel between us and Old England. You Indians are not concerned in it. We
don’t wish you to take up the hatchet against the king’s troops. We desire you
to remain at home, and not join on either side, but keep the hatchet buried
deep. In the name and in behalf of all our people, we ask and desire you to love
peace and maintain it, and to love and sympathise with us in our troubles; that
the path may be kept open with all our people and yours, to pass and repass,
without molestation.
Brothers! we live upon the same ground with you. The same island is our com-
mon birth-place. We desire to sit down under the same tree of peace with you:
let us water its roots and cherish its growth, till the large leaves and flourishing
branches shall extend to the setting sun, and reach the skies.

Brothers, Observe Well!

What is it we have asked of you? Nothing but peace, notwithstanding our pres-
ent disturbed situation—and if application should be made to you by any of the
king’s unwise and wicked ministers to join on their side, we only advise you to
deliberate, with great caution, and in your wisdom look forward to the conse-
quences of a compliance. For, if the king’s troops take away our property, and
destroy us who are of the same blood with themselves, what can you, who are
Indians, expect from them afterwards?
Therefore, we say, brothers, take care—hold fast to your covenant chain. You
now know our disposition towards you, the Six Nations of Indians, and your al-
lies. Let this our good talk remain at Onondaga, your central council house. We
depend upon you to send and acquaint your allies to the northward, the seven
tribes on the river St. Lawrence, that you have this talk of ours at the great council
fire of the Six Nations. And when they return, we invite your great men to come
and converse farther with us at Albany, where we intend to re-kindle the council
fire, which your and our ancestors sat round in great friendship.

Brothers and Friends!

We greet you all farewell.
(The large belt of intelligence and declaration.)

Brothers!
We have said we wish you Indians may continue in peace with one another, and
with us the white people. Let us both be cautious in our behaviour towards each
other at this critical state of affairs. This island now trembles, the wind whistles
from almost every quarter—let us fortify our minds and shut our ears against
false rumors—let us be cautious what we receive for truth, unless spoken by
wise and good men. If any thing disagreeable should ever fall out between us,
the twelve United Colonies, and you, the Six Nations, to wound our peace, let us
immediately seek measures for healing the breach. From the present situation
of our affairs, we judge it wise and expedient to kindle up a small council fire
 Native Americans and the American Revolution • 15

at Albany, where we may hear each other’s voice, and disclose our minds more
fully to each other.
(A small belt.)

Ordered, That a similar talk be prepared for the other Indian nations, preserv-
ing the tenor of the above, and altering it so as to suit the Indians in the several
departments.

5. Joseph Brant Speaks to Lord George Germain, March 14, 17765

Like other Americans, the members of the Iroquois Confederacy were divided by
the War of Independence. Some of the Confederacy allied with the British, others
remained neutral, and others supported the rebels. This may have been a deliberate
strategy by the diplomatically adroit Iroquois to maintain their authority regard-
less of the outcome of the war. One of the most important leaders of the faction
which supported the British was the Mohawk war chief, Thayendanegea or Joseph
Brant (c. 1743–1807). In late 1775 Brant travelled with a delegation to London to
negotiate with the British government over Iroquois entry into the war. This is a
speech which Brant delivered to Lord George Germain (1716–1785), the American
Secretary. Brant returned to America in July 1776 and fought with the British army
in the campaigns around New York City. He was subsequently commissioned as an
officer and led Mohawk warriors against the rebels. Brant was probably the most
famous Native American participant in the War of Independence.

Brother Gorah,
We have cross’d the great Lake and come to this kingdom with our Superin-
tendent, Col. Johnson, from our Confederacy the Six Nations and their allies,
that we might see our Father, the Great King, and joyn in informing him, his
Councillors and wise men, of the good intentions of the Indians our brethren,
and of their attachment to His Majesty and his Government.
Brother. The Disturbances in America give great trouble to all our Nations, as
many strange stories have been told to us by the people of that country. The Six
Nations who always loved the king, sent a number of their Chiefs and Warriors
with their Superintendent to Canada last summer, where they engaged their
allies to joyn with them in the defense of that country, and when it was invaded
by the New England people they alone defeated them.
Brother. In that engagement we had several of our best Warriors killed and
wounded, and the Indians think it very hard they should have been so deceived
by the White people in that country, the enemy returning in great numbers, and
no White people supporting the Indians, they were obliged to return to their
villages and sit still. We now Brother hope to see these bad children chastised,
and that we may be enabled to tell the Indians who have always been faithfull
and ready to assist the King, what his Majesty intends.
16 • Native Americans and the American Revolution

Brother. The Mohocks our particular nation, have on all occasions shewn
their zeal and loyalty to the Great King; yet they have been very badly treated
by the people in that country, the City of Albany laying an unjust claim to the
lands on which our Lower Castle is built, as one Klock, and others do to those
of Conijoharrie our Upper Village. We have often been assured by our late great
friend Sr William Johnson who never deceived us, and we know he was told so
that the King and wise men here would do us justice; but this notwithstanding
all our applications has never been done, and it makes us very uneasie. We also
feel for the distress in which our Brethren on the Susquehanna are likely to be
involved by a mistake made in the Boundary we setled in 1768. This also our
Superintendent has laid before the King, and we beg it may be remembered. And
also concerning Religion and the want of Ministers of the Church of England,
he knows the designs of those bad people and informs us he has laid the same
before the King. We have only therefore to request that his Majesty will attend
to this matter: it troubles our Nation & they cannot sleep easie in their beds.
Indeed it is very hard when we have let the Kings subjects have so much land
for so little value, they should want to cheat us in this manner of the small spots
we have left for our women and children to live on. We are tired out in making
complaints & getting no redress. We therefore hope that the Assurances now
given us by the Superintendent may take place, and that he may have it in his
power to procure us justice.
Brother. We shall truly report all that we hear from you, to the Six Nations on
our return. We are well informed there have been many Indians in this Country
who came without any authority, from their own, and gave us much trouble. We
desire Brother to tell you this is not our case. We are warriors known to all the
Nations, and are now here by approbation of many of them, whose sentiments
we speak.
Brother. We hope these things will be considered and that the King or his great
men will give us such an answer as will make our hearts light and glad before
we go, and strengthen our hands, so that we may joyn our Superintendent, Col.
Johnson in giving satisfaction to all our Nations, when we report to them on our
return, on our return; for which purpose we hope soon to be accommodated
with a passage.
Dictated by the Indians and taken down by
Jo. Chew. Secretary

6. Joseph Brant, 17866

This portrait of Brant was painted in London after the War of Independence by
Gilbert Stuart (1755–1828). Brant had returned to England to seek British dip-
lomatic support as well as financial compensation for the losses sustained by the
Mohawks in the war.
 Native Americans and the American Revolution • 17

Figure 1.1 Joseph Brant, 1786, by Gilbert Stuart.

7. A Missionary Speaks on Behalf of the Oneidas and Onondagas,

17777
Although Brant and the Mohawks fought for the British, others among the Iroquois
Confederacy opted for neutrality or supported the rebels. This letter from Samuel
Kirkland (1741–1808), a Presbyterian missionary, expresses qualified support
for the rebels on behalf of the Oneidas and Onondagas in the wake of Burgoyne’s
surrender in October 1777. It is evidence of the delicate diplomacy that Native
Americans conducted during the War of Independence.

I delivered your Message to the Oneida Sachems, informing them of the Cap-
ture of Gen. Burgoyne, and his whole Army; and I presented the Warriors your
Request, that a Number of their best Men (not exceeding thirty or forty) should
immediately repair to Albany, where they would receive further Directions. I
also sent their Head Warriors with the Belt of Information to the Onondagoes
four days ago: To each of the above you have the following Replies…

Brother Arahocktea,
We have heard your Voice—Your Belt has come in good Time, and brings great
News.—Brother, We congratulate you upon the extraordinary Success of your
18 • Native Americans and the American Revolution

Army. Your Enemy, once very strong in that Quarter, are now subdued—This is
Matter of great Rejoicing. Indeed we have long expected it would be his Fate, as
he talked very proudly amongst all the Indians, and told what he would do to the
Americans—He despised them. The Army he sent against Fort Schuyler, spake
very insolently—quite too proud—‘That they would trample all down before
them, and at first Sight of them the Fort would vanish’—but now the Proud are
brought low! this is right.
Brother, We send your Belt of Intelligence forward to the Cayugas and
Senecas—We hope its influence will be very extensive—we expect it will soon
reach Niagara.
Brother, The great God has brought about this happy Revolution, as you
observed in your Speech to us. We must all ascribe the Honour, the Wisdom
and Victory to him.
Brother, We wish you a Continuation of Success. Farewell.
Tehorgweahten

8. Treaty with the Delawares, 17788

Although many tribes allied with the British during the War of Independence, oth-
ers did so with the rebels. This 1778 treaty between the Delawares and the United
States addresses concerns which were present throughout the war such as fair trade
and the right of rebel forces to cross Indian territory.

Articles of agreement and confederation, made and entered into by Andrew and
Thomas Lewis, Esquires, Commissioners for, and in Behalf of the United States
of North-America of the one Part, and Capt. White Eyes, Capt. John Kill Buck,
Junior, and Capt. Pipe, Deputies and Chief Men of the Delaware Nation of the
other Part.

Article I
That all offences or acts of hostilities by one, or either of the contracting parties
against the other, be mutually forgiven, and buried in the depth of oblivion,
never more to be had in remembrance.

Article II
That a perpetual peace and friendship shall from henceforth take place, and sub-
sist between the contracting parties aforesaid, through all succeeding generations:
and if either of the parties are engaged in a just and necessary war with any other
nation or nations, that then each shall assist the other in due proportion to their
abilities, till their enemies are brought to reasonable terms of accommodation:
and that if either of them shall discover any hostile designs forming against the
other, they shall give the earliest notice thereof, that timeous measures may be
taken to prevent their ill effect.
 Native Americans and the American Revolution • 19

Article III
And whereas the United States are engaged in a just and necessary war, in defence
and support of life, liberty and independence, against the King of England and
his adherents, and as said King is yet possessed of several posts and forts on
the lakes and other places, the reduction of which is of great importance to the
peace and security of the contracting parties, and as the most practicable way
for the troops of the United States to some of the posts and forts is by passing
through the country of the Delaware nation, the aforesaid deputies, on behalf of
themselves and their nation, do hereby stipulate and agree to give a free passage
through their country to the troops aforesaid, and the same to conduct by the
nearest and best ways to the posts, forts or towns of the enemies of the United
States, affording to said troops such supplies of corn, meat, horses, or whatever
may be in their power for the accommodation of such troops, on the command-
ing officer’s, &c. paying, or engageing to pay, the full value of whatever they can
supply them with. And the said deputies, on the behalf of their nation, engage to
join the troops of the United States aforesaid, with such a number of their best
and most expert warriors as they can spare, consistent with their own safety,
and act in concert with them; and for the better security of the old men, women
and children of the aforesaid nation, whilst their warriors are engaged against
the common enemy, it is agreed on the part of the United States, that a fort of
sufficient strength and capacity be built at the expense of the said States, with
such assistance as it may be in the power of the said Delaware Nation to give, in
the most convenient place, and advantageous situation, as shall be agreed on by
the commanding officer of the troops aforesaid, with the advice and concurrence
of the deputies of the aforesaid Delaware Nation, which fort shall be garrisoned
by such a number of the troops of the United States, as the commanding officer
can spare for the present, and hereafter by such numbers, as the wise men of the
United States in council, shall think most conducive to the common good.

Article IV
For the better security of the peace and friendship now entered into by the
contracting parties, against all infractions of the same by the citizens of either
party, to the prejudice of the other, neither party shall proceed to the infliction
of punishments on the citizens of the other, otherwise than by securing the of-
fender or offenders by imprisonment, or any other competent means, till a fair
and impartial trial can be had by judges or juries of both parties, as near as can
be to the laws, customs and usages of the contracting parties and natural justice:
The mode of such trials to be hereafter fixed by the wise men of the United States
in Congress assembled, with the assistance of such deputies of the Delaware na-
tion, as may be appointed to act in concert with them in adjusting this matter
to their mutual liking. And it is further agreed between the parties aforesaid,
that neither shall entertain or give countenance to the enemies of the other, or
protect in their respective states, criminal fugitives, servants or slaves, but the
20 • Native Americans and the American Revolution

same to apprehend, and secure and deliver to the State or States, to which such
enemies, criminals, servants or slaves respectively belong.

Article V
Whereas the confederation entered into by the Delaware nation and the United
States, renders the first dependent on the latter for all the articles of clothing,
utensils and implements of war, and it is judged not only reasonable, but in-
dispensably necessary, that the aforesaid Nation be supplied with such articles
from time to time, as far as the United States may have it in their power, by a
well-regulated trade, under the conduct of an intelligent, candid agent, with an
adequate salary, one more influenced by the love of his country, and a constant
attention to the duties of his department by promoting the common interest,
than the sinister purposes of converting and binding all the duties of his office
to his private emolument: Convinced of the necessity of such measures, the
Commissioners of the United States, at the earnest solicitation of the deputies
aforesaid, have engaged in behalf of the United States, that such a trade shall
be afforded said nation conducted on such principles of mutual interest as the
wisdom of the United States in Congress assembled shall think most conducive
to adopt for their mutual convenience.

Article VI
Whereas the enemies of the United States have endeavored, by every artifice
in their power, to possess the Indians in general with an opinion, that it is the
design of the States aforesaid, to extirpate the Indians and take possession of
their country to obviate such false suggestion, the United States do engage to
guarantee to the aforesaid nation of Delawares, and their heirs, all their territorial
rights in the fullest and most ample manner, as it hath been bounded by former
treaties, as long as they the said Delaware nation shall abide by, and hold fast the
chain of friendship now entered into. And it is further agreed on between the
contracting parties should it for the future be found conducive for the mutual
interest of both parties to invite any other tribes who have been friends to the
interest of the United States, to join the present confederation, and to form a
state whereof the Delaware nation shall be the head, and have a representation
in Congress: Provided, nothing contained in this article to be considered as
conclusive until it meets with the approbation of Congress. And it is also the
intent and meaning of this article, that no protection or countenance shall be
afforded to any who are at present our enemies, by which they might escape the
punishment they deserve.

9. Chickasaw Chiefs Appeal to Congress, 17839

With the rebel victory in the War of Independence, Native Americans lost a crucial
ally in Britain and were confronted by a burgeoning population desirous of western
 Native Americans and the American Revolution • 21

land. This petition from chiefs of the Chickasaw nation describes the deleterious
impact the war had on their people and their ongoing difficulties in its aftermath—
notably access to trade goods and threats to their land. The relative weakness of the
United States government during the Confederation period meant that Congress
could do little to address these problems even if it were inclined to do so.

Friend & Brother,

This is the first talk we ever sent you—we hope it will not be the last. We desire
you to open your Ears to hear, and your heart to understand us, as we shall
always be ready to do to your talks, which we expect will be good, as you are a
great and wise man.

Brother,
When our great father the King of England called away his warriors, he told us
to take your People by the hand as friends and brothers. Our hearts were always
inclined to do so & as far as our circumstances permitted us, we evinced our good
intentions as Brothers the Virginians can testify—It makes our hearts rejoice to
find that our great father, and his children the Americans have at length made
peace, which we wish may continue as long as the Sun and Moon, And to find
that our Brothers the Americans are inclined to take us by the hand, and Smoke
with us at the great Fire, which we hope will never be extinguished.

Brother,
Notwithstanding the Satisfaction all these things give us we are yet in confu-
sion & uncertainty. The Spaniards are sending talks amongst us, and inviting
our young Men to trade with them. We also receive talks from the Governor of
Georgia to the same effect—We have had Speeches from the Illinois inviting us
to a Trade and Intercourse with them—Our Brothers, the Virginians Call upon
us to a Treaty, and want part of our land, and we expect our Neighbors who live
on Cumberland River, will in a Little time Demand, if not forcibly take part of
it from us, also as we are informed they have been marking Lines through our
hunting grounds: we are daily receiving Talks from one Place or other, and from
People we Know nothing about. We Know not who to mind or who to neglect.
We are told that the Americans have 13 Councils Compos’d of Chiefs and War-
riors. We Know not which of them we are to Listen to, or if we are to hear some,
and Reject others, we are at a loss to Distinguish those we are to hear. We are
told that you are the head Chief of the Grand Council, which is above these 13
Councils: if so why have we not had Talks from you,—We are head men and
Chiefs and Warriors also: and have always been accustomed to speak with great
Chiefs & warriors—We are Likewise told that you and the Great men of your
Council are Very Wise—we are glad to hear it, being assured that you will not
do us any Wrong, and therefore we wish to Speak with you and your Council, or
if you Do not approve of our so Doing, as you are wise, you will tell us who shall
22 • Native Americans and the American Revolution

speak with us, in behalf of all our Brothers the Americans, and from where and
whom we are to be supplyed with necessarries in the manner our great father
supplied us—we hope you will also put a stop to any encroachments on our
lands, without our consent, and silence all those People who sends us Such Talks
as inflame & exasperate our Young Men, as it is our earnest desire to remain in
peace and friendship with our Br: the Americans for ever.

Brother,
The King our Common father always left one of his beloved Men among us, to
whom we told anything we had to say, and he soon obtained an answer—and
by him our great Father, his Chiefs & headmen spoke to us.
Our great father always gave him goods to cover the nakedness of our old men
who could not hunt, our women and our children, and he was as one mouth,
and one tongue between us, and was beloved of us all. Such a man living among
us particularly at this time, would rescue us from the darkness and confusion
we are in. By directing us to whom we should speak, and putting us in the right
Path that we should not go wrong.
We have desired our Br. Mr. Donne, who brought talks from General Clark,
and has been some time among us, to deliver this talk to you, and speak it in
our behalf to your Grand Council, that you may know our want, and as you are
wise, that you may direct us what to do for the best. He has Promised, at our
desire to take it to your great council fire & to bring as your answer, that you
may be no more in the dark—believe what he tells you from us; we have told
him all that is in our hearts.
Brothers, we are very poor for necessaries, for Amunition particularly. We can
supply ourselves from the Spaniards but we are averse to hold any intercourse
with them, as our hearts are always with our Brothers the Americans. We have
advised our young men to wait with patience for the answer to this talk, when
we rest assured of having supplies, and every thing so regulated that no further
confusion may ensue. We wish that this land may never again be stained with
the blood of either white or Red men, that peace may last forever and that both
our women and children may sit down in safety under their own shade to en-
joy without fear or apprehension the Blessing which the good Spirit enriches
them with. Brother, we again desire you and your chiefs to Listen to what we
say that we shall not have to Repeat it again, and as you are all Wise, you will
know what to do.

10. The Eve of War, 181110

In the decades after the War of Independence, Native Americans in the Ohio and
Mississippi River valleys faced increasing pressure as American settlers encroached
on their land. Despite a brief period of successful military resistance in the early
1790s, Indians could do little to check American expansion. During the first de-
 Native Americans and the American Revolution • 23

cade of the nineteenth century, a pan-Indian revival movement took root in the
northwest under the leadership of two Shawnee brothers, Tecumseh (1768–1813)
and Tenskwatawa (1775–1836). Tenskwatawa, known as the Prophet, preached a
message of cultural renewal while Tecumseh organized Indians to provide armed
resistance to the United States. Their confederacy posed the most potent Native
American threat to the United States since the War of Independence. In this let-
ter William Eustis (1753–1825), the United States Secretary of War, attempts to
conciliate Indians prior to the outbreak of the War of 1812 and warns the tribes
against the Prophet.

My Children. Your Great Father, the President, takes you by the hand, and
commands me to say to you, —
My Children. Your Father opens his ears to your complaints. You say the
animals of the forrest are leaving you and that your hunting fails. It was once so
with his white Children. They killed and drove away the game from their fields.
But they planted corn and have had plenty ever since. Do you the same, plant
corn and you will have abundance for your wives and children thro’ the long
winters. Your Great Father will give you a plough and a horse to enable you to
cultivate the earth.
My Children. You say your Great Father has stopped the white men’s goods
which used to come among you. It is true that no British goods can come within
the U. States this year. The white people as well as the red suffer by this. But it
cannot be helped. It is the law of the Great Council and must be obeyed.
My Children. Your Great Father has sent to Michilimacinac many goods;
many more have been sent this year. From these he hopes you will be able to
get sufficient supplies. If you cannot get everything you want, you must learn to
do as the white people have, to do without as well as you can.
My Children. You complain that you do not receive your proportion of the
supplies which are sent out every year to your nation.
My Children. Your Great Father sends to you all the goods and money
stipulated in the Treaty. You must call meeting of all the chiefs of the nation,
at which the Governor will be present, and you must agree among yourselves
on the proportion of goods and money which each part of the tribe ought to
receive. The Governor will report to your Great Father and then you will receive
accordingly.
My Children. You say you have shut your ears to the bad birds sent by the
Pattawomie who calls himself a prophet. Beware of the man. He is not good. He
has already caused the destruction of many young men belonging to you and
other tribes. All who go to him with arms will be destroyed.
My Children. Your Great Father takes you again by the hand he bids you
farewell; and he commands me to give you clothing some gun-powder and other
things in token of his good will towards you and your nation. He is pleased with
your conduct since you have been here, and trusts that by such behaviour through
Exploring the Variety of Random
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Maximilian I. 1533. Ivan IV. the Terrible; a tyrant. 1584. Feodor, or
Theodor, I. ; and his son, Demetrius, murdered by his successor,
1598. Boris-Godonof, who usurped the throne. 1605. Feodor II. ,
murdered. 1606. Demetrius the Impostor, a young Polish monk;
pretended to be the murdered prince Demetrius; put to death. "
Vasali-Chouiski, or Zouinski. 1610. Ladislaus of Poland; retired 1613.
1613. Michael-Feodorovitz, of the house of Romanofi, descended
from the czar Ivan Basilovitz. 1645. Alexis, son; styled the father of
his country. 1676. Feodor, or Theodor, II. irso n^au V. and iw^. -
^pgjgr i^ brothers of the preceding. EMPERORS AND EMPRESSES.
1689. Peter I. the Great, alone; took the title of emperor 22 Oct.
1721; founded St. Petersburg. 1725. Catherine T., hi.? widow; at first
the wife of a Swedish dragoon, said to have been killed on the day
of marriage. 1727. Peter II., son of Alexis Petrovitz, and grandson of
Peter the Great; deposed 1730. Anne, duchess of Courland,
daughter of the czar Ivan. 1740. Ivan VI., an infant, grand-nephew
to Peler the Great; immured in a dungeon for 18 years; murdered in
1764. 1741. Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great, reigned during
Ivan's captivity. 1762. Peter IIL, son of Anne and of Charles
Frederick, duke of Holstein-Gottorp; deposed, and died soon after;
supposed to have been murdered. " Catherine II. , his consort; a
great sovereign; extended the Russian territories on all sides; d. 17
Nov. 1796.
 1810. 1825. 1855. 1881. 1891. RUS Paul, her son;
murdered 24 Mch. 1801. Alexander I., sou; b. 28 Dec. 177T; d. 1
Dec. 1825. Nicholas I., brother; b. 25 June, 17%; d. 2 Mch. 1855.
Alexander II., son; b. 29 Apr. 1818; married 28 Apr. 1841, Mary,
princess of Hesse (d. 3 June, 1880); said to have married"
(morganatic) princess Dolgoiirouki, 19 (31) July; marriage
announced. Oct. 1880; assassinated at St. Petersburg, 2 F.M., 13
Mch. 1881. Alexander III., b. 10 Mch. 1845; d. 1 Nov. 1894; married
Mary (formerly Dagmar), princess of Denmark, 9 Nov. 1866. Nicholas
11., son; b. 18 May. 1868; married princess Alix of Hesse-
Darmstadt, 26 Nov. "l894. RllKiSO-Japaiiese "*var. The causes of the
war declared by Japan against Russia lie in the feeling of outraged
national pride following the Russian occupation of Port Arthur after
Japan had been forced to let go this important prize of its war with
China. Russia hastened after the treaty ot peace between Japan and
China to establish a practical occupation of ;\Ianchuria, her political
and naval interests demanding a naval base on the Yellow Sea, free
of ice. Russia extended its Trans-Siberian railroad system to Port
Arthur, and, without annexing Manchuria in fact, gave so many
evident signs of intent to make her control there permanent that
Japan took alarm. Between Manchuria and Japan lies Korea, which,
Jajianese statesmen hold, must be under Japanese control for the
safety of Japan itself. Russia in Manchuria meant Russian intrigue in
Korea, and the prevention of the expansion of Japan. And expansion
is imperative for Japan by reason of her growing population. The
Boxer troubles in China strengthened the Russian position in
Manchuria, and, when these dis'urbances ceased, Japan began a
diplomatic campaign to force llussia back. This continued until the
presentation of an ultimatum by Japan in Jan. The contents of the
Russian reply, sent to Tokio on 6 Feb., was known to the mikado's
ministers before it could be presented, and was of so unsatisfactory
a character that the Japanese minister at St. Petersburg, count
Kurino, was summarily recalled. The Russian minister, baron df
Rosen, was recalled on the same day. Subsequent events have
proved that Japan's military and naval progress in the previous 10
years had been governed by the realization that sooner or later war
with Ka -^sia was inevitable. The Russians, on the other hand, had
counted on being able to prevent a war, or, at least, to postpone it
for some years to come. At the outbreak of hostilities Russia was
unprepared, both as regards her army in Mancluiriaandher naval
establishment at Port Arthur anil Vladivostok, to cope with the
Japanese. The story of the war is of an almost unchecked Japanese
advance and of a brilliantly executed Russian retreat. In some
respects the movement of the Japanese armies can be compared,
for machinelike precision, to that of the Prussian armies directed by
von Moltke against those of the emperor Napoleon III. The Japanese
army began i.' be moved into Korea on 18 Feb., 11 days after tiie
first shot of the war had been tired. In 10 days more they had
occupied Ping Yang, without having met anything like resistance in
force. Gen. Kuropaikin, on taking command of the Ru.
 RUS Russians were obliged to evacuate I,iaoyang, the
retreat beginning on a Sept. Kuropatkin was in a tight place, but he
managed, nevertheless, to make his escape with his whole armv.
The rear-guanl's heroism saved the day The army had retired upon
Mukden on 7 Sept. .Again there was a long cessation of severe
operations, owing to the heavy rains. At last, on 5 Oct., what was
intended to be the decisive battle of the war was joined. Kuropatkin,
with a forcje estimated at 300,000 men, and with a superior force of
artillery to Oyama's, moved forward against the Japanese jiosition.
Gen. Kuropatkin, previous to this advance, had inspired his troops
with a proclamation in which he declared in effect that now RH.ssia
was prepared to drive the enemy back, and to begin a campaign
whose intent was to crush Japan. The Russian change of policy was
in part a failure and in part a success Kor a week the armies,
estimated as of about equal strength in men. engaged in a struggle
called the battle of the Sha river. Men fought without sleep, even
without rest, day after day. The crucial moment of this buttle was
the occupation, by the Russians, of an eminence called l,ono Tree
Hill. It was essential to the Russians that this should be taken from
their enemy. After repeated failures a charge, led by an oflicer
named I'utiloff, captured the position with severe loss. So brilliant
was the achievement that the place was named Putiloff Hill in ofBcial
orders. Its importance was demonstrated afterwards by successive
Japanese attacks, all of which failed. When gen. Stoessel was shut
up in I'ort Arthur, he announced his intention to hold this fortress to
the last limit of his endurance. From May to Dec. a number of
assaults, each conducted with disregard of its cost in lives, were
made by the Japanese. The Japanese, after many failures and great
loss of life, succeeded, on 29 and 30 Nov., in capturing an eminence
known as iOa-Metre Hill, which commands the harbor of Port Arthur.
Siege guns placed there destroyed or damaged almost all the vessels
in the harbor. This made it impossible for the fleet to attempt a final
sortie. During Dec. the Japanese continued to harass the garrison of
Port Arthur by the tire of their 11-inch howitzers and by constant
i>ushiug forward of their intrenchments, and frequent attacks on the
more or less isolated forts. The N. side of the Ehrluug fort was blown
up by dynamite on 20 Nov., after the Japanese had tunnelled
hundreds of feet up the mountain. On la Dec. the E. Kikwan fort was
blown up; on the 28th the Rihlung mountain fort was stormed ; and
on 1 Jan. lOO.i the Pauluug fort was captured. Negotiations were
opened between gen. Stoessel and gen. Nogi, which resulted in the
surrender of Port Arthur on 2 Jan. Before surrendering the Russians
torpedoed their own ships in the harbor. The garrison consisted of
about 10.000 sick and wounded and about 15,000 efleclive men.
Japan proceeded at once to rebuild the fortifications and to store
several years" supplies of munitions and provisions. On 19 Feb. the
Japanese attacked Tsiukehchin, held by gen Rennenkampff with
40,000 men, forcing the Russians to retreat. The Russians miide a
counterattack on 2H Feb., but were unsuccessful, as they were
flanked by Japanese reinforcements. Two days later the Japanese
captured the very important Da pass; Kuroki attacked the Russian
left, Nodzu the centre, and Oku the right. The Russians were driven
back to .Mukden, when Nogi, with his Port Arthur army, suddenly
appeared west and north of Mukden. For 3 weeks the series of
battles proceeded, ending with the retreat of Kuropatkin's entire
army on to Tieling, which had been strongly fortilied, and was the
Russian base of supplies. Nearly 50,000 Russians were taken
prisoners, and Tieling could not be held. The Japanese captured
Tieling on 15 Mch., the Russians retreating to Kirin. Kuropatkin
resigned bis command, which was given to Linevitch. From April to
June both armies were recuperating. While attacks and counter-
attacks were made daily, no general movement was attempted by
either army. Pres. Roosevelt, believing the time opportune,
addressed an identical note to Jnpan and Russia, suggesting direct
negotiations between themselves for peace, and ofleriug his friendly
offices to facilitate bringing the two nations together. No armistice
was arranged, as Japan was not willing to make any changes in the
prosecution of the campaign until after the exchange of credentials
between properly and fully empowered plenipotentiaries. Tie Siori/
of (he iVavi/. — The supreme command of the Russian forces in the
East at the outbreak of the war was vested in viceadm. AlexielT. In
the development of Rus.sia's advance on Manchuria ho had
displayed marked administrative ability, but when the test of war
came he was shown to bo lacking in the qualities of a competent
commander. His only offensive move against the enemy appears to
have been a sortie of the Vladivostok squadron of 4 cruisers, which
raided the W. coast of Japan and sank several merchant ships. On
20 Feb. he moved his headquarters from Port Arthur to Harbin. The
appointment of viceadm. Makharoff to command the Port Arthur
fleet, and of gen. Kuropatkin. minister of war, to command the
armies in the East, followed within 3 days. Two days after the
severance of diplomatic relations the first blow was struck. The main
fleet of Jaiian, consisting of t) modern battleships, several cruisers,
and a large flotilla of torpedo boats and destroyers, under adra.
Togo, suddenly attacked the Russian naval force at Port Arthur. The
attack was a complete surprise. The precautions which one would
have expected to be taken by any civilized power, even in a period of
merely "strained relations," were neglected by the Russians. This
attack damaged 2 battle ships and a first class cruiser. On the
following day a second attack was made, resulting in further damage
to the Russian squadron; thereafter the Fort Arthur squadron was
not strong enough to risk a battle with its enemy. On the same day a
cruiser squadron with torpedo-boats compelled the modern Russian
cruisers Variag and Korietz to leave the harbor of Chemulpo, Korea,
and fight. The Russian vessels were destroyed, with a loss of more
than 500 men killed and wounded. This settled the question of
.lapan's naval supremacy in the Pacific, and made it a simple matter
for Japan to carry out a scheme of land operations, prepared long in
advance, whose effect was twofold: the capture of Port Arthur and
the exRUS pulsion of Russian armies from Manchuria, involving the
seizure of the railway at Harbin, which would also cut otT
Vladivostok, Russia's more northern port and garrison on the Pacilic
coast. Secretary Hay's proposals resulted in an agreement of the
belligerent powers to restrict their operations to Manchuria, and that
other Chinese territory should be respected. Neutrality was
proclaimed by the V. S. on 11 Feb., the day after Russia's declaration
of war and the day of Japan's declaration. Before the siege proper of
Port Arthur can be said to have begun, Togo's navy made several
attempts to block the harbor entrance with old steamships, much as
Hobson had done in the blockade of Santiago in the war of America
with Spain. These were not successful. On 13 Apr. adm. Makharoff
attempted a sortie. The battle-ship Petrojiavlovsk was sunk just
outside the harbor. MakharolT perished, with the famous Russian
artist Vasili Vereschagin. Several general bombardments of Port
Arthur by Togo's fleet failed of their purpose. On 15 .May the
Japanese battle-ship Uaisuse was destroyed by a mine, and the
Japanese cruiser yosliino was accidentally rammed and sunk by the
cruiser Kasufja of the same fleet. The Russian Vladivostok squadron
made a second raid in June and sank 3 Japanese transports. Adm.
Wittshaeft attempted another dash out of Port Arthur with the
Russian fleet on 22 June, but was driven back with heavy loss.
Again, 10 Aug., the Russian fleet attempted to effect a junction with
the Vladivostok squadron. Two cruisers were compelled to seek
neutral ports and dismantle. The Vladivostok squadron was disabled
in aSeptember sortie, and com|)elled to return to that port. It was
not until October that official admission was made by Japan that the
battleship I'axhima, one of the best of Togo's fleet, had been
destroyed mouths before. This left Togo with only 4 modern b.ittle-
ships: the Asalii, Fvji, Mikasa, and Sliikisliima. In the early summer
the Russians sent out the torpedo-boat deslroycT Ryeshftilni, which
made Shangliai. Her commander, under neutrality laws, agreed to
dismantle her. Nevertheless, Japanese torpedo-boats attacked her at
her pier, and, after a haud-to-hand fight, the Russian commander
and his men jumped overboard. The uncertain position in which this
left other belligerent vessels in Chinese ports caused the commander
of the torpedo boat Rastoropni/, which ran the blockade and made
Chefoo on 13 Nov. with important despatches from Stoessel to St.
Petersburg, to blow up his vessel rather than allow her to fall into
the enemy's hands. The Smolrnsk and St. Petersburg, two vessels of
the Russian volunteer fleet, passed the Dardanelles in July, and later
appeared in the Red sea, holding up and capturing British and
German vessels. Representations by the governments concerned led
Rus.sia to restore these vessels' prizes and to undertake that they
would confine their attention to ships undoubtedly containing
contraband of war. On 22 July the steam er Arabia, German, but
chartered by an American company, wa seized in the Pacific by the
Vladivostok squadron. This was th ■ subject of remonstrance by the
U. S. state department. Two day later the Vladivostok vessels sank
the British sleamsr Kiright Com mander. with an American cargo. T
,:s also called out a protest from secretary Hay. In view of the non
eflectiveness of her Pacifi ■ fleet, Russia hastened preparations to
send the most formidabi.' vessels of her Baltic fleet to the Pacific. Its
first division, proceec ing through the North sea on the way to the
.Mediterranean to tuk the Suez canal route, attacked by night a
peaceful fleet of Britisl steam-trawlers, killing 2 men. The incident
created, forsomeday-, an apprehension of war with Great Britain.
The Russian admiral. Rojestvensky, declared that he had been
attacked by torpedo-boat-: Russia acceded to the British demands,
and a commission, consif iing of 4 high naval officers, British,
American, French, and Russian, sat at Paris to determine the facts,
25 Feb. 1005. The court d,^ cided that Rojestvensky was not
justified in firing on the fleet, b't did not impugn either his valor or
humanity. Russia was coi demned to pay $325,000 as an indemnity.
On 7 Dec. the czar or dered a third squadron to sail in Mch, 1905,
imder adm. Nebagat( If The first two squadrons remained in French
waters at Madagas( ur for several months, and then went to Cochin
China, where they were met by the third squadron early in May.
Adm. Rojestvensky left the supply sbipsand transports behind while
he, with the entic fighting force of the fleet, endeavored to reach
Vladivostok by wi'v of the straits of Korea. There, on the morning of
27 May, he v as met by adm. Togo with his fleet, which had been
lying in ambi ^1. nearly 2 months. The Japanese fire was accurate
and deadly; ilu Russian weak and uncertain. In this, the greatest
naval battle oi modern times, the Russian fleet was utterly
destroyed, with pi ictically no loss on the part of the Japanese.
Nearly 10,000 Russi ns were drowned, over 3,00ii captured,
including adms. Rojestveu ky and Nehogatoff; while adm.
Voelkershani was killed, and adm. Jnquist escaped to Manila with the
cruisers Olecf, Aurora, and J incliuff. which were interned. The
cruiser Ahnez and 3 toriiedob. its reached Vladivostok. The battle-
ships Orel and yicolas I., ho coast-defence ships Apraxin and
Seniavin, and the tor|)edo-l")at Bif'iio!'^ were captured and taken
toSasebo, Japan. Thebattle-ships Kniaz Suvaroff, Alexander HI.,
Osliabya, yavarin, Sissoi \'eliki and Borodino; the armored cruisers
Dmitri Ponskoi, Admiral Kakhimoff, Vladimir Monnmach, and Admiral
Ousliakoff, together with a number of other fighting vessels, were
sunk. The ships in neutral harlJuI■.■^ wir-j interned until the end of
the war. Peace Xegotiations. — The Russian and Japanese envoys
met the President on board the Mayjlower at Oyster Hay, on 5 Aug ,
and met formally at Portsmouth, N. H , on 9 Aug., and negotiations
continued until 5 Sept.. when the treaty was signed, the important
termsof which were: 1. Recognition ofjapan's paramount interests in
Korea; 2. The transfer of the lease of Port Arthur and the MaoTung
peninsula to Japan; 3. Restoration of the Chinese administration in
Manchuria, and its evacuation by Russians and Chinese within
eighteen months; 4. The transfer to Japan of the railroad between
Port Arthur and Chang-chun-fu and all its branches and rights to coal
mines, kc. ; 5. The cession to Japan of Saglialicu south of the 50th
degree of north latitude; 6. The cession to Japan
 RUS of fisliing rights along the coasts of the Russian
possessions; 7. Tho mutual right of Japan and Russia to maintain
railway guards in Manchuria, limited to fifteen men per kilometer; 8.
Russia ami Japan to pay each other the costs of maintenance and
return of all prisoners of war; 9. The ratification of the treaty to be
completed within fifty days from 5 Sept. The conclusion of peace led
to some rioting in japan which was quickly suppressed (England and
Japan signed a treaty of alliance 27 Sept., 1905.) In Russia the
dissatisfaction with the government assumed a revolutionary aspect,
initiated by general strikes On 30 Oct. the Czar issued a manifesto
assuring freedom of the press, civil liberty, and consent of the doiima
in legislation. Rus!$o- Turkish (Crimean) war— 1§53-56. In 1844,
czar Nicholas in England conversed with the duke ©f Wellington and
lord Aberdeen (whom he had known many years) respecting
dissolution of the Turkish empire ; and on return embodied his views
in a memorandum drawn up by count Nesselrode, which was
transmitted to London, but kept secret till Mch. 1854. In Jan. and
Feb. of that year the czar had several conversations on the subject
with the British envoy at St. Petersburg, sir G. H. Seymour, in one of
which (14 Jan.) he compared Turkey to a "sick man " in a state of
decrepitude, on the point of death, and made proposals to the
British government for the disposal of his property. He stated frankly
that he would not permit the British to establish themselves at
Constantinople; but said, in another conversation, he would not
object to their possessing Egypt, The purport of the.se conversations
was conveyed in despatches to lord John Russell, who replied that
the British government declined to make any provision for the
contingency of the fall of Turkey. The czar made similar proposals to
the French government, with the same result. The Russian and
French governments having each taken a side in the dispute
between the Greek and Latin churches as to the exclusive
possession of the Holy PLACES in Palestine, the Porte advised a
mixed commission, which decided in favor of the Greeks; and a
firman was promulgated accordingly, 9 Mch. 18.53. To this decision
the French acceded, although dissatisfied. Russians make further
claims, and prince MonschikofT (who arrived at Constantinople '28
Feb. 1853), by various notes (between 22 Mch. and 18 May'
demands that the sultan sign a convention granting the czar such a
protectorate over the Greek Christians in Turkey as the sultan
considered inimical to his own authority 22 Mch. -18 May, 1853
Demand rejected; Menschikoft' quits Constantinople. . .21 May, "
Sultan issues a hatti scherif confirming rights and privileges of Greek
Christians, and appeals to his allies 6 June, " English and French
fleets anchor in Besika bay 13 June, " Russians, under gen. Luders,
cross the I'ruth and enter Moldavia 2 July, " Circular of count
Nesselrode in justification, 2 July; lord Clarendon's reply 16 July, "
Representatives of England, France, Austria, and Prussia meet at
Vienna; agree to a note, 31 July, accepted by czar, 10 Aug. ; sultan
requires modifications, 19 Aug. ; which the czar rejects 7 Sept. "
Two English and 2 French ships enter Dardanelles 14 Sept. " Sultan
(with consent of a great national council) declares war against
Russia 5 Oct. " Turkish fortress at Issaktocha fires on a Russian
flotilla (the first act of war) 23 Oct. " Turks cross the Danube at
Widdin and occupy Kalafat, 28 Oct. -3 Nov. " Russia declares war
against Turkey 1 Nov. " English and French fleets enter Bosporus 2
Nov. " Russians defeated at Oltenitza 4 Nov. " Turks (in Asia)
defeated at Bayandur, Atskur, and Achaltzik, 14, 18, 26 Nov. "
Turkish fleet destroyed at Sinope 30 Nov. " Collective note from the 4
powers, demanding on what terms the Porte will negotiate for peace
5 Dec. " Contests at Kalafat 31 Dec. 1853 to 9 Jan. 1854 At the
request of Porte (5 Dec), allied fleets enter the Black sea 4 Jan. "
Russians defeated at Citate 6 Jan. " Reply of Porte to note of 5 Dec.
proposes 4 points as bases of negotiation — viz.: 1. Prompt
evacuation of the principalities. 2. Revision of the treaties. 3.
Maintenance of religious privileges to communities of all confessions.
4 A definitive settlement of the convention respecting Holy Places
(dated 31 Dec), approved by the 4 powers 13 Jan. " Vienna
conferences close 16 Jan. " Kalafat invested by the Russians 28-31
Jan. " Proposal in a letter from the emperor of the French to the czar
(29 Jan.) declined 9 Feb. " Turkish flotilla at Rustchuk destroyed by
the Russians under Schilders 15 Feb. " Ultimatum of England and
France sent to St. Petersburg, 27 Feb. " Czar "did not judge it
suitable to give an answer" 19 Mch. " Baltic fleet sails, under sir C.
Napier. 11 Mch. " Treaty between England, France, and Turkey 12
Mch. " RUS Russians under GortschakoflT pass the Danube and
occupy the Dobrudscha; conflicts; the Turks retire 23,24 Mch. 1854
France and England declare war against Russia 27, 28 Mch. "
Rupture between Turkey and Greece 28 Mch. " Gen. Canrobert and
French troops arrive at Gallipoli, soon after followed by the English..
31 Mch. " English vessel Furious, with a flag of truce, fired on at
Odessa, 8 Apr. " Austria, England, France, and Prussia sign a
protocol at Vienna guaranteeing the integrity of Turkey and civil and
religious rights of her Christian subjects 10 Apr. " Russians defeated
at Kostelli by Mustapha Pacha " " Oflensive and defensive alliance
between England and France, 10 Apr. " Treaty between Austria and
Prussia 20 Apr. " Bombardment of Odessa by allied fleet 22 Apr. "
Russians, under gen. Schilders, assault Kalafat; repulsed; the
blockade raised 19-21 Apr. " Steamer Tiger run aground near
Odessa; captured by the Russians 12 May, " Russians defeated at
Turtukai 13 May, " Siege of Silistria begun 17 May, " Allied armies
disembark at Varna 29 May, " Russians defeated by the Turks at
Karakai 30 May, " Mouths of the Danube blockaded by allied fleets 1
June, " Russians repulsed at Silistria; Paskiewitsch and many ofBcers
wounded 5 June, " Turks defeated at Ozurgheti (in Asia) 16 June, "
Severe conflict before Silistria; the siege raised. . . .18-26 June, "
Batteries at the Sulina mouths destroyed 26, 27 June, " Russians
defeated at Giurgevo 7 July, " French troops (10,000) embark at
Boulogne for the Baltic, 15 July, " Turks defeated at Bayazid in
Armenia, 29, 30 July; and near Kars 5 Aug. " Surrender of
BoMARStJNo 16 Aug. " [In July and August the allies suffered
severely from cholera.] Russians defeated by Schamyl in Georgia
about 28 Aug. " They evacuate the principalities Aug. -20 Sept. " By
virtue of a treaty with Turkey (June 14) the Austrians, under count
Coronini, enter Bucharest 6 Sept. " Allies .sail from Varna, 3 Sept. ,
and land at Old Fort, near Eupatoria 14 Sept. " Skirmish at the
Bulganac 19 Sept. " Battle of the Alma 20 Sept. " Russians sink part
of their fleet at Sebastopol 23 Sept. " Allies occupy Balaklava 26
Sept. " Death of marshal St. Aruaud 29 Sept. " Gen. Canrobert his
successor 24 Nov. " Siege of Sebastopol begins; grand attack
unsuccessful. .17 Oct. " Battle of Balaklava; charge of the light
cavalry, with severe loss 25 Oct. " Sortie from Sebastopol repulsed
by gens. Evans and Bosquet, 26 Oct. " Russian attack at Inkerraan;
defeated 5 Nov. " Miss Nightingale and nurses arrive at Scutari 6
Nov. " Great tempest in the Black sea, loss of the Prince and store
vessels 14-1 6 Nov. " Treaty of alliance between England, France,
Austria, and Prussia; a commission to meet at Vienna; signed 2 Dec.
" Russian sortie 20 Dec. " Omar Pacha arrives in the Crimea
(followed by the Turkish army from Varna) 5 Jan. 1855 Sardinia joins
England and France 26 Jan. " Great sufferings in the camp from cold
and sickness. Jan. -Feb. " Russians defeated by the Turks at
Eupatoria 17 Feb. " Death of emperor Nicholas; accession of
Alexander II. (no change of policy) '. 2 Mch. " Sortie from the
Malakhofl' tower 22 Mch. " Capture of Russian rifle-pits 19 Apr. "
Arrival of Sardinian contingent 8 May. " Resignation of gen.
Canrobert, succeeded by gen. Pelissier, 16 May, " Desperate night
combats 22-24 May, " Expedition into sea of Azof (under sir E. Lyons
and sir G. Brown); destruction of Kertch and large amount of stores,
24 May-3 June, " Taganrog bombarded 3 June, " Massacre of an
English boat's crew with flag of truce at Hango, 5 June, " Russians
evacuate Anapa " " White Works and Mamelon Vert taken 6, 7 June,
" Unsuccessful attack on Malakhoff tower and Redan. . .18 June, "
Death of lord Raglan ; succeeded by gen. Simpson 28 June, "
Russians invest Kars in Armenia, defended by gen. Williams, 15 July,
" Bombardment of Sweaborg 9 Aug. " Defeat of the Russians at the
Tchernaya 16 Aug. " Ambuscade on the glacis of the Malakhoff taken
; Russian sortie repulsed 18 Aug. " French take the Malakhoff by
assault; English assault the Redan without success; Russians retire
from Sebastopol to the North Forts, and the allies enter the city;
Russians destroy or sink the remainder of their fleet 8 Sept. et seq.
'• Tanan and Fanagoria captured 24 Sept. " Russians assaulting Kars
are defeated 29 Sept. " Kinburn taken 17 Oct. '* Russians blow up
Oczakoff 18 Oct. '* Defeat of the Russians, and passage of the
Ingour by the Turks, under Omar Pacha 6 Nov. " Czar visits his army
near Sebastopol 10 Nov. " Sir Wm. CodringtOD relieves gen.
Simpson 14 NoT. "
 RUS Explosion of 100,000 lb<3. of powder in the French
siege-train at Inkerman; great loss of life 15 Nov. 1855 Sweden joins
the allies by a treaty '21 Nov. " Capitulation of Kars to gen.
Mouraviefl', altera gallant defence by gen. ■Williams 215 Nov. "
Russian attack on the French posts at Batdar repulsed. .8 Dec. "
Proposals of peace from Austria, with the consent of the allies, sent
to St. Petersburg 12 Dec. " Centre dock at Sebastopol blown up by
the English 2 Jan. 1856 Council of war at Paris 11 Jan. " Protocol
signed accepting Austrian propositions as basis of negotiation 1 Feb.
" Destruction of Sebastopol docks " " Report of sir John M'Neill and
col. TuUoch on state of the army before Sebastopol, pub 5 Feb. "
Peace conferences open at Paris ; an armistice till 31 Mch. agreed on
25 Feb. " Suspension of hostilities 29 Feb. " Treaty of peace
concluded at Paris 30 Mch. " Proclamation of peace in Crimea, 2 Apr.
; in London. . .29 Apr. " Crimea evacuated 9 July, " The English lost:
killed in action and died of wounds, about 3500; died of cholera,
4244; of other diseases, nearly 10,000; total loss, nearly 24,000
(including 270 officers) ; 2873 were disabled. The war added to the
national debt 41,041,000?. The French lost about 63,500 men ; the
Russians about half a million. The army suffered greatly by sickness.
RUS§0- Turkish War, l§7y. For the insurrections, Servian war, and the
negotiations, Turkey. Czar addresses the army near Kischeneff,
saying that " he has done everj'thing in his power to avoid war, and
patience is exhausted;" Russian embassy quits Constantinople. .23
Apr. 1877 War declared; czar's manifesto says that he is compelled,
by the haughty obstinacy of the Porte, to proceed to decisive acts; a
justificatory circular to foreign powers sent out by prince
Gortschakoff; Russians enter Turkish dominions in Rouraania and
Armenia 24 Apr. " Sultan's circular protests against the war, and
refers to his reforms and the treaty of Paris 25 Apr. " [Russian
general-in chief in Bulgaria, grand-duke Nicholas; in Armenia, grand
duke Michael. Turkish generals: AbdulKerim in Europe; Mukhlar
Pacha in Asia Minor.] Russians defeated at Tchuruk Sou, near
F5atoum 26 Apr. " Russians, under grand-duke Michael and
LorisMelikoft, advance into Armenia, defeat Turks, and occupy
Bayazid (deserted), 29, 30 Apr. " Earl of Derby replies to Russian
circular ; he refers to the treaty of 1856 as broken ; does not
consider that the war will benefit Christians, and asserts that Russia
has separated herself from European concert; the British
government gives neither concurrence nor approval to the war 1
May, " Turks stop the passage of the Danube, and blockade the
Black sea 3 May, " Kalafat occupied by Roumanians " " Russians
defeated in attacking Batoum 4 May, " Turkish monitor Lufti - Djflil,
with 300 men, blown up near Ibraila, or Braila, on the Danube (said
to be by Russian shells) 11 May, " Sukhum Khaleh, Russian fortress
in the Caucasus, captured by Turks 14 May, " Ardahan, near Kars,
Armenia, stormed by Melikoff. . . .17 May, " Insurrection in Caucasus
supported by the sultan, 18 May et seq. " Explosion of Turkish
monitor Z>ar-itfatoiM, by lieuts. T. Daubassoff and Sheshlakoff, with
torpedoes 26 May, " Neutrality of Suez canal assured;
correspondence. .May-June, " Kars invested by Russians 3 June, "
Czar arrives at Plojesto (Ployesto) in Roumania 6 June, " Turks
defeated at Tahir, or Taghir, Armenia 16 June, " Turks victors at
Zewin Dooz, Eshek- Khalian, Delibaba, and other places; Russians
retreating 20 June, " Turks successful in Montenegro ; country
reported subdued, 12-20 June, " Russians cross Lower Danube by
bridges at Galatz and Braila; C hours' conflict ensues ; Turks retire,
22 June ; Russians occupy Malchin, 23 June; and Hinsova 25, 26
June, " Grandduke Nicholas crosses the Danube at Simnitza by 208
poutoon.s, and enters Bulgaria; Turks retire after severe conflicts;
289 Russians said to be killed 27 June, " Czar, in proclamation to
Bulgarians, encourages Christians and warns Mahometans 28 June, "
Simnitza bridge destroyed by a storm or by Turks, about 30 June, "
British fleet arrives at Besika bay 3 July, " Biela, Bulgaria, taken by
Russians about 5 July, " Plevna, Bulgaria, occupied by Russians 6
July, " Tirnova. ancient capital of Bulgaria, captured by Russians
under gen. Gourko 6, 7 July, " Bayazid renccupied by Turks 12 July, "
Rus.sians forced from Kara by Mukhtar Pacha 13 July, " Invasion of
Armenia considered a failure July, " Gourko crosses the Balkans and
enters Roumelia, 13 July {this movement censured); several
skirmishes 14, 15, 20 July, " Nicopolis (Nikopol) surrenders (after
severe conflicts, 12-14 July); capture of 2 pachas, 6000 men, 2
monitors, and 40 guns 15, 16 July, " Turkish commander, Abdul-
Kerim, replaced by Mehemet All (Jules Detroit, of French extraction)
; Russians retreating, July, " RUS Suleiman Pacha brought from
Montenegro to the Schipka passes about 21 July, Aziz Pacha (able
and popular) killed in a rash conflict at Esirje, near Rasgrad 26 or 28
July, Russians severely defeated; Plevna retaken by Osman Pacha,
19, 20 July; Russians again defeated 30,31 July, Hostilities revived in
Montenegro; the Turkish fortress Niksich besieged July, Severe
conflicts between Russians and Suleiman Pacha ; the Turks
eventually victors: Eski Saghra and Yeni Sagra, July; Kezanlik and
Kalofer 30 July et seq. Roumanian army joins the Russians 9 Aug.
Russians under Gourko expelled from Roumelia; retreat to Schipka
passes about 11 Aug. Russians in the Schipka passes relieved by
Radetzky. .21 Aug. Russians defeated at Kara Silar, near Osman
Bazar, 14 Aug ; in the valley of the l.om, by Mehemet Ali. .about 22-
24 Aug. Russians defeated by Mukhtar Pacha at Kurukdara, or Kizil
Tepe, between Kars and Alexandropol 24, 25 Aug. Desperate
fruitless attempts of Suleiman Pacha to gain the Schipka pass held
by Gourko and Radetzky 20, 27 Aug. Severe 12 hours' battle in the
valley of the Lorn, near Szedina; Karahassankoi taken and retaken 6
times ; Russians (under the czarovvitz) retire in good order 30 Aug.
Prince Charles with Roumanians crosses the Danube, about 31 Aug.
Lovatz or Luftcha captured by prince Imeritinsky and Russians after
a sharp conflict 3 Sept. Further successes of Mehemet Ali on the
Lom at Katzelevo, Ablava, etc 4 Sept. Niksich (left by Turks) captured
by .Montenegrins 7 Sept. Sanguinary conflicts at Plevna, gre;itly
strengthened by Osman Pacha; artillery duel 7-10 Sept. Fierce
assault by Russians and Roumanians; they gain the strong Gravitza
redoubt (with others, which are retaken) ; the czar present; Russian
loss about 20,000 11, 12 Sept. Fort St. Nicholas in Schipka pass
taken by Suleiman Pacha and quickly lost ; much bloodshed 17 Sept.
Russian losses, killed, wounded, and missing, 47,400 reported up to
20 Sept. Mehemet Ali repulsed in his attack on positions at
Tchercovna, 15 miles from Biela 21 Sept. Siege of Plevna ; Chefket
Pacha enters with reinforcements after several skirmishes 22 Sept.
Montenegrin successes continued Sept. Mehemet Ali retires to Kara
Lom about 25 Sept. Gen. Todlelien made chief of staff before Plevna
28 Sept. Battles of the Yagni ; severe conflicts; Russians repulsed
near Ardahan, Asia about 27, 30 Sept. Mehemet Ali replaced by
Suleiman '.\icha; Raouf Pacha sent to Schipka 2, 3 Oct. Battles near
Kars; army of grand duke Michael attacks Turks under Mukhtar
Pacha; severely defeated 2-4 Oct. Turkish monitor in the Danube
exploded by torpedoes, 8 Oct. Relief and supplies received by Turks
at Plevna. . .about 9 Ol*,. Battle of Aladja Dagh before Kars;
Russians, under grrindduke Michael and gens. Loris Melikoff,
Lazareff, and Heimann, defeat Ahmed Mukhtar, taking 10,000
prisoners. . .14, 15 Oct. Gravitza battery, near Plevna, captured by
Roumanians, is quickly retaken 19, 20 Oct. Battle at Gornij Dubnik,
near Plevna; losses about equal (2500), 24 Oct. Battle of Sofia Road,
near Plevna; Turkish position at Teliche captured 28 Oct. Mukhtar
Pacha defeated by Heimann audTergukasoff at DeveBoyun, Armenia,
after 9 hours' conflict 4 Nov. Russians defeated at Azizi, before
Erzeroum, by Mukhtar Pacha 9 Nov. Change in Turkish generals;
Suleiman ordered to command the army of Roumelia, replaced by
Azli Pacha; Mehemet Ali organizes army to relieve Plevna early in
Nov. Russian attack on Plevna repulsed 12 Nov. Turks thrice repulsed
near Plevna 15 Nov. Plevna thoroughly invested (30 miles round,
with 120,000 men), Nov. Osman Pacha refuses to surrender Plevna
about 16 Nov. Kars taken by storm; Russians climb steep rocks;
struggle from 8 P.M. to 8 a.m. ; 300 guns and 10,000 prisoners
taken; about 5000 Turks killed and wounded; Russian loss about
2500; grand-duke Michael present 17, 18 Nov. Rahova on the
Danube taken by Roumanians 21 Nov. Entrepol (forlifled) near
Plevna taken by Russians 24 Nov. Indecisive fighting in the valley of
the Lom between the czarowitz and Mehemet Ali 30 Nov. Turks
capture Elena with guns and prisoners, after sharp conflict 4 Dec.
Skirmishing on tht; Lom 4-6 Dec. Osman Pacha endeavors to break
out of IMcvna, about 7 p.m. 9 Dec; 6 hours' fierce conflict;
surrounded; unconditional surrender; said to be 30,000 prisoners,
128 officers, 100 guns; great slaughter both sides 10 Dec. Turkish
circular note to the great powers, requesting mediation, 12 Dec. ;
acknowledged, action declined, .about 12 Dec. Servians declare war
against Turkey, 12 Dec. ; cross the frontier and capture villages 15
Dec. et seq. Montenegrins successful Dec. Suleiman made general of
the array of Roumelia; and Todleben of that of Rustchuk about 19
Dec. Suleiman retires on the quadrilateral; visits Constantinople;
armies concentrating near Adrianople about 20 Dec. 1877
 RUS Erzeroum, Armenia, nearly invested ; brave resistance
by Miikhtar Pacha about 24 Dec. 1877 Many Turkish wounded
prisoners perish from cold during removal Dec. " Alleged Itussian
losses, 80,435 men; Turkish many more, and 80,000 prisoners Dec.
" Mukhtar Tacha recalled to Constantinople about 29 Dec. " Sultan
requests mediation of England; the British government only convey
to Russia the sultan's desire to make peace; Ru.ssia declines
mediation 26-31 Dec. " Gourko crosses the Balkans, advances on
Sofia. . .about 31 Dec. " Col. Baker gallantly protects the retreating
Turkish army, defeating the Russians 1 Jan. 1878 Sofia taken by
Russians after an engagement 3 Jan. •' Servians defeated;
Kurschumli reoccupied by Turks. .6, 7 Jan. " Nisch taken by the
Servians; Antivari by the Montenegrins, about 10 Jan. " Gen.
Radetzky crosses the Balkans ; the Trojan pass taken about 9 Jan. ;
Turki.sh army (about 32,000) and cannon taken by Skobeleff and
Radetzky, after conflicts, 8, 9, 10 Jan. (SeInova); Gourko advances
towards Adriauople, 11 Jan. " Russians advance successfully ;
Turkish envoys proceed to treat for peace about 16-18 Jan. " Gourko
advances towards Philippopolis; totally defeats Suleiman Pacha, who
retreats to the sea, losing prisoners and canuou k 16, 17 Jan. ' '
Adrianople abandoned; occupied by Russians 19,20 Jan. " Suleiman
with remains of his army at Karala on the ^Egean transporting his
troops about 21 Jan. " Servians occupy nearly all Old Servia 29 Jan.
" Russian attack on Batoum defeated 30 Jan. " An armistice signed
at Adrianople 31 Jan. " Russian losses announced— 89,879 men
Feb. " Continued advance of Russians towards Constantinople; panic
of Turks; great sutferings Jan.-Feb. " Part of British fleet ordered to
Constantinople to protect British life and property, 8 Feb.; enters
Dardanelles without permission of Porte 13 Feb. " Erzeroum
evacuated by Turks 17-21 Feb. " Rustchuk occupied by Russians 20
Feb. " War lasted 322 days 12 Apr. 1877 to 3 Mch. " Treatv of peace
signed at San Stefano, 3 Mch. ; ratified at St. Petersburg 17 Mch. ' '
Long negotiation respecting a European congress . .Mch.-May, "
Graiul-duke Nicholas in Roumelia replaced by gen. Todleben, wlio
assumes command 30 Apr. " Couferonce at Berlin, meets 13 June;
treaty signed 13 July; ratified (Rustchuk) 3 Aug. " Grand review of
80,000 Rao.;;^ns near Constantinople, 17 Aug. " Forty thousand
Russians sail for home 12 Sept. " Definitive treaty of peace with
Turkey signed at Constantinople 8 Feb. 1879 Estimated cost of the
war to Russia, 120, 000,000i. RUStclkUk', a Turkish town on the
Danube, one of the SAB QuADRiLATERAi> fortresses lost to Turkey
with Bulgaria by treaty of Berlin, 13 July, 1878. Rut^cr!« eollei^e,
New Brunswick, N. J., was chartered in 1766 as Queen's college, and
was first opened in 1771 under the auspices of the Reformed Dutch
church. The buildings were burned b}' the British during the
Revolution. Its first president was rev. dr. .J. R. Hardenburg. It
received the name of Rutgers college in 1825, when col. Henry
Rutgers gave it $5000. In 1865 the State College of Agriculture and
the Mechanic Arts was opened as a department of this college with
$116,000 from the U. S. land-grant. It numbered about 26 teachers
and 222 students in 1890. riltlie'nilllll, a rare metal, discovered in the
ore of platinum bj' M. Clans in 1845. Rutliveil, Raid of, a term applied
to the seizure of the person of James VI. of Scotland by William
Ruthven, earl of Gowrie, and other nobles, in 1582, to compel the
king to dismiss his favorites, Arran and Lennox. Ostensibly for this,
Gowrie was judicially put to death by his 2 opponents in 1584. rye, a
grain of the order Gramineae, botanical name Secale (from Celtic
sega, a sickle) cereale — native country unknown. It comes nearer
to wheat in bread-making qualities than any other grain, although
very inferior to it. It is the principal bread-grain of Northern and
Central Europe. Agriculture. Rye-IlOUSe plot, a plot (some think
pretended) to secure the succession of the duke of Monmouth to the
Briti.sh throne in preference to the duke of York (afterwards James
II.), a Roman Catholic. Some of the conspirators are said to have
projected the assassination of the king, Charles II., and liis brother.
This design is said to have been frustrated by a fire in the king's
house at Newmarket, which hastened the royal party away 8 days
before the plot was to take effect, 22 Mcli. 1683. The plot was
discovered 12 June following. Lord William Russell on 21 July, and
Algernon Sidney on 7 Dec. following, suffered death as conspirators.
The name was derived from the conspirators' place of meeting, the
Rj'e-house at Broxbourne, Hertfordshire. Ry!!i\vick (riz'tvik), a village
of Holland, where the celebrated peace was concluded between
England, France, Spain, and Holland, signed by their representatives,
20 Sept., and by the emperor of Germany, 30 Oct. 1697. The war
which this treaty ended was begun in 1689 by Louis XIV. of France
to restore James II. of England. s S, the nineteenth letter and
fifteenth consonant of the English alphabet, the Greek sigma (2),
known to the Phoenicians and Egyptians. Saar'toriick, the Roman
Augusti Muri, or Sarce pons, an open town on the left bank of the
Saar, in Rhenish Prussia, founded in the 10th century, long subject to
the bishops of Metz ; afterwards ruled bj' counts (about 1237), and
by the house of Nassau about 1380. It was captured by the French
and retaken by the Germans 1676, reunited to France 17941814,
and ceded to Prussia 1815. On 2 Aug. 1870, it was bombarded by
the French under Frossard (between 11 and 1 in the daytime) ; the
few Prussians were dislodged, and the town occupied by the French
general Bataille. The mitrailleuses were said to be very eifective. The
emperor Napoleon, who was present witli his son, said in a telegram
to the empress, " Louis has gone through his baptism of fire. He has
not been in the least startled. We stood in the foremost rank, and
the rifle-balls were dropping at our feet, and Louis picked up one
that fell near him. His bearing was such as to draw tears from the
soldiers' e}'es." On 6 Aug. the Prussian generals (ioeben and Von
Stein metz, with the first army, recaptured Saarbriick, after a
sanguinary conflict at the village of Spicheren. The heights taken by
the French on the 2d are in Germany, those taken by the Germans
on the 6th are in France, and both battles were fought between
Saarbriick and the town of Forbach, which was captured, and has
given a name to the second conflict. The loss was great on both
sides, and the French 2d corps under Frossard nearly destroyed. The
French retreated to Metz. Franco-Prussian war. Sabbata'riailS. Traces
exist of Sabbatarii, or Sabbathaires, among the sects of the 16th
century on the European continent. Upon the publication of the "
Book of Sports "in 1618, a violent controversj' arose among English
divines on 2 points : first, whether the 4th commandment is in force
among Christians; and, secondh', whether, and on what ground, the
first day of the week ought to be distinguished and observed as "
the Sabbath." In 1628, Theophilus Brabourne, a clergyman,
published the fir^t defence of the 7th day, or Saturday, as the
Christian Sabbath. He and others were persecuted for this doctrine;
but after the Restoration 3 or 4 congregations in London kept
Saturday as their hoh^ day, and 7 or 8 in the country parts of
England. In 1851 there were 3 Sabbatarian or Seventh-day Baptist
congregations in England ; but in America (especially in the New
England states) they are more numerous. Joseph Davis suffered
imprisonment in 1670. He and his son bequeathed property to
maintain the sect ; and litigation respecting its disposal was settled
bj' vice-chancellor Stuart in conformity with their intentions in June,
1870. Very few Sabbatarians then remained. Sabbath, the 7th day of
the week ; a sacred day of rest ordained by God, Gen. ii. ; Exod. xx.
8; Isa. Iviii. 13. Jews observe the 7th daj' in commemoration of the
creation of the world, and of their redemption from the bondage of
the
 SAB Egyptians; Christians observe the first day of the week
in commemoration of the resurrection of Christ from the dead and
the redemption of men. Sunday. Sabbat ll-§cllool
 SAG those of Lodbrok, Hervara, Vilkina, Volsunga,
Blomsturvalla, Ynglinga, Olaf Tryggva-Soiiar, Jomsvikiiigia, and of
Knythinga (which contains the legendary history of Iceland), the
Heims-kringla, and New Edda of Snorri Sturluson. Eddas, Literature,
Scandinavian. Nibelungenot. sage (Fr suuge ; Lat. salria), a
wholesome herb, comfortable to the brain and nerves. — Murtimer.
A species of this garden plant grew early in England, and some
varieties were imported. The Mexican sage, ,Suh-ia mexicana, was
brought from Mexico, 1724. The blue African sage. Salvia africana,
and the golden African sage, Salvia aurea, were taken to England
from the Cape of Good Hope in 1731. Flowers and Plants. Saguii'tum
or Zacyn'tliii!^, now IHurviedro {moor-ve-a'dro), a fortified town of
Valentia, E. Spain, renowned for the dreadful siege it sustained, 219
b.c, against the Carthaginians under Hannibfri. The citizens, allies of
Rome and under her protection, after performing incredible acts of
valor for 8 months, chose, rather than surrender, to burn
themselves, with their houses, and the conqueror became master of
a pile of ashes, 218 b.c. Salia'ra, the immense region in Africa lying
between the Nile valley and the Atlantic ocean and from the in.ier
slope of the Barbary plateau south on an average of li'OO miles.
Area, 2,500,000 sq. miles. The term Sahara is modified from the
Arabic Sara or Zaharah, meaning desert. The interior of this desert
consists in great part of table -lands called hammada, with here and
there a few green habitable spots termed "oases." Hot winds,
blowing outward, occur during the year ■■ in Egypt from April until
June, called Khamsin; in Algeria and South Italy, July, the Sirocco; in
Morocco, the Shume; and along- the Atlantic and Guinea coast, the
Harmaltan. This regioi, with its thinly scattered inhabitants, has,
since 1890, come within the influence of France and somewhat
under her protection. A project for making an inland sea here was
entertained in 1883, and the construction of a railway from Algeria
south was proposed Oct. 1890. A large natural reservoir of water
was discovered at El Golea in the desert in j891. Africa. sailing-, a
vessel moving on the water bv the use of sails, as well as the art of
navigating it. William of Orange (about 1570) was a yachtsman; and
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