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Copyright © 2002 F.A. Davis Company

Incorporating
HERBAL
MEDICINE
into
Clinical Practice
Copyright © 2002 F.A. Davis Company

This page intentionally left blank

Copyright © 2002 F.A. Davis Company

Incorporating
HERBAL
MEDICINE
into
Clinical Practice

ANGELLA BASCOM
MSN, ARNP
Family Nurse Practitioner
Clinical Herbalist
Therapeutic Touch Practitioner
Certified Clinical Hypnotherapist
Ashland, New Hampshire

F. A. DAVIS COMPANY
Philadelphia
 Copyright © 2002 F.A. Davis Company

F. A. Davis Company
1915 Arch Street
Philadelphia, PA 19103

Copyright © 2002 by F. A. Davis Company

All rights reserved. This book is protected by copyright. No part of it may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, record-
ing, or otherwise, without written permission from the publisher.

Printed in Canada

Last digit indicates print number: 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Acquisitions Editor: Joanne Patzek DaCunha, RN, MSN

Developmental Editor: Catherine E. Harold
Production Editor: Jessica Howie Martin
Cover Designer: Louis J. Forgione

As new scientific information becomes available through basic and clinical research, recommended treat-
ments and drug therapies undergo changes. The author and publisher have done everything possible to
make this book accurate, up to date, and in accord with accepted standards at the time of publication. The
author, editors, and publisher are not responsible for errors or omissions or for consequences from applica-
tion of the book, and make no warranty, expressed or implied, in regard to the contents of the book. Any
practice described in this book should be applied by the reader in accordance with professional standards
of care used in regard to the unique circumstances that may apply in each situation. The reader is advised
always to check product information (package inserts) for changes and new information regarding dose and
contraindications before administering any drug. Caution is especially urged when using new or infre-
quently ordered drugs.

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Bascom, Angella, 1956–

Incorporating herbal medicine into clinical practice / by Angella Bascom.
p. ; cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8036-0936-1 (pbk.)
1. Herbs—Therapeutic use—Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Title.
[DNLM: 1. Plants, Medicinal— therapeutic use—Handbooks. 2. Clinical Medicine—Handbooks.
QV 735 B298i 2002]
RM666.H33 B37 2002
615'.321—dc21
2001058272

Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use, or the internal or personal use of specific
clients, is granted by F. A. Davis Company for users registered with the Copyright Clearance Center (CCC)
Transactional Reporting Service, provided that the fee of $.10 per copy is paid directly to CCC, 222 Rose-
wood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923. For those organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by
CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. The fee code for users of the Transactional Report-
ing Service is: 8036-0936/02 0  $.10.
Copyright © 2002 F.A. Davis Company

With Thanks

This book was really written by my family—Jim, Zach, A. J., and Mark. All of them
helped me by fixing the computer, doing laundry, preparing meals, motivating me,
inspiring me, and giving much-needed emotional support. Thank you to Rosemary
Gladstar, Mark Blumenthal, Dr. Andrew Weil, Robert McCaleb, and many others for
helping me with my herbal education. I would also like to thank Dr. Rosita Arvigo of
Belize for her passion for natural healing and her wonderful gift of helping other cul-
tures save herbal knowledge and plants. Thank you to Steven Ottariano, pharmacist,
herbalist, and friend; to my brother, John Thompson, the intuitive environmentalist
and natural resources specialist; and to Mike Andruczyk, a wonderful botanist and
friend. Special thanks for his help with taking many of the herb photographs. Finally,
many thanks to all the scientists and herbalists who are coming together to heal the
environment outside and inside all of us.
 Copyright © 2002 F.A. Davis Company

Author’s Note

My interest in herbal medicine began about 15 years ago when my son developed a
chronic skin rash. I tried over-the-counter ointments and received a much stronger oint-
ment from our pediatrician, but neither of these treatments helped. It was then that I met
an Ayurvedic practitioner, who gave me a homemade herbal ointment that cleared the
rash in a day. That winter I had a cold and for the symptoms was given herbal teas, which
helped my spirits along with my symptoms. Since then I have attended workshops,
courses given by well-known herbalists, and presentations by leading health-care pro-
fessionals to learn the scientific aspects of herb use. Living close to Shaker Village in New
Hampshire, I am constantly reminded of the value of the historical use of herbs, and I
have fond memories of my parents’ use of folklore remedies for my healing.
I decided to write this book in response to nurse practitioners and nurses who
have asked me for easy-to-read information on all aspects of herbal medicines. The
book started as my Masters project when I was a student nurse practitioner. For that
project, I focused on folk medicine in the United States and researched and devised a
materia medica for 11 popular herbs. In this book, I have expanded my focus and
added information about another 39 herbs. Although the book is intended for health
care practitioners, I have also provided ample patient information that you may wish
to copy and disseminate to patients as appropriate. Patients who have a strong interest
in herbal medicine may prefer to purchase a copy of the book to gain access to the full
range of information I have provided for each herb.
I hope you will use this book as an easy way to introduce yourself to the wonder-
ful healing world of herbs. My intention is to give you a very brief overview of com-
mon herbal medicines from their historical uses to the results of scientific studies
about them. I have included a large number of detailed and exhaustive articles and ref-
erence books on botany, pharmacology, and studies of herbs in the reference section
at the end of this book.
Keep in mind that we are gaining knowledge about herbs daily, particularly regard-
ing herb-drug interactions. Stress to your patients that the information sheets included
in this book are not exhaustive and may not contain the very latest information. Natu-
rally, if you learn of an herb-drug interaction not included on these patient information
sheets, you’ll want to write it down for your patients and yourself. Some herbs, especially
when used with prescription medications, can have serious adverse effects.
Like a growing number of health care practitioners, I find myself in the interest-
ing position of trying to merge herbal medicines with a modern health-care environ-
ment that relies on science, research, and technology. Although I do not believe that
herbal medicines can or should supersede modern medicine, I do believe that herbal
medicines may be able to replace many over-the-counter medications for patients who
are not also taking daily prescription medications. As a health-care practitioner and
practicing herbalist, I try to find a balance in integrating herbal medicines that have
been used for centuries into the 21st century of medicine, nursing, and science. I com-

vi
Copyright © 2002 F.A. Davis Company

AUTHOR’S NOTE

monly recommend herbal medicines, usually along with lifestyle changes. If herbal
medicines do not work initially, I then refer the patient to another herbalist or pre-
scribe a conventional medicine.
As a health-care professional, you will find many aspects of herbs to get excited
about. Start your journey with five nontoxic herbs; get to know them by growing them;
create an herbal salve; or investigate the growing scientific knowledge about a popular
herb such as St. John’s wort. Find out what your patients think of herbal medicines and
what cultural traditions they practice in their homes. You’ll be amazed at the impor-
tant role herbs play in many cultures. Good luck in your herbal adventures.

Angella Bascom

vii
Copyright © 2002 F.A. Davis Company

Reviewers

JANET AUER, RN, MSN, FNP-CS

Assistant Professor
University of May
Bismarck, North Dakota

CYNTHIA L. BLEVINS, RN, MED, MSN, CRNP

Adult Nurse Practitioner
Chester County Cardiology Associates
West Chester, Pennsylvania

PATRICIA G. CHICHON, RN, MSN, APN-C

Nurse Practitioner, Homeopath, Herbalist
The Chrysalis Center
Lambertville, New Jersey

MAUREEN L. DEVER-BUMBA, RN, MSN

Assistant Professor, Coordinator of NP Programs
Medical College of Georgia
Augusta, Georgia

R. ERIC DOERFLER, MSN, NP

President, Nightingale Health Centers, Inc.
New Cumberland, Pennsylvania

BERNADETTE M. DRAGISH, RN, MSN, CFNP, PHD(c)

Associate Professor
Bluefield State College
Bluefield, West Virginia

DEBORAH GUTSHALL, RN, MSN, CRNP

OB/Gyn Nurse Practitioner, Pinnacle Health
Clinical Nursing Faculty, Harrisburg Area Community College
Harrisburg, Pennsylvania

JACQUELYN K. HOWELL, RN, PHD

Associate Professor in Nursing
Augustana College
Sioux Falls, South Dakota

viii
Copyright © 2002 F.A. Davis Company

REVIEWERS

MARY D. KNUDTSON, RN, MSN, FNP, PNP

Director, FNP Program
University of California, Irvine
Irvine, California

STEVEN G. OTTARIANO, RPH

Clinical Staff Pharmacist
Veterans Administration Medical Center
Manchester, New Hampshire

JANIS E. TOWN, MSN, FNP, CS

Family Nurse Practitioner
Cape May, New Jersey

ix
Copyright © 2002 F.A. Davis Company

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Copyright © 2002 F.A. Davis Company

Contents

PART ONE

OVERVIEW 1

INTRODUCTION 3

Chapter 1
HERBAL MEDICINES: AN HISTORICAL OVERVIEW 5

Chapter 2
ARE HERBAL MEDICINES SAFE AND EFFECTIVE? 10

Chapter 3
THE ROLE OF HEALTH CARE PROFESSIONALS IN HERBAL MEDICINE 14

Chapter 4
FROM HERB TO MEDICINE: FORMS OF HERBAL PRODUCTS 16

PART TWO

HERBS 23

INTRODUCTION 25
ALOE 27
BILBERRY 32
BLACK COHOSH 37
BROMELAIN 45
CAYENNE PEPPER 50
CHAMOMILE 55
CHASTE TREE BERRY 61
COMFREY 66
CRANBERRY 73
DANDELION 78

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CONTENTS

ECHINACEA 83
EVENING PRIMROSE 91
FENNEL 96
FENUGREEK 101
FEVERFEW 106
FLAX 112
GARLIC 117
GINGER 125
GINKGO 131
GINSENG 138
GOLDENSEAL 143
GRAPE SEED 148
GREEN TEA 152
HAWTHORN 158
HOREHOUND, WHITE 162
HORSE CHESTNUT 167
HORSERADISH 172
HYSSOP 177
KAVA KAVA 182
LEMON BALM 187
LICORICE 193
MAITAKE MUSHROOM 199
MARIGOLD (CALENDULA) 204
MILK THISTLE 209
NETTLE 214
OATS 219
PEPPERMINT 225
RED RASPBERRY 228
REISHI MUSHROOM 233
ST. JOHN’S WORT 236
SAW PALMETTO 243
SHIITAKE MUSHROOM 248
SLIPPERY ELM 253
SOY 257
TEA TREE OIL 263
TOMATO 268
TURMERIC 273
VALERIAN 279
WITCH HAZEL 287
YARROW 291

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Contents

PART THREE

APPENDICES,
REFERENCES, AND
RESOURCES 296

APPENDIX 1. QUICK GUIDE TO HERB-DRUG

INTERACTIONS 298
APPENDIX 2. HERBS THAT MAY INCREASE CLOTTING
TIMES OR INTERACT WITH ANTICOAGULANTS 305
APPENDIX 3. HERBS THAT MAY HAVE A LAXATIVE
EFFECT 305
APPENDIX 4. HERBS THAT SHOULD NOT BE TAKEN
INTERNALLY 306
APPENDIX 5. HERBS THAT SHOULD NOT BE TAKEN
DURING PREGNANCY 306
APPENDIX 6. HERBS THAT SHOULD NOT BE TAKEN
WHILE BREAST-FEEDING 308
REFERENCES 309
RESOURCES 323
BOOKS AND JOURNALS ON HERBAL MEDICINE 323
INTERNET SITES DEALING WITH HERBAL MEDICINE 325
HERB ORGANIZATIONS 326
HERB EDUCATION PROGRAMS 327

INDEX 328

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part 1

OVERVIEW
Copyright © 2002 F.A. Davis Company

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Copyright © 2002 F.A. Davis Company

INTRODUCTION

Herbal medicine has been used worldwide throughout history. In 1985 the World
Health Organization (WHO) estimated that perhaps 80 percent of the world’s people
relied on herbs for their primary health-care needs (Akerele, 1992). India’s Ayurvedic
medicine and traditional Chinese medicine both include the use of herbal remedies,as do
European and Japanese medicine. The German Federal Health Agency has researched
more than 300 herbs and found them to have favorable benefit:risk ratios.
Colonists brought culinary herbs to America so that they could create kitchen
gardens outside their homes. They also learned the value of many herbal medicines
from Native Americans. Consequently, our ancestors were able to pass down valuable
information for self-healing and comfort based on growing, preparing, and treating
family members with herbs.
By the late 1990s, herbal medicines had grown to an estimated $5.1 billion indus-
try in the United States (Eisenberg et al., 1998). This growth in herbal medicine comes
from our own folk medicine practices, which have survived over the decades, and also
from the health-care practices of many cultures now present in the U. S.
Another reason for this increased interest in herbal medicine is the rising cost of
conventional (allopathic) medicines. Consider, for instance, the treatment of benign
prostatic hyperplasia. It can cost $5000 (for surgery and its substantial risks); $2.17 per
day (for Proscar, which carries a risk of impotence and is dangerous for patients with
liver disease); or $0.86 per day for saw palmetto, which has no known side effects
(McCaleb, 1996). To be cost effective, health care must also focus on disease preven-
tion and health promotion. In other countries, echinacea and ginseng have been used
safely to promote health by fighting stress and boosting the immune system.
This is not to say that all herbal products are safer than conventional drugs. Some
herbs are toxic and others have increased side effects as their dosages are increased.
Also, when patients combine herbal products with conventional medicines, herb-drug
interactions can occur. Therefore safety and quality control are a concern for both
patients and health-care professionals. In 1993 the National Institutes of Health (NIH)
established an Office of Alternative Medicine (OAM) to evaluate and establish grants
for research into alternative medicine, including herbal medicine (Weisman, 1994). In
1999 the NIH expanded the OAM into what it is now: the National Center for
Complementary and Alternative Medicine. The mission of this agency is to stimulate,

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 Copyright © 2002 F.A. Davis Company

OVERVIEW

develop, and support research on complementary and alternative medicine for the
benefit of the public. Even within health-care professions, complementary and alter-
native medicine is creating increased interest and information. For example, the entire
November 11, 1998 issue of the Journal of the American Medical Association was devoted to
alternative medicine.
With the evolution of a more global society and increased access to information
from other countries and cultures, we find ourselves in the midst of an incredible time
of change in the practice of herbal medicine. This book will serve as an introduction
to this ancient but rapidly changing field.

4
Copyright © 2002 F.A. Davis Company

chapter one

HERBAL MEDICINES: AN
HISTORICAL OVERVIEW

The World Health Organization (WHO) defines herbal medicines as “Finished,

labeled medicinal products that contain as active ingredients aerial (above ground) or
underground parts of plants, or other plant material, or combination thereof, whether
in crude state or as plant preparations” (WHO, 1991). McCaleb and collaborators
(2000) define herbs as “Plants or plant parts that are used in fresh, dried, or extracted
form for promoting, maintaining, or restoring health.” Bown (1995) writes,“Botanists
describe an herb as a small, seed-bearing plant with fleshy, rather than woody, parts”
and adds that “herbs are valued for their flavor, fragrance, medicinal and healthful
qualities, economic and industrial uses, pesticidal properties, and dyes.”
Although these are modern definitions of herbal medicines, healers and natural-
ists around the world have been using herbs in keeping with these definitions for cen-
turies. Indeed, they have long recognized in herbs a vibrant essence and potential for
healing. From the time of Paracelsus to today’s modern world, doctors and scientists
have explored the mysteries of natural herbal medicine.

EVOLVING VIEWS OF HERBAL MEDICINE

One physician who came to prominence in London in the 1930s was Edward
Bach. Adhering to the doctrine of Paracelsus, who encouraged physicians to search
within themselves for spiritual insights about the dynamics of herbs, Bach experi-
mented with plants and found that those with high vibrations (energy frequencies)
could raise lowered human vibrations and thus improve health. He was convinced that
“herbal remedies have the power to elevate our vibrations, and thus draw down spiri-
tual power, which cleanses mind and body, and heals.” From Bach’s point of view,
herbal remedies share the same power as any spiritually uplifting medium, be it music,
art, or scent. Bach’s research contradicted contemporary Western medicine. Instead of
trying to kill or destroy a disease, Bach flooded the body with beautiful vibrations
from wild flowers and herbs, saying that in their presence “disease would melt away as
snow in the sunshine” (Tompkins & Bird, 1973, p. 307).
In Native American tradition, it is not simply the energy force that a plant gives
out that is beneficial, but the sacred relationship between the plant and the person

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 Copyright © 2002 F.A. Davis Company

OVERVIEW

seeking to use the plant that provides the healing power. Chippewa medicine men, for
example, made an offering of their cherished tobacco when gathering herbs and plants
for medicinal purposes. By giving something precious, the Chippewa entered into a
reciprocal relationship with the plant whose healing power they wished to extract
(Griggs, 1981). The Native Americans’ pantheistic view of nature holds that mind,
body, and spirit are inseparable, and that all animals, plants, and living creatures are
infused with spiritual life (Griggs, 1981).
Paracelsus, Native Americans, and many cultures today have shared the view of
the Doctrine of Signatures, which means that a plant offers clues to its medicinal qual-
ities. The clue could be the color or the shape of the plant. For example, the red hibis-
cus flower (red representing blood according to the Doctrine of Signatures) has been
used in other cultures to treat postpartum hemorrhage. Another example is ginseng
root, which resembles the human shape and is believed to benefit overall health.
Herbal traditions of colonists in early America initially involved culinary herbs,
which they brought with them and planted in their kitchen gardens. But the colonists
were intrigued by the Native Americans and their freedom from disease. Among the
many cultural interchanges between colonists and Native Americans was knowledge
of the key medicinal uses of indigenous plants (plants growing naturally in the envi-
ronment). Indeed, some herbs (sassafras, tobacco, and ginseng) used medicinally by
Native Americans became part of the white man’s economy. By 1820, when the first
U. S. Pharmacopeia was published, 130 of the 296 substances listed were remedies with
Native American origins (Vogel, 1970).
Many physicians of that time observed Native American practices and incorpo-
rated herbal medicines into their own practices. As in Western medicine, Native
Americans used particular herbal remedies to address particular disease processes:
poke root was used as a poultice for skin cancer; snakeroot was used for snakebite and
pulmonary ailments; and lobelia was used for syphilis (Vogel, 1970). The Cherokees
discovered that pinkroot was an excellent cure for worms. “A century later, powdered
pinkroot was a standard treatment for children with worms and was found in vir-
tually every druggist’s shop” (Griggs, 1981, p. 133). Natural elements that Native Amer-
icans used to suppress ovulation and control the menstrual cycle eventually contrib-
uted to the development of oral contraceptives centuries later. Another example of
their advanced knowledge was their use of molds and fungi. Although they were
perhaps unaware of how and why molds functioned in health care, they were doubt-
less employing the basic principles of modern-day antibiotics (Vogel, 1970, pp. 4–5).
Women, who were the predominant healers and herbalists before the turn of the
20th century, were the first to incorporate Native American remedies into their own
repertoires of herbal solutions to sicknesses and afflictions. Before the 1860s, most
families were treated by women who collected their home remedies from nearby
woods and streams or grew them specially in their gardens (Caplan, 1989). One of
these women, Martha Ballard, is described in detail in an historical account by Ulrich
(1991, p. 53). Martha’s diary, written in the late 1700s, offers a glimpse of what healers
like herself believed medicine to be. She writes, “Nature offers solutions to its own
problems. Remedies for illness can be found in the earth, in the animal world, and in
the human body itself.”
In the 1700s and 1800s, medical care was unavailable to many families in rural
areas, and this is still the case today. Alternative health-care movements arose at that

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Copyright © 2002 F.A. Davis Company

Herbal Medicines: An Historical Overview

time as a result of this lack of access to medical care. One of these, the Thomsonian
movement, was led by New Hampshire native Samuel Thomson in the early 1800s.
Thomson patented a system of herbal medicine that, in 1839, claimed more than 3
million faithful followers. Other movements in health care arose that rivaled the influ-
ence of physicians (known at that time as Regulars).
Homeopathy and Eclecticism were founded at this time as well. Homeopathy dif-
fered from Western medicine in that it used tiny amounts of plants, minerals, or ani-
mal substances to treat conditions by promoting inner healing without harmful side
effects. Many patients were drawn to the gentleness of these remedies. Eclectics (physi-
cians who used herbs and other natural therapies) wild-crafted (picked plants in their
natural surroundings) or ordered their herbs from the Shakers in New Hampshire.
Many Eclectics created their own plant medicines and tried to educate the Regulars
about herbal medicine.

THE DECLINE OF HERBS AS MEDICINES

In the 1820s, an Eclectic physician named John King discovered the full spectrum
of a plant’s function through what he called concentrated principles. This idea excited
pharmaceutical company founders because they recognized the potential of breaking
plants down, isolating their active components, and “producing even more powerful
drugs in standard form” (Griggs, 1981, p. 233). Although it opened the door to the
standardized medicines we use today, this exciting discovery also sparked a decline in
the use of plants for medicinal purposes.
Another factor leading to the decline of herbal medicine in the U. S. was the idea
that medicine was not valid if it did not have a scientific basis. Changing financial back-
ing helped to further this idea. Alexander Flexner, an educator with a bachelor’s degree
from Johns Hopkins and the brother of the president of the Rockefeller Institute for
Medical Research, was hired by the Carnegie Foundation to evaluate medical schools
and their curricula and to provide appropriate medical schools with funds.
Concurrently, the Rockefeller General Education Board (and other foundations)
awarded $91 million to certain medical schools—primarily those that were founded for
scientific research rather than medical practice (Starr, 1982). Many other types of med-
ical schools and Eclectic schools were forced to close from lack of funds. The curricu-
lum in existing medical schools was changed to eliminate botany and pharmacognosy
and to add pharmacology, which focused on diseases and cures rather than on health
and prevention. Nutrition was limited to its relationship to pharmacology.
Over time, the use medicinal plants fell out of vogue and was replaced by surgery,
anesthesia, and transfusion and injection techniques. Pharmaceutical companies
exploded with new discoveries of both drugs (penicillin, sulfonamides, and so forth)
and vitamins. They also discovered that chemical monosubstances were profitable,
convenient, and could be protected by patent, unlike herbal medicines, which were
available to anyone, needed to be picked at the right time, and needed to be dried and
stored properly to preserve the active chemical constituents of the plant.
Still, plants continued to be investigated and considered noteworthy by those who
witnessed their healing properties. One plant that was noted to have amazing proper-

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OVERVIEW

ties was garlic. Dr. W. Minuchin, a physician who was interested in the effects of garlic,
performed clinical trials and found that garlic was useful in treating tuberculosis, lupus,
diphtheria, and infections. However, because garlic was not a chemical monosubstance
and could not be patented or made profitable, it was not considered worth pursuing as
a treatment (Griggs, 1981).
Another reason for the increased emphasis on chemical monosubstances was the
need to recover the cost of developing a new chemical compound for a drug. This cost
for a single chemical compound, according to a 1990 report noted in Tyler (1993, p.
11), was “$231 million over a period of 12 years.” Today a new prescription medication
in the United States costs an average of $350 million in research expenses (Bauer,
2000). Many of the new conventional drugs can recover these expenses over a patent
life of 11 years, unlike plant products, which are difficult to harvest, standardize, and
store properly to maintain the active compounds.

A MODERN RESURGENCE
Despite these obstacles, herbal medicines have made a dramatic comeback in
popularity over the last few years. Some of the reasons for this resurgence are dis-
cussed in the introduction to this book. In 1996, Brevoort reported that the top 10
herbs sold in selected health food stores in the U.S. were echinacea, garlic, goldenseal,
ginseng, ginkgo biloba, saw palmetto, aloe, ma huang, Siberian ginseng, and cran-
berry. These statistics were based on a 1995 survey of 163 stores done by Richman and
Witkowski for Whole Foods magazine. In 1998 and 1999, Blumenthal (2000, p. 47)
reported a similar “top 10” that included ginkgo biloba, St. John’s wort, ginseng, garlic,
echinacea, saw palmetto, soy, horse chestnut, and cranberry.
Throughout the 1990s, herbal medicine sales in the U.S. surged. In 1998 alone,
sales of single herbal medicines grew by 183.2 percent ($286.5 million) in grocery,
drug, and mass merchandise stores (AC Nielsen Scan Track: Spencer Information
Services, 1999). The top three herbal products that increased in sales in 1999 were soy,
flax, and black cohosh (Blumenthal, 2000). And although statistics suggest that herb
sales have now leveled off in mainstream stores (Blumenthal, 2000), American con-
sumers are reportedly spending up to $5.1 billion on herbal products annually
(Eisenberg et al., 1998). Since the passage of the Dietary Supplement Health and
Education Act of 1994, herb sales have surpassed vitamin sales.
An article published in the Journal of the American Medical Association reported
that almost 1 in 5 adults who reported regular use of prescription drugs stated that they
also used at least one herbal remedy, a vitamin supplement, or both, at the same time as
their prescription medication (Eisenberg et al., 1998). In a 1999 Prevention magazine
telephone survey of 2000 adults conducted by Princeton Survey Research Associates, 49
percent of respondents said that they had used an herbal remedy within the past year,
and 24 percent reported regular use of an herbal remedy (Prevention, April–May 1999).
Most consumers used garlic, ginseng, ginkgo, or St. John’s wort, followed by echinacea.A
majority (75%) said they did so to ensure good health (Prevention, April–May 1999). In
a 1999 telephone survey of 1003 Canadians, more than two-thirds stated that natural
herbal supplements are as effective as prescription drugs or over-the-counter remedies
(from Traditional Medicinals Gallup Survey, 1999).
Clearly, this modern resurgence in the use of herbal medicines—and the tendency

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Herbal Medicines: An Historical Overview

of consumers to combine herbal, prescription, and over-the-counter medicines—gives

health-care professionals once again the responsibility to learn about herbal medicines,
routinely talk with patients about them, and take steps to guide patients appropriately.

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chapter two

ARE HERBAL MEDICINES

SAFE AND EFFECTIVE?

Today many consumers believe that herbal medicines are safe because they are
more “natural” than prescription drugs. Added to this perception is the notion that
herbs must be safe if the government deems it unnecessary to regulate herbal products
under the same strict guidelines as prescription drugs. However, the fact is that gov-
ernment agencies have been weighing various aspects of herbal safety and regulation
for many years. In 1958, under the food additive amendment to Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) statutes, about 250 herbs were approved as food additives.
Among them were benzoin, chamomile, dandelion, elecampane, horehound, and
marshmallow root. These herbs were labeled Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS)
because of their long history of safe use. However, no category was established to judge
the safe use of plants for medicinal purposes (Griggs, 1981).
In 1962, an amendment to the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (the
Kefauver-Harris Amendment) required that medications be proved not only safe but
also effective (Tyler, 1993). The FDA set up 17 panels to review the efficacy of active
ingredients in all over-the-counter medications. To demonstrate efficacy, the panels
used in vitro tests and complex human clinical trials. They rejected testimonials as
proof of safety or efficacy. Many herbal products being used at that time were not con-
sidered medications and thus were not included in this wide-ranging investigation of
safety and efficacy. In fact, only aloe, capsicum, cascara, psyllium seed and husk,
senna, slippery elm, and witch hazel have been approved in the U.S. for medicinal pur-
poses (Youngkin & Israel, 1996). Consequently, the safety and efficacy of many herbal
products have been difficult to gauge—particularly given their widespread manufac-
turing problems. Even so, consumers have spoken out loudly against increased gov-
ernment regulation.
In 1993, when the FDA threatened to remove herbal products from the shelves of
health food stores, Americans united in writing letters of protest. In fact, Congress
received more mail of protest on this matter than on any other issue since the Vietnam
War (Brevoort, 1996; Tyler, 1996). As a result, the legislators passed the Dietary
Supplement Health and Education Act of 1994. Congress placed herbal medicines in the
category of dietary supplements and stated, “There may be a positive relationship
between sound dietary practice and good health . . . although further scientific research
is needed, there may be a connection between dietary supplement use, reduced health-

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Are Herbal Medicines Safe and Effective?

care expenses, and disease prevention.” A stipulation was added that no therapeutic
claims, meaning “claims relating to the diagnosis treatment, cure, or prevention of any
disease,” could be made on the labels of any of these products. Product labels may make
“statements of nutritional support”and “structure and function.” They were barred from
including a disease state in the name of the product (Israelson & Blumenthal, 2000).
In 1996, President Clinton set up a Commission on Dietary Supplement Labels
(CDSL). Seven herbal experts were appointed to serve on this commission. Their mis-
sion was to make dietary supplement labels informative as to health benefit claims
while also promoting the safety and quality of these products and procedures for eval-
uating their health benefit claims (Herb Research News, 1996). Its final report was
issued in October 1997 and concluded that:
• The supplement industry must ensure the safety of herbal medicines.
• There should be a botanical ingredient review panel.
• Incentives should exist to research herbal products.
• Traditional uses should receive approval.
• Specific guidelines should be included in new products that state the product’s pur-
pose, vendor information, product identification, ingredients (including the Latin
name and plant part used), intended use, dosage, and contraindications (McCaleb &
Blumenthal, 1997).
These recommendations are available on the Internet at http://web.health.gov/
dietsupp.

MANUFACTURING PROBLEMS
Historically, one of the most difficult problems in determining the safety and effi-
cacy of herbal products has concerned manufacturing. In past years, herbal medicines
have had substantial manufacturing difficulties that have affected their safety and effi-
cacy. They have had poor quality control. Labeling has sometimes been deceptive.
They have had little standardization and very little research to substantiate their use.
Some have been adulterated or contaminated with toxic metals. One incident of adul-
teration occurred in the summer of 1997, when a plantain product was found to be
adulterated by foxglove, the plant from which digitalis is isolated (Blumenthal, 1997).
In other examples, skullcap has been adulterated by germander and Siberian ginseng
root has been adulterated by Periploca sepium root (McGuffin, 2000). Some herbal
medicines imported from China have contained diazepam, camphor, and mercury.
Contamination has also been caused by pesticides, molds, and excreta.
Even if a product is uncontaminated, its potency may differ from one manufac-
turer to another. When working with herbal products even in today’s market, it is
important to look for standardized extracts, which means that each dose of the prod-
uct contains the same potency of herbal compounds. It is also important to always use
the same product.
Today the safety of herbal products is the responsibility of each manufacturer
and is regulated under Good Manufacturing Practices, which include potency,
cleanliness, and stability (Soller, 2000). And although herbal supplements are not
regulated in the same manner as prescription drugs, the FDA and the Federal Trade

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OVERVIEW

Commission (FTC) do oversee their safety. The FDA has the power to stop the sale
of a dietary supplement that is toxic (Soller, 2000), and FDA’s MedWatch program
tracks complaints about herbal products and logs reports of side effects caused
by herbs (Love, 1998). Complaints and side effects may be reported by calling
MedWatch at 800-332-1088.
The FTC, which monitors advertising claims for dietary supplements (in-
cluding herbs) has also published guidelines for herbal products. Under these guide-
lines, herbal claims must be substantiated or the FTC can ban the claim as a false
advertisement. Complaints of false claims can be made by calling 877-382-4357
(FTC-HELP) (Soller, 2000).
Regulations issued by the FDA on January 6, 2000, pertaining to dietary supple-
ments and their claims for structure and function are available on the Internet at
www.fda.gov/OHRMS/DOCKETS/98fr/oc99257.pdf.

RESEARCHING SAFETY
Further complicating the process of determining safety and efficacy is the fact
that different nations use different criteria. Some require the results of research as the
basis for claims of safety and efficacy, whereas others do not. In 1974 and 1978 the
World Health Organization (WHO), UNICEF, and the Third-First World Health
Assembly urged all Third-World countries to develop their own traditional medicine
systems, in which no restrictions would be placed on herbal products that had been
used traditionally without harm (Akerele, 1992). Despite this endorsement of tradi-
tional use by the WHO, however, an FDA spokesperson quoted in the Journal of the
American Medical Association (JAMA) maintained that “the randomized controlled
trial is still the best and, in general, the only credible source of evidence for the effica-
cy of most therapies.” (Marwick, 1995, p. 608).
Many European studies have focused on herbal products. Some of these studies
are now being replicated in the U.S. However, a direct comparison of results can be dif-
ficult because Europe and the U.S. commonly use different herbal forms. For instance,
echinacea is given parenterally in Europe but is available only in tincture, tea, and cap-
sule form in the U.S.
Germany has incorporated phytomedicines (plant medicines) into their health-
care system by continuing to teach pharmacognosy in their medical schools. Medical
schools commonly have botanical gardens to be used for research. German scientists
research the use of standardized semipurified (still containing multiple individual
chemicals) extracts to prove the safety and efficacy of their more commonly used
herbs. In 1978, an expert panel of medical, pharmacy, and research scientists was con-
vened to form the German Commission E to research the validity of herbal medicines.
Monographs have now been published by the German Federal Health Agency through
the German Commission E, which reviewed 380 herbs and combinations and found
them to have favorable benefit:risk ratios. A monograph pertains to a single botanical
medicine or a fixed combination of botanicals. These monographs have been translat-
ed by the American Botanical Council and may be purchased.
In Germany, many herbal teas and herbal products can be found standardized in
pharmacies, where pharmacists give recommendations for the use of these phyto-

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Are Herbal Medicines Safe and Effective?

medicines. Their cost is reimbursable by health insurance companies. According to

JAMA, “Total sales of nonprescription drugs in Germany—the largest market—in
1993 amounted to $7 billion, half prescribed and half purchased by consumers for
self-medication. Of this amount, $1.9 billion was spent exclusively on plant-based
medicines.” By 1995, about 7 percent of drugs covered by German health insurance
were herbal medicines. In Germany, these medicines are primarily being used to treat
heart disease and disorders of the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts (Marwick,
1995). Dr. Melville Eaves, business manager of Dr. Willmar Schwabe GmbH and
Company, Karlsruhe, Germany (Marwick, 1995, p. 607) states that “mainstream man-
ufacturers . . . have sought and managed to obtain many patents in this area.” This last
statement is very important because U.S. manufacturers have always used lack of
patent protection as one of the reasons why clinical trials are not being done in the U.S.
A panel of experts in Europe has set up the European Scientific Cooperative of
Phytotherapy (ESCOP) and published monographs similar to those of the German
Commission E. Their goal is to encourage standardization and consistency in the use
of herbal medicines in European countries. In October 1998, an international sympo-
sium was held by ESCOP to discuss European regulation of herbal medicines. Some
countries have very strict controls on the safety and efficacy of herbal medicines; in
other countries, the use of herbal medicines stems solely from traditional use. ESCOP
has published 60 monographs with 15 herb-drug interactions, many with the same
interactions noted by the German Commission E (Blumenthal, 2000).
Internationally, the WHO is trying to develop monographs, assess the safety and
efficacy of herbal medicines, protect plants for medicinal use, and protect consumers
through quality control standards (Upton, 1999). The first volume, published in 1999,
included 28 herbs; the second volume was scheduled to include 30 herbs.
According to Upton (1999, p. 59), “The United States Pharmacopeia has issued
standard monographs for chamomile, feverfew, ginger, ginger powder, garlic, pow-
dered garlic, ginseng, and ginseng powder. Proposed monographs include hawthorn,
hawthorn powder, milk thistle, powdered milk thistle, valerian, and a monograph on
extracts in general. Monographs currently in progress include echinacea purpurea,
ginkgo, and St. John’s wort.”
Even though the U.S. seems to be lagging in the practice of herbal medicine, it is
making strides in recognizing the need for more research in this area. By congres-
sional mandate in 1992, the National Institutes of Health (NIH) established the Office
of Alternative Medicine to evaluate and establish grants for research into alternative
medicine, including herbal medicine (Weisman, 1994). In 1999, the National Cancer
Institute (NCI) established its own Office of Cancer Complementary and Alternative
Medicine, which is already supporting clinical trials on herbal medicines such as green
tea and their benefits in cancer treatment. NCI’s website (nccam.nih.gov). Today the
Office of Alternative Medicine is now called the National Center for Complementary
and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM) and has a budget of almost $70 million.

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chapter three

THE ROLE OF HEALTH-CARE

PROFESSIONALS IN HERBAL
MEDICINE

With the increase in the use of herbal medicines and the continuing evolution of
product regulation, health-care practitioners must be open and unbiased about these
increasingly popular products. Although some patients resist telling primary care
providers about their use of herbal medicine, others do discuss it. However, if the
provider responds with the blanket assertion that herbal medicines are harmful,
unsafe, and unproven, the patient not only becomes frightened and discouraged but
also is less likely to talk about herb use with other health-care professionals. Naturally,
this approach raises risks for patients and harms the relationship between patient and
provider. If a patient takes an herb that interacts with a prescribed drug, the results
could be disastrous.
Consequently, it is imperative that health-care professionals educate themselves
about herbal medicines in general, including the possibility of herb-drug interactions,
or that they consider referring patients who wish to take herbal remedies to an herbal-
ist. The first and foremost priority is taking an accurate history and asking specific
questions about herbal medicines and foods that a patient consumes daily, especially
in large amounts, that may interact with conventional medicines. Some of the herbs
patients may consume daily in large amounts are coffee, ginseng, chamomile, garlic,
ginger, turmeric, and peppermint.
Patients need to be warned about experimenting with herbal medicines, espe-
cially if they are seeing multiple health-care providers, one or more of whom may be
unaware of all the herbs and medicines the patient is taking. Persons who are at risk
for adverse reactions should make sure their herbal source is reliable. If patients are
known to have adverse drug reactions, allergies, chronic skin rashes, or pre-existing
liver disease from conventional medicines, they should be warned about the increased
risk of adverse effects from taking herbs. Elderly patients, pregnant women, and chil-
dren also have increased risk of developing problems while taking herbal medicines.
Health-care providers who recommend herbal medicines for specific conditions
should encourage patients to purchase standardized herbal products from a single
company to help ensure the potency of the desired plant compound. Patients should
be encouraged to “purchase products that list the herb name, the concentration of its

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The Role of Health-Care Professionals in Herbal Medicine

active constituents, an expiration date, the manufacturer’s name and contact informa-
tion” (Ramsey et al., 2000; Bauer, 2000). Bauer (2000) also suggests looking for the
U.S. Pharmacopeia (USP) or National Formulary (NF) symbols to help determine the
quality of the product.
Finally, health-care providers who recommend herbal medicines should adopt
certain legal considerations, such as those that follow:
• Become educated in herbal medicine by attending workshops, courses, and confer-
ences.
• Contact companies who make herbal preparations and investigate how their prod-
ucts are harvested or obtained, dried, and manufactured.
• Keep at least one clinical trial on file for each herbal remedy you choose to recom-
mend to a patient.
• Recommend only herbal remedies of which you have knowledge.
• Consider having the patient sign a consent form that outlines your recommendation
for an herbal medicine instead of or in addition to a conventional treatment plan.
• Include in each patient’s history direct questions about the use of complementary
therapies, especially questions on the use of herbal medicines. Be unbiased and
know that it takes time to develop trust between you and your patient.
• Caution patients not to experiment with herbal medicines, especially when they
have more than one health-care provider who may not be aware of all the drugs the
patient is taking.
• If you know that a patient has adverse drug reactions, allergies, chronic skin rashes,
or pre-existing liver disease from conventional medicines, warn the patient about
the increased risk of side effects from herbs and the importance of reporting any
side effects (of conventional drugs or herbs) to the primary care provider.Also, warn
elderly patients, pregnant women, and children that they have an increased risk of
adverse effects from herbal medicines.
• Keep a referral list of knowledgeable herbalists.
• Tell patients to make sure their herbal source is reliable. The active constituents of
the herbal product should be listed on the label. Recommend herbal products that
have been standardized to the German Commission E requirements and may also
contain the letters USP or NF.
• Urge patients to take only the recommended dosages of herbal medicines and dis-
courage them from taking herbal products on a daily, long-term basis. If long-term
use is needed for a chronic illness, recommend occasional breaks in therapy. You or
the patient should consult with a knowledgeable herbalist about long-term use.
• Caution patients to be especially careful when considering herbal therapy during
pregnancy or breast-feeding. Again, consider referring the patient to an herbalist or
other knowledgeable clinician who specializes in the health of women and children.

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chapter four

FROM HERB TO MEDICINE:

FORMS OF HERBAL
PRODUCTS

Obviously, herbal products start as plants. They make the journey from plant to
medicine by being either harvested from the wild (called wild-crafting) or grown for
the purpose of creating an herbal medicine. Keep in mind that many herbs are endan-
gered in the wild from either overuse or destruction of habitat. Some of the herbs that
are currently at risk in the wild include American ginseng, black cohosh, bloodroot,
blue cohosh, echinacea, goldenseal, helonias root, kava kava, lady’s slipper orchid,
osha, partridge berry, peyote, slippery elm, sundew, trillium bethroot, true unicorn,
Venus’s flytrap, and wild yam.
If you wish to work with herbs, don’t search in the wild to obtain them. Instead,
create an herb garden and grow and harvest the herbs yourself. After harvesting an
herb, dry it to reduce the moisture content without destroying the plant’s active chem-
ical compounds. The herb should be dried by spreading it loosely on a rack so that air
can circulate around it to prevent mold. The procedure for harvesting and preparing
each herb varies with the time of year and the part of the plant that will be used for
medicinal purposes. Herbs should be stored in dark glass containers with tight-fitting
lids, away from sunlight and heat.
Besides the tablets, capsules, syrups, and lozenges that may be available commer-
cially, common forms of herbal products include teas, tinctures, extracts, and external
forms.

HERBAL TEAS
(WATER-BASED EXTRACTS)
In China, herbal teas are prescribed by practitioners for specific illnesses and are
made from about 12 different herbs, all of them balancing and complementing each
other to prevent side effects. The practitioner gives the patient a bag of medicinal
leaves, roots, and other substances and tells the patient to add water, simmer like a
soup, and drink as directed throughout the day. Herbal teas are gaining popularity

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From Herb to Medicine: Forms of Herbal Products

here in the United States. You can now find them in health food stores, grocery stores,
and restaurants. You can make your own tea bags by placing 1 teaspoon of dried herb
into a tea bag and then sealing it with a hot iron. Or you can prepare teas using a tea
ball, tea strainer, or prepared tea bags.
For an adult, the usual recommended dose of tea is one teacupful. For an acute
condition the patient may drink small amounts of tea more often, up to three cups a
day. Chronic conditions may warrant three cups a day as well. For a child, the dosage
may be calculated by using Young’s rule (for children age 2 and over) or Clark’s rule as
shown below.
Age (in years)
Young’s rule:   Adult dose  Child’s dose
Age (in years)  12
Weight (lb)
Clark’s rule:   Adult dose  Child’s dose
150
If a mother is breast-feeding and would like to administer an herbal remedy to
her infant, the dose would be for the mother to drink 1 teacupful and then breast-feed
her infant. The herb will be transmitted through the breast milk. If preferred, cooled
tea may be administered by a dropperful directly into the baby’s mouth. Different
herbs should be taken for differing lengths of time.

Herbal Tea Infusion

An herbal infusion refers to an herbal preparation in which water is used as the
solvent to extract the chemical compounds of the herbal medicine into the water. It is
then taken internally. Fresh herbs are best for preparing herbal teas. Generally, three
parts of fresh herbs are equal to one part of dried herb. So, if one teaspoonful of dried
tea is recommended, three teaspoonfuls of herb may be substituted. An infusion uses
the herb’s flowers, seeds, leafy parts, or roots that contain volatile oils (examples are
valerian root and goldenseal root). Prepare them by steeping the plant parts in water,
creating a concentrated herbal tea.
For a hot herbal tea infusion, bring fresh, cool water to a boil in a pot. In general,
glass, enamel, stainless steel, or cast iron pots are preferred. Use 1 teaspoonful of dried
herb to 8 ounces of boiling water. Let the herb sit and brew for about 10 minutes,
strain, and cool. Examples of herbs to use in an infusion are chamomile, nettles, fever-
few, and peppermint. (Always cover the cup when brewing peppermint tea to preserve
the volatile oils.) For a cold herbal tea infusion (sun tea), place three tablespoons of
herb and one quart of water in a glass jar and cover with a lid. Place in a sunny win-
dow for several hours, and voilà! Strain and you’ll have a delicious tea.
Refrigerate any unused portions of herb tea. Infusions are not easily preserved
and need to be kept refrigerated and used within a day or two.

Decoction
A decoction is similar to an infusion, but it is used to brew the roots, barks,
nonaromatic seeds, and twigs of plants. Bring fresh, cool water to boil in a nonmetal
pot. Use 1 level teaspoon of roots, barks, twigs, or seeds to 8 ounces of water. Cover
with a lid, bring to a boil, and simmer for 15 to 20 minutes. Then strain and cool.

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OVERVIEW

Examples of herbs that can be used in a decoction are black cohosh root and kava
kava root.Valerian root and goldenseal root should be infused rather than prepared as
a decoction because of their volatile oils.
Refrigerate any unused portions. Decoctions are not well preserved and need to
be kept refrigerated and used within a day or two.

TINCTURES
A tincture is a concentrated herbal extract made by soaking an herb in alcohol,
vinegar, or glycerine. The solvent extracts the chemical compounds of the herb.
Tinctures are sold in small, dark bottles, usually 1 to 4 ounces, and are tightly closed
with a dropper. A 1:5 ratio on the label means that the tincture contains 1 part herb
(weighing one gram) to 5 parts (5 grams) of extract. Milliliters (mL) are used in
dosages, and one mL is equal to one gram. One dropperful of a 1:5 extract means that
five dropperfuls will be needed to get the dosage of 1 gram of herb. Tinctures may be
used internally or externally.
Alcohol is the most commonly used of the three solvents. It extracts the active
compounds of the plant, concentrates the herb, and acts as a great preservative.
Commercial tinctures use ethyl alcohol. The herb’s active compounds are then extract-
ed, and the alcohol acts as a preservative. The shelf-life of a tincture is from 3 to 10
years. Full-strength apple cider vinegar may be used also; it has a shelf life of 1 to 2
years.
Vegetable glycerine may also be used as a solvent to extract the active compounds
of the herb. Glycerine is a better choice for those who prefer not to ingest alcohol, for
diabetics, and for children. Glycerine is processed in the body as a fat, not a sugar, even
though it has a sweet taste on the tongue. One caution is that if more than one ounce
of glycerine is taken, it may cause a laxative effect. Glycerine is generally diluted with
50 percent distilled water. A small percentage of alcohol (5% to 10%) may be added to
increase shelf-life. When glycerine is used as a solvent, the shelf-life is only about 6
months to 2 years. Glycerine should not be the solvent of choice for herbs that contain
resins and gums; alcohol is needed to properly extract the active constituents of these
herbs. Glycerine tinctures should be refrigerated for best effects.
Examples of herbs suitable for tincture are dandelion, valerian, St. John’s wort,
peppermint, black cohosh, and chaste tree berry. Tinctures may be diluted in juice or
water or placed directly on the tongue. Dosages are usually given by dropperfuls and
vary in size. For an acute condition, such as a cold, 1 dose can be given every 2 to 4
hours. For chronic conditions, doses are given less frequently and need to be moni-
tored by a health-care practitioner. If a patient is unable to take a tincture orally, it may
be rubbed on the abdomen at three times the normal dose. It may also be added to the
bath at about 10 to 20 times the oral dose.

Making Your Own Herbal Tincture

To make a tincture with dried herbs, fill a sterilized canning jar with finely chopped
dried herb, leaving 2 inches of space between the herb and the top of the jar. (Or use one
part herb to five parts solvent.) Pour solvent (usually vodka) into the jar until it covers

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From Herb to Medicine: Forms of Herbal Products

the herb. Don’t let any of the plant parts extend above the solvent or they may become
moldy. Label and date the jar and place it in a dark place at room temperature. Shake it
daily. After about 6 weeks, strain the liquid through cheesecloth and squeeze out the
residue. Place the tincture in small, dark tincture bottles, then label and date them.
You may also blend herbs and solvent in the blender and then place the resulting
liquid into a wide-mouthed jar. For fresh herbs, the ratio is one part herb to two parts
solvent because of the high water content of fresh herbs. Then follow the directions
given previously.

EXTRACTS
Extracts come in three forms: fluidextracts, solid extracts, and standardized
extracts. Fluidextracts use vinegar, glycerine, or glycol as a solvent and are more con-
centrated than tinctures. When herbal extracts are made commercially, more compli-
cated methods of distillation are used at lower temperatures. During this process,
some of the beneficial compounds of the whole plant (such as fiber) are discarded,
leaving only the active constituent(s) to be standardized.
Solid extracts are extremely concentrated because the solvent is completely
removed, leaving a soft solid or dry solid extract. The dry solid extract can be ground
into a coarse or fine powder. During this process, as with fluidextracts, some of the
beneficial compounds of the whole plant (such as fiber) are discarded, leaving only the
active constituent(s) to be standardized. A fluidextract or tincture can then be made
by diluting a solid extract with water or alcohol.
Standardized extracts are those that contain consistent amounts of specific plant
compounds responsible for the plant’s health benefits. This standardized form is sold
in Germany and is beginning to be sold in the United States. An example of an herb
with standardized active chemical compounds is kava kava. The problem is that some
of the chemical compounds responsible for health benefits are unknown in some
herbs. In this case, marker compounds are used. Marker compounds are those that are
found in the highest amount in the herb and are thought to have the greatest effect.
Valerian is an example of an herb in which the specific chemical compound is
unknown. The other problem with standardized extracts is that herbal potency varies
among manufacturers’ products.

EXTERNAL FORMS
External forms for application of herbs include herbal baths, oils, salves, oint-
ments, poultices, compresses, and liniments.

Herbal Baths
Place about 6 ounces of dried or fresh herb in a small muslin sack and let it float in
the bathtub while you are bathing. A tincture, decoction, or infusion may also be added
to the bath at about 10 times the dose you would take by mouth. Examples of herbs to

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OVERVIEW

use in the bath are yarrow heads for fever (let them float freely) and chamomile, laven-
der, and rose petals for relaxation.

Herbal Oils
These products may be used for massages or to heal dry skin. Place 2 cups of
olive, safflower, or canola oil in a glass or an enameled double boiler. Then place 3
ounces of herb—single or in combination—in the pot and simmer for up to 30 min-
utes. Do not boil; if you see the entire mixture bubbling or smoking, the oil is too hot.
Afterward, strain and pour into small jars. For a calming, relaxing oil, use 1 ounce each
of lavender flowers, rose petals, and chamomile flowers. For dry skin, use 2 cups of
canola oil and 3 ounces of calendula flowers.
To make an herbal massage oil infusion, pick the herb, dry it overnight, and place
it in a clean container. Cover it with extra virgin olive oil (thicker than other oils) or
almond, sunflower, or safflower oil. Make sure that none of the plant parts extend above
the oil or your oil will become moldy. Let the container sit in a sunny, warm window for
about 2 weeks. Then strain and place the oil in pretty jars.An excellent herb for this type
of oil is St. John’s wort. Pick the buds when the leaves are dotted with red spots.Your fin-
gers will turn red as you pick them. Place the buds gently into a container and cover
with oil. Place in a sunny spot and, in about 2 weeks, the oil will turn red. Strain it and
use as a massage oil all winter for any type of strain, sprain, backache, or sports injury.

Herbal Salves
Herbal salves are used primarily for dry skin and healing of superficial wounds.
To make a salve, place 1/4 cup of beeswax into the top of a double boiler. As the
beeswax melts, add 1 cup of herbal oil, stir, and cool. Pour into small salve jars. Label
and date the jars, and refrigerate them for shelf life.
Caution patients not to use herbal salves for deep or infected wounds. Tell them
that signs of infection include redness, drainage, warmth in the area, and tenderness.
Urge patients to contact a health-care practitioner immediately if the area looks infect-
ed or does not begin to heal within a few days.
For chapped lips or cold sores, consider making a lip balm by adding more
beeswax than you would in a normal salve. The added beeswax increases the hardness
of the salve. Red raspberry leaves and lemon balm are two herbs that are helpful for
cold sores.

Herbal Ointments
Herbal ointments are also used topically for superficial wound healing. Add 3
ounces of herb to about 6 ounces of petroleum or nonpetroleum jelly. Let them simmer
but not boil. Remove from heat, strain the herb using cheesecloth, and place in small
jars. Label and date. Store in a cool, dark place. Ointments should last up to a month or
longer. Examples of herbs that are great to use in ointment form are calendula for super-
ficial wound healing, eczema and diaper rash; goldenseal for cuts to prevent infection,
and comfrey for superficial wound healing. Do not use herbal ointments for deep

20
Copyright © 2002 F.A. Davis Company

From Herb to Medicine: Forms of Herbal Products

wounds. Signs of infection include redness, drainage, warmth in the area, and soreness.
If area looks infected, or does not begin to heal within a few days, please consult your
health-care practitioner immediately.

Poultices
A poultice is used externally to relax muscles or to ease minor skin eruptions,
poison ivy, insect bites, superficial wounds, and inflammation. To make a poultice,
mash fresh herbs in hot water and wrap the plant part in gauze. Cool it until it can be
safely applied to the skin, then apply it to the affected area. Poultices may be applied
up to three times a day. They can be made using:
• Goldenseal, which has astringent properties that are useful for infections. Make
powder into a paste by mixing with warm water.
• Plantain (use fresh and apply directly to bee stings).
• Jewelweed (wonderful for poison ivy relief when used as a poultice or compress).
• Comfrey (helpful for superficial wounds and hemorrhoids when used as a poultice
or compress.

Compresses
Compresses are used externally and can be either warm or cold. Cold compress-
es reduce inflammation and help to relieve pain. They are used initially for sprains,
contusions, strains, inflammation, headaches, and insect bites. Warm compresses are
used to increase circulation to an area and to allow muscles, tendons, and ligaments to
stretch. Warm compresses may be used for poison ivy also.
For a warm compress, prepare an infusion of herbs in hot water and then dip
gauze or a cotton cloth into the infusion at the desired temperature and apply the cloth
to the area. Or you can dilute a tincture in warm or cold water and then soak a cloth
in the solution. Examples of herbs used for compresses include ginger (a warming,
stimulating herb used to relieve inflammation) and cayenne (a stimulating herb that is
excellent for muscle aches).

Liniments
Liniments are for external use for aches and pains. Prepare the liniment the same
way as you would a tincture, but use rubbing alcohol, witch hazel, or vinegar as the sol-
vent. Place the herb(s) in a canning jar and cover with the solvent. Place the jar in a
warm, dark area and shake it every day for 2 weeks. Strain it and store the liniment in
dark bottles. Label and date the bottles.
Examples of herbs commonly used in liniments include yarrow leaf, wintergreen
leaves, cayenne, plantain leaf, rosemary leaves, and yellow dock leaf and root. Do not
use liniments on cuts or broken skin.

21
Copyright © 2002 F.A. Davis Company

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Copyright © 2002 F.A. Davis Company

part 2

HERBS
Copyright © 2002 F.A. Davis Company

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Copyright © 2002 F.A. Davis Company

INTRODUCTION

Each of the herbs included in this book is presented in the following format for con-
venience and ease of use. The patient teaching information provided for each herb
uses a similar but simpler format. These pages can be photocopied for distribution to
patients.

Historical Uses
This section recounts how the herb has been used historically or described in folklore.

Growth
Here you will find brief information on where the plant can be found or how it is
grown.

Part(s) Used
This section describes the part or parts of the herb that are used for medicinal effects.

Major Chemical Compound(s)

This section lists important chemical compounds that are present in the herb. All
herbal medicines are made up of chemical compounds that explain the characteristics
of the herb, including its mechanism of action, taste, intended effects, and side effects.
The following is a list of some of the compounds that you will encounter when using
herbs, along with a brief description of each compound’s effects.
• Acids: antiseptic and cleansing properties
• Alkaloids: effects on the central nervous system that are sometimes toxic and addic-
tive
• Anthraquinones: irritating and laxative effects
• Bitters: acts to improve digestion
• Coumarins: anticoagulant (blood-thinning) properties
• Flavones: anti-inflammatory, anti-spasmodic, sometimes diuretic effects
• Glycosides: include cardiac glycosides (which affect the heart), cyanogenic glyco-
sides (which have antispasmodic and sedative effects and alter heart rate), mustard
oil (which is very irritating), and sulfur (which has antibiotic properties)
• Mucilages: slimy and soothing to mucous membranes
• Resins: astringent, antiseptic effects

25
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
legend), ii. 315*. v. 778", vi. 64-5". ZuYUD. — See Zaidl ZUZIM. See
ZAMZUMMtM. Zvaktevith( = Svantovit), xi. 594*. ZwAiG^DE (Lith.
stars), ii. 34*. ZwEMER, S. M., on Persian Gulf pearl-fishers and
animal-skin, xi. 580". ZwiNGLi, Ulrich (Huldreich), iii. 147*, 591*, xii.
734", 873*876" ; Anabaptism, i. 407*", on baptism, ii. 406", on
Catabaptists, ii. 404", on celibacy, iii. 275", and charity, iii. 385", on
Christ's descent to Hades, iv. 657", Confessions, iii. 857*-859*, and
discipline, iv. 719*, on immanence, vii. 168*, preaching, X. 216", on
sin, xi. 540", toleration, xii. 363*, and worship, xii. 774*.
ZwiNGLiANisM, Confessions, iii. 857*-861", Erastianism, v.
360*-361", 364", xii. 873*876". Eucharist, iii. 857", v. 564*",
566*-567*, 567", 568*", 569*. Zyevanna (Slav god), xi. 593*. Zylvie
(Slav goddess), xi. 594"595*.
 INDEX TO FOREIGN WORDS nbambo. — See ibambo.
abban (Somali protector), viii. 422 b. abiku (Yoniba evil spirits), ix.
286*. abuna (spiritual head of Abyss. Christians), i. 161*. 'achura
(Berber feast), ii. 513''. afiti (Nyanja witches), ix. 421''. ago (Ibo
reincarnate person), xii. 427", 42 8a. ahl at-trab (Sahara
supernatural beings), i. 162a. ajdna. — See ayana. akana (Ibo soul),
xii. 428''. akiama. kla, okra (Ewe soul), xii. 426", 42 7*", 428''.
aihlnan (Berber mountain spirits), ii. 506". amadhlozi. — See idhlozi.
ama-tongo (Zulu ghosts, guardian spirits), ii. 362», iv. 568*, v. 686a.
ambiroa, ameroy (Malagasy ' ghost '), iv. 859". ame we luwo (Ewe '
soul of a man,' figurine), xii. 427*. angoza (Bathonga wooden
images), X. 446". 'ansera (Berber feast), ii. 513". aro-ko (Yoruba first
rains), iii. 64*. aro-kuro (Yoruba last rains), iii. 64*. asiki (Bantu
sprite), iii. 360", v. 686*. atiep (Dinka spirit of recent dead), iv.
708"-711*. awiri. — See omhwiri. ayana, ajana (Galla good spirits),
i. 57*, vi. 491". bachwezi. — See mnchwezi. bain (Dinka chief, rain-
maker), iv. 705*, 711*-712a. bakici-baci. — See nkici-ci. balubare
(Basoga spirits), ii. 357*". bamandwa (Baganda priests), ii. 362".
banda (Galla monster), i. 57*. banza (Congo village chief), ii. 113*.
barimo (Bechuana lunatic), ii. 358*. ba^ezi (Uganda cannibals), i.
212*. basing'a-nga. — See sing'anga. beraa (Berber ' punishment,' '
excommunication '), ii. 517". bilo (Malagasy exortism), i. 507", viii.
231*1 bifia (Bechuana ' to dance '), ii. 352*. bitabok (Bongo bats,
witches, etc.), i. 502". boksum (Negro town or village deity), ix.
278*. bori (Hausa spirits), x. 126*". iorru (Niam-niam ordeal), ix.
511*. AFRICAN budas (Abyss, devil of evil eve), i. 57*, 520*, v.
611*, vi. 491", viii. 211 "-2 12*. bulgu (Galla monster), i. 67*. bun
(Ba-lluana soul), iv. 856a. bik)r (Dinka shrine), iv. 710*". bwttc
(Bangala disease spirit), iv. 730*. chefi (Bavenda family or clan
priests), ii. 362*. chikwembo (Baronga ancestral Tnaries), ii. 355".
chimbindi (Fjort hostile soul), ix. 283". chiwando (Nyanja evil spirit),
ix. 420*. 6i (Ibo soul), xii. 427", 428* ; and ago, xii. 428*, and eri,
xii. 428*. cupa (Marutse fossilized base of a conical shell, most
highly valued instrument), in asylum rite, ii. 164*. dabtara (Abyss. '
canon '), iii. 398". debbi, dubbH (Abyss. animal demon), i. 58".
debtura (Abyss, men of letters), i. 161*. dia (Mandingo breath of
life), xii. 426*. ditino (Barotse spirits of dead monarchs), ii. 361*.
doshi (Ba-Huana ' double '), iv. 856*. diibb"'i. — See debbi. dzi-
nanga. — See nanga. dzo (Ewe holiness), vi. 732*. dzogbe (Ewe '
man's nature '), xii. 427*. eanda (plur. omaanda) (Herero clan), i.
508", ii. 351", xii. 401*. ehi (Edo soul), xii. 427". ehinoha (Edo bush-
soul), xii. 427". ekerd (Galla other world), i. 57*. eki (Fan holiness),
vi. 732*. ennair (Berber feast), ii. 513". eri (Ibo ' genius '), xii. 428*.
etsh'ege (Abyss, high priest), i. 161*. eioo-erun (Yoruba dry
season), iii. 64*. ewo-ojo (Yoruba rainy season), iii. 64*. ewo-oye
(Yoruba season), iii. 64*. fady (Malagasy tabu), vi. 733", 736", viii.
230*". fanany (Bctsileo soul-animal), i. 494*. fandroana (Malagasy
New Year feast), i. 507", ii. 664". fatidra (Malagasy ' blood-oath '), ii.
860*, 867*, 868", viii. 231*. fisi (Nyika ' hyena ' club), ix. 426*.
fvfuriye (Pokomo ' mystery '), x. 90*". 661 gbetsi (Ewe promise to
return to home of dead), xii. 426". ghUl (N. Afr. ogre), ii. 513*, vi.
211". gri-gri (VV. Afr. fetish), ix. 276*. harimaguadas (Berber female
religious caste), ii. 513". hasina (Malagasy holiness), vi. 7.32*. viii.
378*". hlonipa (Zulu tabu), vi. 733". idzzaben (Berber ' doctors '), ii.
517". ibambo (plur. abambo) (Mpongwe spirit of ancestor), ii. 360*,
ix. 285". idhlozi (plur. amadhlozi) (Zulu sacred snake), i. 490*, 493",
526*. igqira (Bantu doctor), ii. 362*. ikehga (Ibo promise to return
to world of dead), xii. 427°, 428". ikitabo (Warundi place of
assembly), ii. 359*. ila (Bechuana hate, dread), ii. 352*. ildgd
(Mpongwe spirits of deceased strangers), ii. 360". ilina. — See inina.
inina, ilina (plur. anina, malina) (.Mpongwe embodied soul), ii. 360*,
ix. 283*, 285". janCa (Berber pubhc assembly), i. 162". jinnl (Galla
evil spirit), i. 57*. jok (Dinka ancestral spirits), iv. 707*, 708"-709*.
710"-711». juakuweweta (priestess), i. 164*. juju (Negro fetish), ix.
276*. jujumen (Negro fetishman), ix. 284", 290*. kachisi (Nvanja
sacrificial hut), ix. 420". " kambi (Nyika council), ix. 426*". kasendi
(blood-brotherhood), ii. 857". ka via (Baganda royal drum), v. 93*.
kazila (Bantu tabu), ii. 354*, ix. 288*. kialo (Bantu place of origin),
ii. 353*. kici (Bavili magic power), ii. 366*. kiranga (Warundi priest),
ii. 363*". kishogno (blood-brotherhood), ii. 862". kisompavai-y,
kisompa (Malagasy ordeal), ix. 527". kizila (Congo tabu), vi. 733".
kla, akiama (Ewe soul), xii. 426'', 428". koura (Algerian ' football '),
vi. 168". kra (Gold Coast soul, guardianspirit), V. 527*", ix. 282*,
285". kraal (Zulu cattle-pen), ii. 355".
 662 INDEX TO FOREIGN WORDS kuntok (Sahara magical
stone), i. 162a. kurinja niiko (Swahili ' dietbreaking '), ii. 637''. kwar
(Dinka ' ancestor,' totem), iv. YOSaiJ. lisoka (plur. inasoka) (Yao soul,
spirit), ii. 358* lolo (i\lalagasy ' owl,' soul of sorcerers), i. 524*. luak
(Dinka shrine), iv. 708*. luba (Galla tribe leader), vi. 491*. luva
(Pokomo age-class), x. 90*''. luwo (Ewe soul), ix. 282'', 285"286*,
xii. 426*, 427*. luwo agbedo (Ewe life-soul), xii. 426*. luwo kuto
(Ewe death-soul), xii. 426*. Iwanda (Njdka club-house), ix. 425".
mabisalira (Nyanja witch-finder), ix. 421''. magadas (N. African
priests), ii. 507*. magus (Khoi-Khoin artificial brotherhood
ceremony), ii. 861b, 867". malina. — See inina. malume (Basuto
wife's brother), ii. 351". marafils (Senaar human hyaenas), i.
34''-35*. masina (Malagasy sorcerer), viii. 230". masoka. — See
lisoka. mbona (Nyanja seer), ix. 420*. mchisango (Yao sorcerer), ii.
363*. melimo (Basuto spirits), ii. 356*. mhaniba (Barongo sacred
object), ii. 356". mieta (Congo spirits), iv. 730". milungu (Awemba
spirits), ii. 359". minkisi (W. Air. ' fetishes '), vi. 732*. mipashi
(Awemba ancestors), ii. 359". mitorna (Bahima land of departed), ii.
357*. mizimu (sing, umuzimu) (Bantu spirits of the dead), ii. 359*,
iv. 568*, ix. 420*. mlaula (Nyanja prophet), ix. 420*. modzimu
(Bavenda soul, manifestation), ii. 356*. mogiro (Kikuyu ' prohibition
'), V. 636*. mondi (plur. myondi) (Mpongwe evil spirits), ii. 360", ix.
285". moro (Nyika council-house), ix. 425". moyo (Congo ' health '),
iv. 859". mpanazary (Malagasy sorcerer), viii. 230". mpangu (Congo
tabu), ii. 354* 7nsimu (Yao ' spirit '), ii. 358*. msinganga (Yao
physician), ii. 363*. muchwezi (plur. bachwezi) (Uganda ancestral
spirit), i. 429*, ii. 357*. mulogo (Uganda sorcerer), ii. 362".
mulungu(Ya.o supernormal power), and nature-worship, ix. 203".
miisawo (Uganda physician), ii. 362". muziro (Uganda totem), ii.
353*. mwabutwa (Uganda poisoner), ii. 362". mwabvi (Nyanja
poison ordeal), ix. 422*". mwiko (Yao tabu), ii. 353". myondi. — See
mondi. mzimu (Lake Nyassa ' soul '), iv. 856*. nabikom (Old Calabar
images of animals), i. 499*. naka (Basuto priest), ii. 369*. nakanguzi
(Baganda drum), v. 93*. hanga, dzi-nanga (Congo medicineman), ii.
362*, iv. 730*". ndok (Old Calabar expulsion of devils), i. 499*.
ngadzi (Pokomo sacred drum), x. 90*". ngagwe (Baganda elves,
sprites), V. 686*. nganga, nanga (plur. zinganga) (Bantu priest), ii.
360", 362*. nganga - bilongo, nganga - nkauci (Negro fetishman),
ix. 284". nganga-nkici-mbowu (Negro keeper of nail-fetish), ix. 284".
nganga - nzambi, nganga - nkici - ci (Negro true priest), ix. 284".
niama (Mandingo dynamic spirit), xii. 426*. nkalango (Mang'anja
burial groves), ii. 358". nkici (Bantu fetish, tutelary god), ii. 354*.
nkici-ci (plur. bakici-baci) (Fjort mysterious powers), ii. 365", ix.
275*. nkici-kici (Fjort charms), ix. 276*, 287*". nkici-mbowu (Fjort
nail-fetish), ix. 287*". nkinda (plur. sinkinda) (Mpongwe disembodied
soul), ii. 360*, ix. 285". nkulu (Bavili spirit of dead), ii. 360", ix.
283*". nlongo (Congo ' holiness '), vi. 732*. noki (Kikuyu ' violation
'), v. 636* noli (Ewe ghost), xii. 427*. nwago (Ibo reincarnation), xii.
427". odun (Yoruba year), iii. 64*. ody (Malagasy amulets), viii.
230". ogesa (Abyss, priest), i. 56"-57*. okra (Twi soul), xii. 426".
okuruo (Herero ' sacred fire '), ii. 357*, vi. 561", 562*. okuyambera
(Herero hearth ceremony), vi. 562*. olaga (Mpongwe disembodied
souls), ix. 285". omaanda. — See eanda. omakura (Herero ' persons
of the same age '), ii. 665". omapanga (Herero association), ii. 863",
869". ombetere (plur. ozombetere) (Herero diviner), ii. 362".
ombiasa (Malagasy sorcerer), viii. 230". ombuhe (plur. ozombuJie)
(Herero soothsayer), ii. 362". ombwiri (plur. awiri) (Mpongwe
locahzed spirit), ii. 360*, iv. 568*, ix 285". omkuru, omukuru (Herero
' ancestor-deity '), ii. 356", vi. 561". ondume (Herero fire-stick), vi.
561". ondyamberero (Herero hearth ceremony), vi. 56:i*. onganga
(plur. ozonganga) (irierero witch-doctor), ii. 36-". oro (Nuba
ancestral spirit), ix. 404". oru (Yoruba night), iii. 64*. orunda
(Mpongwe tabu), ii. 231*, 354*, vi. 732*, ix. 288*". oruzo (plur.
otiizo) (Herero totemic organization), i. 508", ii. 351", xii. 401*. osan
(Yoruba day), iii. 64*, otuzo. — See oruzo. otyiza (Herero fire-stick),
vi. 561". otyizero (Herero chief's house), vi. 561". oudah (Pygmy
'holiness'), vi. 732*. oupanga (Herero association), ii. 863". ovakuru
(Herero deceased ancestors), ii. 356". ozombetere. — See ombetere.
ozombuhe. — See ombuhe. ozondume (Herero fire-sticks), vi. 562*.
ozonganga. — See onganga. pepo (Nyika spirits), ix. 426". ponibe
(Cent. Air. drink), v. 72". qolo (Galla house-protecting genii), vi.
491". rika (Pokomo ' feast '), x. 90". rol (Dinka soul), iv. 708". sdhirs
(Senaar magicians), i. 34", 35*. sahu (Kikuyu ' punishment '), v.
636*. salamanga (Malagasy exorcism), i. 507". viii. 231*. santons
(Timbuktu shamans), i. 162*. sassur (Negro guardian-spirit), ix.
278*. selemo (Basuto year, ' spring '), in. 64". siboko (Bechuana '
totem '), i. 487", 489*, 499", xii. 397*. sikidy (Malagasy ceremony in
sorcery), viii. 230*. si'la (Berber ogre), ii. 513*. sing' anga (plur.
basing' anga) (Awemba priest), ii. 363". sinkinda. — See nkinda.
suhman (Gold Coast private god), i. 554*, ix. 278*". tanghin
(Malagasy poison ordeal), viii. 231*, ix. 526" -527". tasi (Ewe
spiritual aunt), xii. 426", 427*. tiet (Dinka medicine-man), iv. 709*".
tova (Herero ceremony), vi. 562*. ukpong (Calabar ' bush-soul '), i.
496". umuzimu. — See mizimu. vibanda (Awemba evil spirits), ii.
359". waganqaiia (Pokomo sorcerers), x. 90". walaia (Berber law
imposing friendUness between Muslims of same group), ii. 517".
 AMERICAN 663 wcdoshi (Awemba wizards), ii. 359".
wazimu, wazuka (Swahili spirits), xii. 8-18>». we (Dinka soul), iv.
708". werft (Herero village), ii. SSS". xina (Fjort tabu), ii. 354*, ix.
288*. ydkd (Mpongwe fetish), ii. 360", ix. 285". yila (Ba-Ronga
tabu), vi. 733". zar (Sudan divinatory rite), iv. 730*. zila (Zulu tabu),
vi. 733". ziiiganga. — See nganya. aaskouandy (Huron fetish), iii.
402". acsunvama (Peru fetish), v. 902". ah-kin (Mayan priests), viii.
506". amanvcalini (Mex. priests who painted MSS), x. 325». amautas
(Inca wise men), i. 470*". amei - malguen (Araucanian guardian
spirit), i. 433". angakok (plur. angakut) (Eskimo shaman), v. 394*,
xi. 443*". angiag (Eskimo evil spirit), vi. 55". aphajigak (Paraguayan
soul), iv. 859", ix. 633*. arnuaq (Eskimo amulet.s), iii. 401". assaby
(Brazil initiation on 1st Jan.). iii. 69". atourassap (Brazil kin), ii. 868*,
869". atsilung kelawhi (Cherokee ' those having divine lire ' priests),
iv. 782*. ayatapuc (Peru priests), i. 434". ayllus (Inca tribes), i.
471*. baho (Hopi prayer-stick), vi. 786". balam (Mayan ' tiger '), iii.
517*. benaboo ( Guiana temporary dwelling), i. 687". bollas
(Patagonian weapon), ix. 668". bugalak (Greenland good genii), i.
257*. buhios (Haitian houses), i. 687". callahuayas (Aymara
medicinemen), iii. 408". calmecac (Mex. priestly college), iv. 781*, X.
325*. canchemar (Brazil spirits), ii. 836*. caneyes (Haitian houses),
i. 687". canopa (Peru charm), iii. 408*. casas grandes (Pueblo stone
structures), i. 378"-379*. ccompa (Peru god of irrigation), ix. 803*.
ccoricancha (Peru temple), ix. 803". cemis (Haitian images), i. 432*.
cempohiialli (Mex. cycle of 20 days), ii. 664*. choc (ilayan gods of
labour), viii. 505". chapopotl (Aztec bitumen charms), iii. 407".
cheha (Xutka ' ghost '), xii. 594". chicauaztli (Mex. rattle-staff), vi.
732*. chicka (S. Amer. drink), v. 72". chichic, kiianca (Peru boundary
fetishes), v. 902", ix. 803*. chilan (Mayan priests), iii. 517*.
chiminigagua (Chibcha receptacle of light= Supreme Creator), i.
473". chulpas (Inca funeral towers), i. 471", 688*. coatl (Mex. '
serpent,' staff), iii. 456*. cocome (Maj^an priests), iv. 782*.
AMERICAN cohonk (Algonquin ' winter,' year), iii. 66*. conopas (Inca
statues, household gods), i. 473*, V. 902". cuchairra (Chibcha
rainbow), i. 473". dee-yin (Apache medicine-men), i. 601". ehecatl
(Aztec ' life '), viii. 13". eka (Kwakiutl witchcraft), xii. 663*. ekoneil
(Mayan imaginary snake), V. 687". eracras (Haitian houses), i. 687".
erkilik (Greenland trolls), i. 257*. estujas (Pueblo circular chambers),
i. 379*. gan (Apache gods in human form), ix. 255". gen
(Araucanian spirits), iii. 547". guards (Colombian doll fetishes), V.
903*. haitcildilye (Hupa 'winter dance'), vi. 880". harpaycuna (Inca
sacrificing priests), i. 472*. hashe ittiapa (Choctaw ' fire '), iii. 567".
heilikya (Kwakiutl shaman), xii. 663*. hikuli (Mex. small cactus, '
mescal buttons '). i. 826". hlimaksti (Xutka ' heart,' ' soul '), xii. 594".
Kmenes (Mayan priests), i. 434". hoddeiUin (Apache sacred pollen),
i. 602*", iii. 406*", iv. 735*. hodenosotes (Algonquian and Iroquoian
' long houses '), i. 684". hogan (Navaho hut), i. 683". holkon-okot
(Mayan 'warriordance '), viii. 506*. hondoi (Iroquoian demons), iv.
740*. honsitUcitdilye (Hupa ' summer dance '), vi. 880". hoodoo. —
See voodoo, huaca (Inca church), i. 472". kuaca (Peru sacred thing,
treasurehouse), i. 433", 471*", 473*, 689*, V. 902", ix. 803*. huaca
rimachi (Peru priests), i. 434", 472*. huaccha (Inca people), i. 472".
huanca, chichic (Peru boundary fetishes), v. 902", ix. 803*.
huaranca-camayoc (Inca officer over 1000 purics), i. 472". huauque
(Peru 'double' ), i. 433". huecuvus (Araucanian malignant spirits), iv.
731*. huitziton (Mex. crest), iii. 456*. huitznauac teohuatzin (Mex.
priest), X. 325*. hunu-camayoc (Inca governor of 10.000 purics). i.
472". huskanaw (Virginian puberty ceremonies), iv. 735*. igloo,
iglugeak (Eskimo hut), i. 683", 684". illas (Argentine carvings), iii.
408". inca (Inca government), i. 472". ingriersiut (Eskimo fairies), v.
686". iniskim (Blackfoot charms), iii. 404". intihuanatana (Peru
temple of sun), i. 688". intihualana (i'eru sun-dial), iii. 68". t'nua,
inue (Eskimo supernatural power), V. 394*. xi. 443^". izze-kloth
(Apache sacred cords), i. 602", iii. 406". jacal (Mex. system of
architecture), i. 685". jeques (Chibcha priests), iii. 514". jeasakids
((Jjibwa shamans), ix. 457", xi. 444*. kahaip (Makah shamanistic
ceremony), xii. 663". katcina (Hopi and Zuni ceremony), i. 821*, iii.
67", iv. 871"-872*. kavigtok (Eskimo hermits), i. 433". kayaks
(Eskimo boats), i. 303*", V. 393*. keebet (Abipone priest), i. 29*,
viii. 213". keisesia (Colombian fetishes), v. 903*. kenaima (Guiana
hostile spirit), vi. 452", viii. 213". keren (Patagonian wicked spirit),
ix. 669*. khUvas (Apache habitation), i. 601*. kilyikharna
(Paraguayan spirits), ix. 633*". kisi (Hopi shelter), i. 683". kiva
(Pueblo lodge, council-house), i. 379*, iii. 67", xii. 239*, 241*. kle-it-
tsa (Navaho pots), i. 828". koyemshi (Zuni clowns), xii. 869*. kugan
agalik (Eskimo dramatic performance), i. 3U5*. Idlenok (Kwakiutl
soul after death), xii. 662". loki (Huron medicine-man), vi. 886*.
loneuoyroya, ononharoia (Huron exorcizing rite), vi. 886*.
macacaraua (Brazil sacred symbol), ii. 835", 836*. maguey (Peru
maize spirit), iii. 69*. mallqais (Peru bodies of dead), i. 471".
mallquit umu (Peru priests), i. 434". manidos (Ojiljwa spirits), xi.
444*. manitu, i. 323*, 381". 496", iii. 402", viii. 378% 403*-405*, ix.
203", xii. 405*", 489". mededeskooi (Micmac * serpent plant '), i.
434". mescal (name for peyotl), iv. 736*. Tnexicatl teohuatzin (Mex.
head ot priestly college), x. 325*.
 664 INDEX TO FOREIGN WORDS miritz (Brazil initiation on
3rd March), iii. 69^. mishla (Mosquito drink), v. 74*'. mishonij uori
(Hopi ceremony), iii. 67". mitiiwit (Menomini society of shamans), xi.
444a'. mitimaes (Inca colonists), i. 473*. muirdkiiim (Jirazil sacred
stones), V. 903*. nacom (Mayan war-chief), viii. 506ab. nagiial, i.
496b-i97a, ii. 248*, viii. 219ab, xii. 405", 489^". nama (Huichol
ceremonial ' mat '), vi. 829". nanigo gigo (Paraguayan evil), ii. 836".
nanalak (Kwakiutl shaman), xii. 662". necUika (Huichol symbolic
object), vi. 829". ne - kha - uthezaet (Carrier I nd. swooning), iv.
639*. nemovtemi (Mex. ' supernumerary ' days), iii. 125*, 308*. ne-
tsen (Dene shadow), iv. 640*. ne-zul (Dene soul), iv. 640*. niman
(Hopi ceremony), iii. 67". ninumbees (Shoshone imps), iii. 362*.
nonzhinzhon (Omaha prayer rite), X. 158". nskaptse'lx (Thompson
River spring house), iii. 67*. ochechag (Ojibwa guardian spirit), i.
433". ocllo (Peru women under vow of chastity), iii. 485*. ocna
(Mayan feast), iii. 308", viii. 505". oiaron, oyaron (Iroquois tutelary
spirit), i. 433", iv. 857", vii. 421 "-422*. oki (Algonquin spiritual
power), viii. 403", 404*. oky (Huron ' possessing supernatural
qualities '), iii. 402", v. 900. ole (Mex. unguent), i. 553*. ololiuhqui
(Mex. ' serpent-plant '), i. 434". ometochtzin (Mex.' pulque priests '),
viii. 616". ondoiwc (Huron ' wishes of the soul'), vi. 885". onniont
(Huron charms), iii. 402", V. 900*. ononharoia, loneuoyroya (Huron
exorcizing rite), vi. 886*. oolunnade (Cherokee crystals), i. 434".
oruibi (Hopi summer snake-ceremony), iii. 67". orenda (Iroquois
supernatural power), ii. 242*, v. 898*. vi. 731", 732*, vii. 421", viii.
377", ix. 208", 555"-556*, xii. 406" ; and nature-worship, ix. 203".
otgon, otkon (hostile orenda), vii. 185*, 421", ix. .550*. ototeman
(Ojibwa, ' his brothersister kin '), xii. 393". oyaron. — See oiaron.
paccarina (Inca object of worship), i. 471*, 473*. pachaca (Inca
class =100 purics), i. 472". pachaca-camayoc (Inca centurion), i.
472". pachacta unanchac (Peru ' indicators of time '), iii. 69*. pages
(Brazil priests), ii. 836*". pahoki (Hopi ' prayer house '), xii. 240".
paiwari (Guiana drink), v. 74". pakala (Kwakiutl shaman), xii. 663*.
pataud (Brazil initiation on 4th May), iii. 69". paxiuba (Brazil oracular
tree), ii. 835", 836*, iv. 781". peai (Guiana protective spirit), vi.
452". pendeloques (Argentine charms), iii. 408". peyote, peyotl
(Mex. intoxicating plant), iv. 735"-736*, vi. 829"830*, ix. 815*".
piaches, piages (Brazil priests), i. 434*, iv. 781". pirlina-sara (Peru
fetish), v. 902". pischischi (Paraguayan hereafter), ix. 033*. pise
(Mex. system of architecture), i. 685". potlatches, v. 439" ; British
Columbian, vi. 198", Carrier Indian, iii. 229", dress as currency, v.
49*", Haida, vi. 471", Nutka, xii. 595*, and property, v. 721*,
Thompson River Indians, iii. 67*. powamu (Hopi ceremony), iii. 67".
pueblo (New Mexican and Arizona communal dwelling), i. 685*", vi.
783*. pulque (Mex. drink), v. 73*. puric (Inca class of people), i.
472". putshkohu (Hopi ' rabbit-stick '), vi. 783*". qilalik (Eskimo class
of shamans), V. 394". quaquacuiltin (Mex. ' old priests '), viii. 616".
quinuamama (Peru fetish), v. 902". quipo, quipu (Peru knotted
strings as mnemonic records), i. 378", vii. 748*, viii. 82*, x. 847".
quipucamayocs (Inca registrars), i. 470". ruihilie (Abipone ducks), i.
29*". saramama (Peru fetish), v. 902". shiwani (Zuiii priest), xii.
869*. shoik'n (Patagonian sorcery), ix. 669". sholiwe (Zuni game),
vi. 167". showekwe (Zuni fraternity), vi. 167". sikuli (Huichol
ceremonial object), vi. 829". sloua (Songish shamans), iv. 739*.
sipapuh (Hopi symbol), vi. 787*. soyalunwu (Hopi winter-solstice
ceremony), iii. 67". squnddm (Songish shamans), iv. 739*. sulia
(guardian spirit), xii. 405*. tans (Hupa local gods), vi. 882".
tarajualsiak (Greenland shades), i. 257*. temezcalli (Mex. ' sweat
houses '), iv. 736". teocalli (Mex. temples), i. 253", 336", 376", 689*,
xii. 241". teopixqui, teolecuhtli (Mex. priests), iv. 782*. teoqualiztli,
teoqualo (Mex. ' eating of the god ' ), iii. 58*, viii. 61 5*. teotl (Mex.
' divinity,' name for dead), i. 430". teouaque (Mex. ' guardians of the
idols '), viii. 016". tepan teohuatzin (Mex. educational priest), X.
325*. tepitoton (Mex. idols), iii. 456*, v. 901". teponuztli (Aztec
drum), ix. 10". tichsimich (Nutka prayer for hfe), xii. 593*. tihus
(Hopi dolls), vi. 786". timersek (Greenland trolls), i. 257*. tipi
(Omaha house), i. 684*. tipones (Hopi totemistic emblems), i. 336*.
tizwin (Apache drink), i. 601", 602*, V. 72". tkhimkee (Aleut amulet),
i. 305". tlachieloni (Mex. ceremonial object), vi. 829". tlaloc
tlamacazqui (Mex. priests), X. 325*. tlamacazqui (Mex. priests), viii.
616". tlamacazqui (Mex. lower grade of priests), x. 325*.
ilamacazton (Mex. neophytes), x. 325*. tlafiamacac (Mex. upper
grade of priests), x. 325*. tlatoani (Mex. king), x. 325*.
tlenamacaque (Mex. priests), viii. 616". tl''k''a'yin (Thngit
guardianspirit), xi. 443". tlokwana (Nutka woLf-ritual), xii. 595*.
tokpia (Huichol temples), xii. 241*. tola (Inca mounds for dead), i.
471". tona (Zapotec soul), iv. 858". tonalamatl (Mex. and Mayan
horoscope), i. 37", iii. 124*", x. 325", xii. 66*". topina (Huichol
house of worship), viii. 619*. tornak (plur. tornait) (Eskimo guardian-
spirit), i. 433", 496", V. 394*, xi. 443*". toru-gucnket (Botocudo '
nighttire,' moon), i. 256". toru-shompek (Botocudo ' dayfire,' sun), i.
250". totec tlamacazqui (Mex. priests), X. 325*. toyolliaytlaqual
(Mex. cannibalistic food), iii. 204". <5a?/eA; (Nutka initiation), xii.
595*". tshisaqka (Menomini jugglers), xi. 444*. tucuyricoc (Inca
viceroy), i. 472". tuh (Mayan 'sweat houses'), iv. 730". tun (Mayan '
stone,' 360 days), iii. 125". tun-gha-lik (Eskimo shaman), xi. 443*.
tunghdt (Eskimo supernatural beings), xi. 443*. tunktcitdilye (Hupa '
autumn dance '), vi. 881*.
 ARABIC 665 tupilak (Eskimo monsters), iii. 402*, viii. 218",
xi. 443K. tupp-k'ak (Mayan ceremony), iii. 308b, viii. 5()5b. tzi-daltai
(Apache fetishes), v. 899b. ucuqui (Brazil initiation on 2nd Feb.), iii.
69»>. uiga (Brazil initiation on 6th Nov.), iii. 69'>. uinal (Mayan '
month '), iii. 125*. ulli (Mex. unguent), i. 553*. ulu (Huichol
ceremonial arrows), vi. 829*. umari (Brazil initiation on 5th July), iii.
09". vanquechs (Californian temples), ii. 161b, xii. 241*. villac umu
(Inca chief priest), i. 472*. villcas (Inca priests), i. 472*. voodoo,
hoodoo (devil-worship), ix. 297*, xii. 640"-641*; cannibalism, iii.
203b, 204b, lycanthropy, viii. 213*, serpentworship, xii. 400b,
vampire, iii. 208*. wabano, wabeno (Ojibwa shaman), ix. 457b, xi.
444*. ■wakiku'inema (Hopi children's dance), vi. 787". wakan,
wakanda, wakonda (Siouan ' power'), i. 381", 382*, 433", vi. 732*,
viii. 377"-378^, 403", 404*, ix. 203", 556*, x. 53", 54*, xi. 576*".
wakanivacipi (Algonquian 'dreamers of the gods,' priests), iv. 782*.
wampum (New Mexican strings of beads used as money), i. 378",
827", V. 49"-o0*. wewacpe (Omaha tribal rites), xi. 577*. wigwam
(Algonquin dwelling), i. 084*. vnkiup (Ute and Apache hut), i. 601*,
683". windigo (Ojibwa cannibals), ix. 457*. windigokan (Ojibwa
cannibal cult), ix. 458". xhoh c/ialtun (Mayan forest spirits), V. 687*.
xma kuba kin (Mayan ' days without name '), iii. 125*, 308*", viii.
506*. xtahai (Mayan forest spirits), v. 687*. yahuayra (Inca song), i.
472*. yaravi (Inca harvest song), i. 472". yaxche (Mayan sacred
tree), i. 435". yebitchai (Navaho healing rite), i. 823*, iv. 734*. yei
(Navaho i^oda in human form), ix. 255". yek (Tlingit supernatural
power), ix. 203", 207*. yungya (ilopi assembly day), iii. 67". zaztun
(Mayan crj-stal), i. 434". zenichi (Navaho divinities), i. 823*. dbna'u
al-daulah (' Sons of the Empire,' followers of Ahmad al-Rawandl), ii.
189". 'adhan (Muh. call to pra.yer), i. 757", ix. 54*", X. 198". afrits
(demons), i. 256*, 670" (note). 'dhed (Moorish curse), iv. 373b. ahl
al-kitab (people ' of the book '), vii. 866". ahwdl (states, conditions),
ii. 677b. 'akafa (' wait upon,' ' worship '), vi. 249". akdarlyah (special
inheritance case), vii. 873*. 'akwdn (modes of existence), ii. 203*.
amir al-mu^minln (' commander of the faithful,' title of Arab khallfs),
vii. 723" (note), 'and* (moments), ii. 203b. an-sab. — See nitsb.
'aqiqah (hair of newborn infant, sacrifice of hair of infant), ii. 659*,
659b-600*, xi. 31*. 'aql (intelligence), ix. 880*b, xii.l3b. 'dr
(conditional curse), ii. 164*b, iv. 372b-373*, v. 71b, jx. 430*. 'arrdf
(sage, diviner), i. 671*, ix. 513*, X. 136*. 'asabdt (male relatives on
paternal side), vii. 870*-872». dsdr (reUcs), x. 662*. 'aui (time), i.
662*. 'awra (nakedness that may not be uncovered), iii. 495b. ayat
al-kifz (' preservative verses '), iii. 460*. 'ayydrun (robbers), ii. 330^.
ba'ir (camel), iii. 173". al-Bakka'un (class of Muh. ascetics), ii. 100".
baqd (' subsistence,' affirmation of universal consciousness), iii.
775b, X. 43*, xii. 17*. baraka (holiness), viii. 378b. ba-shar' (in
accord with ordinances of Muh. law), xi. 70*. basmala {=bismillah),
ii. 667". ARABIC be-shar' (negative of ba-shar'), xi. 70*. bi'at
(proclamation of khallf), vii. 723b (note). bisMiah (fire ordeal), ix.
512b-5I3*. bismika Alldhumma (Quraish form of bismilldh), ii. 667*.
bismillah (' in the name of Allah '), ii. 666b-668b, iii. 441"-442a.
bismilldhi-r-rahmani-r-rahimi (full form of bismilldh), ii. 666".
casdmah (oath), ix. 513*. chaugale (Bene-Israel elders), ii. 474*.
dahlyah (victim slaughtered on 10th Dhu'l-Kijjah), xd. 31*". dahr ('
time '), i. 661". da'l (adopted son), i. 111*. dd'ls (missionaries), iii.
222". da'l akbar (' greater missionary,' Assassin class), ii. 139*. da'l
ma'dhun (' permitted missionary,' Assassin class), ii. 139*. damir ('
the hidden being,' conscience), iv. 46b. darabuka (hand-drum), ix.
65", 56*. ddr al-hadith (' school of tradition '), i. 758*. ddr al-'ilm
(Fatimid school), i. 758*b. darb al-mandal (crystal-gazing), iv. 817*.
dargdh (shrine), i. 268b. darih (mausoleum), i. 759". da'wah
(incantation), vii. 205*. dluinb (unbebef), xi. 567". dhawu'l-arhdm
(class of Muh. heirs)," vii. 873*. dliawu'l-fard'id (class of Muh. heirs),
vii. 871", 872*-873*. dhikr (form of devotion, usually repetition of
name of Allah), i. 12*, ii. 102*, iv. 642*, x. 43*, xii. 13". dhimmis
(unbeUevers), ii. 672", vii. 882"-883*, ix. 767*^769*, xii.
367*-369*. dhu massa (' sucker,' imbiber of learning. Assassin
class), ii. 139*. dibs (syrup of grapes), vi. 769*. dlvdnah (religious
madman), viii. 887", 888*. ditodn (council of shaikhs), v. 254*. diya
(ransom, ' price of blood '), ii. 730", iv. 291*, 292*". diydfah
(hospitality), vi. 797*. doli (palanquin), iii. 173". doseh (ceremony),
iv. 643*. duhrls (sect of atheists), ii. 190*. dzimmls. — See dhimmis.
fana (' passing away ' annihilation), ii. 677", iii. 775", xii. 12*, 17*,
21*. fand fi-'llah (' disappearance in God '), X. 43*. fand fi-'lshaikh ('
disappearance in the shaikh '), x. 43*. fand ul-fand (' disappearance
of fand '), X. 43*. faq'ths (scholars of fiqh), vii. 859*. faqlr (' poor '),
x. 719". fard (duty), ii. 677", vii. 863". faskh (annulment of
marriage), vii. 868"-S69*. fasl, fasl mudhik (marionette play), iv.
875*, 876*". falwd (professional opinion on y?^A -matters), vii.
861*. fiqh (law), V. 503"-504b, vii. 859*. fuqard' (plur. ol faqlr), x.
719". ghdzl (' holy warrior '), i. 269". ghal (plur. ghildn) (demon), i.
670*" ghusl (major ablution), ii. 409", x. 496b-497*. habal, hdbil
(madness), i. 670b. haddnah (guardianship), vii. 870b871*. hadara
(slave's attendance, worship), vi. 249". hadd (• fixed penalty'), iv.
291*. hadith (tradition), vii. 858". hadrah (devotional service), iv.
642".
 666 INDEX TO FOREIGN WORDS hady (offer Bacrificial
gift), xi. 30b-3la. hafaza (angels), iv. 617b, 618a. hafiz (amulets), iii.
460^. liajal eddill (shadow play), iv. 873b-874i>. hajj (pilgrimage), i.
668*-669*, vii. ses^', X. lOa. hajjat al-wada' (' the farewell hajj '), X.
lla. hakam (arbitrator), i. 671 a. hdki (imitator of dialectic), iv. 872''.
halal (lawful), ii. 102a''. halif yemin (form of swearing), ix. 437a.
kallala, ahalla (ritual expressions from hilal, ' new moon '), iii. 127a.
Mma (' skull.' departed), i. 672*. Jiamail (amulets), iii. 460*.
hamaye, hafiz (amulets), iii. 460*. hdnil (stallion camel), iii. 174*.
hanlfs (ascetics), ii. 100*'', 111*. haqlqat (truth), xii. 13". haqq
ddanil {' human right '), iv. 291^1'. haqq Allah ('right of Allah'), iv.
291*" haram (unlawful), ii. 102*. harim (private part of
Muhammadan house), i. 750*. hasshdshln, hashishiyya (' drinkers of
hashish '), ii. 138". hatayia (' circumcise '), iii. 664*. haiib. — See
khalib. hayyiz (space), ii. 203*. hdzi (' seer '), i. 671*. hijdl, hajal ('
drama '), iv. 873*. hijrah (Muhammad's migration, Muh. era), viii.
872*. hildl (' new moon '), iii. 127*. hiynd (forbidden), vi. 753*".
hirz, horuz (amulets), iii. 460*. hizb (service composed largely of
Qur'an passages), i. 11*, iv. 642*. hubul (fall [of Adam]), v. 715*.
hujja (■ argument,' Assassin class), ii. 139*. hulul (fusion of being),
ii. 677". hummci (fever), ii. 40'J". hur al-'ain (houris), iv. 618". hurz
(little book worn as amulet), iii. 460*. 'ibadah, 'ibdddt (' worship '),
vi. 249", vii. 863*. 'ibil (camel), iii. 173". "id (festival), v. 881". 'Id al-
ffd ('festival of beans'), v. 884". 'id al-ghadir (festival of Lake of
Humm), V. 884*. 'iddah (period that must elapse between
dissolution of marriage and new marriage), vii. 867*. i'dlidr (feast
accompanying circumcision), iii. 678". ijadhah (running from 'Arafah
to Muzdalifah), x. 11". 'jfril (demon), i. 670" (note). ihram (pilgrim
costume, rehgious consecration), i. 668", vii. 865", X. 10*. ihtiydr
(free choice), i. 13". ijina' (general agreement of opinion, public
opinion), v. 504*", vii. 802", xii. 1 1 6*", 1 1 9*. ijtihdd (decree-
giving), i. 272*. ikhwdn ('brothers,' religious order), x. 719". iktisdb
(' acceptance '), ii. 680*. iW (' swear,' vow of abstinence), vii. 867*".
Ildh (' God '), i. 326*", vi. 248*. ilhani (inspiration of prophet), ii.
677*, vii. 354". 'ilm al-akhldq (ethics), v. 509". 'ilm al-fiqh (' science
of the fiqh '), vii. 859*. 'ilm al-kaldm, 'ilm al-tawhid (' doctrine of
faith '), vii. 863*. imam (leader in prayer), ii. 299"300*, iii.
222"-223*, vii. 183", 184", 198*, 723" (note), 878"879", viii. 898*,
x. 198", 325", xi. 454*-455*, xii. 117". iman ('faith'), v. 695*-696*;
and Islam, V. 696*. jmdn-i-mufassal (' the detailed confession'), v.
695". Imdn-i-mujmal (' the shortened confession'), v. 695". iqatnah
(second call to prayer), x. 198". ishdrat al-malak (' the sign of the
angel,' lower form of inspiration), vii. 354". Islam, and imdn. v. 696*.
ism (name proper), ix. 136"-137*. ism-al-a'zam (greatest of God's
names), viii. 292*. istihsdn (method of argument), vii. ' 860*, xii.
115*. istislidb (method of argument), vii. " 860*. istislah (method of
argument), vii. ' 860*, xii. 115*. ittaqd (' to be pious '), i. 660*.
ittihdd (identilication), ii. 677". 'itq (emancipation), vii. 874*-875*.
jadd (' luck '), i. 662*. jafr (method of divination by letters), iv. 817".
jama'a (worshippers), i. 757". jamal (camel), iii. 173". jdmi' (religious
building), i. 758". jamin (oath), ix. 512". jdn. — See jinn. jar
(protege), ii. 732*. al-jauhar (substance), ii. 203*. jazba (' attraction
'), i. 271*. jiiia (spatial persistence), ii. 203*.
>'Aad(holywar),vii.863*,880"-882*. jinn, jdn (spirits, fairies), i.
1.^9", 162*, 256*, ii. 668*, iv. 331", 669"-670", V. 686"-687*, 687",
688*, xi. 404*. jizyah (tribute), ii. 225*, vii. 882*. jum'a (service), i.
757". junna (' to be possessed '), i. 670* (note). kaffdrah (' expiation
'), iv. 292", V. 664*, vii. 876", 877*. kufir (unbeUever), iv. 617", v.
696". kdhin (soothsayer, priest), i. 667*, 671*, X. 136*. kaldm ('
conversation,' metaphysics), vii. 637"-639", xii. 115", 116*", 117*.
See also General Index. kalimal al-shahdda, kalima (creed), iv.
246"-247*. karagoz (Turk, shadow-play), iv. 874"-876*, 902".
kardmdt (spontaneous miracles), ix. 243*. kashf (' xinveiling,'
inspiration), ii. 677*. kawari (verses of Qur'dn containing malediction
of Satan), iii. 460*. khalifah (' substitute,' lieutenant), iv. 643*, vii.
723", x. 719". khalwah (' solitude,' form of discipline), iv. 642".
khardj (tribute), vii. 882*". khalib (preacher), i. 757", x. 222*.
khawdriq (violations), ix. 243*. khitdn (' cutting,' circumcision), iii.
677". khuV (method of divorce), vii. 868". khutbah (sermon), x.
222*. khwan (hterati), i. 161". kitdbah (hberation of slave by
agreement), vii. 874". kohl (black powder), i. 292", 299*. kubbah. —
See qubba. kunyah (paternal or maternal name), ix. 137*. kuttdb,
mxiktab (primary school), i. 759*, V. 198"-199*. La ildha illd-lldhu, i.
326". Ld ildha Hid ''Ildh, ii. 102*. laqab (title), ix. 137". l-'ar. — See
'dr. Wan ('mutual imprecation'), i. 131", vii. 869*, ix. 513*. llwdn ('
oriented hall,' arcade), i. 750", 757*", 758*. lubdn (' frankincense '),
vii. 203*. miCddzah. — See '' udzih. madfan (mausoleum), i. 759".
madhana, mandra (minaret), i. 757". madhhab (party), vii. 859*.
Tnadrasa (school), i. 746", 751"752*, 753", 757"-758", 878", v.
199". maghtis (tank), ii. 409". mahmal (pilgrimage camel), x. 11*.
mahr al-?nithl (dowTy), vii. 866*. majlis (' sittini^.' unofficial
sermon), x. 223*. majnun ('possessed'), i. 670* (note). makdm
(shrine of local guardian' spirit), xi. 78"-79*. makdn (tri-dimensional
space), ii. 203*. maktab (primary school), i. 759*. ma,l (camels,
property), iii. 173". malak (plur. mald'ika) (angel), iv. 615*". mamarr
(' passage [of one planet over another] '), xii. 91". mandra,
ma'dhana (minaret), i. 757". mxindsik (' outpouring ' of blood), i.
666*. mansab (name of rank), ix. 136". mansib ( = Heb.
mussebhah), i. 665*". maqdmds (dramatic anecdotes, sermons), iv.
873*, x. 223". maqdmdt (Sufi ' stations '), xii. 13". maqsura (chancel
of mosque), i. '748*, 749". marabouts (saints, shamans), i. 161",
162*. ma'rifat (Sufi yvixxris), xii. 12*. markar (mount, ship, camel),
iii. 173". marqad (mausoleum), i. 759". masd'il mulaqqabah (special
casea in law), vii. 873*.
 AEABIC 667 mash (purification of inner boote), X. 497".
mashhad (sanctuaries), i. TSQ**. masjid (mosque), i. 165'',
666''667*, 757''. maskh (maj^ical process), viii. 262". mauslm
(festival), v. 881". mau'jiUl (the existent), ii. 677". mawld (patron),
vii. 874''. mawquj (that which is made a waqf), vii. 878*. mawqUj
'alaihi (he who receives benefit from the voaqj), vii. 878*. mazar
(places of pilgrimage), i. 759". m'i4a' (basin for ablutions), i. 757".
mihnah (orthodoxy test), ix. 765". tnihrdb (recess in mosque wall), i.
696^, 746*, 757", 877*, x. 85". mina'l-futuh (through an ' opening '
which God made), ii. lOi"'. minbar (pulpit), i. 696a, 875*, 877*, X.
221 "-222*. mkaddam (manager [of saint]), ii. 161". mu'addib ('
instructor '), v. 199". mu'allim (' teacher '), v. 199*. al-muawidataiu
(' the two preservatives,' two chapters of Qur'aii), iii. 459". muballigh
(clerics), i. 757". mubarakin (' blessed ones,' euphemistic name for
jinn), v. 687*.. mudda (ransom), ii. 730"-731*. mufti (law scholar),
vii. 861*. muhaddithin (story-tellers), iv. ■ 873*. muhrim (one in
state of ihrdm, pilgrim), x. 10*. muhsan (chaste person), i. 131", iii.
495". mujtahid {fiqh scholars), vii. 860", 861*, xi. 457". mukallib ('
trainer,' Assassin class), ii. 139*. mulcatab (slave), vii. 874".
mukatabah (liberation of slave by agreement), vii. 874". mulhid ('
heretic '), ii. 190". mu'inin (' behever '), ii. 139", iv. 617", V. 695*,
696". munafiq' (false behever), iv. 617". muqaddatn (head of
monastery), iv. 643*, X. 719", 720* ; BeneIsrael, ii. 473". muqallid
(imitator of dialectic), iv. 872". muqallid (scholar), vii. 860".
murdqabah (meditation), x. 43*. murld (disciple), iv. 643*, vi. 519",
X. 42"-43". murshid (spiritual director), x. 40*-43". musamma ('
something over which has been named [the name of Allah] '), ii.
668*". mushrikun (' associators,' heathen Arabs), vi. 249", viii. 876*.
Musuhi ( = 8ufl), ii. 101* mut'aJi (temporary marriage), iii. 815*, vii.
862*, viii. 467", 468*, xi. 458*, xii. 118". mutakallimun
(theologians), vi. 478", xii. 115". See also General Index. mutawakkil
(ascetic), ii. 102". al-mutavxikkilun (Sufis), ii. 102"103*. nadam
(repentance), x. 735*. nadhr (vow), vii, 876". najs (breath, soul), i.
671", xii. 13". nahr (upper part of camel's chest, ' to stab '), xi. 30".
naib (= khalifah), x. 719". najah (salvation, release from
punishment), xi. 149*. ndqa (camel), iii. 173". nasi (' intercalation '),
iii. 126". naslkah (sacrificial victim), xi. 31*. ndtiqs {' utterers,'
Assassin incarnations of deity), ii. 139*. naugaza (giant saints), xi.
70". nisbuk (relative name), ix. 137*". nuab, nusub (plur. ansub)
(idol), i. 334*, 350", 665*", vi. 249*, xi. 34*. nusk, nusuk (sacrificial
victim), i. 666*, xi. 31*. nuskha (amulet), iii. 460*. nusub. — See
ntisb. nusuk. — See nusk. 'omra (' pilgrimage '), i. 667"668*. pir,
shaikh (spiritual director, founder of an order), iv. 643*, V.
253"-256*, x. 40*43", 719", 720*, xi. 67*, xii. 13*; Bengal, ii.
498"-499*, Central Provinces, iii. 314", Gaya, vi. 186". qabr
(mausoleum), i. 759". qadhf (slander), iv. 293*. qddi (judge), v.
255*, vii. 864*, 879"-880* ; Bene-Israel, ii. 473". qalb (heart), xii.
13". qanun (zither), ix. 56*. qasdma (' oath of purgation '), ii. 732",
ix. 436*. qawad (blood-feud), ii. 730*. qiblah (niche in wall
indicating direction of Mecca), i. 746*, 757*, 877*, X. 85". qird
(hospitality), vi. 797*. qisds (retaliation), ii. 730*, iv. '291*,
291"-292*. qiyds (reasoning by analogy), vii. 860*, 862"-863*, xii.
115*. qorbdn (sacrifice), xi. 31". qubba (dome, mausoleum), i. 759",
xi. 66", 79*. qutb (leading saint), xi. 65*". rabb (' great one,' " lord
'), vi. 248*. rdA}6s (monks), ii. 110", HI*. ra'l (' seer,' famihar spirit),
i. 671*. ra'ls (chief), viii. 886*. ra'iya (female famihar spirit), i. 671*.
rdqi (' enchanter '), i. 671*. rdwl (story-tellers), iv. 873*. ra'y
(independent judgment), vii. 860*, xii. 115*. ribd (interest), vii.
875"-876*. ribdt (hermitage, monastery), i. 759*. ri4d (' quietism '),
xii. 11*. risalit (in architecture), i. 877*. ruh (spirit), xii. 13". ruqyah
(charms), viii. 253". sabha (' rosary,' funeral ritual), iv. ' 502*. sabll
(fountain), i. 759*. sadd (' echo,' voice of dead, owl), i. 672". addin
(plur. aadana) (priests), i. 667*. sdhir (' magician'), i. 671*. sd'iba
(sacred camel), iii. 174*. sa ihun (fem. sd'ihul) (" wanderers,'
ascetics), ii. 100*, 110". 111*. saklna ( = Jew. shtkiniih), vii. 1 84*.
aaldms (Abyss, hymns), iii. 400". saldl (ritual prayer), ii. 102*, vii
863*, X. 196"-197". aaldt al-'asr (afternoon saldt), x. 197". ■ saldl
al-(J,uha (morning saldl) x 197". saldt al-'id (feast aaldt), x. 199*.
saldt al-'isfia (nightfall saldt), x. 197". saldt al-istisqd' (saldt for
imploring rain), x. 199*. aaldt al-maghrib (^aldt at sunset), X. 197".
saldt al-subh (saldt at daybreak), X. l'97"'. saldt al-tahajjud (saldt at
night), X. 197". saldt al-tardwth ('aaldt with pauses '), X. 199*. saldt
al-witr (odd saldt), x. 197". mldt al-zuhr (noon saldt), x. 197". sdlik
(traveller on way, disciple), X. 42", 43*. sama' (Sufi ' audition '), xii.
16*. Sana basUa (common year), iii. 127". Sana kablsa (year with
extra day), iii. 127". sanad (written permission to hand on mystical
disciphne), x. 40". aaTiam (" statue,' image), i. 666", vi. 249*.
.sawm (fasting), vii. 863*. sa'y (circuiting between J^afa and
Marwah), x. 11". sayydt (evil), xi. 567". sb.res (zabaniya) (spirits), iv.
618". selamlik (open portion of house), i. 750*. 3hahid(maTtyT),xi.
63", 70",72"-73». shaikh. — See pir. shaikh ul-Isldm (chief mufti), xi.
457", xii. 117". shd'ir (■ one who knows,' poet, prophet), i. 671*.
shaitdn (heat of sun, demon, Satan), i. 162*, 256*, 670*, iii. 126",
iv. 615*. ahar', sharl'ah (canon law), vii. 858"-8.J9*, xi. 457", xii.
13*. shar'if (plur. shiirfa) (" noble '), i. 161", X. 719*"; in Mecca, viii.
512", in N. Africa, viii. 881*, 883*. shayyim (' patron '), vi. 248".
shirk (polytheism, idolatry), vii. 151*, xii. 118". shirk al-'dda
(performing ceremonies that imply rehance on other than God), vii.
151*. shirk al-'ibdda (offering worship to created things), vii. 151*.
ahirk al-'ilm (ascribing knowledge to others than God), vii. 151*.
shirk at-tasarruf (ascribing power to others than God), vii. 151*.
aibgha (' dipping,' baptism), ii. 409"-410*.
 668 INDEX TO FOREIGN WORDS slghah (form of waqf), vii.
878*''. si/ir (magic), viii. 252*. ai'ldt (plur. sa'dli) (female demon), i.
670»'. silsilah (' spiritual chain '), x. 41*. silsilat al-baraka (chain of
benediction), X. 720*. silsilat al-wird (chain of initiation), X. 720*.
su'ara (story-tellers), iv. 873*. «m/ (coarse wool), ii. 101*. tunnah ('
form,' ' mode,' tradition), ii. 616", V. 502''-503b, vii. 858b-859*,
862*", 863", xii. 114b, 118*. surah (plur. suwar) (' homily,' '
discourse,' chapter of Qur'an), X. 638b-539*. tabannd (adopted
son), i. 111*. tabattul (detachment from the world), ii. 100*. tabi' ('
follower,' famihar spirit), i. 671*. iabi'ah (' stamping,' nature), ix.
242", 243*. tablb (' physician '), i. 671*. ta'b'iT (' dream
interpretation '), iv. 818*. fabla (tambourine drum), ix. 56*. tadbir
(liberation of slave at master's death), vii. 874''. tafwid (dowry
agreement), vii. 866*. tahdrah (purification), vii. 863*, x. 497*.
tahayyuz (capacity of filhng space), ii. 203*. tahlll (' solemn shout '),
i. 666*. iaifa (' band,' rehgious order), x. 7191'. takarrub (pressing
[of hands on images]), i. 556*. takhallus (assumed name), ix. 136''.
Uikiyya (monastery), i. 759*. falabah (' disciples '), iv. 643*. taldq ('
repudiation,' divorce), vii. ta'llq (to divorce), vii. 867''. tamassuh
(rubbing [of hands on images]), i. 556*. taqi (' pious '), i. 660*.
taqlyyah (' prudence,' equivocation), V. 504*, ix. 766*, xi. 458*, xii.
118". taqlld (' to invest with authority '), vii. 860". taqwd, tuqd ('
piety '), i. 660*. iariqah (mystical discipline), x. 40", 42"-43", xii.
13*. tasadduk (rite), iii. 447". tasbih (rosary), x. 852*. tasdlq al-qalb
(intellectual acquiescence, faith), V. 695". tashrlq (three days of)
(meaning uncertain), x. 12*. tasmiya (invocation of name of God), ii.
667", 668*. tafhtr (' circumcision,' purification), iii. 664*, X. 497*.
tawdf (circuit of Ka'bah), x. 11". tawdif (Ind. prostitutes), x. 408*.
tawakkul (trust in God), ii. 102". tawbah (repentance), x. 735*".
tayamrmon (purification with dust), X. 497*. ta'zir (' correction '), iv.
291*, 293". thar (vengeance), ii. 730*. tilsam (plur. laldsim)
(talisman), iii. 460*. Irlqa (' way,' religious order), x. 719". tuJir ('
cleansing,' circumcision), iii. 677". turba (mausoleum), i. 759". 'vd
(lute), ix. 56*. 'udzah, ma'ddzah (amulets), iii. 460*. 'uhdah
(functional name), ix. 136". 'ulamd (' the learned,' religious
organization), viii. 906*", 910", ix. 766*", 768*, xii. 118"119*.
'umrah (' little pilgrimage,' cultus of sacred building at Mecca), X.
10", 11*". uns (intimacy), iii. 775". 'urf (custom), vii. 863*, xi. 457".
'urs (festival of saint), ii. 471", xi. 71*". ustadh (spiritual director), x.
40*43". usul al-fiqh (sources of fiqh), vii. 861 "-863*. wahl
(inspiration), ii. 677*, vii. 354"-357* ; and kald?n, vii. 356*. wahi
zdhir (' external inspiration '), vii. 354". wajd (bliss, ecstasy), ii. 677".
wdjib (obligatory), vii. 863". wakll (trustee), iv. 643*, vi. 248". waW
(patronage), vii. 874"-875*. wall (saint), xi. 63", 66"-68*, 79*", xii.
14*. wall (nearest kinsman), vii. 864"866*. walimah (meal, feast), i.
171*. waqf (something withdrawn from commerce to be reserved
for religious purposes), vii. 724", 877"-878". wdqif (person who
makes a waqf), vii. 878*. waslla (sacred camel), iii. 174*. waslyah
(will), vii. 877*". wasm (' tribal mark '), ii. 326", iii. 174*. wathan ('
stone,' ' statue '), i. 666", vi. 249*. wildyat al-mdl (guardianship), vii.
871*. wird (rite of initiation), x. 720*. wi}-d (invocation), i. 11", iv.
642*. wudu' , wadu' (minor ablution), ii. 409", X. 496", xi. 458".
wujud (existence), ii. 677". wz*A;m/ (standing in plain of 'Arafah for
prescribed time), x. 11". lousul (union), ii. 677". yafta (amulets), iii.
460*. yamin (oath), vii. 876", 880", ix. 436*. yaum ad-dln (Day of
Judgment), V. 376". yemein el-khet (' oath of the cross lines '), ix.
437*. yemein el shemle we nemle (' oath of the shemle and nemle
'), ix. 437*. zdhid (' satisfied with a little,' ascetic), ii. 102", iv. 641".
al-zdjir (' the restrainer,' conscience), iv. 46". zajr (drawing omens
from birds), i. 671". zakdt (purity), iii. 495". zakdt (almsgiving, tax),
ii. 100*, V. 502*, vii. 863*. zaki (pure), iii. 495". zamxin (' time '), i.
661". zandaqah (unorthodox tenets), ii. 188". zauba'a (' whirlwind '),
i. 670" (note). zdwiyah (convent, monastery), i. 161", 759*, x. 720*.
zihdr (vow of abstinence), vii. 867*". zind (fornication), i. 131".
zindlqs (heretics), ii. 105*, 188"190", 329", ix. 766*. ziydrah (' visit,'
pilgrimage to tomb), X. 12*, xi. 67". zuhd (renunciation, asceticism),
ii. 100*, 102*", 105*, xii. 11*. als (demon), i. 800", iii. 360". orlez
(demon), i. 800". aweleach (five intercalary days), iii. 70*. covaQuls
(' sea-bulls '), i. 800". devs (demons), i. 799", 806", iii. 360". druzes
(demons), i. 799". gerezman (' paradise '), i. 800". girpaharan (rolls
of prayer), i. 806". OroJ (spirit), i. 806". ARMENIAN hambarus
(monsters), i. 799", 800". hurbak (fire), i. 796*. jatiiks (demons), i.
799". k'ajk's (demons), i. 800". khoran (altar), i. 338". kiprianos
(rolls of prayer), i. 806". kodi (girdle), vi. 228". k'urm (pagan priest),
i. 801". mardagails (demons), i. 800". nhangs (monsters), i. 800*".
parik (monster), i. 799", 800". pays (monsters), i. 800". sahapets
(genii), i. 800". thiw horomoch (' Roman or Byzantine era '), iii. 71".
thuakan Xosrovayin (' era of Khosrov '), iii. 72*. vardavar (rose-
festival), i. 796", 804", iii. 72"-73*, v. 836*. vi.saps (monsters), i.
799" 800*. yaverzaharsunks (demons), i. 800". yuskapariks
(monsters), i. 799", 800".
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