COMPARATIVE STUDY OF RELIGIONS

The comparative study of the concept, nature, beliefs, sacred writings and practices of some
major religions of the world like: Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, Shintoism,
etcetera, together with the distinctiveness and importance of each of these religions. But, for
clarity’s sake, we grouped these ancient religions into three groups, namely:
1- THE ASIANITIC RELIGIONS: Which has religions like Hinduism, Buddhism, Shintoism,
Confucianism, Zoroastrianism, and Taoism, amongst others.
2- ABRAHAMIC RELIGIONS: Which has Judaism, Christianity, Islam, and Bahaism.
3- AFRICAN TRADITIONAL RELIGION AND RELIGION: From Early Formation to the
Technological Development in the society. Nature of African Traditional Religion.

INTRODUCTION
The goal of every religion is man’s universal thirst for, peace and goodness. Man achieves this
goal through many ways in which he expresses his beliefs and attitudes. No matter when or how
man developed from the time he became man, his irresistible urge to worship has created and
will continues to create endless forms of religious behaviour. This force is so powerful in man
that it has produced a Mosaic kind of beliefs, attitudes and practices. And considering the fact
that each of the world religions embraces varying beliefs and practices, areas of interaction and
co-operation are necessary for peaceful co-existence. This is because religion whether Islam,
Christianity, Taoism, Buddhism Taoism or African Traditional Religion, remains a potent factor
to reckon with in the scheme of things the world over.
However, one needs to be aware of the changes which particular religious traditions and
institutions have under gone, that is, changes which are evident from historical comparison. The
person who is more likely to be hostile to another man’s religion is that man who knows no other
religion than that of his own. They will attempt to make an impartial study of religious traditions
by highlighting these historical records in terms of the ideas they teach, the types of personality
they have and the kinds of societies where they were found.
AN OVERVIEW OF COMPARATIVE RELIGION
Comparative religion centered on the application of comparative or scientific method to the data
provided by the religious of the world, past and present. This involved the assignment to each of
a place within a scheme of progress development, or evolution, and the assessment of their value
(Sharpe, 1987). To Kasiera (1990). Comparative religion is the study of the various religious
traditions and of the inter-relation to the way in which religious themes and ideas are fused in
these traditions. Tiwari (1983) also sees comparative religion as a comparative study of the
important features of the different religions of the world in a perfectly scientific sprit. The
purpose is not to assert the truth or falsity or relegate any religion or to incorporate value
judgment about other religions, but to show that the religions of the humankind are similar in
many ways and also different in significant ways (Dopamu 2000).
Dopamu (2000) further studied that comparative religion is not restricted to comparism between
religious but it involves comparison between concepts, themes, elements, topics or phenomena
of different religions. The implication of Dopamu submission is that, religions are placed side by
side for the purpose of underscoring their claims and values.
Through comparative study of religion, scholars endeavor to evaluate the religion in order to
show how they stood relative to another in term of their various levels of development. In this
wise, religions are studied in an appreciative and non-judgmental manners. The aim of
comparative religion therefore, as it is observed by Dopamu (2000) is to identify the point of
similarities and differences between two religions or more. This course examines the various
notable religions of the world.
From the discussions so far, you have learnt the following:
- That religion came to being as a result of man’s thirst for truth, peace and goodness.
- Religion remains a potent factor to reckon with in the scheme of things the world over.
- That religions of the world are similar in many ways and also different in significant ways.
- Comparative religion aims at under scaring claims and values of religions of the world and not
solely in comparing one religion better than the others.
- Approaches the scholars of religion need to adopt while studying religion for the purpose of
achieving the set goals.
 A)- ASIANTIC RELIGIONS

Under this, we will dwell only on HINDUISM as a religion.

HINDUISM is one of the world’s great religions. It is very difficult to define Hinduism. It grew
gradually over a period of nearly 5000 years absorbing and assimilating all the religions and
cultural movements of India. Hindus call their religions SANATANA-DHARNA Eternal
Religion, the Universal Truth. Hinduism is not revealed by any act of a personal God, but it is
seen by those whose pure minds catch its reflection. The ancient seers or ‘rishis’ transmitted this
truth to humanity. When one considers the religion from the point of inner growth, Hinduism
may be described as the way of life lived and brought to conscious self-reflection by the Indo-
Aryans, who then taught the truth they discovered from the early settlers. The difference of
Hinduism from revealed religions such as Judaism, Islam and Christianity lies in the fact that in
the case of the latter religions, it is accepted that the truths were revealed by God to be a
particular person at a particular time and place.
But in the case of Hinduism the realization of the truths and their expressions was the result of a
gradual process of reflection by many individuals through centuries. Hinduism is more of
orthopraxy rather than Orthodoxy. Orthodoxy is the holding of commonly accepted religious
opinions but in Hinduism, there is no commonly acceptable religious opinion. The religion is
more of practice than an accepted dogma. One is Hindu because he is born a Hindu that is of
Hindu parentage and ancestry and as such need no specific religious doctrines. The fact that
Hinduism is orthopraxy is evidenced in the following areas:
(a) No Dogma: Hinduism has no set of beliefs put forward to be accepted without question. This
is why many writers describe it as the traditional religions of the Indians. It was a religion
molded out by the merging of the Draviana and the Aryan cultures with the Aryana succeeding
conquering the Draviana religiously and traditionally.
(b) No Doctrinal Orthodoxy: There is no doctrinal orthodoxy in Hinduism. So long as a person
accepts the authority of the Vedas and the basic elements of Hindu social order in his conduct, he
may believe anything and still remain within the fold of Hinduism. He must however follow with
the greatest strictness, the rules that govern the life and activities of the sub-group to
which he belongs.
(c) No Credit: Both Christianity and Islam are creedal religions. It is their creeds that attracted
many adherents to them the entire world over. But Hinduism is not a credit religion. Hindus are
born Hindus and are therefore predominantly found in the land of India where Hindus originated
and in other parts of the world to which Indians have migrated in large numbers.
(d) No Revelation: Unlike Christianity and Islam Hinduism does not claim any great revelation
of God to an individual at a particular place or time. Rather religious truths are results of
reflections by many individuals through the centuries. In Hinduism, the truths rather than the
privileged mediators are all that matters. The truths are not revelation properly but insights or
intuitions of the human mind and heart.
They do not enjoy the undeniability of revealed truth as we have in orthodox religions. This is
why Hinduism is called a natural religion, a metaphysical religion and a reflective religion rather
than an orthodox religion. In the light of the afore-mentioned reasons, Hinduism is best studied
as a process rather than as a fixed and integrated body of doctrines. It is best studied as a
developing tradition which changed considerably over the centuries and which is still changing
in a creative direction. Thus, in the study of Hinduism, we do not present a list of fixed and
integral system which could be designated by the term Hinduism. We rather present a process
which had a beginning and which has gone through several main phases of development up to
the present time. Hinduism is still a living process and must be seen as such.
Hindus scriptures give us a clear understanding of the basic tenets of Hinduism. They provide a
framework of its historical development. These scriptures are mainly written in Sanskrit and they
cover a very wide variety of religious beliefs and practices. The texts are believed to have been
written over a period of more than 2000 years. The fact of the matter is that at different periods
in the history of Hinduism, different philosophical schools and religious movements have been
found in selected scriptures, inspiration and authority for their beliefs and social behavior. For
these reasons the scriptures merit our attention.
The Hindu scriptures are divided into two classes Scruti and Smriti, Scruti or ‘what is heard’
refers to the eternal truths of religion which the Hindus seers saw or heard. They are independent
of any god or man to whom they are communicated. They are the primary and final authorities of
religious truth. As the external truth was related to seers their disciples recorded it and the record
is known as the VEDAS. Smriti or “what is remembered” possess a secondary authority,
deriving their authority from the Sruti whose principles they seek to expand. As recollections,
they contain all the sacred texts other than Vedas. Smriti includes the law-books, the two great
epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata which are largely collections of myths, stories,
legends and chronicles of great events. It also contains the Agamsas which are the theological
treaties and manuals of worship.

Basic Concepts in Hinduism:

In order to understand the Hindu view of life one needs to look into the various doctrines put
forward in Hinduism. Here below are some of them:
(a) Karma: This is ‘Action’ or ‘Doing’. It is an interpretation of the moral law of causation. It
states that any action is the effect of a cause and is in its turn the cause of an effect. Karma. Is a
principle of moral reaction to both good and evil action. In principle, as a man sows, so shall he
reap. Bad action reaps suffering and bondage to human existence while good action leads to
freedom from this bondage. The law of Karma is fixed in the spiritual realm and unalterable.
(b) Samsara: The Samsara concept is bound up with Karma. It is the re-birth or transmigration
of the soul. According to this concept, the soul is capable of transmigration from body to body
carrying its load of Karma with it. It makes it possible for a man to be reborn as a god, a member
of higher caste, a member of lower caste or as an animal. The re-birth depends on individuals
thought, word or action. This would then mean that individual man carried with him his own
very past. In Samsara, theere is the wheel of birth, death and rebirth. As a caterpillar gather itself
up before passing into another leaf so does the soul. The soul goes round and round in endless
existences. No wonder then that all Hindus aims at escaping from the wheel of Samsara.
(c) Morksha: Morsha is the escape, release, liberation or emancipation. The idea of Morksha is
as a result of Hindu belief that unless the chain of cause and effect is broken, the soul will
forever be bound to the process of birth, death and re-birth. With Morksha, the soul is believed to
be released from both righteousness and unrighteousness. It is the deliverance from the body. It
is a final escape from the law of Karma.
(d) Soul: Hindu teaches that the soul is eternal and as such shares the very essence of all living
things plants, animals and man. The soul is imprisoned with the impurities of finite existence but
in itself it is detached from the personal existence of the physical self. The soul does not act and
so it is not the agent of sin. The Hindu hope is in the realization of the immortality of the soul
either in its individuality or in its absorption into Brahman. According to the teachings of
Hinduism, the body is the prison house of the soul and therefore any idea of an eternal union of
body is unacceptable. There is No idea of resurrection of the body in Hindu scheme of things.
(e) Sin: For Hindu, sin is not the personal guilt that it is for the Christians and the Jews. It
belongs to the realm of the metaphysical. It is variously described as ignorance of truth,
attributing reality to empirical personhood, and the feeling of individuality. The true self never
sins, it is neither born nor does it die.
(f) Salvation: Salvation in Hinduism is primarily the separation of the eternal soul from the
phenomenal world. It is the relationship of the soul to God. It is the soul realizing it own
mortality. Such emancipated soul is identified with the ultimate reality, Brahman. It enters a
mystical union with Brahman described as ‘dreamless sleep’. This union is often expressed as
‘Tat Ivana Asi’ ‘Thou art that’.

Comparisons between Hinduism and Christianity Religions:

Hinduism and Christianity differ on fundamental beliefs on heaven hell and reincarnation to
mention a few. From the Hindu perspective, heaven (Sanskrit varga) and hell (Neraka) are
temporary places where every soul has to live either for the good deeds done or for their sins
committed. After a soul suffers its due punishment in hell, or after a soul has enjoyed enough in
the heave, it again enters the life death cycle. There is no concept of permanent hell! Permanent
heaven alone, and it’s called: Akshardhem.
However, also exist significant similarities in Christian and Hindu theology, most notably in that
both religious present a Trinitarian view of God. The holy trinity of Christianity, is sometimes
seen as roughly analogues to the trimurti of Hinduism, whose members - Brahma, Vishnu and
shiva are seen as the three principal manifestation of Brahman or God head.
Christian-Hindu relations are mixed affairs. On one hand, Hinduism natural tendency has been to
recognize the divine basis of various other religions and to reverse that founders and saintly
parishioners. On the other hand, perceptions of aggressive proselytism on the part of some
Christian groups have led to occasional incidents of anti-christian violence, often fueled by
nationalist political parties.
 B)- ABRAHAMIC RELIGIONS

Here, we focus on the origins, concepts, doctrines, principles, objectives, and activities of those
religions traced to be originated from Prophet Ibraheem (Abraham); the father of all races. These
religions include: Judaism, Christianity, Islam and Baha’ism. But here, we are treating the first-
three religions alone, and it goes thus:

1)-JUDAISM: Judaism as a religion cannot be separated from the history of the Jews as a race.
It terminates on the note of expectation of the coming Messiah. While waiting for the Messianic
age, the News were confronted with one problem or the other. Their faith in Yahweh was tested
to the highest degree.

Its Early and Later Formations:

The religion had long been in existence. It has its origin in Babylon when the early Jews were
taken captive and sent to that town. The religion was basically meant for the Jews alone. It was
the belief of the adherents of this faith that God (Yahweh) called and favors no one but the
Israelites alone. Its historical origin / formation goes thus;
(a) Early Formation: Judaism had its origin to Abraham (Ibraheem); the first father of the human
race, through his son Isaac (Is’haq); who was called from Ur of Chaldea (around Iraq today) by a
divine voice. He was to proceed with his son ‘Is’haq’ to the land of Can’aan with the promise
that Is’haq and his descendants should live there as a great nation. The promise was later
transferred to Ya‘qub (Jacob) and his twelve children with their grandchildren and great
grandchildren respectively.
But Jacob (Ya‘qub) and his family were later settled in Egypt, as a result of famine in Can’aan.
While in Egypt, the Jews grew in large numbers and were factors to be reckoned with politically
and socially. As history would have it, as many as they were, the people were turned into
Pharaonic serfs in the palace. Musa (Moses) who was one of the Jews and a Prophet to them
rescued them, when their Yahweh couldn’t help situation. Musa led and directed them out of
Egyptian bondage. But according to them, on their way out of Egypt, their Lord ‘Yahweh’
proved to be the Redeemer and Liberator of His people. At the Mount of Sina’i, He revealed
Himself to the people as the Law Giver. He entered into covenant with the Jews therefore, asking
them to live according to His instruction, guidance and teachings. The relationship here was that
of a personal God (Yahweh) revealing Himself to His own specific people (The Jews) that;
Judaism had already taken root.
(b) Later Formation: With the extinct of Moses (Musa) and other Hebrew Prophets, Joshua
(Yusha‘u Ibn Nuun-AS) succeeded Musa and took over the mantle of leadership as the leader of
the Jews. After Joshua came the Judges. Then came Saul (King Taluut; the 1 st King of the United
Kingdom of Israel), then came Da’ud (David), then Sulayman (Solomon)… All propagating the
divine monotheism during their own times. It was after the rulership of Sulayman that the
Kingdom of Israel split into two: Northern and Southern Kingdoms. Between 721 and 587 B.C.,
the two kingdoms fell into the hands of Assyrians Empire (of the Middle-East). Jerusalem was
razed to the ground. Several Jews were carried into exile especially into Bab-Hillah-‘Babylon’
(South of Baghdad in Iraq), and that was the reason why in the Bible, the Babylonians are often
portrayed as enemy of ‘God’s people’.
There in Babylon, because of the absence of Jerusalem Temple worship, the Jews came as one
people with one religion and named it: Judaism. Various houses of prayer called Synagogues
were put up. Here, Yahweh was offered worship by the Jews in exile. There, the exposition of
Torah (at-Tawraat) - the Jewish law, became a fixed institution. That was how Judaism as a
religion, came into contact with other parts of the world.

Jewish Distinctiveness:
The Jews – both old and young strongly believed in the distinctiveness of the Jewish race. What
actually distinguished them from other races of the world are many. The distinctiveness
however, is reflected in the Jewish attitudes towards people of other religions, creeds and races.
For example:
(i) At the age of 15, Jewish son becomes a ‘son of the commandment’.
(ii) He is called up to the reading of the Torah on the Sabbath following his birth day.
(iii) On that occasion he is made to believe that the Israelites are the only chosen people of God
alone. All other people of the world are inferiorly nothing to them, and useless before them.
(iv) Also, as a mark of distinctiveness, a Jew holds that while all peoples and nations are God’s
creatures through Adam, the Jew only are His elected children through Abraham.
(v) To this extent, the Jews considered themselves as a redeemed community.
(vi) The Jews claimed to be the covenanting partners of God.
(vii) To actually show their distinctiveness, the Jews believed that it is obligatory for them alone
to circumcise.
(viii) Circumcision as a supreme obligatory sign of loyalty and adherence to Judaism faith. It was
a sign of covenant sealed in the flesh.
(ix) This makes every Jew a son of the promise because he is Abraham’s seed.

Doctrines of Judaism:
It is very difficult, if not impossible, to find an authoritative statement which would be generally
accepted as absolutely binding to the Jews. However, the following teachings on certain central
doctrines of religion of the Jews are generally acceptable to the majority of the Jews. These are:
(a) God and Man: In the Jews conception, God is a full personality. He is the Creator who had
made man in His image; God is free from all limitations and imperfections. He is the heavenly
father to whom man must look for any assistance. This is a friendless universe, but God is
concerned with man’s fate. On the other hand, the Jews see Man as a Creature of God. Man has a
share in God’s eternal spirit. Man is in cordial relationship with God and reason why God looks
favourably on him and desires his well-being. That relationship is disturbed as soon as man fails
to act in accordance with God’s will. The same relationship can however be restored through
atonement.
(b) Atonement (Kaffaarah / expiation of guilt): Like other theologians, the Jews also teach about
atonement. To them, perfect reconciliation or, amendment of a sin is achieved through sincere
repentance, prayer and active kindness. God, the Heavenly father sprinkles the clean waters of
pardon and forgiveness on any repentant sinner. The Jews therefore, believed that on the Day of
Atonement, the Israelites resemble the Angels. On that Day, they are without human wants,
without sins. Rather, Israelites are linked together in love and peace on the Day of Atonement.
On that Day, Satan is silenced before the throne of glory.
(c) Messiah: the term Messiah means God’s anointed. The term originated among the Jews in the
early centuries, especially when they were in exile. The Jews, while in exile, believed in a
divinely appointed person who would deliver Israel from bondage and also bring about the
consummation of the divine plan with its corollary peace, freedom and justice. The belief in the
coming Messiah carries with it the life force and the biding spell of Jewish statehood. When the
Messiah comes, He would establish a kingdom where truth, justice and peace reign.
(d) Future Life (Afterlife): In the Jewish religion, there is the belief in the resurrection or future
life. The concept of after-life probably originated when the Jews were under the Persian rule.
And many of those who sleep in the dust of the earth shall awake, some to everlasting life and
some to shame, and everlasting contempt/disgrace. The concept of future-life later becomes a
fundamental dogma especially among the ancient Jewish sects (the Pharisees). It then became a
serious offence among the Pharisees to deny the belief in future-life but, the Sadducees often
denied the resurrection of the dead, and existence of the spirits. However, since the rabbinic
times (the Rabbaniyyuun-‘teachers within Judaism’), the concept has become a fundamental
doctrine of Judaism.
(e) Scriptures: the Jews believe that Holy Scriptures are the authoritative words of God and have
God’s inspiration. They hold that not all parts of the scriptures are of equal value. The Torah that
is the first five Books of the Old Testament is regarded as the most authoritative group. This is
followed by another group known as the prophets. There is also the Book of the Twelve
popularly called the Minor Prophets. The Jews attaches varying degree of authority to the above
sections. Accordingly, the Jews regard the Torah as so absolutely and fully inspired that every
letter and phrase bears the mark of its divine origin. Slightly, lesser degree of authority is
attributed to the prophets and to a still lesser degree of importance is assigned to the writings. In
all, the authority of the scripture has never been seriously questioned in Judaism. And with blue
care teachings found in the scriptures were passed from generation to generation with awe and
reverence. The scriptures were defended by courage and sacrificial love second to none in human
history. Many martyrs have laid down their lives all in the name of Torah, especially during the
Middle-Ages when the whole Jewish community committed suicide as a public demonstration of
loyalty to the Torah.
(f) Good and Evil: Judaism is a monotheistic religion and the reason why its adherents are faced
with the problem of Good and Evil. The problem arises out of the fact that the good-God permit
the existence of evil in His world. Would it be that the good-God is imperfect or not competent?
The Toral teaches that everything created by God is good. Evil came into the world because man
abused the freedom of will granted him by God. Man’s slack in behaviour thwarted the Divine
plan. This also explained why the wicked prospers, and the righteous suffers. The Jewish scholar,
Heschel maintained that because man is aware of the existence of the power of evil in the world,
life assumes unique significance and worth. He further taught: Though there is no reward for
good deeds in this world, yet this does not mean that the world is a prison. Rather, it is a place of
preparation of invitation of apprenticeship to a future life. Here is the world both the holy and the
unholy are mixed and inter related. Conclusively therefore, the Jews maintained that evil should
not be seen only as a threat but also a challenge to human existence.
(g) Torah: This is the entire body of the written moral law. To the Jews, Torah represents the
whole mystery and tangible expression of God. It is the exclusive possession of the Jewish
people. According to the teachings of the Jews, it was Moses who received the Torah on the Mt.
of Sina’i. Moses handed it down to Joshua, Joshua to the Elders, the elders to the Prophets. The
prophets in turn, handed it down to the man of the Great Synagogue. Torah is the source of life
of the Jewish people. The Torah shall not depart from thy mouth but shall meditate on it day and
night. Because of the importance attached to Torah every Jew is required to adhere strictly to it.
It is the distinct features of Judaism that made for the separation of the Jew from his fellow men.
(h) Talmud: Talmud is popularly called the “Savings of the Fathers”. It is the discussions and
decisions of Jewish scholars and Rabbis in matters of Torah. Talmud consists of a large body of
commentary materials. It is the scholastic activities of the Rabbis from the beginning of the 3 rd to
the end of the 5th century A.D. Talmud can be found in the following articles which serve as the
fundamental axioms, the denial to which cuts a man off from Israel:
(i) Belief in the existence of the Creator.
(ii) Belief in His unity.
(iii) Belief in His corporeality.
(iv) Belief in His eternity.
(v) Belief that to Him alone worships are due.
(vi) Belief in the words of the prophets.
(vii) Belief that Moses was the greatest of all Prophets.
(viii) Belief in the revelation of God to Moses on Mt. Sina’i.
(ix) Belief in immutability (changelessness) of the revealed law.
(x) Belief that God is the Omniscient (All-Knowing).
(xi) Belief in retribution (nemesis, penalty & punishment) in this world and the Here-after.
(xii) Belief in the coming of the Messiah again.
(xiii) Belief in the resurrection of the dead.
Like Torah, Talmud also had serious influence in the life of the Jews. It is the Talmud that had
also serves as their refuge in the long period of persecution and ghetto life when they were
debarred from secular studies.

Jewish Festivals:
What we now know as various Jewish had their origin in the early history of the Israelites. This
was the time when the Israelites were organized into a Tribal Confederacy. The period witnessed
the Israelites making pilgrimages to the central sanctuary. Three festivals serve to keep alive the
memory of the pilgrimages that used to be undertaken three times a year in order to offer
sacrifices in Jerusalem. These feasts coincided with the three main crops of the Holy Land:
Passover, held at the time of the barley harvest, Pentecost, at the gathering of wheat and
Tabernacles at the season of fruit. Here, we shall examine each of the three festivals briefly. Of
all, the Passover feast is by far the most important of the three. The feast was historized,
reinterpreted in terms of Israel’s sacred history. It commemorates God’s intervention on behalf
of his people from Egypt. The feast was originally a nomadic one. It was observed in the spring
time by shepherds to coincide with the time when flocks were usually sent out to find
pastures. It was the duty of this God to ensure the welfare and fertility of flocks especially at the
time that baby lambs and goats were being burn. The feast was also meant to derive away evil
spirits from among the flocks. The Israelites took over this ancient rite and gave it a new
meaning. It was to signify the special relationship between them and God. The feast was
celebrated in the month of April by the Israelites. They were to eat the roasted flesh together with
unleavened bread, and bitter herbs. The meal was also to be eaten with girded loins. It was to be
eaten in haste, while the left-over was to be burnt.

Comparisons between Judaism and Islamic Religion:

The historical interaction of Islamic and Judaism started in the 7 th century with the origin and
spread of Islam. There are some common aspects between Islam and Judaism. And as Islam
developed, it gradually became the major religion closest to Judaism, as opposed to Christianity
which originated from interaction between ancient Greek and Hebrew cultures. Judaism is very
similar to Islam in its fundamental religious outlook and jurisprudence. Islam, Jewish and
Christianity religions historically share their origins from the Abrahamic tradition…
2- CHRISTIANITY: Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion, which states that Jesus
is the Son of God and rose from the dead after his crucifixion, whose coming as the Messiah
(Christ) was prophesied in the Old Testament and chronicled in the New Testament. It is the
world's largest and most widespread religion with over 2.3 billion followers, comprising around
28.8% of the world population. Its adherents, known as Christians are estimated to make up a
majority of the population in 157 countries and territories.
Christianity originated in the 1st century CE within Roman-occupied Judea, emerging from
Jewish traditions with the teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. Initially a Jewish sect, it expanded
through the missionary work of Jesus' followers and later Paul of Tarsus, eventually becoming
distinct from Judaism. The religion's spread was significantly impacted by the Roman Empire,
first through persecution and later with the Edict of Milan in 313 AD, which decriminalized
Christianity, and eventually, with Constantine-I making it the state religion around 380 AD.
Christianity began in the 1st century, after the death of Jesus, as a Judaic sect with Hellenistic
influence in the Roman province of Judaea. The disciples of Jesus spread their faith around the
Eastern Mediterranean area, despite significant persecution. The inclusion of Gentiles led
Christianity to slowly separate from Judaism in the 2nd century. Emperor Constantine-I
decriminalized Christianity in the Roman Empire by the Edict of Milan in 313 AD, later
convening the Council of Nicaea in 325 AD, where Early Christianity was consolidated into
what would become the state religion of the Roman Empire by around 380 AD. The Church of
the East and Oriental Orthodoxy both split over differences in Christology during the 5th
century, while the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Catholic Church separated in the East–West
Schism in the year 1054. Protestantism split into numerous denominations from the Catholic
Church during the Reformation era (16th century). Following the Age of Discovery (15th–17th
century), Christianity expanded throughout the world via missionary work, evangelism,
immigration, and extensive trade. Christianity played a prominent role in the development of
Western civilization, particularly in Europe from late antiquity and the Middle Ages.
The three main branches of Christianity are Catholicism (1.3 billion people), Protestantism (800
million), and Eastern Orthodoxy (230 million), while other prominent branches include Oriental
Orthodoxy (60 million), Restorationism (35 million), and the Church of the East (600,000).
Smaller church communities’ number in the thousands. In Christianity, efforts toward unity
(ecumenism) are underway. In the West, Christianity remains the dominant religion even with a
decline in adherence, with about 70% of that population identifying as Christian. Christianity is
growing in Africa and Asia, the world's most populous continents. Many Christians are still
persecuted in some regions of the world, particularly where they are a minority, such as in the
Middle East, North Africa, East Asia, and South Asia.

Belief, Creeds and Doctrines:

As Christians worldwide share basic convictions, there are still differences of interpretations and
opinions of the Bible and sacred traditions on which Christianity is based. Concise doctrinal
statements or confessions of religious beliefs are known as creeds. They began as baptismal
formulae and were later expanded during the Christological controversies of the 4th and 5th
centuries to become statements of faith. "Jesus is Lord" is the earliest creed of Christianity and
continues to be used, as with the World Council of Churches. The Apostles' Creed is the most
widely accepted statement of the articles of Christian faith. It is used by a number of Christian
denominations for both liturgical and catechetical purposes, most visibly by liturgical churches
of Western Christian tradition, including the Latin Church of the Catholic Church, Lutheranism,
Anglicanism, and Western Rite Orthodoxy. It is also used by Presbyterians, Methodists, and
Congregationalists. This particular creed was developed between the 2nd and 9th centuries. Its
central doctrines are those of the Trinity and God the Creator. Each of the doctrines found in this
creed can be traced to statements current in the apostolic period. The creed was apparently used
as a summary of Christian doctrine for baptismal candidates in the churches of Rome. Its points
include:
 Belief in God the Father, Jesus Christ as the Son of God, and the Holy Spirit
 The death, descent into hell, resurrection and ascension of Christ
 The holiness of the Church and the communion of saints
 Christ's second coming, the Day of Judgement and salvation of the faithful

Basic tenets (Principles):

The central tenet of Christianity is the belief in Jesus as the Son of God and the Messiah (Christ).
Christians believe that Jesus, as the Messiah, was anointed by God as savior of humanity and
hold that Jesus' coming was the fulfillment of messianic prophecies of the Old Testament. The
Christian concept of messiah differs significantly from the contemporary Jewish concept. The
core Christian belief is that through belief in and acceptance of the death and resurrection of
Jesus, sinful humans can be reconciled to God, and thereby are offered salvation and the promise
of eternal life.
While there have been many theological disputes over the nature of Jesus over the earliest
centuries of Christian history, generally, Christians believe that Jesus is God incarnate and "true
God and true man" (or both fully divine and fully human). Jesus, having become fully human,
suffered the pains and temptations of a mortal man, but did not sin. As fully God, he rose to life
again. According to the New Testament, he rose from the dead, ascended to heaven, is seated at
the right hand of the Father, and will ultimately return to fulfill the rest of the Messianic
prophecy, including the resurrection of the dead, the Last Judgment, and the final establishment
of the Kingdom of God.
According to the canonical gospels of Matthew and Luke, Jesus was conceived by the Holy
Spirit and born from the Virgin Mary. Little of Jesus' childhood is recorded in the canonical
gospels, although infancy gospels were popular in antiquity. In comparison, his adulthood,
especially the week before his death, is well documented in the gospels contained within the
New Testament, because that part of his life is believed to be most important. The biblical
accounts of Jesus' ministry include: his baptism, miracles, preaching, teaching, and deeds.

Death and Resurrection of Jesus:

Crucifixion, representing the death of Jesus on the Cross. Christians consider the resurrection of
Jesus to be the cornerstone of their faith, and the most important event in history. Among
Christian beliefs, the death and resurrection of Jesus are two core events on which much of
Christian doctrine and theology is based. According to the New Testament, Jesus was crucified,
died a physical death, was buried within a tomb, and rose from the dead three days later. The
New Testament mentions several post-resurrection appearances of Jesus on different occasions
to his twelve apostles and disciples, including "more than five hundred brethren at once", before
Jesus' ascension to heaven. Jesus' death and resurrection are commemorated by Christians in all
worship services, with special emphasis during Holy Week, which includes Good Friday and
Easter Sunday.

Trinity:
Trinity is the belief that God is one God in three persons: the Father, the Son (Jesus), and the
Holy Spirit. Trinity refers to the teaching that the one God comprises three distinct, eternally co-
existing persons: the Father, the Son (incarnate in Jesus Christ) and the Holy Spirit. Together,
these three persons are sometimes called the Godhead, although there is no single term in use in
Scripture to denote the unified Godhead. In the words of the Athanasian Creed, an early
statement of Christian belief; "the Father is God, the Son is God, and the Holy Spirit is God, and
yet there are not three Gods but one God". They are distinct from another: the Father has no
source, the Son is begotten of the Father, and the Spirit proceeds from the Father. Though
distinct, the three persons cannot be divided from one another in being or in operation. While
some Christians also believe that God appeared as the Father in the Old Testament, it is agreed
that he appeared as the Son in the New Testament and will still continue to manifest as the Holy
Spirit in the present. But still, God still existed as three persons in each of these times. However,
traditionally there is a belief that it was the Son who appeared in the Old Testament because, for
example, when the Trinity is depicted in art, the Son typically has the distinctive appearance, a
cruciform halo identifying Christ, and in depictions of the Garden of Eden, this looks forward to
an Incarnation yet to occur. In some Early Christian sarcophagi, the Logos is distinguished with
a beard, "which allows him to appear ancient, even pre-existent". Trinity is an essential doctrine
of mainstream Christianity.
According to this doctrine, God is not divided in the sense that each person has a third of the
whole; rather, each person is considered to be fully God. The distinction lies in their relations;
the Father being unbegotten; the Son being begotten of the Father; and the Holy Spirit
proceeding from the Father and (in Western Christian theology) from the Son. Regardless of this
apparent difference, the three "persons" are each eternal and omnipotent. Other Christian
religions including Unitarian Universalism, Jehovah's Witnesses, and Mormonism, do not share
those views on the Trinity. The death and resurrection of Jesus are usually considered the most
important events in Christian theology, partly because they demonstrate that Jesus has power
over life and death and therefore has the authority and power to give people eternal life.
Christian churches accept and teach the New Testament account of the resurrection of Jesus with
very few exceptions. Some modern scholars use the belief of Jesus' followers in the resurrection
as a point of departure for establishing the continuity of the historical Jesus and the proclamation
of the early church. Some liberal Christians do not accept a literal bodily resurrection, seeing the
story as richly symbolic and spiritually nourishing myth. Arguments over death and resurrection
claims occur at many religious debates and interfaith dialogues. Paul the Apostle, an early
Christian convert and missionary, wrote, "If Christ was not raised, then all our preaching is
useless, and your trust in God is useless".
Influence on Western culture:
Thomas Aquinas, an Italian Dominican friar and priest, the foremost Scholastic thinker, as well
as one of the most influential philosophers and theologians in the Western tradition. Western
culture, throughout most of its history, has been nearly equivalent to Christian culture, and a
large portion of the population of the Western Hemisphere can be described as practicing or
nominal Christians. The notion of "Europe" and the "Western World" has been intimately
connected with the concept of "Christianity and Christendom". Many historians even attribute
Christianity for being the link that created a unified European identity. Though Western culture
contained several polytheistic religions during its early years under the Greek and Roman
Empires, as the centralized Roman power waned, the dominance of the Catholic Church was the
only consistent force in Western Europe. Until the Age of Enlightenment, Christian culture
guided the course of philosophy, literature, art, music and science. Christian disciplines of the
respective arts have subsequently developed into Christian philosophy, Christian art, Christian
music, Christian literature, and so on.

Relationship of Christianity with Judaism and Islam:

Historically, the relationship between Christianity and Judaism has been strained to say the least.
The Jewish conception of the Messiah holds certain similarities to that of Christian, yet there are
substantial differences. According to Jews, the Hebrew scriptures contain a small number of
prophecies concerning a future descendant of King David who will be anointed as the Jewish
peoples’ new leader and will establish the throne of David in Jerusalem forever. In the Jewish
view, this fully human and mortal leader will rebuild the land of Israel and restore the Davidic
Kingdom.
On the other hand, the historical interaction of Islamic and Judaism started in the 7 th century with
the origin and spread of Islam. There are many common aspects between Islam and Judaism, and
as Islam developed it gradually became the major religion closest to Judaism. As opposed to
Christianity which originated from interaction between ancient Greek and Hebrew cultures.
Judaism is very similar to Islam in its fundamental religious outlook structure jurisprudence and
prace. There are many traditions within Islam originated from traditions within the Hebrew Bible
or from post biblical Jewish traditions. The historical interaction between Christianity and Islam
connects fundamental ideas in Christianity with similar ones in Islam. Islam and Christianity
share their origins in the Abrahamic tradition although Christianity predates Islam by centuries.
Islam accepts many aspects of Christianity as part of its faith with some differences in
interpretation and rejects other aspects. Islam believers the Qur’an as the final revelation from
God and a completion of all previous revelations including the Bible.
In addition, Islam shares a number of beliefs with Christianity. They share similar views on
monotheism, judgment heave, hell, spirits, Angels and a future resurrection. Jesus is
acknowledged and respected by Muslims as great prophet. However, while Islam relegates Jesus
to a lesser status than God in the Quran Mainstream (Trinitarian) Christianity believes quite
formerly and without question that Jesus is God, the son one of the three Hypostases of
Christianity Holy Trinity, equally God as God the father and the Holy Spirits. However, an Islam
parable to the Christian trinity could be seen as the ‘beautiful Name’ of God, which represent
distinctly manifest, qualities of the one God (Allah), rather than ninety-nine distinct goods. The
religions both share a belief in the virgin birth of Jesus, his miracles and healing, and that he
ascends bodily into heaven. However, Jesus is not accepted as the person of the son within the
Trinity by Muslims except in the sense of being someone loved by God. They believe in God as
a single entity, not as the Trinity accepted by the vast majority of Christians neither do Muslims
accept Jesus’ crucifixion. Since Muslims believe only in the worship of a strictly monotheistic
God, who never assumed human flesh, they do not accept the use of icons, and see this as shirk
(idolatry). Muslim influence played a part in the initiation of iconoclasm and their conquests
caused the iconoclasm in the Byzantine Empire. For the same reason, they do not worship or
pray to Muhammad, Jesus or any other prophets excepts to God (Allah).
Adherents of Islam have historically referred to themselves, Jews and Christians (among others)
as people of the Book since they all base their religion on books that are considered to have a
divine origin. Christians however neither recognize the Quran as a genesis book of divine
revelation nor agree with its assessment of Jesus as were prophet, Muslims for their part, believe
that parts of the Gospel, Torah and Jewish prophetic books have been forgotten, misinterpreted
or distorted by their followers. Based on that perspective, Muslims reject belief in the Trinity or
any other expression of the divinity of Jesus, as incompatible with monotheism not surprisingly,
the faiths have often experienced controversy and conflict. At the same time, much fanciful
dialogue has occurred as well. The writings of catholic theologian, Thomas Aquinas frequently
cite those of the Jewish philosopher Moses Maimode, as well as Muslim thinker Ibn Sina
(Averoes). On May 6th, 2001, Pope John Paul II, the first Pope to pray in a Mosque, delivered
and address at Omayyad Mosque in Damascus, saying: “It is important that Muslims and
Christians continue to explore philosophical and theological question together in order to come
to a more objective and comprehensive knowledge of each other religion beliefs. Better mutual
understanding will surely
lead, at the practical level to a new way of presenting our two religions not in opposition as have
happened too often in the past but in partnership for the good of human family”. In countries
denominated Islam, Christians typically practice their faith under severe restructures
proselytizing Muslims is often a criminal act, and any Muslim who converts to Christianity
would likely face severe censure from family and friends, if not also legal repercussions / in
contrast, Muslims in countries denominated by Christians are general allowed to worship
unhindered.

3)- ISLAM: Historically, in most parts of the Arabia peninsula during the pre-Islamic days, there
was a lack of civilization. Awful superstitions and idolatry prevailed everywhere. Crimes of
infanticide and human sacrifices were common. The various tribes were in constant and
perpetual warfare with each other. The absence of any stable government had led to the
prevalence of criminal excesses. The whole peninsula was in a pitiful state of sin, depravity, and
wickedness. Although Christianity and Judaism were introduced before Islam by the Christians
and the Jews who tried in to Arabia, idolatry still prevailed. The preaching of the two religions
was not enough to chance the idolatrous habits and customs. Moreover, most of the Christian and
Jews were perhaps more interested in earning their livings. They had already been persecuted by
the Romans. So, they preferred not to be persecuted again by the Arabs. However, a little
progress of preaching the religion of Christianity had been made among the Arabs before Islam.
The traditions of Islam refer to the immediate pre-Islamic era, the age preceding the advent of
Islam, as the Age of Ignorance. The reference here is not to be taken as the indication of
knowledge. Rather, it is used in the sense of lawlessness which should mean the falling away
from the pure monotheism of Abraham and Ishmael to the idolatry which, more than anything
else, the prophet denounced with all his power.

The historical origin of Islam:

The most famous action of Muhammad recorded was between the time of his marriage and his
mission when he was thirty-five years old. The Ka’bah, the Holy Shrine in Mecca, was being
rebuilt and when the time came to place the Black-Stone (the revered angular stone of the
traditional monument), there was a furious competition among the Arab tribes for the honour of
lifting it into position. The controversy was about to result to a fight, with swords drawn, when
Muhammad was seen to enter. The crowd started shouting “Al-Amin!!!” and all submitted to the
arbitration of the honest and reliable one. With his remarkable presence of mind and impartiality
which he always showed, Muhammad spread his coat on the ground, put the Black Stone on it,
and asked the chiefs of the principal tribes to grasp the edges of the coat and together lift the
stone to the required height. Then he took the stone and placed it with his own hands, thus
resolving the dispute and restoring harmony among the tribes. Muhammad was dissatisfied with
the superstitions and pagan practices prevailing in Mecca. He often wondered how his
countrymen could in no way respond to their devotion. In his late thirties, Muhammad devoted
himself to the worship of God according to the religion of Abraham. He was able to teach the
truth spontaneously. He chose the cave of Hira, as a secluded place away from the bustle and the
noise of the city, for his solitary meditation. When he reached the age of forty, he approached the
decisive divine event, which wrought a complete change in his life and the history of mankind.
The first of the Prophetic vocation of Muhammad was the discovery that everything which he
dreamed happened in his waking hours precisely as he had foreseen it. During his contemplation
in the cave of Hira’, on a hill outside Mecca. Muhammad reflected over the events of day and
night: the sun, the moon, the stars, the seas, the winds and the living creatures which come and
go.
On the 17th of Ramadan (February, 610A.D.) Muhammad (pbuh) received his first revelation.
This revelation took the form of discussion between teacher and pupil, between the Archangel
and Muhammad. It goes thus:
“Read” insisted Gabriel. “But how shall I read?” asked the astonished pupil (Muhammad-pbuh).
“Read” insisted Gabriel. “What shall I read?” asked the solitary hermit (or, a seclusionist).
Gabriel then recited the first five verses of Suratu’l-‘Alaq (the Clot) which are:
“Read; in the name of your Lord who creates.
Creates man from a clot.
Read, and your Lord is the most generous.
Who teaches by the pen.
Teach man that which he knew not.

This was the first fragment of the Qur’an. The angel then disappeared and Muhammad,
completely overcome, did not realize the nature of the call. He felt as if he were suffering from
fever. He reached home, went to bed and asked his wife to cover him. Khadijah, his devoted
wife, when she heard his story, assured him with wise and consoling words, “No” she said, “do
not worry”, God would surely not do you any harm, nor heap shame upon you, for you have
never done harm. You always speak the truth, you help the feeble, and you always assist those
who suffer, for a just cause.” To comfort him further, Khadijah accompanied him on a visit to
her cousin, Waraqah Ibn Nawfal, who was familiar with the old scriptures. When Waraqah heard
the whole story, he said to Muhammad: “This is good news which should fill you with rejoicing.
No doubt, you are the Prophet announced by Jesus. Oh, that I could live until your countrymen
will chase you from your country”. “How is it,” cried Muhammad, “that they will chase me from
here?” “Of course,” replied Waraqah, “never any man brought his fellow men what you brought
with you without becoming the object of persecution and hostility.”
Muhammad was convinced that what he used to dram about and what he had seen at the cave
were not imaginary. He looked forward to further calls; and after about three years of
restlessness came the revelation that he was not appointed as the Messenger of God to deliver his
message to mankind and to invite them to the truth. Gabriel conveyed later to Muhammad his
responsibility: “Oh you, who cover yourself carefully, get up, and spread your announcement”
(Q74:1-2). Thus, Muhammad was not just to receive divine knowledge, he had to transmit it to
people as well. Meaning that, to his role of Prophethood was added that of Messengership.
Muhammad’s career as the Messenger of Islam lasted for twenty years, with ten years in Mecca
before the Hijrah (the migration from Mecca to Medina) and ten years at Medina before his
death. He began his preaching in Mecca by discreetly speaking only in his most intimate circles.
Abu Bakr was the first man to be converted to Islam and Khadija was the first woman: “Ali, his
cousin, was the first young man. The first foreigners were Zaid Ibn Harithah, the Yemenite: Bilal
Ibn Rabah, the Abyssinian and Suhaib Ibn Sinan, the Roman.
Islam spread slowly in Mecca, privately at first, and then, in the tenth year before Hijrah the
calling to Islam became public. Muhammad was to preach to the people that god is one. He is the
Maker and Creator; He is the Giver of life and the Bringer of death. There is none like Him. He
is Supreme. People should give up bowing and bending before stones. They should quit idol
worship. The Prophet was to repeat: “There is no God but Allah and Muhammad is His Prophet
and Messenger”. These ideas alarmed the important people of Mecca. Firstly because, though
simple, they struck at the root of their beliefs by denying all the old gods. Secondly, they called
on people to break their old habit and traditions. Although, the Meccans did their best to stop the
growth of the Islamic call by threats sometimes and at other time by inducement, the number of
Muslims was the forty men and ten women, and they met and prayed in secret. The conversion
of such important people as Hamzah and ‘Uman in this year gave strong support, and
encouragement to the followers that they were able to perform their prayers openly near the
Ka’bah and the new religion began to spread more rapidly. The increase in the number of
Muslims aroused the Meccans to redouble their violence and persecutions. The Prophet,
therefore, allowed eighty-three men and eighteen women of the persecuted Muslims to seek
refuge with the King of Abyssinaia, Al-Najashi, who received them well and was himself
converted to Islam. Fifteen persecuted Muslims had already been there.
The Prophet himself became the target of conspiracy but was protected by the two-family
branches more closely related to him, by the Banu-Hashim and the Banu-Mutaalib, which rallied
around him in the Hashimid quarter. At this time, he suffered two cruel losses; the death of his
uncle Abu-Talib and shortly afterwards the death of his wife Khadijah. The Prophet called this
year “Year of Trial”. When Prophet Muhammad lost the support which his uncle afforded him in
Mecca, he left the town to look elsewhere for allies and adherents. He spent ten successful days
with the tribe of Thaqif, but at Ta’if, he was received badly and returned disappointed to Mecca.
Towards the end of the third year before the Hijrah, he saw a faint hope in six men from
Medinah. These good men, who had come to Mecca to pay their exponent to the Ka’bah,
responded enthusiastically to his call and carried the whole message to Medinah where they
made many converts. A year later, five of these men from Medinah with seven new converts
(making 12-men) visited the Prophet and took an oath-of-allegiance with him to abstain from the
bad habits, from all vices and to observe strict disciplines. A year later, seventy-five men from
medinah came to swear their allegiance with him again, confessed their faith and declared their
submission. They also promised to defend the Prophet and their Muslim bothers if they choose
Medinah as their refuge. This represents the first defence treaty in Islamic history.

The Hijrah (Migration from Mecca to Medinah in the year 622 A.D):
Before the Hijrah the Muslims did not form a nation or even a community. They did not even
have a majority in Mecca. The Prophet prepared himself for the migration to Medina after he had
been invited by the Medinah people who assured him that they would help him and fight for
Islam. When the Prophet received God’s sanction for the Hijrah, he instructed his followers to
migrate to Medina in small numbers. The Qureysh, suspecting the arrangements of Hijrah,
especially after the disappearance of most of the Muslims from Mecca on after the other, held an
emergency meeting and decided to kill Muhammad. Abu Jahl, an important Mecca leader,
suggested, and his suggestion was agreed to it, that a strong man should be chosen out of every
tribe for the execution, and that all men should strike a blow at Muhammad at once together with
sharp swords, so that his blood-shedding would never be the responsibility of a certain tribe.
When the warriors, came to attach Muhammad in his house, were surprised to find ‘Ali Ibn Abi
Talib there instead cave of Thawr outside Mecca. The attackers traced the footprints to the cave,
but did not suspect that Muhammad would be inside, for they found the cobweb covering its
entrance. They then came to the conclusion that they might take refuge in some place nearby, an
later on, they abandoned their search in that area. In the cave of Thawr, Muhammad and Bu Bakr
concealed themselves for three days and then secretly made their way to Yathrib. The Muslims
in Yathrib (Medinah) who by then were numerous had gathered at the way of approach from
Mecca. On the 24 September, 622, 12 Rabbi’ al Awwal, of the first year of the Islamic era
th

Muhammad was seem coming with his party. The people of Yathrib accorded him a most
enthusiastic welcome, chanting together with their women and children, songs in his praise. The
prophet built his mosque and a little house beside it. The Meccans who went to yathrib and
settled there were called al-Muhajirin (the emigrants) and the men and women of Yathrib were
called al-Ansar (the helpers). From the beginning there was a great friendship between the two
groups. The Ansar shared their wealth with the Meccans and live with them. Muhammad’s
authority in Medina was entirely new
and original in kind; it was at the same time absolute and consultative, theocratic and socialist,
based on revealed commandments and general rules.

Doctrines or, Principles of Islam:

Islam is founded upon several core doctrines/principles but, the most fundamental being the
belief in the oneness, essence, uniqueness of God (Allah), and belief in the messengership of
Prophet Muhammad (pbuh). These are further elaborated through the Five Pillars of Islam,
which are practical obligations for Muslims, and the Six Articles of Faith, which form the basis
of Islamic belief. These are:
 The five(5) Pillars of Islam (Qawa’idu’l-Islam): Kalmatu’sh-Shahaadah (Affirmative
Statement), observance of Salaat, payment of Zakkaat, Fasting during the month of
Ramadan, and to embark on Pilgrimage to Makkah for the purpose of hajj.
 The six(6) Articles of Faith in Islam (Arkaanu’l-Imaan): Belief in Allah, in His
Angels, in His Messengers, in His Scriptures, in the last-day, and belief in the destiny (be
it good or bad).

Beyond these pillars of Islam and articles of faith, Islamic teachings also emphasize principles
like; sincerity (Ikhlas), honesty (Sidq), good will (Nasihah), trustworthiness (Amanah),
reconciliations (Sulhu) and adherence to the Sunnah (teachings and practices of Prophet
Muhammad). These virtues are considered essential for a well-rounded Muslim life, both in
relation to God and to others.

Attitudes of Islam towards the peoples of all other religions (faiths):

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C)- AFRICAN TRADITIONAL RELIGION

African Traditional Religion:
African Traditional Religion is also known as African Indigenous religion is a term referring to a
variety of religions indigenous to the continent of Africa. African Traditional religions involve
teachings, practices, and rituals that African lend structures to indigenous African societies.
These traditional African religions also play a large part in the cultural understanding and
awareness of the people and their communities. The purpose of the study of African Traditional
Religion is to discover the belief and philosophy of Africans about the Supreme Being and the
supernatural World. Religion is found in every human society. It is a sacred institution which
educates persons on his/her beliefs and practices in relation to the divine being. The Traditional
Religion in African is regarded as the cohesive factor in the society. Its aim among others is to
foster peace and harmony and uphold mored values in African society. Hence, religion
permeates the African society. Culturally, African became religious from the cradle unlike Islam
or Christianity which emphasizes personal conversion.

Various Terminologies used in Describing African Traditional Religion:

The Western scholars had no grasp of the religion. They coin various terminologies to describe
the beliefs and practices of the Africans. These concepts are:
1- Paganism:
Paganism had its root in the Latin word ‘paganus’, which is used for a village dweller, that is,
one that is far away from civilization. The word originally is used by sociologists to distinguish
between the civilized and the sophisticated or the rustic, unpolished from the polished and the
educated; hence it has no religious connotation. The word in African Traditional Religion
connotes racial discrimination. It is derogatory terms imposed by Europeans to describe their
superiority over Africans who they believe are inferior to them.
2- Heathenism:
Heathenism is derived from the German language and also means one who dwells outside the
circle of enlightenment. The root word is heath which refers to the outskirts of the town where
vagabonds and outlaws lives and the heathen is the one has the characteristics of the heath
dwellers. The word is a tool in the hand of racial discriminators.
3- Idolatry:
This word is derived from the Greek eidolon. It means something which is false. Since these
representations in African Traditional Religion are mere symbols, it would be unfair to label
African Traditional Religion as counterfeit and lacking originality.
4- Fetishism
This word originates from The Latin factitius. Europeans spelt it as feitico, fetiche, fetish or faitis
and it carries the meaning of an object that has been made beautifully and neatly. It also carries
the meaning of a charm. In the real sense, fetishism is the religion in which the object of worship
is not symbolic but it is worshipped for itself and this kind of belief is absent in Africa.

5- Animism
The usage of this word was popularized by E.B. Taylor. He defines it as the doctrine of souls and
other spiritual beings in general. Animism is not a monopoly of African Traditional Religion
alone, all religions have a share of the doctrine of animism. The being of God in any religion is
established on the fact that God is Spirit.
6- Polytheism
Polytheism is the best in two or more gods, that are co-eternal, co powerful and equal in
attributes. The divinities that are many are representatives or ministers who have derived their
power and existence from God Himself and are actually nothing apart from God. The African
believes only in one Supreme God.

Roles of African Traditional Religion in the African Society:

All the societal institutions of Africa is highly influenced by religion and their religion likewise
is influenced by the society. Let’s examine some identifiable roles of religion in the African
society:
Religion and Politics:
Religion and Politics are bedfellows. It is religion that stabilizes politics in the African setting. In
Yoruba land, there is a relationship between religion and politics. The Oba occupies both the
political and the religious office. He acts as the chief-priest and stands in the gap between the
people and God. He is also regarded as holding power in trust for Olodumare, the Supreme
Being; hence he is called the ‘Alase Ekeji Orisa’, (second in command to the divinity). Despite
the influence of Western culture and foreign regions, the Oba is still regarded as belonging to
other religions which aim at promoting peace in his community. Therefore, no matter the Oba’s
religious affiliation before ascending the throne, he still performs the leadership role in the
traditional religious life of the people.
African Religion and Corporate Existence:
African societies cherish their corporate existence. The individual does not and cannot exist in
isolation. He owes his existence to others, including the past generation and his contemporaries.
Thus, the community makes an individual. The African child goes through rites continues
throughout his life and ends only at death, when he is even incorporated into the wider family of
the ancestors. At every point in his religious awareness, he is made to understand the fact that he
is just a part of the whole and that he has certain responsibilities towards himself as well as
others.
African Religion and Economy:
Because of the religious influence over the life of the people, worship and holidays affect the
timing and rhythm of work in the society. The economic value of goods is partly determined by
its religious values. The commodities are expensive on the sixth day of the Oro festival because
on the seventh day, women who form the bulk of commercial activities would be banned from
going out. The distribution of wealth is determined by religious norms.

Basic Concepts / Principles / Sociological Dimensions of ATR:

African Traditional religions are diverse in terms of the objects of worship, the methods of
worship, and the demands placed upon the worshippers, it is still an all-society affair. In order to
appreciate this, we would examine the following key concepts (basic elements/characteristics)
which are:
*Belief in the Supreme Deity:
ATR too, generally recognizes the existence of a single supreme creator (god); often distant and
transcendent. Who is directly involved in daily affairs. However, this god may be known by
different names depending on the specific cultures and traditions.
*Divinities:
Divinities are gods who emanated from Supreme Deity. They have attribute of the Supreme
Being and are in essence His offspring. Thus, the Edo believes Olokun as the son of Osanobwa,
the Akan of Ghana regards Abosom as the son of Nyame. These are few examples. These
divinities render services in the theocratic government of the world. For example, Orisa-Nla was
asked to create and equip the solid earth as well as molding man’s physical structures. Thus, they
are believed to be lesser gods who act as intermediaries between human and the spiritual realms,
and are often associated with specific natural forces. They are ministers with portfolios in the
theocratic government of God. The belief is that God has delegated authority to them. They are
intermediaries. People worship God through them. They are worshipped daily through sacrifices.
They have temples, shrines, priests, priestesses and devotees.

*Spirits:
ATR believes in the vast array of the spirits, including nature spirits, territorial spirits, and
ancestorial spirits. These spirits can influence human affairs and are often consulted or appeased
through rituals.
*Ancestors:
It was believed that the deceased ancestors are revered to later play a significant role in the lives
of the living. They are believed to be closed to the living, and are capable of influencing their
lives, and are often consulted for guidance or, to resolve problems.
*The use of Oracles:
On the personal level, the consultation of oracle starts immediately a child is born. Parents
approach a diviner to know the destiny of their child. Again, when it is time for the child to
choose a career, the oracle is consulted to know which work would suit him best. Similarly at
marriage, the oracle is again consulted to ensure that he or she gets a suitable partner. At death,
the oracle may be consulted if the circumstance of the death is mysterious. At the societal level,
the oracle is consulted at important phases in the community’s life. When an Oba is to be
appointed, it is the oracle that makes the final selection. The oracle must also be consulted before
the community undertakes a war. Despite the influence of foreign religion and western culture,
people still consult the oracle when the going gets tough.
*The use of Shrines:
The shrine is the face of the divinity. It therefore, serves as communal place of worship both at
family and societal levels. The shrine then becomes the meeting place of man and his object of
worship. Consequently, important activities take place in this location to give legal and religious
sanction to the decisions taken and make them binding. For example, the Oba is usually crowed
in the shrine, favours are sought from the divinity in the shrine and their presence guarantees
peace and stability in the society. Shrines serve as a refuge place. Any show of disrespect to the
sacred place may have adverse effect not only on the individual but also the society.
*The use of Taboos:
The taboos are rules for ethical guideline of the people. The society entrenches the taboos into
her religious system. The people are educated about them. The proper knowledge of the taboos
integrates an individual into the society. The violation of a taboo may result in grave
consequence to the society and also to the individual. When taboos are observed, the gods are
happy; the society lives in peace and harmony.
*Rituals and Sacrifices:
Rituals and Sacrifices are common practices in ATR, and are often performed to honor the
deities and ancestors, in seeking their favors or, to resolve conflicts. Sacrifice plays an important
role in African traditional religion. It is almost inconceivable to have a religion without a form of
sacrifice in West African society. Sacrifices are communion between man and the Supreme
Being. Sacrifice helps in gaining favors from the divinity.
*Oral Tradition:
With this oral tradition, custodians of ATR passed knowledge, beliefs, ethical behaviours and
social responsibility down to their followers through stories, myths, proverbs and rituals.
*Practice of Magic:
Magic is a ritual activity which influence human or natural events through access to an external
mystical force. Thus, magic influence people and events. It involved the manipulation of certain
objects to cause a supernatural being to produce or prevent a particular result unobtainable
ordinarily. Man bends the forces of nature of his will through his means. Also, man, being a
limited being, taps the elemental forces of the universe, to solve the problems confronting him
through the use of magical powers.

Importance of African Traditional Religion to African Societies (its adherents):

1. It gives Understating. It gives a sense of direction even when man is confronted with the
uncertainly of the hereafter. Most Africans have been equipped by their religion to face life
emotionally intellectually and culturally.
2. Religion answers some questions that nothing else can answer. Where science and technology
stops, religion continues to give solution to answers on Gods existence, suffering and pain in the
world and what happens after death.
3. It provides moral values which regulates and harmonize the human community. Religion tells
man that which is evil and that which is good. In Africa, these morals build the relationship
between people and their world.
4. It gives food for spiritual hunger. Since man is conscious of his spiritual dimension, most
Africans satisfy their spiritual hunger in their religion. The religious ceremony to most of them
serve as channels of contact with the spiritual world.
5. It is also means of communication. This communication is in two directions. First, there is a
social communication and secondly, there is vertical communication. As people meet together to
worship, they communicate and understand themselves better, thus serving as a social coercion.
They also worship God and are psychologically satisfied.
6. African religion is a celebration and affirmation of life. This is seen in the various rituals,
festivals and ceremonies that are carried out. They celebrate life both in joy and sorrow.
7. Religion teaches that man is created. He must remain dependent on the God that has created
him.

Nature of West African Traditional Religion:

West African Traditional Religion has the following peculiar features:
a. Beliefs – teaching (dos and don’ts)
b. Practices – ceremonies and festivals which show how people express their beliefs.
c. Religious objects and place – sacred symbols, shrines and signs.
d. Values and morals – the ideals that uphold people in their interpersonal relationship.
e. Religious officials – people who lead in matters of religion.

Characteristics of West African Traditional Religion:

1. It is part of African Heritage: Traditional religion is another legacy bequeathed from the
ancestors. West African Religion is believed to be the product of the thinking and experience of
the forebears. The forebears formulated the religious ethics, observed the ceremonies and rituals,
told proverbs and myths which carried religious meanings and evolved laws and customs which
safeguarded the life of the individuals and his community. This heritage can only be understood
from its religious perspective because there is no dichotomy between the sacred and the secular
in African life.
2. It belongs to the people: African Religion has worshippers. The people identify and esteem
the relevance of religion in their live. Therefore, the religion belongs to each people with which
it has evolved. The people also migrate alongside with their religion.
3. It is a Revealed Religion: It exists as result of human experiences of the mystery of the
universe. Humankind discovers the existence of the Supreme Being. Thus, the religion evolved
through a long period of time. During this process, the practices and beliefs that are relevant to
the people’s spiritual growth are preserved while those that are not beneficial are dropped.

Worship of God Among the Africans:

African sometimes approaches God through the divinities. The Yoruba people are classic
example. They have no direct public worship of God. They believe that God is not an object that
can be confined to a Temple. They have elaborated indirect worship. The Yoruba regard
divinities as the messengers or intermediaries between man and God. Nevertheless, outside ritual
contexts, the people recognize Olodumare’s readiness to intervene directly in human affairs.
They sometimes make direct appeals to Him. Therefore, the people call on God for help. Also,
when one is denied justice, he/she seeks redress from God.
The Akan in Ghana has shrines and temples for the Supreme Being. There is priest dedicated to
His service for regular worship. Apart from personal altars, every Akon compound has an altar
for Onyame. Daily devotions and offerings are made at this family temple. The weekly worship
of Onyame holds on Saturdays. The Igbo people also have altars and shrines. The Ikenye, the
eldest member of the community, directs the worship. Aja Eze Emu is one of such direct
worship. It is observed during the dry and rainy seasons.
Some Westerners once had erroneous notion about African’s belief about God. They felt that the
idea of God was borrowed from the missionaries. A.B. Ellis claimed that the Akan of Ghana
added the belief in Nana Nyankupon (Lord of the Sky) because of the influence of Christian
faith. Gradually, it became an established fact that his belief about God was not foreign to the
African man. William Bosman later observed that the West Africans believed in a High God who
created the universe and they preferred Him before the idol-gods and do pray or offer sacrifices
to Him. The African conception about God is not remote. Consequently, the concept of God in
some ethnic groups would be examined.

Worships and Sacrifices in West African Traditional Religion:

There are different types of WORSHIP in West Africa as it is explained below:

1. Daily Worship:
Daily worship is usually performed in people’s house. It is a means of saying good morning to
the invisible spiritual beings and committing one’s household, the community and the affairs of
the day to the spirits. It is not elaborate. Items of worship are: cold water, kolanut and bitter-kola.
It is usually offered by the family head. After the prayers, a lobe or two of the kolanut is placed
in the shrine. The leftouts are shared among the family members.
2. Weekly Worship:
Weekly worship is more elaborate with large attendance of worshipers. It is led by a priest or
priestess of the particular divinity on the divinity’s sacred day. Prayers are offered for the health,
prosperity and protection of the worshippers. It is usually rounded off with an eulogy in praise of
the divinity.
3. Annual worship:
This worship takes place at the central shrine of the divinity. The worship is much elaborate. It
may involve the whole community and visitors. It is a festival period of joy, thanksgiving and
covenant renewal. Worshippers show gratitude for the blessings of the past year and pray for
guidance in the New Year.
4. Special Worship:
The worship can be performed at any time apart from regular worships. Sometimes, people are
called to make special worship. The request is as instructed by the oracle. The priest officiates at
the worship.

SACRIFICES in West African Traditional Religion:

Sacrifice plays an important role in religion. It is almost inconceivable to have a religion without
a form of sacrifice in West African society. Sacrifices are communion between man and the
Supreme Being. Sacrifice helps in gaining favours of the divinity. The following are the
categories of sacrifices:
>Thanks – offering
This is made in appreciation of blessings from the divinity, or in seeking his favour. It is
accompanied with feasting. The worshippers and the divinity share common meal. The blessings
that follow this are enormous. The requests are granted. The beneficial relation between man and
the divinity is strengthened. The occasion calls for thanks and offerings, bumper harvests,
successful expeditions and when victory is won over enemies.
>Votive Offering
The worshipper supplicates to the divinity for favour. The worshiper promises to sacrifice either
his/her properties if the requests are granted. Votative offerings are accompanied by dancing,
music, eating, and drinking.
>Expiation Offering
This is an atonement sacrifice. It is usually offered when there is crop failure, protracted illness
and sudden death, famine, plague and diseases. The worshipper undergoes self-abasement. The
sacrifice is meant to ward off evils and restore divine blessings. After this sacrifice is made, the
worshipper is transformed from defilement to purity.
>Foundation Sacrifice
This is made at the beginning of a new venture. The sacrifice makes the business thrive. Hardly
to anyone in the African society embark on anything unless the divinity invokes their blessings.
>Preventive Sacrifice
It is offered to stop an impending disaster. The worshipper seeks protection through these
sacrifices. The worshipper is allowed to replace his life by sacrificing with specific items. The
victim or items are robbed against the body of the worshiper and treated like a corpse.
>Meal and Drink Offering
This type of sacrifice takes place daily but mostly it is offered with what the people eat at home.
Libation is poured after the meal has been offered to the divinity and the rest is shared among the
worshippers as a sacramental feast.
Divinities in African Traditional Religion:
As earlier said, divinities are gods who emanated from Supreme Deity. They have attribute of the
Supreme Being and are in essence His offspring. Thus, the Edo believes Olokun as the son of
Osanobwa, the Akan of Ghana regards Abosom as the son of Nyame. These are few examples.
These divinities render service the theocratic government of the world. For example, Orisa - Nla
was asked to create and equip the solid earth as well as moulding man’s physical structures.
Thus, they are believed to be lesser gods who act as intermediaries between human and the
spiritual realms, and are often associated with specific natural forces.

Categories of the Divinities:

They can be divided into these three categories based on their positions, functions and influence:
1. The Primordial Divinities
These are believed to be the divinities of heaven. They are believed to be in existence with the
Supreme Being before the creation of the universe. They usually thought of as parking in the
work of creation.
2. Deified Ancestors
These are human beings who are deified because of the extraordinary live they have lived. The
examples are Jakuta and Sango. Jakuta was the original thunder divinity while Sango was the
fourth Alaafin of Oyo. Sango was a powerful figure while on earth. He spits fire while speaking.
At death, he was deified and was given the attributes of Jakuta and he becomes the thunder
divinity in Yorubaland.
3. Personification of Nature and Phenomena
These groups of divinities are spirits associated with hills, mountains, rivers, brooks, lakes or
thick forest. Whatever is considered the abode of spirits becomes a sacred place. Examples of
these are the Olumo rock at Abeokuta and the Oke-Ibadan at Ibadan. These two hills are
worshipped for having protected the people in times of war. There is also the Osun River at
Osogbo whom the adherents believed to have the ability of giving children to the barren.

Positions and duties of the Divinities:

The divinities have responsibilities. They are ministers with portfolios in the theocratic
government of God. The belief is that God has delegated authority to them. They are
intermediaries. People worship God through them. They are worshipped daily through sacrifices.
They have temples, shrines, priests, priestesses and devotees. They are also semi-autonomous
agents. Each of them is the executive head of his department. Their adherents see them as a
means to an end and not an end in themselves.

Worship of divinities:
Worship is an expression of man’s attitude towards God and other spiritual beings. It is an act of
communication and communion between man and the supernatural world. It is a means of
strengthening the cord of relationship between God and man and a mean so restoring broken
communion as a result of sin. Worship can be regular or occasional. There are also daily
worships to adore God for his protection. The adoration is offered along new requests. It is not
always flamboyant when compared with the communal one. Usually, cold water, kolanut or
bitter kola is offered to the tutelary divinity of the household or compound. The priest of
Orunmila, for example, offers kolanut and pours oil at the shrine before embarking on the day’s
activities. People can worship under special arrangements. Preparations are made in line with the
need of the occasion. The nature of such worship depends on the prescription of the oracle. The
annual festival observed in honour of each divinity is very elaborate and in characterized with
merriment.

Objects of worship:
Each divinity has his or her specific sacred objects which can either be symbols or emblems. The
symbols are usually the anthropomorphic images of the divinity while the emblems can be sacred
objects set aside as visual representations. Iron is the emblem of Ogun while the laterite is that of
Esu just external, physical, visual, concrete representation, of the internal concept of spiritual
entities. Consequently, these objects can be replaced, removed, or turn into common use without
being of the divinity affected. Other objects usually present in the shrine include calabashes,
stones, carved images, pots, ax-heads, and metal snakes among others. The emblems are
however kept out of profane gaze and must not be touched by ordinary persons. They are mostly
kept in the temple or shrines where the priest and priestesses take care of them daily.

Relationship with the Supreme Being:

1. They are created by God. God relates with them as His sons and daughters.
2. They derive their existence from God. They become lifeless without Him.
3. Each divinity has its own local name in the local langue, e.g Jakuta in Yoruba, Sokogba in
Nupe and Amadioha in Igbo all expresses the wrath of God.
4. They are seen as ministers in charge of various departments of the earth.
5. They are seen as intermediaries between the Supreme Being and man and are only channels
through which man could approach the Supreme Being.
6. The divinities in each locality usually forma a pantheon over which there is an arch-divine
who is more closely related to the Supreme Being like Obatala in Yoruba. The main weakness of
this system of belief is that it is crude and usually leads to turning the means into an end in itself.

The Concepts of Magic, Witchcraft and Sorcery according to ATR:

- Magic:
As said earlier, magic is a ritual activity which influence human or natural events through access
to an external mystical force. Thus, magic influence people and events. It involved the
manipulation of certain objects to cause a supernatural being to produce or prevent a particular
result unobtainable ordinarily. Man bends the forces of nature of his will through his means.
Also, man, being a limited being, taps the elemental forces of the universe, to solve the problems
confronting him through the use of magical powers.

- Witchcraft:
To most Africans, witchcraft is an ugly reality. Even the scientifically inclined who cannot
openly admit this fact have a tingling sensation when they are confronted with the inexplicable.
Those who have also learnt by experience will not hesitate to say that the scholars who have
denied the reality of witches are suffering from ignorance. Witches are believed to be people
with inherent power. Although some witches acquired these powers to protect their wards, it is
mostly believed that the powers are evils, anti-social are not best used to harm people. They are
called Aje, Obayifo Aze, Amozu in Yoruba, Twi, Fon and Igbo respectively. They are mostly
women, but men are also found especially at the head of their guilds. Some are born witches
while others acquire it. One may possess this power without awareness and can also use it
destructively out of ignorance. This is what makes the concept of witchcraft mystifying,
appalling and sinister. They operate mainly at night. They attend meetings spiritually because the
body of those at the meeting will still be on their beds at home. During this outing if anything
happens to the astral body with which they have travelled, that will also happen to the physical
body. From confessions, a member ‘donates’ close relations to these secret societies. This would
be regarded as ‘meat’ to be eaten. They also possess power to render medicines and magic
useless in Africa witches are said to be responsible for misfortunate – accidents, sudden deaths,
poverty, bareness and human miseries. Some have positive contribution to the society. They can
also protect their families.
- Sorcery:
This is the application of evil magic on people or objects. Life and property can be destroyed.
Generally, it is an anti-societal employment of supernatural powers. The following are the deeds
of sorcerers:
1)- A sorcerer may call lighting, elephantiasis, or even apply direct poison on his victim.
2)- He may kill a victim by means of invocation through homeopathic magic.
3)- He may curse his victim who may become insane or commit suicide.
4)- He may send will animals (snakes, scorpions) to his victim.

Consequently, they are seen as threats to peaceful coexistence in the society. As a result, most
people resort to diviners and medicine-men for protection. Charms, amulets, medicinal drinks
and ointments are used for protection as prescribed by diviners.

Priesthood in African Society:

The priest is the mediator between man and the gods (God). Each tribe has a local name for the
priest. He is called Babaolorisa/Babalawo (Yoruba), Obosomofo (Twi), Veduno (Fon) and
Atama (Igbo). The ministers in the temples, shrines, sacred groves and other religious centres.
He may be set apart from birth or called to the service of the god. Both men and women are
eligible. There are two types of priests among the people– the lay priest and professional priest.
The lay priest is the family head. He officiates at the domestic o ancestral shrine. They consult
the ancestors on behalf of the family or clan. Hence, they link the living and the dead together.
Priesthood in this category passes on to the most senior person in the family. The professional
priest is concerned with the cult of divinities. The called or the one set apart from birth
understudies the priest. He succeeds the older priest at death or if the divinity chooses him as the
next priest. This period of tutelage may last for several years. While in training, he undertakes
series of training in occult knowledge and performance of public rituals. He is also subjected to
strict taboos. He needs to be caste, ascetic and abstain from certain foods and clothes. He is
usually clothed in white. Where priesthood I non-hereditary, the priest-elect is singled out with
signs which indicates that the divinity has elected him as a potential priest. This may involve his
disappearance for seven days without being able to give a coherent explanation for it. After this,
a diviner would be consulted for confirmation after which he would be installed. There is also
the concept of the divine ruler. The king is considered a divine ruler; hence, he is considered the
deputy of the gods on earth. As a result, the king is usually given his staff of office as of that
status. It is with the staff that he performs his priestly duty. He leads in rituals and ceremonies
that involve the whole community. He is the priest of the community.

Functions of Priest:
1) Intercession: The priest intercedes with the divinity on behalf of the people. The evils in the
community may indicate the ineffectiveness of the priest to be in constant consultation with God.
2) Sacrifices: The priest offers sacrifices and say prayers at the shrine. He leads worship during
the yearly festival of the divinity. As the custodian of the religion, and keepers of religious
treasurers and knowledge, he ensures that the emblem and symbols of the divinity are suitable
and reverently preserved.
3) Custom: He ensures that customs and practices related to the divinity are upheld. He knows
the taboos surrounding the cult and transmits them correctly.
4) Divination: He divines for the whole community. He is also an herbalist or medicine man.
5) Kingship Issues: The priest installs the king. He also performs the necessary rites of burial for
the dead king.
6) Counsellor: Since he is an important figure in the community, he is a member of the council
of the community. He advises people. He settles quarrel and enforces morality. In summary, the
priest is essential in the day-to-day running of the community’s affairs. He presides over
meetings and communities and serves as judge in most cases and act as director with regard to
the general well-being of the community.

Diviners:
As their names implies, they are primarily concerned with acts of divination. Divination is the
practice of foretelling the future, reveal the unknown or find out the wish of a divinity or spirit.
In most cases, the diviner combines the roles of a medicine-man and diviner (though there are
some medicine men who are not diviners). Divination is the means by which individuals and
communities find solution to their problems. The desire to know the will of the deity on the
future of people’s live makes the role of the diviners very important. They are also consulted
sometimes during incurable disease; the crises of life, when a barren woman desires children, or,
mysterious death or plague.
The Ifa divination, which associated with the cult of Orunmila among the Yoruba, is the most
widely used. This system has been copied by the Edo, the Fon and the Ewe. Some divine with
stone, gourds and palm-reading. The choice and training of diviners is sometimes hereditary or
from the persona l decision of prospective diviners. It has no age or sex barrier. During training,
the apprentice leans the names, sin of divination figures ceremony before he begins to practice.
The diviner like a medicine man acts as intermediary between man and the supernatural world
for the sake of their community. They find out hidden secret and pass them to the people. They
are also custodians of the interest and lives of the people. They interpret the mysteries of life,
convey the messages of the gods to the devotes and settle disputes. As seers, they unravel the
mystery of the universe. Other religious leaders include family and ritual elders and operators at
initiation rites. They act as unofficial religious leaders.
Religious leaders are the symbolic points of contact between the historical and the spiritual
worlds. Their presence makes the life of the community a profound religious one. West African
societies would have lost contact with the religious phenomenon without these religious leaders.

RELIGIOUS DIALOGUE

Definition of Religious Dialogue: Dialogue is a conversation on a common subject between two

or more persons with differing views. The primary purpose of dialogue is for each participant to
learn from the other so that he or she can change and grow. Dialogue involves the sharing of
understanding and experience. It is a significant method of building community. Dialogue is also
a means of expanding self-knowledge. Dialogue is defined as “The Natural consequence of the
concern by civilized people of all faiths to eliminate hatred and bigotry (Akinyemi 2001). The
objective of dialogue is to prevent and remove all forms of hatred, suspicion, jealousy and vices
that are manifestations of religious acrimony. Dialogue was further explained by Mala as a
school of thought which is concerned about person, meeting and encounter and co-operation in
work and worship as well as about sustained mutual involvement in local level contact (Mala
1988).
Essentially dialogue can lead to a common desire for a search for thorough and reciprocal
exchange of information and insight with each other, thus deepening and strengthening our
knowledge of each other’s religious truth. Traditionalists, Muslims, and Christians in Nigeria
should remember that Nigeria is a pluralistic religious society. The non-Muslims cannot afford to
view Islam and Muslims through the eyes of Western Europe, which has almost unitary belief
system (Badmos, 1993). Kenny (1982) enjoined Christians to enter into religious discussion with
prudence and charity for the purpose of positive results. He also advised that while witnessing to
non-Christians they should give due respects to the faith and interest of such people by way of
listening and accept them the way they can reason rather than cohesive approach that can lead to
violence and unfruitful results. Pope John Paul II on his visit to Nigeria in February 1982,
submitted as follows:
1. That because of the faith that we have in God, Christianity and Islam have many things in
common: the privilege of prayer, the duty of justice accompanied by compassion and almsgiving
and above all, a sacred respect for the dignity of man.
2. Christians and Muslims can engage in dialogue in order to understand each other to
understand each better at both the level of scholar and in person-to-person relationship, in the
family and in places of work and play.
3. We can promote more honesty and discipline in private and public life, greater courage and
wisdom in politics, elimination of political antagonism and removal of discrimination because of
religion.
4. Both of us (Christians and Muslims) can spearhead the principle and practice of religious
education of children.
5. True dialogue and partnership demand a constant reference of fundamental truth about man,
the dignity and equality of human person, individual and as a member of a society (Akinyemi,
2001).

The need for religious dialogue:

i. It is a proper mode for discourse with one’s neighbour.
ii. It serves as means of mutual understanding between individual and community.
iii. It is a preferable way of preventing clashes and settling conflicts.
iv. It is a mode especially and religious discourse.
v. It is a mode which is not confined to religious men and women but may be accepted by people
who are motivated by secular ideologies.
vi. It is sober and rational and allows both critical and appreciative approaches.

Inter-religious dialogue operates in three areas; the practical where we collaborate to help
humanity; the cognitive- where we seek understanding the truth and the spiritual where we
attempt to experience the partner’s religion ‘from within’. In inter-religious dialogue we unlearn
misinformation about each other and begin to know each other as we truly are. Through inter-
religious dialogue, we together begin to explore new areas of reality, meaning and of truth, of
which neither of the participants had not been aware of before. This is possible because of
questions, insights and probing produced in the dialogue.

Factors for effctive religious dialogue:

For inter-religious dialogue to be effective, the following rules must be observed:
a) Partners must enter into dialogue so as to learn, change and grow not that we can force change
on the other.
b) It must be a two-sided project within each religious community and between religious
communities. That is to say each participant enter into dialogue not only with his partners across
the faith line, but with co-religionists, to share with them the fruit of the inter-religious dialogue.
c) Each participant must assume a complete honesty and sincerity in the other partners. This is so
because absence of sincerity prevents dialogue from happening. Where there is no truth there is
no dialogue.
d) Each participant must define himself. It is mandatory that each dialogue partner define what it
means to be a authentic member of his tradition.
e) Each participant must come to the dialogue with no hard- and-fast as to where the point of
disagreement is. Rather each partner should listen to the other partners with openness while still
maintaining integrity.
f) Persons entering into inter-religious dialogue must be minimally self-critical of both
themselves and their own religious traditions. A lack of such self-criticism implies that one’s
own tradition already has all correct answers to the question of religion. Such an attitude makes
dialogue unnecessary and not even impossible.

Areas of dialogue and co-operation between the three(3) main religions in Nigeria:

Carefully scrutinizing the religious situation, it is apparent that the initial stage of introduction,
Islam and Christianity made only astonishing shallow penetration in converting the men of
Nigeria, with all his historical-cultural roots, social dimensions, self-consciousness and
expectations. Total conversion had been impossible. What exists appears to be an extremely
complex religious picture out of which several current religious experiences could be discerned.
The encounter between Islam and Traditional religion on one hand and between Christianity and
the Traditional religion on the other hand resulted in the process of acculturation producing half-
caste cultures. Originating from different backgrounds the process of partial withholding and
partial rejection becomes glaringly clear. The overall picture tends to be one of unofficial
‘baptizing’ of African cultural traditions into the Islamic and Christianity no doubt had little
significance in the little life of Nigerians. But as time passed by Nigerian began to live in
community with people who are committed to faiths and ideologies other than their own. They
live in families sometimes of mixed faiths. The effect was that there came interaction, co-
operation and relationship between the adherents of these three religions. For example, in the
areas of: Belief in God and His Holiness, Belief in Angels, Belief in the
Messengers/Prophets, Belief in the destiny, Belief in the Last Day, Belief in Heaven and
Hell, and etcetera.

OBSTACLES faced by the ATR:

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