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Functional Foods Concept to Product Second edition
Maria Saarela (Editor) Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Maria Saarela (editor)
ISBN(s): 9781845696900, 1845696905
Edition: 2nd edition
File Details: PDF, 9.54 MB
Year: 2011
Language: english
 Functional foods

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2011

Related titles:
Functional foods: principles and technology
(ISBN 978-1-84569-592-7)
Foods which have health-promoting properties over and beyond their nutritional
value – products known as functional foods – have become a significant industry
sector. Functional foods: principles and technology provides both students and
professionals with an authoritative introduction to the key scientific aspects and
major product categories in this area. The opening chapter introduces the principles
of functional foods and explores industry and consumer roles in this evolving
market. Subsequent chapters focus on the most significant product categories,
reviewing ingredient sources, classification, properties, therapeutic effects and
possible mechanisms of action, among other topics. Antioxidants, dietary fiber,
prebiotics and probiotics, lipids and soy are among the foods and food constituents
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elderly. Chapters in Part 1 discuss aspects of the elderly’s relationship with food,
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Obesity is a global epidemic, with large proportions of adults and children
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obesity. With its distinguished editor and international team of contributors, this
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© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2011

Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition:
Number 205

Functional foods
Concept to product

Second edition

Edited by
Maria Saarela

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2011

Published by Woodhead Publishing Limited,
80 High Street, Sawston, Cambridge CB22 3HJ, UK
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Contents

Contributor contact details .......................................................................... xiii

Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology
and Nutrition ............................................................................................ xix
Preface ......................................................................................................... xxvii

Part I General issues with functional foods

1 Defining functional foods and associated claims ............................... 3

M. Roberfroid, Catholic University of Louvain, Belgium
1.1 Introduction................................................................................. 3
1.2 Functional foods: defining the concept ....................................... 5
1.3 Functional food science .............................................................. 10
1.4 Communicating functional claims .............................................. 13
1.5 Case studies ................................................................................ 18
1.6 Conclusions and future trends .................................................... 21
1.7 References................................................................................... 22

2 EU legislation and functional foods: a case study ............................. 25

P. Berry Ottaway and S. Jennings, Berry Ottaway &
Associates Ltd, UK
2.1 Introduction................................................................................. 25
2.2 Product description ..................................................................... 26
2.3 Product positioning in the European market .............................. 26
2.4 Product composition ................................................................... 27
2.5 Claims ......................................................................................... 33
2.6 Packaging .................................................................................... 36
2.7 Labelling ..................................................................................... 37

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2011

vi Contents

2.8 Manufacture ................................................................................ 38

2.9 Conclusions................................................................................. 38
2.10 References................................................................................... 38
2.11 Appendix: note............................................................................ 40

3 U.S. regulation of functional foods ..................................................... 41

J. E. Hoadley, EAS Consulting Group, USA
3.1 Introduction................................................................................. 41
3.2 Food label health claims ............................................................. 42
3.3 Food label structure/function claims .......................................... 46
3.4 Food label nutrient content claims .............................................. 50
3.5 Medical food and food for special dietary use............................ 53
3.6 Ingredient safety ......................................................................... 56
3.7 Sources of further information and advice ................................. 57
3.8 References................................................................................... 58
3.9 Appendix: definitions.................................................................. 59

4 Australia and New Zealand regulations on nutrition,

health and related claims made on foods ........................................... 64
D. Ghosh, nutriConnect, Sydney, Australia
4.1 Introduction................................................................................. 64
4.2 Functional foods: current trends and market .............................. 65
4.3 Australia and New Zealand legislation and
functional foods .......................................................................... 66
4.4 Scientific substantiation of health claims ................................... 68
4.5 Australia and New Zealand regulatory framework in the
light of global harmonisation ...................................................... 69
4.6 Implementation ........................................................................... 69
4.7 Implications for the development and manufacture of
functional foods .......................................................................... 70
4.8 Future trends ............................................................................... 70
4.9 Sources of further information and advice ................................. 71
4.10 References................................................................................... 71

5 Legislation of functional foods in Asia ............................................... 73

J. Zawistowski, University of British Columbia, Canada
5.1 Introduction: historical background ............................................ 73
5.2 Regulatory challenges for marketing of functional foods .......... 76
5.3 Definition and categories of functional foods in various
Asian countries ........................................................................... 76
5.4 Food and drug interface: regulatory framework for
functional foods .......................................................................... 79
5.5 Nutrition and health claims ......................................................... 89
5.6 Labelling of functional foods...................................................... 99
5.7 Health claims and consumer confidence..................................... 100

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2011

 Contents vii

5.8 Future trends: harmonization of law and regulations of

functional foods .......................................................................... 102
5.9 Sources of further information and governmental websites ....... 103
5.10 Acknowledgements..................................................................... 104
5.11 References................................................................................... 104

6 Consumers and health claims for functional foods ........................... 109

L. Lähteenmäki, Aarhus University, Denmark
6.1 Introduction................................................................................. 109
6.2 Consumer perceptions of health claims ...................................... 112
6.3 Consumer acceptability of health claims .................................... 117
6.4 Implications for dairy product development............................... 120
6.5 Future trends ............................................................................... 123
6.6 Sources of further information and advice ................................. 124
6.7 References................................................................................... 124

Part II Functional foods and health

7 Functional foods and acute gastrointestinal infections..................... 129

H. Szajewska, The Medical University of Warsaw, Poland
7.1 Introduction................................................................................. 129
7.2 How the intervention might work ............................................... 130
7.3 How to assess the effectiveness of probiotics and/or
prebiotics..................................................................................... 131
7.4 What is the aim of this chapter? ................................................. 131
7.5 Probiotics .................................................................................... 132
7.6 Prebiotics .................................................................................... 142
7.7 Synbiotics ................................................................................... 145
7.8 Conclusions and future trends .................................................... 146
7.9 Sources of further information and advice ................................. 146
7.10 References................................................................................... 147

8 Functional foods and coronary heart disease (CHD) ....................... 153

Julie A. Lovegrove and Kim G. Jackson, University of
Reading, UK
8.1 Introduction................................................................................. 153
8.2 Coronary heart disease and risk factors ...................................... 156
8.3 Relevant lipid particles ............................................................... 162
8.4 Diet and coronary heart disease risk: the evidence ..................... 168
8.5 The effects of probiotics including fermented milk products
and lactic acid bacteria on coronary heart disease ...................... 173
8.6 The effects of prebiotics on coronary heart disease .................... 183
8.7 The effects of synbiotics including combinations of lactic acid
bacteria and prebiotic fibres on coronary heart disease .............. 190

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2011

viii Contents

8.8 Future trends ............................................................................... 191

8.9 Sources of further information and advice ................................. 192
8.10 References................................................................................... 193

9 Anti-tumour properties of functional foods....................................... 202

I. T. Johnson, Institute of Food Research, UK
9.1 Introduction................................................................................. 202
9.2 Carcinogenesis and the biology of cancer .................................. 203
9.3 Protective effects of nutrients ..................................................... 208
9.4 Protective effects of phytochemicals .......................................... 219
9.5 Carbohydrates and their fermentation products .......................... 222
9.6 Conclusion: the role of functional foods and future trends ........ 225
9.7 Sources of further information and advice ................................. 226
9.8 References................................................................................... 226

10 Functional foods and obesity............................................................... 234

S. B. Myrie and P. J. H. Jones, University of Manitoba, Canada
10.1 Introduction................................................................................. 234
10.2 Functional foods contribution to weight management ............... 236
10.3 Formulating food products for weight control............................ 251
10.4 Future trends ............................................................................... 252
10.5 Sources of further information and advice ................................. 253
10.6 References................................................................................... 253

11 Functional foods and prevention of diabetes ..................................... 261

J. Lindström, National Institute for Health and Welfare, Finland and
S. M. Virtanen, National Institute for Health and Welfare,
Finland and Tampere School of Public Health, Finland
11.1 Introduction................................................................................. 261
11.2 Food and diet as contributing factors to the rise in diabetes....... 263
11.3 Effects of different food components on insulin secretion,
insulin resistance and development of diabetes .......................... 266
11.4 Formulating food products for diabetes prevention.................... 268
11.5 Future trends ............................................................................... 269
11.6 References................................................................................... 269

12 Functional foods and cognition ........................................................... 277

A. Scholey, D. Camfield, L. Owen, A. Pipingas and C. Stough, Swinburne
University, Australia
12.1 Introduction................................................................................. 277
12.2 Modulators of cognitive functions .............................................. 278
12.3 Selection of appropriate cognitive outcome measures ............... 279
12.4 Nutraceuticals and cognitive function ........................................ 280
12.5 Effects of ageing on cognition and brain biology ....................... 280
12.6 Effects of glucose and carbohydrates ......................................... 282

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2011

 Contents ix

12.7 Nutraceuticals for cognitive enhancement.................................. 283

12.8 Conclusions................................................................................. 298
12.9 Sources of further information and advice ................................. 299
12.10 References................................................................................... 299

13 Functional foods and bone health....................................................... 309

S. J. Whiting and H.Vatanparast, University of Saskatchewan,
Canada
13.1 Introduction................................................................................. 309
13.2 Overview of bone growth and maintenance ............................... 311
13.3 How key nutrients and dietary factors impact bone health......... 312
13.4 Dietary sources of nutrients and dietary factors related to bone
health, and safety considerations ................................................ 319
13.5 Case studies of functional foods designed to improve intake
of bone health factors.................................................................. 323
13.6 Future trends ............................................................................... 325
13.7 Issues related to product targeting and consumer acceptance
of bone-healthy functional foods ................................................ 327
13.8 References................................................................................... 328

Part III Developing functional food products

14 Maximising the functional benefits of plant foods ............................ 337

D. G. Lindsay, Euroscience Perspectives, Spain
14.1 Introduction................................................................................. 337
14.2 The concept of functionality ....................................................... 338
14.3 The situation in the developing world ........................................ 339
14.4 The priorities for nutritional enhancement ................................. 340
14.5 Strategies for nutritional enhancement ....................................... 341
14.6 Improvements in handling, storage and food processing
technologies ................................................................................ 350
14.7 Future trends ............................................................................... 353
14.8 Sources of further information and advice ................................. 354
14.9 References................................................................................... 354

15 Developing functional ingredients: a case study of

pea protein ............................................................................................ 358
A.-S. Sandberg, Chalmers University of Technology, Sweden
15.1 Introduction: the nutritional properties of peas .......................... 358
15.2 Improving pea protein................................................................. 362
15.3 Processing issues in improving pea protein ................................ 363
15.4 Adding improved protein to food products ................................ 365
15.5 Evaluating the nutritional, functional and sensory properties
of improved pea protein in food products................................... 368

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2011

x Contents

15.6 New technologies for improved nutritional and functional

value of pea protein (NUTRIPEA) ............................................. 371
15.7 Future trends ............................................................................... 374
15.8 Sources of further information and advice: past and present
EU projects, networks and special reports in the field................ 375
15.9 References................................................................................... 378

16 Functional fats and spreads ................................................................ 383

A. Turpeinen and P. Merimaa, Valio Ltd, Finland
16.1 Introduction................................................................................. 383
16.2 EU legislation on fats and spreads .............................................. 384
16.3 Functional ingredients and chronic diseases: applications in
fats and spreads ........................................................................... 385
16.4 Methods for modifying fats and oils ........................................... 393
16.5 Future trends ............................................................................... 395
16.6 Sources of further information and advice ................................. 396
16.7 References................................................................................... 396

17 Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) as

food ingredients .................................................................................... 401
C. Jacobsen, National Food Institute, Denmark
17.1 Introduction................................................................................. 401
17.2 Health aspects of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty
acids (PUFAs) ............................................................................. 403
17.3 Sources of omega-3 PUFAs ........................................................ 403
17.4 The problems associated with using omega-3 PUFAs
in foods ....................................................................................... 405
17.5 Factors affecting lipid oxidation in omega-3 PUFA
enriched foods ............................................................................. 408
17.6 The effect of antioxidant addition............................................... 414
17.7 Future trends ............................................................................... 419
17.8 Sources of further information and advice ................................. 419
17.9 References................................................................................... 420

18 Probiotic functional foods ................................................................... 425

M. H. Saarela, VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland,
Finland
18.1 Introduction to probiotics and their health effects ...................... 425
18.2 Probiotic food market in Europe and the United States ............. 426
18.3 Probiotic technology and challenges in the probiotic
formulation into foods ................................................................ 428
18.4 Probiotic food categories ............................................................ 429
18.5 Future trends ............................................................................... 437
18.6 Sources of further information and advice ................................. 438
18.7 References................................................................................... 439

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2011

 Contents xi

19 Functional foods for the gut: probiotics, prebiotics and

synbiotics............................................................................................... 449
A. Drakoularakou, R. Rastall and G. Gibson, University of
Reading, UK
19.1 Introduction................................................................................. 449
19.2 The composition of gastrointestinal (GI) microbiota ................. 450
19.3 Probiotics .................................................................................... 451
19.4 Prebiotics and synbiotics ............................................................ 455
19.5 Conclusions................................................................................. 463
19.6 References................................................................................... 463

20 Bioactive milk proteins, peptides and lipids and other

functional components derived from milk and bovine
colostrum .............................................................................................. 471
H. J. Korhonen, MTT Agrifood Research Finland, Finland
20.1 Introduction................................................................................. 471
20.2 Bioactive proteins ....................................................................... 472
20.3 Bioactive peptides ....................................................................... 484
20.4 Bioactive lipids ........................................................................... 492
20.5 Other bioactive components ....................................................... 496
20.6 Conclusions................................................................................. 497
20.7 Future trends ............................................................................... 498
20.8 References................................................................................... 499

21 Functional meat products.................................................................... 512

K. Arihara and M. Ohata, Kitasato University, Japan
21.1 Introduction................................................................................. 512
21.2 Meat consumption and human health ......................................... 513
21.3 Meat-based bioactive compounds............................................... 515
21.4 Development of functional meat products .................................. 517
21.5 Future trends of functional meat products .................................. 526
21.6 Sources of further information and advice ................................. 527
21.7 References................................................................................... 528

22 Functional soy products ...................................................................... 534

C. W. Xiao, Health Canada and University of
Ottawa, Canada
22.1 Introduction................................................................................. 534
22.2 Major compositions of soybeans ................................................ 535
22.3 Soy consumption in different populations .................................. 535
22.4 Functional soy foods ................................................................... 536
22.5 Safety aspects of soy ................................................................... 548
22.6 Future trends ............................................................................... 549
22.7 Sources of further information and advice ................................. 550
22.8 References................................................................................... 550

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2011

xii Contents

23 Functional seafood products ............................................................... 557

M. Careche and A. J. Borderías, Institute of Food Science,
Technology and Nutrition (ICTAN), Spain, I. Sánchez-Alonso,
Institute of the Structure of Matter (IEM), Spain and E. K. Lund,
Institute of Food Research (IFR), Norwich, UK
23.1 Introduction................................................................................. 557
23.2 Health aspects of seafood ........................................................... 558
23.3 Potential for development of functional seafood products ......... 562
23.4 Development of functional seafood products with
dietary fibres ............................................................................... 566
23.5 Conclusions................................................................................. 574
23.6 References................................................................................... 575

24 Dietary fibre functional products ....................................................... 582

F. Guillon, M. Champ, J. F. Thibault and L. Saulnier,
INRA Research Centre, Nantes, France
24.1 Introduction................................................................................. 582
24.2 Defining dietary fibre .................................................................. 583
24.3 Sources of dietary fibre ............................................................... 589
24.4 Processing dietary fibre ingredients ............................................ 597
24.5 Processing foods containing dietary fibre ................................... 602
24.6 The physiological effects of dietary fibre ................................... 605
24.7 Recommended intakes of dietary fibre ....................................... 613
24.8 Conclusions and future trends .................................................... 614
24.9 References................................................................................... 614

Index ............................................................................................................. 623

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2011

Contributor contact details

(* = main contact) Much Dewchurch

Hereford
HR2 8DS
Editor and Chapter 18 UK
Maria Saarela
E-mail: [email protected];
VTT Technical Research Centre of
[email protected]
Finland
PO Box 1000
02044 VTT
Chapter 3
Finland
Dr James E. Hoadley
E-mail: [email protected] EAS Consulting Group
PO Box 1816
Shepherdstown
Chapter 1 West Virginia 25443
Marcel Roberfroid USA
Professor Emeritus
Faculty of Medicine E-mail: jhoadley@easconsultinggroup.
Catholic University of Louvain com
7A rue du Rondia
B-1348 Louvain-La-Neuve
Belgium Chapter 4
Dr Dilip Ghosh
E-mail: [email protected]
Director, nutriConnect
23 Merrilong Street
Sydney
Chapter 2
NSW 2154
Peter Berry Ottaway* and Australia
Sam Jennings
Berry Ottaway & Associates Ltd E-mail: dilipghosh@nutriconnect.
Kivernoll com.au

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2011

xiv Contributor contact details

Chapter 5 Chapter 8
Jerzy Zawistowski Professor Julie A. Lovegrove and
Food, Nutrition and Health Dr Kim G. Jackson
Faculty of Land and Food Systems Hugh Sinclair Unit of Human
University of British Columbia Nutrition and the Institute for
2205 East Mall Cardiovascular and Metabolic
Vancouver Research (ICMR)
British Columbia Department of Food and Nutritional
Canada Sciences
V6T 1Z4 University of Reading
PO Box 226
E-mail: [email protected] Whiteknights
Reading
RG6 6AP
Chapter 6 UK
Professor Liisa Lähteenmäki
Email: [email protected];
Aarhus School of Business and Social
[email protected]
Sciences
Aarhus University
Haslegaardsvej 10 Chapter 9
DK-8210 Aarhus V
Denmark Professor Ian T. Johnson
Institute of Food Research
E-mail: [email protected] Norwich Research Park
Colney
Norwich
Chapter 7 NR4 7UA
UK
Professor Hania Szajewska
Department of Paediatrics E-mail: [email protected]
The Medical University of Warsaw
01-184 Warsaw, Dzialdowska 1
Poland Chapter 10
Semone B. Myrie*
E-mail: [email protected]
Richardson Centre for Functional
Foods and Nutraceuticals
Department of Human Nutritional
Sciences
University of Manitoba
Winnipeg, Manitoba
Canada
R3T 6C5

E-mail: [email protected]

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2011

 Contributor contact details xv

Peter J. H. Jones Chapter 12

Richardson Centre for Functional
Andrew Scholey*, David Camfield,
Foods and Nutraceuticals
Lauren Owen, Andrew Pipingas and
Departments of Food Science and
Con Stough
Human Nutritional Sciences
NICM Collaborative Centre for
University of Manitoba
Neurocognition
Winnipeg, Manitoba
Brain Sciences Institute
Canada
Swinburne University
R3T 6C5
Melbourne
VIC 3122
E-mail: [email protected] Australia
Chapter 11 E-mail: [email protected]
Jaana Lindström*
National Institute for Health and Chapter 13
Welfare Susan J Whiting* and Hassanali
Department of Chronic Disease Vatanparast
Prevention College of Pharmacy and Nutrition
Diabetes Prevention Unit University of Saskatchewan
PO Box 30 Saskatoon SK
FI-00271 Helsinki Canada
Finland S7N 5C9
E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected]

Suvi M. Virtanen
National Institute for Health and Chapter 14
Welfare David G. Lindsay
Department of Lifestyle and Euroscience Perspectives
Participation Apartado de Correos 353
Nutrition Unit Espinardo
PO Box 30 MURCIA 30100
FI-00271 Helsinki Spain
Finland
E-mail: [email protected]
and
Chapter 15
Tampere School of Public Health
FI-33014 Professor Ann-Sofie Sandberg
University of Tampere and Tampere Chalmers University of Technology
University Hospital Food Science
Research Unit SE 412 96 Gothenburg
Finland Sweden

E-mail: [email protected] Email: [email protected]

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2011

xvi Contributor contact details

Chapter 16 Chapter 21
Dr Anu Turpeinen* and Pirjo Keizo Arihara* and Motoko Ohata
Merimaa Department of Animal Science
Valio Ltd Kitasato University
R&D Towada-shi
PO Box 30 Aomori 034-8628
00039 Valio Japan
Finland
E-mail: [email protected]
E-mail: [email protected]

Chapter 22
Chapter 17
Chao Wu Xiao
Dr Charlotte Jacobsen
Nutrition Research Division
Division of Industrial Food Research
Food Directorate
National Food Institute
Health Products and Food Branch
Technical University of Denmark
Health Canada
B. 221, Søltofts Plads, DTU
Ottawa
DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby
Ontario
Denmark
Canada
E-mail: [email protected] K1A 0K9

and
Chapter 19
Alexandra Drakoularakou, Bob Rastall Department of Cellular and
and Glenn Gibson* Molecular Medicine
Department of Food and Nutritional Faculty of Medicine
Sciences University of Ottawa
University of Reading Ottawa
Whiteknights Ontario
Reading Canada
RG6 6AP E-mail: [email protected]
UK
E-mail: [email protected] Chapter 23
Professor Mercedes Careche* and
Chapter 20 Professor Javier Borderías
Professor Hannu J. Korhonen Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnología de
MTT Agrifood Research Finland Alimentos y Nutrición (ICTAN)
Biotechnology and Food Research CSIC
Myllytie 1 C/Jose Antonio Novais 10
31600 Jokioinen 28040 Madrid
Finland Spain

E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected]

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Isabel Sánchez-Alonso Chapter 24

Instituto de Estructura de la Materia
CSIC Professor Fabienne Guillon*,
C/Serrano 121 M. Champ, J.-F. Thibault and
28006 Madrid Luc Saulnier
Spain INRA Research Centre
Rue de la Géraudière
E-mail: [email protected]. 44716 Nantes cedex 3
csic.es France

Elisabeth K. Lund E-mail: [email protected]

Institute of Food Research (IFR)
Norwich Research Park
Colney
Norwich
NR4 7UA
UK

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Other documents randomly have
different content
Bishop, Mr. Thomson exclaimed, “I will save your lordship the
trouble!” He took off his gown, dropped it at the Bishop’s feet,
saying, “My lord, I can preach without a gown!” and before the
Bishop could recover from his astonishment he was gone. This was
an instance, however, in which the Bishop was so decidedly in the
wrong that he sent for the vicar again, apologised to him; and the
circumstance, indeed, led to the entertainment by the Bishop of
views which were somewhat milder with reference to Methodism
than those which still give notoriety to his name.
 GEORGE WHITEFIELD.

Southey[5], in his certainly not impartial volumes, admits that, for

the most part, the condition of the clergy was dreadful; it is not
wonderful that they closed their churches against the innovators.
There was, for instance, the Vicar of Colne, the Rev. George White;
when the preachers came into his neighbourhood, it was his usual
practice to call his parishioners together by the beat of a drum, to
issue a proclamation at the market-cross, and enlist a mob for the
defence of the Church against the Methodists. Here is a copy of the
proclamation, a curiosity in its way: “Notice is hereby given that if
any man be mindful to enlist in His Majesty’s service, under the
command of the Rev. Mr. George White, Commander-in-Chief, and
John Bannister, Lieutenant-General of His Majesty’s forces for the
defence of the Church of England, and the support of the
manufactory in and about Colne, both which are now in danger, let
him repair to the drumhead at the Cross, where each man shall
receive a pint of ale in advance, and all other proper
encouragements.” Such are some of the instances, which might be
multiplied to any extent, showing the reception given to the
revivalists by the clergy of the time. But let no reader suppose that,
in reciting these things, we are willingly dwelling upon facts not
creditable to the Church, or that we forget how many of her most
admirable members have made an abundant amende honorable by
their eulogies since; nor are we forgetting that Nonconformist
chapels, whose cold respectability of service and theology were
sadly outraged by the new teachers, were not more readily opened
than the churches were to men with whom the Word of the Lord
was as a fire, or as a hammer to break the rock in pieces.[6]
Whitefield soon felt his power. Immediately after his ordination, he in
some way became for a time an occasional supply at the chapel in
the Tower; he found a straggling congregation of twenty or thirty
hearers; after a service or two the place was overflowing, and
remained so. During his short residence in that neighbourhood the
youth continued throughout the whole week preaching to the
soldiers, preaching to prisoners, holding services on Sunday
mornings for young men before the ordinary service. He was still
ostensibly at Oxford; a profitable living was offered to him in
London, and instantly declined. He went to Gloucester, to Bristol, to
Kingswood. Of course it is impossible to follow Whitefield step by
step through his career; we can only rapidly bring out a crayon
sketch of the chief features of his work. He made voyages to
Georgia; voyaging was no pastime in those days, and he spent a
great amount of time in transit to and fro on the seas; our business
with him is chiefly as the first field-preacher; and Kingswood, near
Bristol, appears to have been the first place where this great work
was to be tried. It was then, what it is still, a region of rough
collieries, the Black Country of the West; the people themselves
were of the roughest order. Whitefield spoke at Bristol, to some
friends, of his probable speedy embarkation to preach the Gospel
among the Indians of America; and they said to him, “What need of
going abroad to do this? Have we not Indians enough at home? If
you have a mind to convert Indians, there are colliers enough in
Kingswood!” A savage race! As to taking to the fields in this
instance, it was simply a necessity; there were no churches from
whence the preacher could be ejected. Try to realize it: the heathen
society, indoctrinated only in brutal sports; the rough, black labour
only typical of the rough, black minds, the rough, black souls. Surely
he must have been a very brave man; nor was he one at all of that
order of apostles whose native roughness is well fitted, it seems, to
challenge roughness to civility.
5. Appendix E.

6. Appendix F.
Whitefield was a perfect gentleman, of manners most affectionate
and amiable; altogether the most unlikely creature, it seems, to rise
triumphant over the execrations of a mighty mob. The oratory of
Whitefield seems to us almost the greatest mystery in the history of
eloquence: his voice must have been wonderful; its strength was
overwhelming, but it was not a roar; its modulations and inflections
were equal to its strength, so that it had the all-commanding tones
of a bell in its clearness, and all the modulations of an organ in its
variety and sweetness. Kingswood only stands as a representative of
crowds of other such places, where savages fell before the
enchantment of his sweet music. Read any accounts of him, and it
will be seen that we do not exaggerate in speaking of him as the
very Orpheus of the pulpit. Assuredly, as it has been said Orpheus,
by the power of his music, drew trees, stones, the frozen mountain-
tops, and the floods to bow to his melody, so men, “stockish, hard,
and full of rage,” felt a change pass over their nature, as they came
under the spell of Whitefield. Yet, perhaps, he would not have gone
to Kingswood had he not been inhibited from preaching in the Bristol
churches. He had preached in St. Mary Redcliff, and the following
day had preached opening sermons in the parish church of SS. Philip
and Jacob, and then he was called before the Chancellor of the
diocese, who asked him for his licence by which he was permitted to
preach in that diocese. Whitefield said he was an ordained minister
of the Church of England, and as to the special licence, it was
obsolete. “Why did you not ask,” he said, “for the licence of the
clergyman who preached for you last Thursday?” The Chancellor
replied, “That is no business of yours.” Whitefield said, “There is a
canon forbidding clergymen to frequent taverns and play at cards,
why is that not enforced?” The Chancellor evaded this, but charged
Whitefield with preaching false doctrine; Whitefield replied that he
preached what he knew to be the truth, and he would continue to
preach. “Then,” said the Chancellor, “I will excommunicate you!” The
end of it was that all the city churches were shut against him. “But,”
he says, “if they were all open, they would not contain half the
people who come to hear. So at three in the afternoon I went to
Kingswood among the colliers.” Whitefield laid his case in a very
respectful letter, before the Bishop, but on he went. As to
Kingswood, tears poured down the black faces of the colliers; the
great audiences are described as being drenched in tears. Whitefield
himself was in a passion of tears. “How can I help weeping,” he said
to them, “when you have not wept for yourselves?” And they began
to weep. Thus in 1739 began the mighty work at Kingswood, which
has been a great Methodist colony from that day to this. That was a
good morning’s work for the cause of Christ when the Chancellor
shut the doors of the churches of Bristol against the brave and
beautiful preacher, and threatened to excommunicate him. Was it
not said of old, “Thou makest the wrath of man to praise Thee”?
 Now, then, see him girt and road-ready; we might be sure that
the example of the Chancellor of Bristol would be pretty generally
followed. The old ecclesiastical corporations set themselves in array
against him; but how futile the endeavour! Their canons and rubrics
were like the building of hedges to confine an eagle, and they only
left him without a choice—without any choice but to fulfil his instinct
for souls, and to soar. Other “little brief authorities,” mayors,
aldermen, and such like, issued their fulminations. Coming to
Basingstoke, the mayor, one John Abbott, inhibited him. John Abbott
seems to have been a burly butcher. The intercourse and
correspondence between the two is very humorously characteristic;
but, although it gives an insight as to the antagonism which
frequently awaited Whitefield, it is too long to quote in this brief
sketch. The butcher-mayor was coarse and insolent; Whitefield
never lost his sweet graciousness; writing to abusive butchers or
abusive bishops, as in his reply to Lavington, he never lost his
temper, never indulged in satire, never exhibits any great marks of
genius, writes straight to the point, simply vindicates himself and his
course, never retracts, never apologises, goes straight on.
There is no other instance of a preacher who was so equally at
home and equally impressive and commanding in the most various
and dissimilar circles and scenes; it is significant of the notice he
excited that his name occurs so frequently in the correspondence of
that cold and heartless man and flippant sneerer, Horace Walpole,
whose allusions to him are usually disgraceful; but so it was, he was
equally commanding in the polished and select circles of the
drawing-room, surrounded by dukes and duchesses, great
statesmen and philosophers, or in the large old tabernacle or parish
church, surrounded by more orderly and saintly worshippers, or in
nature’s vast and grand cathedrals, with twenty or thirty thousand
people around him.
From the day when he went to Kingswood, we may run a rapid
eye along the perspective of his career—in fields, on heaths, and on
commons, it was the same everywhere; from his intense life we
might find many scenes for description: take one or two. On the
breast of the mountain, the trees and hedges full of people, hushed
to profound silence, the open firmament above him, the prospect of
adjacent fields—the sight of thousands on thousands of people;
some in coaches, some on horseback, and all affected, or drenched
in tears. Sometimes evening approaches, and then he says,
“Beneath the twilight it was too much for me, and quite overcame
me.” There was one night never to be forgotten. While he was
preaching it lightened exceedingly; his spirit rose on the tempest; his
voice tolled out the doom and decay hanging over all nature; he
preached the warnings and the consolations of the coming of the
Son of man. The thunder broke over his head, the lightning shone
along the preacher’s path, it ran along the ground in wild glares from
one part of heaven to the other; the whole audience shook like the
leaves of a forest in the wind, whilst high amidst the thunders and
the lightnings, the preacher’s voice rose, exclaiming, “Oh; my
friends, the wrath of God! the wrath of God!” Then his spirit seemed
to pass serenely right through the tempest, and he talked of Christ,
who swept the wrath away; and then he told how he longed for the
time when Christ should be revealed, amidst the flaming fire,
consuming all natural things. “Oh,” exclaimed he, “that my soul may
be in a like flame when He shall come to call me!” Can we realize
what his soul must have been who could burn with such seraphic
ardours in the midst of such scenes?
 WHITEFIELD PREACHING IN LONDON.

So he opened the way everywhere, by his field-preaching, for

John Wesley. Truly it has been said, “Whitefield, and not Wesley, is
the prominent figure in the opening of the Methodist movement;”
and the time we must assign to this first popular agitation is the
winter of 1738-39. The two men were immensely different. To
Whitefield the preaching was no light work; it was not talking. After
one of his sermons, drenched through, he would lie down, spent,
sobbing, exhausted, death-like: John Wesley, after one of his most
effective sermons, in which he also had shaken men’s souls, would
just quietly mount his little pony, and ride off to the next village or
town, reading his book as he went, or stopping by the way to pluck
curious flowers or simples from the hedges; the poise of their spirits
was so different. All great movements need two men, Moses and
Aaron; the prophet Elijah must go before, “to restore all things.”
Whitefield lived in the immediate neighbourhood and breathed the
air of essential truth; Wesley looked at men, and saw how all
remained undone until the work took coherency and shape. As he
says, “I was convinced that preaching like an apostle, without joining
together those that are awakened, and training them up in the ways
of God, is only begetting children for the murderer.” Whitefield
preached like an apostle; the scenes we have described appear
charming rural scenes, in which men’s hearts were bowed and
hushed before him; but there were widely different scenes when he
defied the devil, and sought to win his victims away, even in fairs
and wakes—the most wild and dissolute periodical pests and
nuisances of the age. Rough human nature went down before him,
as in the instance of the man who came with heavy stones to pelt
him, and suddenly found his hands as it were tied, and himself in
tears, and, at the close, went up to the preacher, and said, “I came
here only to break your head, and you have broken my heart!”
But the roughs of London seem to have been worse than the
roughs of Kingswood; and we cannot wonder that men like Walpole,
and even polite and refined religious men, thought that a man who
could go right into St. Bartholomew’s Fair, in Moorfields, and
Finsbury, take his station among drummers, trumpeters, merry-
andrews, harlequins, and all kinds of wild beasts, must be “mad”; it
must have seemed the height of fanaticism, like preaching to a real
Gadarene swinery. All the historians of the movement—Sir James
Stephen, Dr. Abel Stevens, Dr. Southey, Isaac Taylor, and others,
recite with admiration the story of the way in which he wrestled
successfully with the merry-andrews. He began to preach at six
o’clock in the morning; stones, dirt, rotten eggs were hurled at him.
“My soul was among lions,” he says; but the marvellous voice
overcame, and he went on speaking, and we know how tenderly he
would speak to them, of their own miseries, and the dangers of their
own sins; the great multitude—it was between twenty and thirty
thousand—“became like lambs;” he finished, went away, and, in the
wilder time—in the afternoon—he came again. In the meantime
there had been organisations to put him down: here was a man with
a long heavy whip to strike the preacher; there was a recruiting
sergeant who had been engaged with drum and fife to interrupt him.
As he appeared on the outskirts of the crowd, Whitefield, who well
knew how to catch the humour of the people too, exclaimed, “Make
way for the king’s officer!” and the mob divided, while, to his
surprise, the recruiting officer, with his drum, found himself
immediately beneath Whitefield; it was easy to manage him now.
The crowd around roared like wild beasts; it must have been a
tremendous scene. Will it be believed—it seems incredible—that he
continued there, preaching, praying, singing, until the night fell? He
won a decided victory, and the next day received no fewer than a
thousand notes from persons, “brands plucked from the burning,”
who spoke of the convictions through which they had passed, and
implored the preacher to remember them in his prayers.
This was in Moorfields, in which neighbourhood since, the
followers both of Wesley and of Whitefield have found their
tabernacles and most eminent fields of usefulness. Many have
attempted fair-preaching since Whitefield’s day, but not, we believe,
with much success; it needs a remarkable combination of powers to
make such efforts successful. Whitefield was able to attempt to
outbid the showmen, merry-andrews, and harlequins, and he
succeeded. No wonder they called him a fanatic; he might have said,
“If we be beside ourselves, it is for God, that by all means we may
save some!”
But what we have been especially desirous that our readers
should note is, that these more vehement manifestations of
Methodism were not the result of any methodised plan, but were a
simple yielding to, and taking possession of circumstances; it was as
if “the Spirit of the Lord” came down upon the leaders, and “carried
them whither they knew not.”
 [For an account of Whitefield’s labours in America, and the spread
of the Great Revival there, the reader is referred to the supplemental
chapter at the end of this volume.]
 CHAPTER V

THE REVIVAL CONSERVATIVE.

Lord Macaulay’s verdict upon John Wesley, that he possessed a

“genius for government not inferior to that of Richelieu,” received
immediate demonstration when he came actively into the
movement, and has been abundantly confirmed since his death, in
the history of the society which he founded. It has been said that all
institutions are the prolonged shadow of one mind, and that by the
inclusiveness, or power of perpetuity in the institution, we may know
the mind of the founder. Much of our last chapter was devoted to
some attempt to realise the place and power of Whitefield;[7] what
he was in relation to the Revival may be defined by the remark,
often made, and by capable critics, that while there have been
multitudes of better sermon-makers, it is uncertain whether the
Church ever had so great a pulpit orator. In Wesley’s mind
everything became structural and organic; he was a mighty master
of administration; but he also followed Whitefield’s example, and
took to the fields; and very great, indeed, amazing results, followed
his ministry.
7. See Chapter XIV. for his place and power in America.
Many of the incidents which are impressive and amusing show the
difference between the men. Whitefield overwhelmed the people:
Wesley met insolence and antagonism by some sharp, concise, and
cuttingly appropriate retort, which was remarkable, considering his
stature. But both his presence and his words must have been
unusually commanding: “Be silent, or begone,” he turned round
sharply and said once to some violent disturbers, and they were
obedient to the command.
Wesley’s rencontre with Beau Nash at Bath is a fair illustration of
his quiet and almost obscurely sarcastic method of confounding a
troublesome person. Preaching in the open air at Bath, the King of
Bath, the Master of the Ceremonies, Nash, was so unwise as to
attempt to put down the apostolic man. Nash’s character was bad; it
was that of an idle, heartless, licentious dangler on the skirts of high
society. He appeared in the crowd, and authoritatively asked Wesley
by what right he dared to stand there. The congregation was not
wholly of the poor; there were a number of fashionable and noble
persons present, and among them many with whom this attack had
been pre-arranged, and who expected to see the discomfiture of the
Methodist by the courtly and fashionable old dandy. Wesley replied
to the question simply and quietly that he stood there by the
authority of Jesus Christ, conveyed to him “by the present
Archbishop of Canterbury, when he laid hands on me and said, ‘Take
thou authority to preach the Gospel!’” Nash began to bustle and to
be turbulent, and he exclaimed, “This is contrary to Act of
Parliament; this is a conventicle.” “Sir,” said Wesley, “the Act you
refer to applies to seditious meetings: here is no sedition, no shadow
of sedition; the meeting is not, therefore, contrary to the Act.” Nash
stormed, “I say it is; besides, your preaching frightens people out of
their wits.” “Sir,” said Wesley, “give me leave to ask, Did you ever
hear me preach?” “No!” “How, then, can you judge of what you have
never heard?” “Sir, by common report.” “Common report is not
enough,” said Wesley; “again give me leave to ask is your name not
Nash?” “My name is Nash.” And then the reader must imagine
Wesley’s thin, clear, piercing voice, cutting through the crowd: “Sir, I
dare not judge of you by common report.” There does not seem
much in it, but the effect was overwhelming. Nash tried to bully it
out a little; but, to make his discomfiture complete, the people took
up the case, and especially one old woman, whose daughter had
come to grief through the fop, in her way so set forth his sins that
he was glad to retreat in dismay. On another occasion, when
attempts were made to assault Wesley, there was some uncertainty
about his person, and the assailants were saying, “Which is he?
which is he?” he stood still as he was walking down the crowded
street, turned upon them, and said, “I am he;” and they instantly fell
back, awed into involuntary silence and respect.
It is characteristic that while Whitefield simply took to the work of
field-preaching, and preaching in the open air, and troubled himself
very little about finding or giving reasons for the irregularity of the
proceeding, Wesley defended the practice with formidable
arguments. It is remarkable that the practice should have been
deemed so irregular, or should need vindication, considering that our
Lord had given to it the sanction of His example, and that it had
been adopted by the apostles and fathers, the greatest of the
Catholic preachers, and the reformers of every age. A history of field
and street-preaching would form a large and interesting chapter of
Church history. Southey quotes a very happy series of arguments
from one of Wesley’s appeals: “What need is there,” he says,
speaking for his antagonists, “of this preaching in the fields and
streets? Are there not churches enough to preach in?” “No, my
friend, there are not, not for us to preach in. You forget we are not
suffered to preach there, else we should prefer them to any place
whatever.” “Well, there are ministers enough without you.” “Ministers
enough, and churches enough! For what? To reclaim all the sinners
within the four seas? and one plain reason why these sinners are
never reclaimed is this: they never come into a church. Will you say,
as some tender-hearted Christians I have heard, ‘Then it is their own
fault; let them die and be damned!’ I grant it may be their own fault,
but the Saviour of souls came after us, and so we ought to seek to
save that which is lost.” He went on to confess the irregularity, but
he retorted that those persons who compelled him to be irregular
had no right to censure him for irregularity. “Will they throw a man
into the dirt,” said he, “and beat him because he is dirty? Of all men
living those clergymen ought not to complain who believe I preach
the Gospel; if they will not ask me to preach in their churches, they
are accountable for my preaching in the fields.” This is a fair
illustration of the neat shrewdness, the compact, incisive common
sense of Wesley’s mind. Thus he argued himself into that sphere of
labour which justified him in after years in saying, without any
extravagance, “The world is my parish.”
We have said the Revival became conservative. It is true the
Countess of Huntingdon did much to make it so; but it assumed a
shape of vitality, and a force of coherent strength, chiefly from the
touch of Wesley’s administrative mind. The present City Road
Chapel, which was opened in 1776, opposite Bunhill Fields Burial
Ground, is probably the first illustration of this fact; it stands where
stood the Foundry—time-honoured spot in the history of Methodism.
It stood in Moorfields; the City Road was a mere lane then. The
building had been used by government for casting cannon; it was a
rude ruin. Wesley purchased it and the site at the very
commencement of his work, in 1739; he turned it into a temple. As
the years passed on it became the cradle of London Methodism,
accommodating fifteen hundred people. Until within twenty years of
Wesley’s purchase this had been a kind of Woolwich Arsenal to the
government; it became a temple of peace, and here came “band-
rooms,” school-rooms, book-rooms—the first saplings of Methodist
usefulness.
JOHN WESLEY.
 It has been truly said by a writer in the British Quarterly, that the
most romantic lives of the saints of the Roman Catholic calendar do
not present a more startling succession of incidents than those
which meet us in the life and labours of Wesley. Romish stories claim
that Blessed Raymond, of Pegnafort, spread his cloak upon the sea
to transport him across the water, sailing one hundred and sixty
miles in six hours, and entering his convent through closed doors!
The devout and zealous Francis Xavier spent three whole days in two
different places at the same time, preaching all the while! Rome
shines out in transactions like these: Wesley does not; but he seems
to have been almost ubiquitous, and he moves with a rapidity
reminding us of that flying angel who had the everlasting Gospel to
preach, and he shines alike in his conflicts with nature and the still
wilder tempests caused by the passions of men. We read of his
travelling, through the long wintry hours, two hundred and eighty
miles on horseback, in six days; it was a wonderful feat in those
times. When Wesley first began his itinerancy there were no
turnpikes in the country; but before he closed his career, he had
probably paid more, says Dr. Southey, for turnpikes, than any other
man in England, for no other man in England travelled so much. His
were no pleasant journeys, as of summer days; he travelled through
the fens of Lincolnshire when the waters were out; and over the fells
of Northumberland when they were covered with snow. Speaking of
one tremendous journey, through dreadful weather, he says, “Many
a rough journey have I had before; but one like this I never had,
between wind and hail, and rain, and ice, and snow, and driving
sleet, and piercing cold; but it is past. Those days will return no
more, and are therefore as though they had never been.
“‘And pain, like pleasure, is a dream!’”

How singular was his visit to Epworth, where he found the church
of his childhood, his father’s church, the church of his own first
ministrations, closed against him! The minister of the church was a
drunkard; he had been under great obligations, both to Wesley
himself and to the Wesley family, but he assailed him with the most
offensive brutality; and when Wesley, denied the pulpit, signified his
intention of simply partaking of the Lord’s Supper with the
parishioners on the following Sunday, the coarse man sent word,
“Tell Mr. Wesley I shall not give him the Sacrament, for he is not fit.”
It seems to have cut Mr. Wesley very deeply. “It was fit,” he says,
“that he who repelled me from the table where I had myself so often
distributed the bread of life, should be one who owed his all in this
world to the tender love my father had shown to his, as well as
personally to himself.” He stayed there, however, eight days, and
preached every evening in the churchyard, standing on his father’s
tomb; truly a singular sight, the living son, the prophet of his age,
surely little short of inspired, preaching from his dead father’s grave
with such pathos and power as we may well conceive. “I am well
assured,” he says, “I did far more good to my old Lincolnshire
parishioners by preaching three days on my father’s tomb than I did
by preaching three years in his pulpit!”
 WESLEY PREACHING IN EPWORTH CHURCHYARD.

As he travelled to and fro, odd mistakes sometimes happened.

Arrived at York, he went into the church in St. Saviour’s Gate; the
rector, one Mr. Cordeau, had often warned his congregation against
going to hear “that vagabond Wesley” preach. It was usual in that
day for ministers of the Establishment to wear the cassock or gown,
just as everywhere in France we see the French abbés. Wesley had
on his gown, like a university man in a university town. Mr. Cordeau,
not knowing who he was, offered him his pulpit; Wesley was quite
willing, and always ready. Sermons leaped impromptu from his lips,
and this sermon was an impressive one; at its close the clerk asked
the rector if he knew who the preacher was. “No.” “Why, sir, it was
that vagabond Wesley!” “Ah, indeed!” said the astonished
clergyman; “well, never mind, we have had a good sermon.” The
anecdotes of the incidents which waited upon the preacher in his
travels are of every order of humorous, affecting, and romantic
interest; they are spread over a large variety of volumes, and even
still need to be gathered, framed, and hung in the light of some
effective chronicle.

EPWORTH CHURCH.

The brilliant passage in which Lord Macaulay portrays, as with the

pencil of a Vandyke, the features of the great English Puritans, is
worthy of attention. Perhaps, even had the great essayist attempted
the task, he had scarcely the requisite sympathies to give an
effective portrait or portraits of the early Methodists; indeed, their
characters are different, as different as a portrait from the pencil of
Denner to one from that of Vandyke, or of Velasquez; but as Denner
is wonderful too, although so homely, so the Methodist is a study.
The early Methodist was, perhaps, usually a very simple, what we
should call an ignorant, man, but he had “the true Light which
lighteth every man that cometh into the world.” He was not such an
one as the early Puritan[8] or the ancient Huguenot, those children
of the camp and of the sword, Nonconformist Templars and
Crusaders, whose theology had trained them for the battle-field,
teaching them to frown defiance on kings, and to treat with
contempt the proudest nobles, if they were merely unsanctified men.
The Methodist was not such an one as the stern Ironside of
Cromwell; as he lived in a more cheerful age, so he was the subject
of a more cheerful piety; he was as loyal as he was lowly. He had
been forgotten or neglected by all the priests and Levites of the
land; but a voice had reached him, and raised him to the rank of a
living, conscious, immortal soul. He also was one for whom Christ
died. A new life had created new interests in him; and Christianity,
really believed, does ennoble a man—how can it do otherwise? It
gives self-respect to a man, it shows to him a new purpose and
business in life; moreover, it creates a spirit of holy cheerfulness and
joy; and thus came about that state of mind which Wesley made
subservient to organisation—the necessity for meetings and
reciprocations. It has been said that every church must have some
sign or counter-sign, some symbol to make it popularly successful.
St. Dominic gave to his order the Rosary; John Wesley gave to his
Society the Ticket. There were no chapels, or but few, and none to
open their doors to these strange new pilgrims to the celestial city.
We have seen that the churches were closed against them. Lord
Macaulay says, had John Wesley risen in the Church of Rome, she
would have thrown her arms round him, only regarding him as the
founder of a new order, with certain peculiarities calculated to
increase and to extend her empire, and in due time have given to
him the honours of canonisation.
8. See Appendix A.
The English clergy as a body gathered up their garments and
shrunk from all contact with the Methodists as from a pestilence.
What could be done? Something must be done to prevent them from
falling back into the world. Piety needs habit, and must become
habitual to be safe, even as the fine-twined linen of the veil, and the
ark of the covenant, and the cherubim shadowing the mercy-seat,
were shut in and all their glory defended by the rude coverings of
badger-skins. John Wesley knew that the safety of the converted
would be in frequent meetings for singing and prayer and
conversation. Reciprocation is the soul of Methodism; so they
assembled in each others’ houses, in rude and lonely but convenient
rooms, by farm-house ingles, in lone hamlets. Thus was created a
homely piety, often rugged enough, no doubt, but full of beautiful
and pathetic instincts. So grew what came to be called band-
meetings, class-meetings, love-feasts, and all the innumerable
means by which the Methodist Society worked, until it became like a
wheel within a wheel; simple enough, however, in the days to which
we are referring. “Look to the Lord, and faithfully attend all the
means of grace appointed in the Society.” Such was, practically, the
whole of Methodism. So that famous old lady, whose bright example
has so often been held up on Methodist platforms, when called upon
to state the items of her creed, did so very sufficiently when she
summed it up in the four particulars of “repentance towards God;
faith in the Lord Jesus Christ; a penny a week; and a shilling a
quarter.” Wesley seems to have summed the Methodist creed more
simply still: “Belief in the Lord Jesus Christ, and an earnest desire to
flee from the wrath to come.” This was his condition of Church
fellowship. When the faith became more consciously objective, it too
was seized by the passionate instinct, the desire t o save souls. This
drove the early Methodists out on great occasions to call vast
multitudes together on heaths, on moors. Perhaps—but this was at a
later time—some country gentleman threw open his old hall to the
preachers; though the more aristocratic phase of the Methodist
movement fell into the Calvinistic rather than into the Wesleyan
ranks, and subsided into the organisation of the Countess of
Huntingdon, which was, in fact, a kind of Free Church of England.
The followers of Wesley sought the sequestration of nature, or in
cities and towns they took to the streets or the broad ways and
outlying fields. In some neighbourhoods a little room was built,
containing the germ of what in a few years became a large
Wesleyan Society. The burden of all these meetings, and all their
intercourse, whether in speech or song, was the sweetness and
fulness of Jesus. They had intense faith in the love of God shed
abroad in the heart; and their great interest was in souls on the
brink of perdition. They knew little of spiritual difficulties or
speculative despair; their conflict was with the world, the flesh, and
the devil; and in this person, whose features have lately become
somewhat dim, and who has wrapped himself in a new cloak of
darkness, they did really believe. Wesley dealt with sin as sin, and
with souls as souls; he and his band of preachers had little regard to
proprieties, and it was not a polished time; so, ungraceful and
undignified, the face weary, and the hand heavy with toil, they
seemed out of breath pursuing souls. The strength of all these men
was that they had a definite creed, and they sought to guard it by a
definite Church life. The early Methodist had also cultivated the
mighty instinct of prayer, about which he had no philosophy, but
believing that God heard him, he quite simply indulged in it as a
passion, and in this to him there was at once a meaning and a joy.
We are not under the necessity of vindicating every phase of the
great movement, we are simply writing down some particulars of its
history, and how it was that it grew and prevailed. God’s ministry
goes on by various means, ordinary and extraordinary; that is the
difference between rivers and rains, between dews and lightnings.
A very interesting chapter, perhaps a volume, might be compiled
from the old records of the mere anecdotes—the very humours—of
the persecution attending on the Revival. Thus, in Cornwall, Edward
Greenfield, a tanner, with a wife and seven children, was arrested
under a warrant granted by Dr. Borlase, the eminent antiquary, who
was, however, a bitter foe to Methodism. It was inquired what was
the objection to Greenfield, a peaceable, inoffensive man; and the
answer was, “The man is well enough, but the gentlemen round
about can’t bear his impudence; why, he says he knows his sins are
forgiven!” The story is well known how, in one place, a whole
waggon-load of Methodists were taken before the magistrates; but
when the question was asked in court what they had done, a
profound silence fell over the assembly, for no one was prepared
with a charge against them, till somebody exclaimed, “They
pretended to be better than other people, and prayed from morning
till night!” And another voice shouted out, “And they’ve convarted
my wife; till she went among they, she had a tongue of her own,
and now she’s as quiet as a lamb!” “Take them all back, take them
all back,” said the sensible magistrate, “and let them convert all the
scolds in the town!”
There is a spot in Cornwall which may be said to be consecrated
and set apart to the memory of Wesley; it is in the immediate
neighbourhood of Redruth, a wild, bare, rugged-looking region now,
very suggestive of its savage aspect upwards of a hundred years
since. The spot to which we refer is the Gwennap Pit; it is a wild
amphitheatre, cut out among the hills, capable of holding about
thirty thousand persons. Its natural walls slant upwards, and the
place has altogether wonderful properties for the carrying the
human voice. Wesley began to preach in this spot in 1762. When he
first visited Cornwall, the savage mobs of what used to be called
“West Barbary,” howled and roared upon him like lions or wild
beasts; in his later years of visitation, no emperor or sovereign
prince could have been received with more reverence and affection.
The streets were lined and the windows of the houses thronged with
gazing crowds, to see him as he walked along; and no wonder, for
Cornwall was one of the chief territories of that singular
ecclesiastical kingdom of which he was the founder. When he first
went into Cornwall, it was really a region of savage irreligion and
heathenism. The reader of his life often finds, usually about once a
year, the visit to Gwennap Pit recorded: he preached his first sermon
there, as we have said, in 1762; at the age of eighty-six he preached
his last in 1789. There, from time to time, they poured in from all
the country round to see and to listen to the words of this truly
reverend father.

The Great Revival.

Wesley Preaching in Gwennap Pit.

The traditions of Methodism have few more imposing scenes.

Gwennap Pit was, perhaps, Wesley’s most famous cathedral; a
magnificent church, if we may apply that term to a building of
nature, among the wild moors; it was thronged by hushed and
devout worshippers. Until Wesley went among these people, the
whole immense population might have said, “No man cared for our
souls;” now they poured in to see him there: wild miners from the
immediate neighbourhood, fishermen from the coast, men who until
their conversion had pursued the wrecker’s remorseless and criminal
career, smugglers, more quiet men and their families less savage,
but not less ignorant, from their shieling, or lowly farmstead on the
distant heath. A strange throng, if we think of it, men who had never
used God’s name except in an oath, and who had never breathed a
prayer except for the special providence of a shipwreck, and who
with wicked barbarity had kindled their delusive lights along the
coasts, to fascinate unfortunate ships to the cruel cliffs! But a Divine
power had passed over them, and they were changed, with their
families; and hither they came to gladden the heart of the old
patriarch in the wild glen—a strange spot, and not unbeautiful,
roofed over by the blue heavens. Amidst the broom, the twittering
birds, the heath flower, and the scantling of trees, amidst the
venerable rocks, it must have been wonderful to hear the thirty
thousand voices welling up, and singing Wesley’s words:
“Suffice that for the season past,
Hell’s horrid language filled our tongues;
We all Thy words behind us cast,
And loudly sang the drunkard’s songs.
But, oh, the power of grace Divine!
In hymns we now our voices raise,
Loudly in strange hosannahs join,
While blasphemies are turned to praise!”

Such was one of the triumphs of the Great Revival.

 CHAPTER VI

THE SINGERS OF THE REVIVAL.

Chief of all the auxiliary circumstances which aided the Great

Revival, beyond a question, was this: that it taught the people of
England, for the first time, the real power of sacred song. That man
in the north of England who, when taken, by a companion who had
been converted, to a great Methodist preaching, and being asked at
the close of the service how he had enjoyed it, replied, “Weel, I
didna care sae mich aboot the preaching, but, eh, man! yon ballants
were grand,” was no doubt a representative character. And the great
and subduing power of large bodies of people, moved as with one
heart and one voice, must have greatly aided to produce those
effects which we are attempting to realise. All great national
movements have acknowledged and used the power of song. For
man is a born singer, and if he cannot sing himself he likes to feel
the power of those who can. It has been so in political movements:
there were the songs of the Roundheads and the Cavaliers. And the
greatest religious movements through all the Christian ages have
acknowledged the power of sacred song, even from the days of the
apostles, and from the time of St. Ambrose in Milan. Luther soon
found that he must teach the people to sing. That is a pleasant little
story, how once, as he was sitting at his window, he heard a blind
beggar sing. It was something about the grace of God, and Luther
says the strain brought tears into his eyes. Then, he says, the
thought suddenly flashed into his mind, “If I could only make gospel
songs which people could sing, and which would spread themselves
up and down the cities!” He directly set to work upon this
inspiration, and let fly song after song, each like a lark mounting
towards heaven’s gate, full of New Testament music. “He took care,”
says one writer, in mentioning the incident, “that each song should
have some rememberable word or refrain; such as ‘Jesus,’ ‘Believe
and be saved,’ ‘Come unto Me,’ ‘Gospel,’ ‘Grace,’ ‘Worthy is the
Lamb,’ and so on.”
Until Watts and Doddridge appeared, England had no popular
sacred melodies. Amongst the works of the poets, such as Sir Philip
Sidney, Milton, Sandys, George Herbert, and others, a few were
scattered up and down; but they mostly lacked the subtle element
which constitutes a hymn. For, just as a man may be a great poet,
and utterly fail in the power to write a good song, so a man may be
a great sacred poet, and yet miss the faculty which makes the
hymn-writer. It is singular, it is almost indefinable. The subtle
something which catches the essential elements of a great human
experience, and gives it lyrical expression, takes that which other
men put into creeds, sermons, theological essays, and sets it flying,
as we just now said, like “the lark to heaven’s gate.” It ought never
to be forgotten that Watts was, in fact, the creator of the English
hymn. He wrote many lines which good taste can in no case
approve; but here again the old proverb holds true, “The house that
is building does not look like the house that is built.” And the great
number of following writers, while they have felt the inspiration he
gave to the Church, have moulded their lines by a more fastidious
taste, which, if it has sometimes improved the metre or the
sentiment, has possibly diminished in the strength. We will venture
to say that even now there is a greater average of majesty of
thought and expression in Watts’s hymns than in any other of our
great hymn-writers; although, in some cases, we find here and there
a piece which may equal, and some one or two which are said to
surpass, the flights of the sweet singer of Stoke Newington. But the
hymns of Watts, as a whole, were not so well fitted to a great and
popular revival, to the expression of a tumultuous and passionate
experience, as some we shall notice. They were, as a whole,
especially wanting in the social element, and the finest of them
sound like notes from the harp of some solitary angel. One cannot
give to them the designation which the Wesleys gave to large
sections of their hymns, “suitable for experience meetings.” Praise
rather than experience is the characteristic of Watts, although there
are noble exceptions. Our readers will perhaps remember a well-
known and pleasing instance in a letter from Doddridge to his aged
friend. Doddridge had been preaching on a summer evening in some
plain old village chapel in Northamptonshire, when at the close of
the service was “given out,” as we say, that hymn commencing:
“Give me the wings of faith to rise.”

We can suppose the melody to which it was sung to have been very
rude; but it was, perhaps, new to the people, and the preacher was
affected as he saw how, over the congregation, the people were
singing earnestly, and melted to tears while they sang; and at the
close of the service many old people gathered round Doddridge,
their hearts all alive with the hymn, and they wished it were
possible, only for once, to look upon the face of the dear old Dr.
Watts. Doddridge was so pleased that he thought his old friend
would be pleased also, and so he wrote the account of the little
incident in a letter to him. In many other parts of the country, no
doubt, the people were waiting and wishful for popular sacred
harmonies. And when the Great Revival came, and congregations
met by thousands, and multitudes who had been accustomed to
song, thoughtless, foolish, very often sinful and licentious, still
needed to sing (for song and human nature are inseparable,
apparently, so far as we know anything about it, in the next world as
well as in this), it was necessary that, as they had been “brought up
out of the horrible pit and miry clay,” “a new song of praise” should
be put in the mouth. John Wesley had heard much of Moravian
singing. He took Count Zinzendorf’s hymns, translated them, and
immensely improved them; he was the first who introduced into our
psalmody the noble words of Paul Gerhardt. Some of the finest of all
the hymns in the Wesleyan collection are these translations. Watts
was unsparingly used. Wesley’s first effort to meet this necessity of
the Revival was the publication of his collection in 1739.[9] And
thus, most likely without knowing the anecdote of Luther we have
quoted above, Wesley and his coadjutors did exactly what the
Reformer had done. They gave effect to the Revival by the ordinance
of song, and preached the Gospel in sweet words, and often
recurring Gospel refrains.
9. See Appendix.
The remark is true that there was no art, no splendid form of
worship or ritual; early Methodism and the entire evangelic
movement were as free from all this as Clairvaux in the Valley of
Wormwood, when Bernard ministered there with all his monks
around him, or as Cluny when Bernard de Morlaix chanted his
“Jerusalem the Golden.” Like all great religious movements which
have shaken men’s souls, this was purely spiritual, or if it had a
secular expression it was not artificial. Loud amens resounded as the
preacher spoke or prayed, and then the hearty gushes of, perhaps,
not melodious song united all hearts in some litany or Te Deum in
new-born verse from some of the singers of the last revival.
Amongst infuriated mobs, we read how Wesley found a retreat in
song, and overpowered the multitude with what we, perhaps, should
not regard melody. Thus, when at Bengeworth in 1740, where
Wesley was set upon by a crowd, and it was proposed by one that
they should take him away and duck him, he broke out into singing
with his redoubted friend, Thomas Maxfield. He allowed them to
carry him whither they would; at the bridge end of the street the
mob retreated and left him; but he took his stand on the bridge, and
striking up—
“Angel of God, whate’er betide,
Thy summons I obey,”

preached a useful and effective sermon to hundreds who remained

to listen, from the text, “If God be for us, who can be against us?”
 But the contributions of Watts and Wesley are so well known that
it is more important to notice here that as the Revival moved on,
very soon other remarkable lyrists appeared to contribute, if few, yet
really effective words. Of these none is more remarkable than the
mighty cobbler, Thomas Olivers, a “sturdy Welshman,” as Southey
calls him. He is not to be confounded with John Oliver, also one of
the notabilities of the Revival. Thomas was really an astonishing
trophy of the movement; before his conversion he was a thoroughly
bad fellow, a kind of wandering reprobate, an idle, dissipated man.
He fell beneath the power of Whitefield, whom he heard preach
from the text, “Is not this a brand plucked out of the fire?” He had
made comic songs about Whitefield, and sung them with applause in
tap-rooms. As Whitefield came in his way, he went with the purpose
of obtaining fresh fuel for his ridicule. The heart of the man was
completely broken, and he felt so much compunction for what he
had done against the man for whom he now felt so deep a
reverence and awe, that he used to follow him in the streets, and
though he did not speak to him, he says he could scarcely refrain
from kissing the prints of his footsteps. And now, he says, at the
beginning of his new life, what we can well believe of an imagination
so intense and strong, “I saw God in everything: the heavens, the
earth and all therein showed me something of Him; yea, even from
a drop of water, a blade of grass, or a grain of sand, I received
instruction.” He was about seriously to enter into a settled and
respectable way of business when John Wesley heard of him; and
although he was converted under Whitefield, Wesley persuaded him
to yield himself to his direction for the work of preaching as one of
his itinerant band, and sent him into Cornwall—just the man we
should think for Cornwall, fiery and imaginative: off he went, in
1753. He was born in 1725. He testifies that he was “unable to buy
a horse, so, with my boots on my legs, my great-coat on my back,
and my bag with my books and linen across my shoulders, I set out
for Cornwall on foot.” Henceforth there were forty-six years on earth
before him, during which he witnessed a magnificent confession
before many witnesses. He became one of the foremost
controversialists when dissensions arose among the men of the
Revival. He acquired a knowledge of the languages, especially of
Hebrew, and was a great reader. Wesley appointed him as his editor
and general proofreader; but he could never be taught to punctuate
properly, and the punctilious Wesley could not tolerate his
inaccuracies as they slipped through the proof, so he did not retain
this post long. But Wesley loved him, and in 1799 he descended into
Wesley’s own tomb, and his remains lie there, in the cemetery of the
City Road Chapel. He wrote more prose than poetry; but, like St.
Ambrose, he is made immortal by a single hymn. He is the author of
one of the most majestic hymns in all hymnology. Byron and Scott
wrote Hebrew melodies, but they will not bear comparison with this
one. While in London upon one occasion, he went into the Jewish
synagogue, and he heard sung there by a rabbi, Dr. Leoni, an old air,
a melody which so enchanted him and fixed itself in his memory,
that he went home, and instantly produced what he called “a hymn
to the God of Abraham,” arranged to the air he had heard. And thus
we possess that which we so frequently sing,
“The God of Abraham praise!”[10]

It is principally known by its first four verses; there are twelve.

“There is not,” says James Montgomery, “in our language a lyric of
more majestic style, more elevated thought, or more glorious
imagery; * * * like a stately pile of architecture, severe and simple in
design; it strikes less on the first view than after deliberate
examination, * * * the mind itself grows greater in contemplating
it;” and he continues, “On account of the peculiarity of the measure,
none but a person of equal musical and poetical taste could have
produced the harmony perceptible in the verse.” There will, perhaps,
always be a doubt whether Olivers was the author of the hymn,
“Lo! He comes with clouds descending.”

If Charles Wesley were the author, he undoubtedly derived the

inspiration of the piece from Olivers’ hymn, “The Last
Judgment:”[11] it is in the same metre, and probably Wesley took
the thought and the metre, and adapted it to popular service. What
is undoubted is that Olivers, who is the author of the metre, is also
the author of the fine old tune “Helmsley,” to which the hymn was
usually sung until quite recent times; the tune was originally called
“Olivers.”
10. See Appendix

11. See Appendix

It is but a natural step from Thomas Olivers to his great
antagonist, Augustus Toplady; he also is made immortal by a hymn.
He wrote many fine ones, full of melody, pathos, and affecting
imagery. Toplady, as all our readers know, was a clergyman, the
Vicar of Broad Hembury, in Devonshire. He took the strong
Calvinistic side in the controversies which arose in the course of the
Great Revival; Olivers took the strong Arminian side. They were not
very civil to each other; and the scholarly clergyman no doubt felt
his dignity somewhat hurt by the rugged contact with the cobbler;
but the quarrels are forgotten now, and there is scarcely a hymn-
book in which the hymn of Olivers is not found within a few pages of
“Rock of Ages, cleft for me!”

To this hymn has been given almost universally the palm as the
finest hymn in our language. Where there are so many, at once
deeply expressive in experience, and subdued and elevated in
feeling, we perhaps may be forgiven if we hesitate before praise so
eminently high. Mr. Gladstone’s translation into the Latin, in the
estimation of eminent scholars, even carries a more thrilling and
penetrative awe.[12] But Toplady wrote many other hymns quite
equal in pathos and poetic merit. The characteristic of “Rock of
Ages” is its depth of penitential devotion. A volume might be written
on the history of this expressive hymn. Innumerable are the
multitudes whom these words have sustained when dying; they
were among the last which lingered on the lips of Prince Albert as he
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