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The Crust beneath Morocco: From the Surface Topography to the Upper
Mantle a 700 km long Seismic Section Across Morocco

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 Bulletin d’Information
de l’Académie Hassan II n°17
des Sciences et Techniques
juin 2015

«Servir le pays et contribuer au développement de la science mondiale»

Sa Majesté Le Roi Mohammed VI.
(Extrait du discours d’installation de l’Académie Hassan II des Sciences et Techniques, 18 mai 2006)

Périodique semestriel d’information et de communication de l’Académie

Session Ple
nie
re Solennelle 2015

Risques naturels: séismes, ondes de tempête,

phénomènes climatiques extrêmes
 Bulletin d’Information de l’Académie Hassan II des Sciences et Techniques n°17

The Crust beneath Morocco: From the Surface

Topography to the Upper Mantle a 700 km
long Seismic Section Across Morocco
Ramon Carbonell¹, J. Díaz¹, Mimoun Harnafi², Ahmed El Hassani², P. Ayarza3, A. Gil¹, Josep
Gallart¹, M. orne¹ F. Mancilla4, . Palomeras5, A. Levander5
(1) CSIC-Inst. Earth Sciences Jaume Almera, Lluı́s Solé I Sabarı́s s/n, Barcelona, Spain
(2) Institute Scientique, Univ. Mohammed V., Rabat, Morocco
(3) Univ. of Salamanca, Spain. (4) Univ. of Granada, Spain. (5) Rice University, Houston, TX, USA

Abstract experiments consisted on a transect from Merzouga

acrosstheGibraltarArcandintotheIberianPeninsula
The most characteristic topographic features of (until south of Toledo) and, a nearly regular grid of
Morocco are the Atlas Mountains and the Rif BB. The controlled source data-sets were able to
Coordillera. These two orogenic belts are the constrain the crustal structure and provide seismic
response of different geodynamic processes acting P-wave propagation velocity models from the coast
at lithospheric scale caused by a complex plate across the Rif and the Atlas. From south to north
interaction. Both are located within the diffuse the crust features a relatively moderate crustal
plate boundary zone separating Africa and Europe. root beneath the Middle Atlas which can reach
The boundary zone is characterized by a relatively 40 km clearly differing from the 35 km thickness
broad zone of deformation that includes mountain value observed at both sides of this root. Travel
chains in southern Iberia, the Betics and in Morocco, time inversion results position the crustal root just
the Rif Cordillera, separated by the Alboran basin. south of the High Atlas defining a thrusted mantle
The zone delineates an arcuate arc system known wedge and, also a limited crustal imbrication is
as the Gibraltar arc. The area is characterized by suggested in the Middle Atlas. The most surprising
a relatively large amount of earthquake activity feature is a prominent and unexpected crustal root
at various depths and with a broad spectra of (over 50 km) located beneath the external Rif and
focal mechanisms. Within the last decade a large identified by both the wide-angle data and receiver
internationalefforthavebeendevotedtothearea.The function studies. To the east of this feature the crust
topic has fostered a strong collaborations between thins rapidly by 20 km across the Nekkor fault
Spanish and international research teams form zone, suggested to be related to the sharp change
Europe and USA. Key multi-seismic projects have in crustal thickness. On shore-offshore recording
been developed that aim to constrain the structure, of marine shots reveal further complexities in the
composition and tectonic scenario from south of transition to the Alboran basin. The low values
the Atlas to the Betics, across the Rif cordillera and of the Bouguer gravity anomalies beneath the Rif
the Alboran basin. The multidisciplinary research Cordillera are consistent with the crustal models
program included: natural source (earthquakes) derived from the new seismic data. The detailed
recording with temporal deployments of broad knowledge on the crustal structure achieved by this
band (BB) instrumentation and, controlled source high resolution imaging geophysical techniques is
seismic acquisition experiments where, spatially an asset to evaluate the earthquake and potential
dense recording of wide-angle seismic reflection tsunami hazard for the coasts of North Africa and
shot gathers were acquired. The natural source western Europe.

1- Introduction Africa and Eurasia (Fig. 1). This area of the western
Mediterranean, includes the westernmost range of
The Gibraltar Arc the Alpine-Himalayan system, the orogens of the
constitutes the Betic and Rif. These are considered to be part of the
western tip of the same orogen curved around the Alboran back-arc
Mediterranean which extensional basin (Fig. 1). The surface geology has
marks the vertex of suggested a number of relatively different tectonic
the closure of the models (Platt et al., 2013). Since the Miocene, the
Thetis. This feature is broad region extending from the Atlas Mountains
part of a broad and in the South, in Morocco, to the Betic Mountains
diffuse deformation or even perhaps to the Central Iberian system in
zone caused by the the North (Iberia Peninsula) has been affected by
collision between two the oblique collision process resulting from the
continental masses Africa-Eurasia convergence. For the last decade

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 juin 2015

the area has attracted the attention of the Earth crustal structure of Morocco from the South,
Science community as a relevant effort has been beneath the Atlas to the North Beneath the Rif
dedicated to the area with the development of a (Fig. 1). The crustal thickness and the topography
large number of international research projects. of the crust-mantle boundary were important
targets to unravel, as very few data were available
The earthquake activity in the region is frequent so far. These were the main objectives of projects
and relatively strong, it is distributed (Fig. 1) in based on control source seismic exploration
the wide deformation zone and/or diffuse plate carried out during the last few years. These are:
boundary. The continental collision zone has the SIMA project across the Atlas Mountains
been referred by different authors as the Azores- (Seismic Imaging of the Moroccan Atlas; Ayarza
Gibraltar-Alboran plate boundary (Udias et al., et al., 2014); the RIFSIS sampling the Rif orogen
1976; Buforn et al., 1988; Jimenez-Munt et al., (Seismic Investigations across the Rif; Gallart et
2011; among others). This earthquake activity is al., 2012), and the GASSIS-WestMed (Gràcia
evidenced by the occurrence of many historical et al., 2012) sampling the Alboran Basin. Note
tsunami events that affected the Western coasts that, an additional coordination effort was carried
of Morocco and Iberia. History documents for out between the latter two projects resulting in
example the strong events of 60-63 BC, which the acquisition of piggy-back onshore-offshore
destroyed Cadiz, the 1531, 1722 and the 1755 wide-angle recordings. This contribution aims to
Lisbon earthquake. The latter was the largest and summaries the new knowledge and unexpected
generated anomalously high sea waves that cause ndings derived from this international collaboration
a lot of damage on the coasts of Morocco and efforts. Special emphasis is devoted to the research
Iberia (Simoes et al., 1992; Batista et a.l, 1998). that mobilized over a 100 multinational researchers
The seismogenic zone is relatively broad band as in an unprecedented cooperation effort during the
suggested by the scattered number of hypocenters development of the control source seismic projects.
spanning in depth from shallow to some 100km.
The focal mechanisms reveal an overall NNW-SSE 2 - Te c t o n i c , G e o l o g i c & G e o p h y s i c
trending compressional stress regime. However, Framework
in detail these mechanism vary. The area, from
the tectonic point of view is characterized by a The conguration of the Western Mediterranean
number of compressional structures, that affect and as a result its topographic relief is, to a major
both the continental margins and the oceanic crust. degree, the result of an ongoing slow oblique
These structures that affect a wide sector were collision between African and European plates.
formed by the convergent motion since Cenozoic This convergence is active since the Cretaceous.
times, some can be considered the result of the The broad deformation zone includes from South
inversion of previous extensional features. The to North the mountain chains of: The Atlas and
area is a geologic and structurally complex and, The Rif, in Morocco, and, The Betic in the Iberia
intriguing, furthermore, it is a broadly recognized Peninsula. The latter two jointly feature a horseshoe
as a seismogenic zone. shape, the Gibraltar Arc, around the Alboran basin.

Although the area has been the research topic of The Atlas Mountains form an intra-continental
a large number of studies resulting in a variety asymmetric orogenic system almost 2000km
of geodynamic ideas and models [see Plat et al., long. It can be traced (west-east) from the Atlantic
2013 for a review] it has not been until recently coast in Morocco to the Mediterranean coast in
that a detailed and integrated scientic program Tunisia (Fig. 1). They include the High and Middle
has been carried out. The research programme Atlas in Morocco, Saharan Atlas and Aurès
beneted from the very strong collaboration Mountains in Algeria, and Tunisian Atlas in Tunisia.
between Moroccan and Spanish research groups The asymmetry is marked by the existence of the
as well as research teams from USA, Ireland and Mesetas (Moroccan and Oran) in the western
Germany. This major effort aimed to acquire a part of the belt mostly revealed by tabular nearly
variety of new geophysical data (including natural undeformed domains. The Atlas can be considered
and control source seismic recording, potential an uplift, a structural inversion of Triassic-Jurassic
eld (Gravity, magnetotellurics, geology, etc) rift grabens associated to the opening of the
with an unprecedented resolution. The initiative Atlantic and the Alpine Tethys [e.g., Frizon de
included a series of large scale research projects Lamotte et al., 2008, and references therein].
as Topo-Iberia (Dı́az et al., 2009) and PICASSO Relatively small shortening is accumulated across
(Program to Investigate Convective Alboran Sea the belt. Shortening estimates of 15–30% have
System Overturn) A key issue was to ll in the been reported for the High Atlas [Beauchamp et
missing knowledge specially constrain the seismic al., 1999; Teixell et al., 2003] and 10% or lower

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 Bulletin d’Information de l’Académie Hassan II des Sciences et Techniques n°17

for the Middle Atlas [Gomez et al., 1998; Frizon two young upwarps that locally reach elevations
de Lamotte et al., 2009; Teixell et al., 2009]. For of 2000 m the Anti Atlas and the Morocan
an intra-continental orogenic belt the relatively Meseta. These also feature little deformation of
small shortening estimates in the High Atlas are Cenozoic age. The Moroccan Meseta, and the
inconsistent with the topographic elevation which Anti-Atlas are located on the northern edge of the
in this area can reach over 4000m. This is not the West African Craton [Hefferan et al., 2000; Ennih
case for the eastern Atlas (Sahara and Tunisian and Liegeois, 2001]. Taking into account that the
Atlas Aureas Mountain where the elevations are entire orogen features similar crustal thickness
more moderate. The available geophysics suggest and a unique geologic history [Frizon de Lamotte
that crustal thickness of the Moroccan and Eastern et al., 2009] this suggests that some other factor,
Atlas are similar. Therefore, additional factors a mantle component, is required to contribute to
are needed to account for the high elevations the buoyancy to maintain this topographic prole
of the Moroccan Atlas [Ayarza et al., 2005]. [Ayarza et al., 2005; Teixell et al., 2005; Missenard
Furthermore, the Moroccan Atlas are anked by et al., 2006; Frizon de Lamotte et al., 2009].

Figure 1. Location of the study area, southern Iberia peninsula and Morocco in northern Africa, geology and
geodynamic setting. (a) Sketch map of the Iberian Peninsula, southern part, and Morocco with the location of the
most signicant geologic domains, the Atlas in the South the Rif with the horseshoe shape of the Gibraltar arc and
the location of the Trans-Alboran Shear Zone (TAZS) obliquely crossing the Alboran basin. This map also reveals
the topography. (b) Map of the study area revealing the distributions of the broad-band (BB) seismic stations
in the Iberia Peninsusla and Morocco. Note that the grid of stations, backbone of BB feature an, approximately
60x60 km grid. (c) The abundant seismicity of the area, separated by depth, earthquakes located within the crust
avice 40 km (black lled circles) and the earthquakes located at greater depth (white circles) in the study area.
This reveals the relatively large amount of seismic activity of the area.

Volcanic activity has been widespread in the units are also found in the Alboran basin, Southern
Atlas. The oldest extrusives, found in the High Iberia, and North Africa. The composition of these
Atlas, are basalts associated with Mesozoic rifting. units changes in time and space from calc-alkaline
Paleogene to Quaternary alkaline basalts erupted in southern Spain and the Alboran Sea during the
in the Middle Atlas and along the southern Miocene, to alkali basalts in North Africa during the
border of the Western High Atlas. Middle and Pliocene and Quaternary [Duggen et al., 2004]. In
Late Miocene, Pliocene, and Quaternary volcanic the Iberian Massif of central Spain, Late Miocene-

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 juin 2015

Quaternary volcanics created the Calatrava In Early-Middle Miocene, after crustal thickening
Volcanic Province (Ciudad Real), intracontinental and metamorphism, the region began to undergo
volcanism that has been related to extensional EW to NE-SW extension, thinning the continental
tectonics [Lopez-Ruiz et al., 1993]. crust along normal faults and forming the Alboran
Basin [Chalouan et al., 2008]. The basin has
The Rif Mountains in Morocco together with the thick Neogene material that overly deep crustal
Betic Mountains in Iberia peninsula form the rocks, most probably of the Sebtides-Alpujarride
westernmost Mediterranean Alpine belt, the complex. Since the Late Miocene, compression
Gibraltar Arc. It is a horseshoe shaped belt that developed large folds and reverse faulting in the
partially encircles a deep sedimentary basin over mountain front, and normal faults within the upper
the extended crust of the Alboran Sea. They crust of the Internal Zones, resulting in the current
all developed roughly synchronously with the topographic relief of Rif.
orogenic belt during the Miocene [Verges and
Fernandez, 2012; Platt et al., 2013]. Three different A singular feature across the Alboran Basin, a
geologic domains can be distinguished in the Rif major bathymetric high runs obliquely from the
and Betic Mountains (Fig. 1): the Flysch Domain, northeast, the eastern Betics, to the Alhoceima
the Internal Zone, and the External Zone. The region this is known as the Trans-Alboran Shear
Internal zones are formed by Paleozoic, Mesozoic Zone (TASZ). This is a broad fracture zone,
and Cenozoic sequences, including metamorphic composed of different left-lateral strike-slip fault
complexes all affected by Alpine deformation segments that extends onshore at both sides of the
since the Eocene-Late Oligocene [Chalouan et al., basin with the development of an analog system
2001, 2008]. In the Rif the External Zones feature of left-lateral strike-slip faults. In Iberia the Alhama
carbonate and pelitic Mesozoic and Cenozoic de Murcia and Carboneras faults are possibly part
units, mostly limestone and marls. They constitute of this system and in Morocco the Nekkor and
a fold-and-thrust belt detached along Late Triassic associated faults. The TSAZ accommodates the
evaporite beds above the thinned continental crust escape of Central Rif toward the SW [Perouse et
of the North Africa passive margin [Wildi, 1983; al., 2010] and affects the Neogene basins of the
Chalouan et al., 2008]. The Flysch units consists region [Udıas and Buforn, 1992; Martınez-Dıaz
of Cretaceous-Lower Miocene detrital rocks. et al., 2001]. Perhaps one of the most seismically
They overthrust the External Rif units and include active areas in Morocco is the Nekkor fault, it is
klippes located on the Internal Zones [Chalouan et linked to the normal faults beneath Alhoceimas
al., 1995, 2008]. The Internal Zones, jointly with region [Booth-Rea et al., 2012]. More detailed
the Alboran Sea crust, are termed the Alboran descriptions of the geology of the Gibraltar Arc
Domain, an allochthonous unit that separated can be found elsewhere [e.g., Chalouan et al.,
from the eastern Iberian margin and drifted to 2008; Platt et al., 2013, and references therein].
its current position during Cenozoic subduction
rollback [e.g., Rosenbaum et al., 2002]. Well know Previous geophysics constrain the crustal thickness
Peridotitic bodies outcrop along the eastern ank to 30 km beneath the Gharb Basin [Hatzfeld and
of the Gibraltar Arc, the Ronda in Spain and Beni- Bensari, 1977]. Beneath the Alboran Sea seismic
Bousera in Morocco. data constrained depth to the Moho of 18-20 km
beneath the central part of the basin and, beneath
The Gharb (or Rharb) and Guadalquivir basins are the southernmost Rif thicknesses of 35 km were
the associated foreland basins in Morocco and determined from refraction recordings of quarry
Spain, respectively. The former is a foredeep blasts [Wigger et al. 1992]. Integrated potential
separating the Rif belt from the Moroccan Meseta eld methods (including modeling and inversion)
and Middle Atlas. This basin contains part of by various authors constrained the crustal thickness
the Prerif nappe underlying a large amount of to a moderately thick crust underneath the Rif and
continental sediments, that reach a maximum Betics (32–34 km), and a thin continental crust
depth of 8 km toward the west [Had et al., (18–22 km) beneath the Alboran basin [Torne et
2008]. It was moreover lled with sediments of al. 2000; Frizon de Lamotte et al., 2004; Zeyen
marine origin during the Tertiary and continental et al., 2005 Fullea et al., 2010, 2014]. This basin
formations during the Quaternary, except for a progressively thins toward the east, reaching
coastal fringe [Had et al., 2008]. The Gharb Basin, values bellow 16 km depth at the transition to the
like its counterpart in the Iberian Peninsula (the Algerian basin. Onshore within Morocco, crustal
Guadalquivir Basin), evolved as a foreland basin as thickness increases to 38 km below the highest
the basement was loaded by the thrust sheets of elevations of the High Atlas, then it decreases to
the External Units [Fernandez et al., 1998; Garcia- the southeast to 30–32 km. It is important to point
Castellanos, 2002] during the Miocene. out that a three major Bouguer gravity anomalies

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 Bulletin d’Information de l’Académie Hassan II des Sciences et Techniques n°17

can be identied, all of them with similar values, geophysics, geodesy and geotechnology. The
these are located, one in the High Atlas, a secod in research team was very aware that the knowledge
the Rif and the third in the highest topography of on the relief changes and its causes is of great
the Betic Mountains. Although, with similar values, social impact concerning the climate change and
the expected crustal thicknesses is, probably, very the evaluation of natural resources and hazards.
different between them. The seismic part of this mega-initiative involved
the deployment of a back-bone of broad-band
A laterally heterogeneous upper crust characterized (BBB) auntonomous seismic station distributed
by resistive and conductive bodies has been within a grid, similarly to what EAR THSCOPE
determined by a Magnetotelluric (MT) NW-SE was developing in USA. The Spanish research
oriented traverse across the Rif [Anahnah et al., group gor support form the Spanish institutions
2011]. In the uppermost crust (10km) resistive to extend the BBB over to Moroccan teritory. This
anomalies have been imaged within the Internal was possible by the invaluable colaboration of the
Zones, and conductive anomalies within the Moroccan colleagues of the Institute Scientique
External Zones and foreland basin. Their variable of the Universite Mohammed V at Rabat. An
thicknesses suggest basement highs possibly nearly 60 x 60 km array was installed in Morocco
related to blind frontal thrusts between the Gharb covering the Rif orogen.
Basin and the External Zones. A major crustal
decollement separates the shallow geological The PICASSO initiative aimed to increase the BBB
units from the probable Variscan basement. At coverage in the area close to the Gribraltar Arc
depths below 5 km, a high resistivity anomaly in Morocco and in Spain to an average spacing
appears below the frontal part of the Rif. The MT of 5x5 km (Fig. 1). Instrumentation from different
image across the southern Rif reveals a wide institutions in USA (including instruments from the
and thin low resistivity anomaly which could be IRIS-PASSCAL Instrument center) were deployed
associated to detrital rocks that alternate with marl to achieve this dense coverage. Constraints on
and carbonates [Anahnah et al., 2011]. the crustal structure were a key target to be able
to develop full scale geodynamic models for the
Constraints on the convergence rate and directions tectonic evolution of the area, as well as to be able to
are provided by GPS measurements from rene the velocity models derived from teleseismic
permanent and temporary deployments [Fadil et tomography. An importan and crucial target was
al., 2006; Vernant et al., 2010; Koulali et al., 2011]. the crustal thickness. To achive constraints on the
Eurasian convergence relative to Africa trended crustal structure, three major control source seismic
south during the Late Cretaceous-Paleogene, data acquisition projects were launched. These
and has trended southeast oblique to the African were: the SIMA project across the Atlas Mountains;
margin from the Miocene. The present-day tectonic the RIFSIS to characterize the Rif orogen, and the
motions show south to southeast motion at 5 mm/ GASSIS-WestMed to address the structure of the
yr of the Rif region relative to stable Nubia. Alboran Basin and its margins.
3. Integrated Seismic Projects: Experiments The structure of the Atlas Mountains was targeted
Setup & Data by the almost 700 km SIMA traverse (Fig. 2). Along
The strong Moroccan & Spanish collaboration the prole the energy released by six explosions
was established within the framework of the was recorded by 939 Reftek 125a stations (Texans)
PICASSO research initiative. This represented from the IRIS instrument pool (Fig. 3). This vertical
an effort developed in parallel with the Spanish component seismic stations were deployed
TOPOIBERIA research project. TOPOIBERIA was a between Tanger and the Sahara desert, with an
multi-institutional effort a singular project within average spacing of 400 m from the S of Fes to
Earth Sciences in Spain. It involved more than 100 Merzouga and with a 1000 m spacing from Fes
Earth scientists from 10 different research groups to Tanger. The shots were distributed between
within the country, all doing coordinated research the rst one located a few kilometres north of the
aimed to establish an integrated framework to Middle Atlas and the last one located just south
develop multidisciplinary geoscientic studies of Merzouga, with an average spacing of 70 km
within the Iberian peninsula. In the project between each of them. The charge (approximately
innovative, frontier research on its topography 1 TM) was distributed in 2–4 boreholes per shot
and 4-D geodynamic evolution. The objective of point at depths of 30-to-60 m. The quality of the
TOPOIBERIA was to understand the interaction data varies along the prole [Ayarza et al., 2014].
between deep, superficial and atmospheric The RIFSIS experiment consisted in two wide-
processes, integrating research on geology, angle seismic reflection profiles oriented,

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 juin 2015

approximately, EW and NS (330 km-long and desert into southernmost Iberia. As in the SIMA
430 km-long, respectively) (Fig. 3). The design acquisition the 5 sources consisted of 1Tn of
follows the overall Rif strike and dip directions chemical explosives in 2 boreholes. The shots were
and conform to the major and minor axes of the recorded by the IRIS-PASSCAL Texans (almost
shape of the Bouguer anomaly. The EW transect 900 instruments). Up to 402 seismographs were
extends from the Gharb Basin to the Algerian deployed along the EW prole and 443 along
border. The NS line follows the trace of the SIMIA the NS prole including 35 in Spain. The average
prole, starting at the Middle Atlas, en extends to receiver spacing was of 750 m. Shots R1 through
the north 70km into Iberia resulting in a unique R3 where located along the NS line, and R3–R5
700km-long traverse from the northern Sahara were along the EW line (Fig. 3).

Figure 2. Sketch map of the trace of the SIMA controlled source experiment. This is a 700 km long transect
that starts close to Merzouga, north od the Saharan craton and goes acros the Atlas mountains follwing a major
communitarian route (road). The transect crosses the Middle Atlas the Rif and ends a the tip of the Gribraltar arc.
This gure also shoes the most prominent geodynamic features including the surface trace of the major fault
structures and surface morfologies, like the moroccan Mesetam the Atlas, the Anti-Atlas, Middle Atlas and the Rif.

The GASSIS-WestMed targeted the active faults in crustal structure of seismogenic/active faults and
the Alboran basin as these broad fracture zones are fractures and, evaluate their seismic potential
the key structures that accommodate the crustal which can represent a signicant earthquake
deformation due to the NW-SE convergence and potential tsunami hazard for the coasts of
(4.5-5.6 mm/yr) between the African and Morocco and Southern Iberia. The program
Eurasian plates. Stuctures like the TASZ consist included seismic reection traverses across the
on extensional, compressive and large strike-slip southern terminations of the Eastern Betic Shear
faults with signicant seismic activity SE of the Zone at sea, such as the left-lateral Carboneras and
Iberian Peninsula. The seismicity is characterized Al-Idrissi faults and, the associated structures (e.g.
by continuous, shallow seismic events of low to the dextral usuf fault). The prominent Alboran
moderate magnitude (Mw < 5.5) although, large Ridge, a large compressional and potentially
destructive earthquakes (MSK Intensity IX-X) have tsunamigenic structure was also an objective of
also occurred in the region (e.g. 1522 Almeria, GASSIS. Other proles sampled the extensional
1910 Adra, 1994 and 2004 Al-Hoceima). The features in the Adra region, (an example of fault
main objectives of the multichannel marine growth and linkage).
acquisition was to determine the shallow and

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 Bulletin d’Information de l’Académie Hassan II des Sciences et Techniques n°17

Figure 3. Acquisition geometry of the RIFSIS controlled source wide-angle seismic reection experiment acquired
acrossthe Rif moutnains. Two nearly perpendicular transects, roughtly oriented NS and EW were acquires. (a)
Reveals the positions of the transects with respect to the Bouguer gravity anomalies. Note that both transects
nearly intersect ontop of the Bouguer gravity minima. (b) Reveals the geometry and location of the acquisition
transects with respect to the topography. This transects correpond to the location of the receivers (over 900
TEXANS from the IRIS-PASSCAL (USA) instrument center. (b) Also reveals the location and geometry of the CDP’s
estimated from the midpoints of the wide-angle shot records. Mid point between the source location and receiver
location. Note that the gravity anomalie can be imaged bu two transects. The location and geometry of the 3 lines
of the marine seismic reection data acquisition of the GASIS project that were also recorded by land instruments
are also displayed. The mid points of the wide-angle offshore-onshore recordings are also marked.
R1, R2, R3, R4, R5 refer to the location of the shot points.

Figure 4. Vp seismic velocity model derived from the wide-angle shot records acquired during the SIMA seismic
experiment acros the Atlas. This cross-section reveals the distribution of the seismic velocities as well as an overlay
of the MT (resistivity models by Anahnah et al., [2011]). It is important to point out the low resitivity anomaly the
overlays the root zone to the north of the High Atlas. This MT anomaly closely overlaps with the estimated trace
of the reactivated faults of the original agraven, rif structure. Note also the relatively large amount of earquakes
foci concentrated within the crust to the north of the root zone. The velocity models clearly markes the surface
expresion of the deep basins such as the Saiss Basin. Stars along the surface of the velocity model indicate the
position of the shot points. The discontinious soth dipping line that outcrops between the Saiss Basin and the Rif
marks the end of the well resolved model determmined from the SIMA project. The root zone imaged to the north
is constrained from the RIFSIS dataset (Ayarza et al., 2013).

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 juin 2015

4. Seismic Constraints on the Crust & modeled to the N of the highest topography,
Lithospheric structure coinciding with the minimum Bouguer anomaly
values. The root is most probably the result of
The multi-seismic data acquisition has resulted in a crustal NW-dipping thrust-fault that offsets
a large data volume which can be analyzed using the Moho and under-thrusts the Sahara lower
a variety of approaches, techniques. Details on the crust to the N (Fig. 4). This structure would be
individual analysis, methods and interpretations similar to other inverted continental rifts like the
of these dataset either have been developed and Pyrenees [Beaumont et al., 2000; Choukroune
published and//or the most new approaches are and Team, 1989; Daignieres et al., 1994; Teixell,
on the processes of being published [Bezada 1998] or the Donbas fold belt [Maystrenko et al.,
et al., 2013; Ayarza et al., 2014; Palomeras et 2003], which show thrust offsets of the lower
al., 2014; Thurner et al, 2014; Levander et al., crust and Moho. Some characteristics of the
2014; Gil et al; 2014, among others]. Therefore, Atlas root constrained by the Vp velocity model
within this section a relatively short summary of indicate a positive lateral gradient towards the
the main results is being developed. The section north with velocities approaching those of the
is separated in two parts one considering the mantle revealing an under-thrust of the lower
controlled source seismic data and a second crustal which can be estimated to be on the order
centered on the natural source, earthquake of 30 km in length. This is on the order of the
recordings. The former have been processed and estimated shortening [Teixell et al., 2003, Ayarza
interpreted using conventional ray-tracing and et al., 2013]. Perhaps the key structural feature
iterative modeling of travel time of interpreted that denes the Atlas root is the still tectonically
reections. The latter has involved nite frequency active South Atlas frontal thrust which overlaps
tomography of surface waves, of body waves and a low resistivity anomaly in the MT models
receiver function analysis. [Schwarz et al., 1992]. Note that this structure
has most probably accommodated the Cenozoic
4.1 Control Source Seismic Reflections
shortening [Sebrier et al., 2006] and coincides
Constraints
with the location of the seismicity.
The control source seismic reection data acquired
Following the transect to the North just after the
within SIMA and RIFSIS consists on densely space
root the crust is about 35 km thick across the
wide-angle seismic reection records. In all shot
Middle Atlas and the southern part of the External
gathers traces are spaced less than 1 km thus
Rif domain. One of the most spectacular features
providing a relatively high lateral resolution.
imaged by the RIFSIS transect across the Rif is the
This type of data can be processed using several
unexpected and approximately 50 km deep crustal
different approaches. These include: conventional
root beneath a topography that does not reach 1.5
iterative trial-and-error forward modeling by ray
km in height (External Rif). The increase in crustal
tracing [Zelt and Smith, 1992]; inversion of rst
thickness is identied by two shot records (R3 and
arrival travel times; low fold stacking; depth
R4) (Fig. 5). Both shots reveals a high amplitude
migration. The former two provide maps of the
PmP phase. Travel time tting requires this
distribution of physical properties (Vp and Vs if
notable increase in crustal thickness. Further to the
possible), the latter two provide low resolution
north the rst shot record (R1) retrieves the base
structural images. For detail processing and the
of the crust at an average depth of 42-43 beneath
interpretation of the SIMA wide-angle seismic
the Internal Rif domain (Fig. 5). The sedimentary
reection data see Ayarza et al., [2014] and for
basins are image as relatively low seismic Vp
the RIFSIS see Gil et al., [2014].
velocities on the order of 3 km/s. Note that R3
The crustal section across the Atlas is imbricated, is located on a relatively thick (5.0 km) Neogene
develops a root slightly N of the Axis of the High sedimentary basin. Along the transect the upper,
Atlas axis. The maximum depth of the Moho across middle and lower crusts are constrained by the
the Atlas reaches 40–41 km, and its position is different seismic arrivals (including refracted and
displaced to the North of the highest topography reected phases, labeled accordingly --Pg, PiP,
of the High Atlas. Ayarza el al. [2005] already PcP, PmP--). The overall average velocities within
suggested this geometric location differences the crust are 5.9, 6.2, 6.8 and 8 km/s for the upper
between the deepest Moho and the highest mantle (below the Moho).
topography from the analysis and modeling of
Very marked lateral variations of the Structure
gravity data. The trend of the Bouguer anomaly
Beneath the External Rif Domain are imaged by
(NE–SW) is oblique to that of the High Atlas
the East-West transect from the Gharb Basin to the
(ENE–WSW) thus the High Atlas root has been
Algerian Border (Fig. 5). The bottom of the deep

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 Bulletin d’Information de l’Académie Hassan II des Sciences et Techniques n°17

Gharb Basin is identied at 10 km depth by shot available data. Further high resolution studies are
R3 recorded along the EW deployment. The basin required to address this issue.
itself is mapped as a low velocity anomaly in the
Vp velocity model. In the EW direction the crustal 4.2 Analysis of the Natural Source Data
thickness increases laterally reaching a maximum (Earthquake)
depth over 50 km located closely beneath shot The analysis and inversion of the Surface waves
R4. This shot reveals a travel time difference reveals that the Iberian Massif and the Moroccan
between the east and western branches of the Meseta feature similar velocity structure. 3.5 km/s at
PmP arrival of almost 5 s. The anomalous increase the mid-crustal depths from 15 km, approximately,
of crustal thickness is very well constrained as it until the Moho then, a sharp increase to 4.3 km/s
is sampled in both directions (reverse coverage is identied. This velocity increases to values over
using shots R3 and R4). Further to the east the 4.4 km/s between 55-75 km depth decreasing
crust is only approximately 29-30 km in thickness. back to 4.3 km/s at 110-120 km. The eastern and
The relatively thin crust corresponds to the crust western Alboran Sea can be differentiated in terms
beneath the foreland ant Atlasic terranes up to of S velocities. Down to 20 km low velocities
the Algerian border. The change in thickness is approaching 3.2 km/s are mapped. Beneath the
rather sharp and is located beneath the surface east Alboran velocities increase sharply to values
expression of the Nekkor fault/TASZ and, it over 4.1 km/s increasing steadily with depth
corresponds to the eastern end of the Bouguer and at 90 km depth S velocity reaches 4.5 km/s.
gravity anomaly over the Rif. If this two structural Beneath the western Alboran velocity increases
features, sharp crustal thinning and the surface to 4.0 km/s at 20 km depth, then at 40 km depth
outcrop of the Nekkor fault/TASZ are related is it decreases down to 3.9 km/s to sharply increase
unclear and cannot be resolved by the currently again so that at 75km it reaches values of 4.6 km/s.

Figure 5. Crustal velocity model derived from the wide-angle seismic reection point acquired by the RIFSIS
experiment. (s) Three dimensional perspective of the velocity model across the Riff Mountains with the location
of the root zone. Map with the Moho topography estimated from the control source seimsic reection data
(Alba et al., 2014).

The velocity models reveal different shear Sierra Nevada Mountains velocity is systematically
velocities for the Betics and Rif Mountains lower increasing from 3.9 to 4.0 km/s at 35 km
[Palomeras et al., 2004] although they are part of depth then it increases to 4.2 km/s at 55 km
the same mountain system, similar lithologies have and it increases further to 4.6 at, approximately
been identied at surface [Plat et al., 2013]. Lower 75km. Velocity, at 150 km depth, starts decreasing
shear velocities are mapped for the middle and reaching 4.5 km/s at 250 km depth. This behaviour
lower crust in the Rif than in the Betics. At roughly is similar beneath the Rif. There the Shear velocity
the base of the crust velocity changes sharply increases from 3.6 km/s at 25 km depth to
to 4.2 km/s and it increases gradually down to 4.1 km/s at 55 km where the crust-mantle boundary
80 km depth. Under the Granada Basin and the or Moho discontinuity has been interpreted from

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 juin 2015

the controlled source data [Gil et al., 2014]. Then depth increasing to 4.2 km/s at 130 km depth
the velocity features a smooth increase to 4.6 km/s (Fig. 6). The location of this low velocities projects
by 65 km depth. Below 95 km, velocity goes back at surface beneath a middle Miocene-late Pliocene
to 4.3 km/s at 150 km depth. Similar low velocities basaltic volcanic eld. The low upper mantle
(3.6 km/s) are mapped in the Strait of Gibraltar, velocities are interpreted to be the source region
to 60 km depth, increasing to 4.4 km/s down to for these basalts. Mantle velocity below Moho
75km depth, where it increases again to 4.6 km/s. increases to 4.3 km/s, dening a thin mantle lid
at approximately 45 km depth where velocity
The velocity model is able to differentiate between starts decreasing to 4.1 km/s. Beneath this low-
the High and Middle Atlas, and the western Atlas. velocity zone, velocity gradually increases with
Starting at 15 km depth, beneath the High and depth being 4.4 km/s at 250 km depth. Lower
Middle Atlas where velocity is of 3.4 km/s it velocities are observed in the crust of the western
increases to 3.7 km/s at 25 km increases, further, Atlas at 15km depth (3.3 km/s) lower than in
to values of 4.4 km/s at 250 km depth. Between the High Atlas (Fig. 6). Then velocity increases at
the Rharb Basin and the Middle Atlas under the 25km depth to 4.3km/s at 35 increasing to almost
eastern Moroccan Meseta, mantle S velocities 4.5km/s at 65km depth. At 140 km depth velocity
are lower than in the overall Moroccan Meseta. decreases over a 3%.
Velocity is approximately of 4.1 km/s at 45 km

Figure 6. (a) Three dimensional view of the S-wave velocity models derived from the natural source data, nite
frequency surface wave tomagraphic velocity model obtained by Palomeras et al., [2014]. In includes a small
scale inset map that denotes the location of the transect imaged in the main part of the gure. The relative high
S-wave velocity domain that can be most probably interpreted as the slap. The red arrows mark the surface
location of the thickenned crust. The one on the south (Morocco) located beneath the Rif corresponds to root
evidenced by the Rif Controlled source wide-angle seismic reection data. (b) This is a 3D view of the velocity
anomalies and the interpretation of the anomalies interms of the different domains of the lithosphere (This is a
modied from Levander et al., 2014). The lithosphere beneath the complex bounrady zone of africa an Iberia is
estimated from the volume of the velocities with values over 4.5 km/s. The alboran slab is also indicated.
The major surface topographic features are also indicated for reference.

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 Bulletin d’Information de l’Académie Hassan II des Sciences et Techniques n°17

Finite frequency seismic tomography by Bezada et mantle. This low velocities can be indicative
al, [2013] also reveals P-wave velocity anomalies of partial melting, below 100 km this involves
that reveal an almost vertical feature centered at anomalously hot mantle. The slab rollback could
the Gribraltar arc. Bezada et al., [2013] seismic drive the ascent of astenospheric mantle jointly
tomography image in general reveals similar or coupled with toroidal ow around the slab
geometries as the seismic tomography models [Funiciello et al., 2006; and Piromallo et al., 2006
determined for the area by other authors [Gutscher and Alpert et al., 2013]. The up-owing mantle (to
et al., 2002; Spakman and Wortel, 2004]. All ll in the gap) caused by the roll back of the slab
reveal a high velocity anomaly descending from would melt by decompression during ascent.
W to E, nearly vertically beneath the Alboran Sea
and reaching the mantle transition zone beneath The crustal thickness observations across the
southernmost Iberia. The images also show a low Atlas Mountains obtained from the wide-angle
velocity anomaly beneath the western Alboran controlled source data constrained a relatively thin
Sea between 50 and 100 km [Seber et al., 1996a; crust with a limited root zone. This results, jointly
Morales et al., 1999] suggesting that this high with the limited shorting measured from surface
velocity anomaly is not connected to the surface. geology (which is estimated to be smaller than 25
The geometry of this relatively high velocity % [Beauchamp et al., 1999; Teixell et al., 2003;
anomaly correlates with the S wave velocity Arboleya et al., 2004]) poses difculties on how
anomaly structure already described. to explain the relatively high topographic relief (it
can reach 4000 m). Integrated modeling studies
Beneath the Atlas similarly to the shear velocity using: topography, heat ow, geoid elevation
model, low seismic P-wave velocities are localized amd Bouguer gravity, [Teixell et al., 2005; Zeyen
under the Middle and the Central High Atlas. The et al., 2005; Missenard et al., 2006; Fullea et al.,
location of these anomalies correlate with the high 2010; Jimenez-Munt et al., 2011] solves this issue
topographic reliefs and the areas with thinnest by compensating the orogenic belt at deep levels
lithosphere. evidencing a thin lithosphere. In this models
beneath the High Atlas, the lithosphere is thin
Discussion: Structural Models & <70 km. Thus, the relatively shallow and, hot
Geodynamic Implications (buoyant) asthenosfere would then be considered
As recently mentioned the high velocity anomaly the supporting mechanism [Teixell et al., 2005;
descends near vertically from W to E, beneath the Zeyen et al., 2005; Missenard et al., 2006; Fullea
Alboran Basin. The anomaly reaches the mantle et al., 2010; Jimenez-Munt et al., 2011] of the
transition zone beneath the study area. Beneath Atlas Mountains.
west Alboran a relatively low velocity anomaly is Deep earthquake activity (Fig. 1) identified
imaged between 50-100 km depth. This almost beneath the Atlas has been reported at depth
vertical, slightly east dipping high velocity below 80 km. However, if the 3-D tomographic
anomaly has been interpreted in several ways by velocity model is used in the relocation, the focal
different authors: convective removal of thickened depths reduce to values bellow 5 km, indicating
lithosphere [Platt and Vissers, 1989]; lithospheric that these events are mostly related to intracrustal
delamination [Seber et al., 1996a; Calvert et al., seismicity. As a result, beneath the Atlas the low
2000] and, east dipping subduction [Lonergan velocity anomalies revealed by the models can be
and White, 1997; Gutscher et al., 2002; Spakman interpreted or associated to the asthenosphere.
and Wortel, 2004]. To differentiate among these Despite the model resolution, the new images
different models further observations are required. of the anomalies feature well dened, relatively
The data recorded within the Moroccan-Spanish sharp, edges. Gradational limits of the anomalies
research initiative reveals dispersion of arrivals would, most probably, result from thermal
coming from the east in the Gibraltar area. Also erosion by conductive heating mechanisms (Fig.
the SKS splitting studies by Diaz et al., [2010] 6). On the other hand, well dened, relatively
reveal a rotation of the fast polarization direction sharp, edges can be taken as an indication that,
along the arc suggest that a fast slab rollback is the lithosphere was lost by advective processes,
perhaps the most appropriate model to explain (e.g. delamination). The large-scale removal
the geodynamics of the Alboran region. Thus, process most probably occurred by some form
the data acquired within the Moroccan-Spanish of whole scale delamination or vigorous drip-
collaboration provided geophysical evidence to like convection. The asthenosphere would ll in
rule out models featuring a mantle lithosphere the gap providing an additional buoyancy that
instability. Furthermore, at depth between 60 to would provide a mechanism to compensate an
160 km, the Alboran slab is surrounded by slow isostatically uncompensated orogenic belt.

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 juin 2015

These interpretations would be consistent with the found in the study area (including: Alboran basin,
widespread volcanic activity (Fig. 7) in Southern Southern Iberia, and North Africa). The oldest
Iberia and Morocco. The composition of these basalts in the high Atlas are associated to rifting
volcanic units changes in space and in time from (during Mezozoic) these are the oldest volcanics.
calc-alkaline units in southern Iberia and the In the Iberian Massif, in central Spain, the Calatrava
Alboran basin during the Miocene, to alkali basalts intracontinental volcanic Province (Ciudad Real)
in North Africa during the Pliocene and Quaternary has been related to extensional tectonics [Lopez-
[Duggen et al., 2004]. Middle and Late Miocene, Ruiz et al., 1993].
Pliocene, and Quaternary volcanic units are

Figure 7. This is a composite plot that includes the most signicant imp locations of the velocity and structural
models constrained by the seismic data acquired in this joint international, Spanish-Moroccan colaboration.
Specics characteristics of the models can be found elswhere (Bezada et al., 2013, Palomeras et al, 2014,
Thruner et al, 2014). The image reveals in a map view specs on the lithosphere including the shallow reometrie
of the LAB constrained by the integration of potential eld (gravity, geoid) heat ow, topography measurements
obtained by Fullea et al., 2014. The surface location of volcanic elds is also marked. See text for an explanation.

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 Bulletin d’Information de l’Académie Hassan II des Sciences et Techniques n°17

Conclusions Cordillera are consistent with the crustal models

derived from the new seismic data. The detailed
The international collaboration carried out in the knowledge on the crustal structure achieved by this
broad zone of deformation driven by the collision high resolution imaging geophysical techniques is
between the African continent and Iberian micro an asset to evaluate the earthquake and potential
plate has resulted in a unique high resolution tsunami hazard for the coasts of North Africa and
seismic data set which is an asset to constraint western Europe. Complex but well constrained
the lithospheric processes, geodynamics that structural and geodynamic models are the key
take place in the area and are responsible for the result of this fruitful collaboration. These models
topographic relief and its characteristic earthquake are strong candidates to unravel the lengthy
activity. The mountain chain of the Betics in discussions on the geodynamics proposed for this
southern Iberia, the Rif and the Atlas in Morocco intriguing area. Special mention is the coordination
have been and still are intriguing orogenic belts. and integrated effort dedicated to this research
These are the response of different geodynamic by more than 100 multinational researchers in
processes acting at lithospheric scale caused by this unique and unprecedented data acquisition
a complex plate interaction. The zone delineates project in Morocco.
an arc system, the Gibraltar arc. A large amount
of earthquake activity covering a variety of Acknowledgments
depths and focal mechanism characterizes the
area. The topic has build up strong collaborations This work has been primarily funded by the Spanish
between Moroccan and Spanish and, international MEC project CGL2007–63889. Additional funding
research teams form Europe and USA. Key multi- was provided by projects CGL2010–15416,
seismic projects have been developed aiming CSD2006-00041, and CGL2009–09727 (Spain),
to constrain the structure, composition and CGL2008–03474-E, 07- TOPO_EUROPE_FP-006
tectonic scenario from south of the Atlas to the (ESF Eurocores) and EAR-0808939 (US, NSF).
Betics, across the Rif cordillera and the Alboran Seismic stations and eld technicians were kindly
basin. The multidisciplinary research program provided by IRIS-Pascal. We thank the numerous
included: natural source (earthquakes) recording geoscientists from Spanish, Moroccan, and US
with temporal deployments of broad band (BB) institutions that helped with the station deployment
instrumentation and, controlled source spatially along the proles. Institut Scientique-Université
dense seismic acquisition recording of wide-angle Mohammed V-Agdal, Rabat, provided access to
reection data. The natural source experiments the Ifrane Geophysical Station which was used
consisted on a transect from Merzouga across as the operations centre during the controlled
the Gibraltar Arc and into the Iberian Peninsula source seismic reection data acquisition. Diego
(until south of Toledo) and, a nearly regular grid Cordoba from the Universidad Complutense de
of BB distributed throughout Morocco. The Madrid provided help and managed the Texans
controlled source wide-angle seismic reection instruments deployed in Spain.
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 Bulletin d’Information de l’Académie Hassan II des Sciences et Techniques n°17

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