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2
Open University Press

McGraw-Hill Education

McGraw-Hill House

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Berkshire

England

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email: [email protected]

world wide web: www.openup.co.uk

and Two Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121-2289, USA

First published 2013

Copyright © Carla Willig 2013

All rights reserved. Except for the quotation of short passages

for the purpose of criticism and review, no part of this
publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without

3
the prior written permission of the publisher or a licence from
the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited. Details of such
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from the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd of Saffron House,
6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS.

A catalogue record of this book is available from the British

Library

ISBN-13: 978-0-33-524449-2 (pb)

ISBN-10: 0-33-524449-1 (pb)

eISBN: 978-0-33-524450-8

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Typesetting and e-book compilations by Graphicraft Limited,

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Fictitious names of companies, products, people, characters

and/or data that may be used herein (in case studies or in
examples) are not intended to represent any real individual,
company, product or event.

4
“All students of qualitative research in psychology will find a
wealth of information in Carla Willig’s book. With its
expanded sections and detailed consideration of concepts,
techniques and applications of qualitative research, the
interactive approach taken in this book is ably supported by
extensive research examples. As usual with Carla Willig’s
clear and detailed writing style, this book will give both new
and existing researchers the opportunity to think clearly about
their use of qualitative research and its methods.”

Dr Nollaig Frost, Senior Lecturer, Psychology, Middlesex

University, UK

“A tour de force from an expert guide which grounds students

in the lexicon of qualitative psychology, before explicating a
range of major methodologies. Students will appreciate many
worked examples, and will be stimulated by the coverage of
contemporary innovations, issues and debates – an invaluable
textbook.”

Professor Brendan Gough, Institute of Health and Wellbeing,

Leeds Metropolitan University, UK

“In just over a decade, Carla Willig's book has become one of
the key introductory texts in the field. Many of my students
and supervisees have enjoyed reading it – finding complex
issues and debates have been explained in an accessible
manner. This latest edition includes helpful advice on writing
a research proposal, some newer research methods and
discussion about the future of qualitative research. In
addition, there are new chapters on epistemology and
interpretation which I think my students will find particularly

5
valuable as these are often the most challenging topics when
one is new to qualitative research.”

Dr David Harper, Reader in Clinical Psychology, University

of East London, UK

“Once again, Carla Willig has produced a wonderfully clear

account of how and why qualitative methods ought be used to
answer psychological questions. Not only does Willig
examine key theories, ethics and debates surrounding the use
and interpretation of qualitative data, she shows us 'how' to do
it – step by step, with a tremendous sense of balance and
integrity. This new edition covers some of the more recent
debates in qualitative research, contains new examples of how
to design, carry out and approach analysis in qualitative
methods and lots of useful questions that researchers ask
themselves along the way. My students have used Willig’s
writings on qualitative methods for many years as they can
understand and engage with it. There is simply no other
equivalent text in psychology to rival Willig’s – her clarity,
conviction and sheer brilliance in putting difficult ideas on
methods into plain language is something students in
psychology will relish for a very long time to come.”

Paula Reavey, Professor of Psychology, London South Bank

University, UK

“In writing this text originally, Carla Willig argued that,

unlike quantitative research (where the aim is to follow a set
of rules and get them ‘right’), qualitative research is more
about ‘having adventures’. From the start it sounds a lot more
fun, and certainly a lot more interesting! And it was –
students and lecturers alike appreciate its lively, practical

6
approach, its very clear and elegant writing, its use of clever
examples of students’ own work and its lucid explanations of
the theory underpinning methods and methodologies. This
new, third edition is a real triumph. It’s more comprehensive
and it’s bang up to date. It has three additional new chapters,
more examples of student projects, and overall an even more
systematic approach. It is, in my view, the most approachable
and person-friendly text around introducing qualitative
research in psychology, and a great opportunity to ‘boldly
go’, have adventures, and really get to grips with doing
qualitative research.”

Wendy Stainton Rogers, Professor Emerita, Faculty of Health

and Social Care, The Open University, UK

7
Brief Table of Contents

Detailed table of contents

About the author

Acknowledgements

Part 1: Conceptual preparation

1 From recipes to adventures

2 Epistemological bases for qualitative research

3 Qualitative research design and data collection

4 The role of interpretation

5 Putting together a research proposal

8
Part 2: Doing research

6 Thematic analysis

7 Grounded theory methodology

8 Phenomenological methods

9 Case studies

10 Discursive psychology

11 Foucauldian discourse analysis

12 Narrative psychology

Joanna Silver

13 Visual methods

Joanna Silver

Part 3: Reflections and conclusions

14 Quality in qualitative research

15 Review and conclusions: where next for qualitative

psychology?

Appendix 1: What influences a person’s decision to

want to stop using drugs?

Sarah Dryden

9
 Appendix 2: The experience of body dysmorphic
disorder

Joanna Silver

Appendix 3: Constructing self-harm at the turn of the

twenty-first century

Caroline Silcock

References

Index

10
Detailed table of contents

About the author

Acknowledgements

Part 1: Conceptual preparation

1 From recipes to adventures

Learning objectives

How, and what, can we know?

Positivism

Empiricism

Hypothetico-deductivism

11
 Critique of the ‘scientific method’

Hypothetico-deductivism does not provide

sufficient space for theory development

Hypothetico-deductivism is elitist

Hypothetico-deductivism is a myth

Feminist critique of established epistemologies

The male as the norm

The God trick

Social constructionism

Epistemology and methodology

Qualitative research

Shared concerns: ‘qualitative methodology’

‘Little q’ and ‘big Q’

Epistemological differences: ‘qualitative

methodologies’

Overview of the book

Three epistemological questions

What kind of knowledge does the methodology

aim to produce?

12
 What kinds of assumptions does the methodology
make about the world?

How does the methodology conceptualize the role

of the researcher in the research process?

Discussion questions

Further reading

2 Epistemological bases for qualitative research

Learning objectives

Three approaches to knowledge production

Realist approach

Phenomenological approach

Social constructionist approach

Methodological pluralism

Choosing the ‘right’ approach

Conclusion

Discussion questions

Further reading

3 Qualitative research design and data collection

13
 Learning objectives

General principles of qualitative research design

Reflexivity

Ethics

The research question

Choosing the right method

Semi-structured interviewing

General characteristics of semi-structured

interviewing

The interview agenda

Recording and transcription of the interview

Participant observation

Diaries

Focus groups

Using the internet in qualitative data collection

The role of the research participant

Conclusion

Discussion questions

14
 Further reading

4 The role of interpretation

Learning objectives

What is interpretation?

Approaches to interpretation

Realist reading of the data

Phenomenological reading of the data

Social constructionist reading of the data

‘Suspicious’ interpretation

‘Empathic’ interpretation

The relationship between ‘suspicious’ and

‘empathic’ interpretations

Types of interpretation and approaches to knowledge

generation

The ethics of interpretation

Conclusion

Discussion questions

Further reading

15
 5 Putting together a research proposal

Learning objectives

Why do we need a research proposal?

The research question

Literature review

Research design and strategy

Epistemological position

Recruitment

Data collection and analysis

Ethical considerations

Reflexivity

Resources and materials

Dissemination

Conclusion

Discussion questions

Further reading

Part 2: Doing research

16
 6 Thematic analysis

Learning objectives

What is a ‘theme?’

Suitable research questions for thematic analysis

Approaches to thematic analysis

How to carry out a thematic analysis

What do I want to know?

What type of data do I need to collect?

How do I code my data?

How do I interpret the themes?

What can I conclude from my analysis?

An example of a thematic analysis

Limitations of thematic analysis

Three epistemological questions

What kind of knowledge does thematic analysis

aim to produce?

What kinds of assumptions does thematic analysis

make about the world?

17
 How does thematic analysis conceptualize the role
of the researcher in the research process?

Conclusion

Interactive exercises

Further reading

Snapshot Box 6.1: Does thematic analysis constitute

a qualitative research method in its own right?

7 Grounded theory methodology

Learning objectives

Basic principles of grounded theory

Categories

Coding

Constant comparative analysis

Negative case analysis

Theoretical sensitivity

Theoretical sampling

Theoretical saturation

Memo-writing

18
 Research process

The research question

Data collection

Data analysis

The research report

An example of grounded theory

Versions of grounded theory

The role of induction in grounded theory

Discovery versus construction

A focus on social processes versus individual

experience

Limitations of grounded theory as a method for

psychological research

The problem of induction, or ‘What grounds

grounded theory?’

Suitability for psychological research

Three epistemological questions

What kind of knowledge does grounded theory

aim to produce?

19
 What kinds of assumptions does grounded theory
make about the world?

How does grounded theory conceptualize the role

of the researcher in the research process?

Conclusion

Interactive exercises

Further reading

Snapshot Box 7.1: Grounded theory or full

conceptual description? The debate between Glaser and
Strauss

8 Phenomenological methods

Learning objectives

Phenomenology

The phenomenological method

Phenomenology and psychology

Descriptive phenomenology

Interpretative phenomenology

Interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA)

Doing IPA

20
 Analysis of an individual case

Worked example

Integration of cases

Interpretation

Writing up

An example of IPA

Limitations of IPA

Three epistemological questions

What kind of knowledge does IPA aim to

produce?

What kinds of assumptions does IPA make about

the world?

How does IPA conceptualize the role of the

researcher in the research process?

Conclusion

Interactive exercises

Further reading

Snapshot Box 8.1: What’s new? The relationship

between IPA and grounded theory

21
 9 Case studies

Learning objectives

Research methods for psychological case studies

Twenty Statements Test

Repertory grids

Types of design for case study research

Intrinsic versus instrumental case studies

Single- versus multiple-case studies

Descriptive versus explanatory case studies

Naturalist versus pragmatic case studies

Procedural issues

Selection of cases

Selection of methods of data collection and

analysis

The role of theory

Writing up

Ethics

An example of case study research

22
 Recent developments

Limitations of case study research

Epistemological difficulties

Ethical difficulties

Three epistemological questions

What kind of knowledge do case studies aim to

produce?

What kinds of assumptions does case study

research make about the world?

How does case study research conceptualize the

role of the researcher in the research process?

Conclusion

Interactive exercises

Further reading

Snapshot Box 9.1: Extrapolation or generalizability?

10 Discursive psychology

Learning objectives

The ‘turn to language’

23
 Discursive psychology and Foucauldian discourse
analysis

Discursive psychology

Data collection

How to do discourse analysis

Procedural guidelines for the analysis of discourse

An example of discourse analysis

Limitations of discursive psychology

Limitations in focus

Inherent limitations

Three epistemological questions

What kind of knowledge does discursive

psychology aim to produce?

What kinds of assumptions does discursive

psychology make about the world?

How does discursive psychology conceptualize the

role of the researcher in the research process?

Conclusion

Interactive exercises

24
 Further reading

Snapshot Box 10.1: One method or two?

11 Foucauldian discourse analysis

Learning objectives

Selecting texts for analysis

Procedural guidelines for the analysis of discourse

Stage 1: Discursive constructions

Stage 2: Discourses

Stage 3: Action orientation

Stage 4: Positionings

Stage 5: Practice

Stage 6: Subjectivity

An illustration of the application of the six stages to

an interview extract

Stage 1: Discursive constructions

Stage 2: Discourses

Stage 3: Action orientation

Stage 4: Positionings

25
 Stage 5: Practice

Stage 6: Subjectivity

Limitations of FDA

Can subjectivity be theorized on the basis of

discourse alone?

What is the relationship between discourse and

material reality?

Three epistemological questions

What kind of knowledge does FDA aim to

produce?

What kinds of assumptions does FDA make about

the world?

How does FDA conceptualize the role of the

researcher in the research process?

Key differences between discursive psychology and

FDA

Research questions

Agency

Experience

Conclusion

26
 Interactive exercises

Further reading

Snapshot Box 11.1: What, if anything, exists outside

of discourse?

12 Narrative psychology

Learning objectives

What are narratives?

What are the functions of narratives?

How to conduct a narrative analysis

An example of a narrative analysis

Narrative psychology and memory work

‘Saying sorry’: an example of data analysis in

memory work

Three epistemological questions

What kind of knowledge does narrative

psychology aim to produce?

What kinds of assumptions does narrative

psychology make about the world?

27
 How does narrative psychology conceptualize the
role of the researcher in the research process?

Conclusion

Interactive exercises

Further reading

Snapshot Box 12.1: Can a coherent story be told

about the use of narrative psychology? A review of tensions
and differences

13 Visual methods

Learning objectives

Working with photographs

Working with films

Working with drawings and paintings

How do we analyse the visual?

The relationship between visual and qualitative

methods of analysis

Ethical considerations

Three epistemological questions

28
 What kind of knowledge do visual methods aim to
produce?

What kinds of assumptions do visual methods

make about the world?

How do visual methods conceptualize the role of

the researcher in the research process?

Conclusion

Interactive exercises

Further reading

Snapshot Box 13.1: What is the ‘status’ of images in

visual research?

Part 3: Reflections and conclusions

14 Quality in qualitative research

Learning objectives

What constitutes ‘good’ qualitative research?

Epistemology and evaluation

Evaluation of the methods introduced in this book

Some caveats

Conclusion

29
 Discussion questions

Further reading

15 Review and conclusions: where next for qualitative

psychology?

Learning objectives

The critique of ‘methodolatry’

Pluralism and integration

What makes research ‘research’?

Where next for qualitative psychology?

A word about technology

Conclusion

Discussion questions

Further reading

Appendix 1: What influences a person’s decision to

want to stop using drugs? A grounded theory study exploring
the experiences of heroin users

Appendix 2: The experience of body dysmorphic

disorder: an interpretative phenomenological analysis and
photo elicitation study

30
 Appendix 3: Constructing self-harm at the turn of the
twenty-first century: a Foucauldian discourse analysis

References

Index

31
About the Author

Carla Willig is professor of psychology at City University

London. Her publications are concerned with the theory and
practice of qualitative research methodology. She is the
author of Qualitative Interpretation and Analysis in
Psychology and co-editor of the Sage Handbook of
Qualitative Research in Psychology.

Chapter Contributors

Sarah Dryden is a health psychologist employed at

Gloucestershire Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, working in
both a research and clinical capacity. Her research interests
include service users’ experiences of their drug and alcohol
use and she has undertaken a variety of NHS and
community-based applied research projects.

Caroline Silcock is a psychologist working within women’s

health at University College London Hospitals NHS Trust and

32
UCL. She completed her doctorate in counselling psychology
at City University.

Joanna Silver is a counselling psychologist. She specializes

in working with adults and children suffering from body
image concerns including body dysmorphic disorder and
eating disorders. Joanna has an interest in qualitative research
methods and lectures on this topic to psychology
undergraduates at City University, London.

33
Acknowledgements

I would like to thank Pete Green, Maria Iglesias, Katherine

Johnson, Lynne Segal, Frances Stanton and Catherine Marie
Sykes for their thoughts on the meaning of ‘adventure’.
Thanks also to Jonathan Smith for his helpful comments on
an earlier version of Chapter 8. I would also like to
acknowledge my debt to those students who took part in my
Qualitative Research Methods in Psychology module at
Middlesex University, which ran from 1994 to 1999 and
which provided the inspiration for the first edition of this
book.

Since the publication of the first edition in 2001, I gained

further knowledge and experience in the use of
phenomenological methods thanks to undertaking training in
existential counselling psychology at Regent’s College,
London. I would like to thank staff at the School of
Psychotherapy and Counselling at Regent’s College and in
particular Ernesto Spinelli and Harriet Goldenberg for

34
providing guidance and inspiration. The second edition of this
book (published in 2008) provided me with an opportunity to
incorporate some of these new perspectives. Since life does
not stop until it stops, as one of my clients puts it, I have
continued to learn more about qualitative research,
particularly through supervising trainees on the doctoral
programme in counselling psychology at City University
London. I am immensely grateful to my students whose
commitment and enthusiasm for qualitative research within
the context of an extremely demanding training programme
have been inspirational. Special thanks go to Joanna Silver
who contributed two chapters as well as Appendix 2 of this
book, and Sarah Dryden and Caroline Silcock who
contributed Appendices 1 and 3, respectively. Their
contributions are much appreciated.

This third edition is influenced by my work with trainees and

practitioners as well as my own therapeutic practice. It
includes wider coverage of conceptual issues, and
epistemological and theoretical challenges in qualitative
research, as well as three additional methods chapters (on
thematic analysis, narrative and visual methodologies). As
well as reflecting my own development as a qualitative
psychologist, this edition also demonstrates how qualitative
psychology has grown and evolved over the years.

35
Part

Conceptual preparation

Part contents

1 From recipes to adventures

2 Epistemological bases for qualitative research

3 Qualitative research design and data collection

4 The role of interpretation

5 Putting together a research proposal

36
Chapter 1

From recipes to adventures

Learning objectives

After reading this chapter, you will have an understanding

of:

the aims and defining features of qualitative research

what differentiates qualitative research from

quantitative research

some key concepts from the philosophy of science and

their relevance to qualitative research

what it means to ask epistemological questions

‘It involves opening up to new and possibly unsettling

experiences.’

‘It means venturing into new territory.’

37
 ‘It’s discovering something new and exciting; there’s a
little bit of danger.’

‘It is exciting and unusual, out of the ordinary. There’s a

big element of enjoyment and there may be an element of
challenge. It’s something that will develop me as a person.’

‘Enid Blyton stories . . . [laughs] . . . It’s exciting, possibly

involving a degree of risk to oneself; scary on occasion but it
comes out all right at the end. You’re glad you’ve had them.’

‘An exploration involving new places, meeting new people

and having new experiences outside of the norm. These could
be both positive and negative in nature.’

‘Adventures are sudden, surprise events which are

pleasurable, because they are unexpected.’

Talk of an ‘adventure’ captures the imagination. We want to

know what it was like, how it felt, what happened next. We
look upon the adventurer as someone who has been changed
by the experience, someone who will never be quite the same
again. The definitions above were provided in response to my
question, ‘What does the term “adventure” mean to you?’
Most of them include references to something ‘new’ and as
yet unknown, something we have not experienced before. At
the same time, the ‘adventure’
is perceived as a positive, if somewhat risky, enterprise. I
suggest that we should think about the research process as a
form of adventure. When I was an undergraduate student, I
thought of ‘research methods’ as recipes. Research appeared
to involve choosing the right ingredients (a representative
sample, a standardized measurement instrument, the

38
appropriate statistical test) and administering them in the right
order (the ‘procedure’). Having done our best to ‘get it right’,
we would hold our breath, hoping that the experiment had
‘worked’ – much like hovering about the kitchen, waiting for
the perfect roast to emerge from the oven. Now I look upon
research in a different light. ‘Research methods’ have become
ways of approaching a question. They are also ways of
justifying an answer (this is where research methods meet
epistemology, to be discussed below). Either way, my
understanding of research has moved from a mechanical
(how-to-apply-appropriate-techniques-to-the-subject-matter)
to a creative (how-can-I-find-out?) mode. In the process, I
have replaced the metaphor of research-methods-as-recipes
with a view of the research-process-as-adventure.

In this chapter, I want to explore in some detail what

‘research’ is all about and how qualitative research methods
in psychology fit into this picture. To do this, I need to
introduce some key concepts from the philosophy of science,
such as ‘epistemology’, ‘positivism’, ‘empiricism’ and
‘hypothetico-deductivism’. In the process, I shall
problematize familiar concepts such as ‘science’ and
‘knowledge’. The aim of the chapter is to provide a context
within which to place qualitative research methods in
psychology and to identify the defining features of such
research.

How, and what, can we know?

Epistemology is a branch of philosophy concerned with the

theory of knowledge. It attempts to provide answers to the
question, ‘How, and what, can we know?’ This involves
thinking about the nature of knowledge itself, about its scope

39
and about the validity and reliability of claims to knowledge.
Research methods provide ways of approaching, and
hopefully answering, our research questions. Research
methods can be described as ‘the way to the goal’ (Kvale
1996a: 278). However, first we need to identify our goal and
be able to justify our choice. We need to be clear about the
objectives of our research and we need to have a sense of
what kinds of things it is possible for us to find out. In other
words, we need to adopt an epistemological position.

Positivism

One epistemological position is positivism. Positivism

suggests that there is a straightforward relationship between
the world (objects, events, phenomena) and our perception,
and understanding, of it. Positivists believe that it is possible
to describe what is ‘out there’ and to get it right. Such a
position is also referred to as the ‘correspondence theory of
truth’ because it suggests that phenomena directly determine
our perception of them and that there is, therefore, a direct
correspondence between things and their representation. Kirk
and Miller’s (1986: 14) definition of positivism emphasizes
positivism’s assumption that ‘the external world itself
determines absolutely the one and only correct view that can
be taken of it, independent of the process or circumstances of
viewing’. A positivist epistemology implies that the goal of
research is to produce objective knowledge; that is,
understanding that is impartial and unbiased, based on a view
from ‘the outside’, without personal involvement or vested
interests on the part of the researcher.

Positivism has a long history and few, if any, scientists and

researchers today claim to be unreconstructed positivists. In

40
fact, when the label is used in contemporary epistemological
debates, it usually constitutes an insult. This is because it is
now generally accepted that observation and description are
necessarily selective, and that our perception and
understanding of the world are therefore partial at best (for a
clear discussion of the nature and limitations of scientific
knowledge, see Chalmers 1999). What people disagree about
is the extent to which our understanding of the world can
approach objective knowledge, or even some kind of truth,
about the world. The different responses to this question
range from naïve realism, which is akin to positivism, to
extreme relativism, which rejects concepts such as ‘truth’ or
‘knowledge’ altogether. In between, we find positions such as
critical realism and the different versions of social
constructionism (see Parker 1998).

Empiricism

Empiricism is closely related to positivism. It is based on the

assumption that our knowledge of the world must be derived
from ‘the facts of experience’ (see Chalmers 1999: Chapter
1). In other words, sense perception provides the basis for
knowledge acquisition, which proceeds through the
systematic collection and classification of observations. These
include experiments. According to this view, simple
observations are combined to give rise to more complex
ideas, and theory follows from observations. That is to say,
theory is constructed to make sense of the data collected
through observation. Again, few, if any, scientists and
researchers subscribe to a pure form of empiricism nowadays.
It is generally accepted that sense perception does not provide
direct and uncontaminated access to ‘the facts’. The more we
know about a phenomenon, the more detail we perceive when

41
we observe it. Perception is inevitably selective and people
can be trained to observe the same phenomenon in different
ways, depending on the purpose of the observation. However,
modern-day empiricists would argue that knowledge
acquisition depends on the collection and analysis of data.
They do not believe that purely theoretical work can move us
closer to the truth, and they propose that all knowledge claims
must be grounded in data. At this point, it is important to
differentiate between the terms ‘empiricist’ and ‘empirical’.
While ‘empiricist’ refers to the attitude that all knowledge
claims must be grounded in data, ‘empirical’ is a descriptive
term referring to research involving the collection and
analysis of data.

Hypothetico-deductivism

A number of serious practical as well as logical limitations of

positivism and empiricism led to the development of
alternative theories of knowledge. Karl Popper’s critique of
inductivism and subsequent formulation of
hypothetico-deductivism constitute the most influential
alternative. It now forms the basis of mainstream
experimental psychology. Popper was aware of the fact that a
collection of observations could never give rise to a
categorical statement such as ‘a follows b’. However many
times we observe that a follows b, we can never be sure that
our next observation will be the same again. There is always
the possibility that the next occurrence will be an exception.
This is the problem of induction. Popper was also unhappy
about the fact that many influential theories appeared to be
able to accommodate a wide range of observations,
interpreting them as confirmation of the theory’s claims. It
seemed that no scientific theory could ever be conclusively

42
verified. This is the problem of verification. To circumvent
these problems, Popper proposed that instead of induction and
verification, scientific research ought to rely upon deduction
and falsification. Popper’s hypothetico-deductive method does
just that. Here, theories are tested by deriving hypotheses
from them that can then be tested in practice, by experiment
or observation. The aim of the research is to put a theory’s
claims to the test to either reject the theory or retain it for the
time being. Thus, rather than looking for evidence that
confirms a theory’s claims, hypothetico-deductivism works
by looking for disconfirmation, or falsification. In this way,
we can find out which claims are not true and, by a process of
elimination of claims, we move closer to the truth.

Critique of the ‘scientific method’

Popper provided science with a method that avoided the

problems associated with induction and verification.
However, Popper’s hypothetico-deductivism, in turn, was
challenged in the 1960s and 1970s for failing to acknowledge
the role of historical, social and cultural factors in knowledge
formation. The critique of hypothetico-deductivism includes
the following charges:

Hypothetico-deductivism does not provide sufficient space

for theory development

Here, it is argued that the method’s reliance on hypotheses

generated by existing theories forecloses the possibility of
generating completely new theories. If all we can do is test
existing theories to either reject or retain them, we are
unlikely to come across entirely new and unexpected insights
in our research practice. To be fair, Popper (1969: 231) did

43
propose that researchers should be adventurous and test ‘bold
conjecture(s)’, since most is learned from mistakes; however,
even the boldest hypotheses are based upon
existing knowledge and expectations. What
hypothetico-deductivism does not allow for is that the
evidence overturns received wisdom and makes us see things
in a completely different light.

Hypothetico-deductivism is elitist

Since hypothetico-deductivism works with existing theories

and relies upon deduction from existing systems of thought, it
excludes those people who are not familiar with such theories
and systems from its practice. The hypothetico-deductive
method encourages the formation of communities of scientists
and researchers who test their own and each other’s theories.
For the outsider or novice, it is difficult, if not impossible, to
contribute to knowledge generation, if knowledge is defined
as the rejection or retention of existing theories.

Hypothetico-deductivism is a myth

Popper proposed that knowledge generation should be a

piecemeal process. Through the rejection of false hypotheses,
knowledge would grow, slowly but continuously. Individual
scientists contribute to this process by testing their hypotheses
to identify those theories that could be discarded. Thomas
Kuhn ([1962] 1970) fundamentally disagreed. He argued that,
in reality, theories are not really put to the test in this way.
While scientists were attached to a particular theory, they did
not reject it on the basis of experimental evidence. Instead, if
the evidence did not support the theory, they assumed that the
experiment had gone wrong in some way. Thus, failure was

44
attributed to the scientist and the design of the experiment
rather than to the inadequacy of the theory. Kuhn argued that
science did not progress in an evolutionary, piecemeal
fashion, as Popper had suggested, but that it developed in
leaps, through scientific revolutions leading to paradigm
shifts. Here, a paradigm – a particular conceptual framework
– is stretched to accommodate all kinds of evidence.
Anomalies and inconsistencies accumulate until wider
socioeconomic and historical processes allow a new paradigm
to emerge and to provide a legitimate alternative to the
previous one. Once the new paradigm has gained the upper
hand, it in turn will resist change for some time to come.

Feminist critique of established epistemologies

Many of the problems and limitations associated with the

established epistemological perspectives outlined above were
identified by feminist scholars. In the 1960s and 1970s, they
drew attention to the fact that women had been largely
invisible in social scientific work and that where women had
been ‘studied’, they had been found to be inferior to men in
terms of attributes such as moral development, intelligence
and conversational style. Such ‘findings’, feminists argued,
were then used to justify and perpetuate existing inequalities
between men and women in society. To challenge these
inequalities and to end the oppression of women, feminist
scholars questioned the epistemological (and methodological)
foundations upon which sexist knowledge claims rested. This
gave rise to an extensive critique of ‘male science’. This
critique includes the following key arguments.

The male as the norm

45
Other documents randomly have
different content
 Он сказал об этом ори всех. Все видели эту картину. Я
доволен всем. Спасибо вам за всё. Посетители расспрашивали
обо всём. ‘Не said that in the presence of everybody.’ ‘Everybody
has seen that picture.’ ‘I am pleased with everything.’ ‘Thank you for
everything.’ ‘The visitors asked questions about everything.’ 3. The
pronoun весь is used in the phrases: прежде всего ‘first of all’, всё
равно ‘all the same’, во весь голос ‘at the top of one’s voice’.
DECLENSION OF THE PRONOUN ВЕСЬ Nom. весь народ ‘all the
people’ всё человечество ‘all mankind’ вся страна ‘the whole
country’ все народы ‘all the peoples’ все люди ‘all people’ Gen.
всего народа всего человечества всей страны всех народов Dat.
всему народу всему человечеству всей стране всем народам Acc.
весь народ всё человечество всю страну все народы всех людей
Instr. всем народом всем человечеством всей страной всеми
народами Prep. обо всём народе обо всём человечестве обо всей
стране обо всех народах Exercise 22. Read through the sentences.
What part of the sentence is the pronoun весь? State its gender,
number and case. 1 . Всё уже стихло в городе. ( Фад .) 2. Был
первый час ночи. В доме все уже легли. (Чех.) 3. Степь без
конца и без края тянулась на все концы света. (Фад) 4. Всё, всё
напоминало о приближении тоскливой, хмурой осени. (Чех) 5.
Дождь стучал в окна всю ночь. (Чех) 6. Незаметно плывёт над
Волгой солнце; каждый час всё вокруг ново, всё меняется. (М. Г)
Exercise 23. Make up sentences, using the phrases весь город, вся
земля, всё нёбо, все друзья and the pronouns всё and все without
a noun. THE PRONOUNS КАЖДЫЙ, ВСЯКИЙ, ЛЮБОЙ The definitive
pronouns каждый ‘each’, ‘every(body)’, всякий ‘any (-body)’, любой
‘any(body)’ denote one of a number of similar objects or persons.
Всякий (каждый, любой) человек на моём месте поступил бы так
же. Любой (всякий, каждый) укажет вам дорогу на станцию.
‘Anyone in my place would have acted in the same way.’ ‘Anybody
will show you the way to the station.’ A. In addition, the pronoun
каждый has a meaning similar to that of the pronoun все. In this
meaning каждый ‘each’ cannot be replaced with любой or всякий.
168
 На совещании высказался каждый присутствующий. На
совещании высказались все присутствующие. ’ ‘Each of those
present spoke at the conference.’ ‘All those present spoke at the
conference.’ The pronoun каждый is generally used in the singular:
каждый ученик ‘each pupil’, каждая ученица ‘each pupil’, каждое
слово ‘each word’. In the plural, каждый ‘every’ is used in the
following cases: (1) with nouns which have no singular: Он
приезжал каждые сутки. ‘He used to come every day.’ (2) in
phrases containing a noun preceded by a cardinal numeral: Мы
встречались каждые два ‘We met every other day.’ дня. Каждые
четыре туриста разме- ‘Every four hikers were accomстйлись в
отдельной палатке. modated in a separate tent.’ Note. — When
used with nouns denoting time, каждый does not require a
preposition: каждый день ‘every day’, каждое утро ‘every morning’,
каждый год ‘every year’, каждую зиму ‘every winter’, but: в первый
день ‘on the first day’, в это утро ‘that morning’, в этот год ‘that
year’, в прошлую зиму ‘last winter’. Каждое утро я встаю в 7
часов, но ‘Every morning 1 get up at 7 o’clock, в это утро я встал в
9 часов. but that morning I got up at 9.’ B. The pronoun любой
‘any’ is sometimes used to express speaker’s permission to make
one’s choice of one out of a number of similar objects. Ты можешь
взять любую книгу. ‘You may take any book.’ Заходи ко мне в
любое время. ‘Come round any time.’ Любой used in this meaning
cannot be replaced with the pronoun каждый or всякий. Compare:
Эта книга есть в любом (or каж- ‘This book is available in any (or
дом) книжном магазине. every) bookshop.’ But: Зайди в любой
книжный мага- ‘Drop in at any bookshop and зйн и купй эту кнйгу.
buy this book.’ C. The pronoun всякий is also used with the meaning
‘all sorts of, ‘various’: В нашей реке водится всякая рыба. Он
читал всякие кнйги. Он рассказывал всякие интересные истории.
The pronoun всякий used in t] the pronoun каждый or любой.
‘There are all sorts of fish in our river.’ ‘He read all sorts of books.’
‘He told (us) all sorts of interesting stories.’ meaning cannot be
replaced with 169
 In sentences the pronouns всякий, каждый and любой are
used as attributes and agree with the noun they qualify in gender,
number and case. These pronouns are declined in the same manner
as adjectives. The pronouns всякий, каждый and любой are
occasionally used as nouns and fulfil the function of the subject or
object of the sentence. Что волки жадны, всякий знает. ‘Everyone
knows that wolves are (Kp.) gready.’ У каждого был билёт.
‘Everyone had a ticket/ Exercise 24. Read through the sentences,
noting the use of the pronouns каждый, любой, всякий, and
replace one pronoun with another wherever possible. (a) 1. Вы
можете прийти ко мне в любое время. 2. Поезд останавливается
на каждой станции. 3. У него ещё осталось в городе много
всяких дел. 4. Брат ходил на охоту в любую погоду. 5. Каждый
студент должен сделать доклад на семинаре. 6. Любой студент
может подготовить доклад на эту тему. 7. Он преодолеет любые
трудности на пути к цели. 9. Мой спутник рассказывал мне
всякие интересные истории. (b) 1. Для детей каждый взрослый
кажется существом немного таинственным. ( Пауст .) 2. Дорогою
много приходило ему всяких мыслей на ум. (Г.) 3. Не всякий вас,
как я, поймёт. (Я.) 4. Я сделал только то, что всякий другой
сделал бы на моём месте. (Чех.) 5. Мне казалось, что дед злой;
он со всеми говорит насмешливо, обидно, подзадоривая и
стараясь рассердить всякого. (М. Г.) 6. В зимней работе
связистов на каждом шагу возникали неприятные
неожиданности. (Аж.) Exercise 25. Make up sentences, using the
pronouns каждый, всякий, любой in their different meanings.
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS The interrogative pronouns include
кто? ‘who?’, что? ‘what?’, какой? ‘what (sort of)?’ чей? ‘whose?’,
который? ‘which?’, сколько? ‘how many?’, ‘how much?’ The
pronouns кто? ‘who?’ and что? ‘what?’ have no gender and number.
Words which are adjuncts to the pronouns кто? and что? take the
singular. Кто идёт? ‘Who goes there?’ Что виднеется вдали? ‘What
can you see in the distance?’ Words which are adjuncts to t Кто
пришёл? Кто готов? Кто из студентов кончил работу? Кто из
студенток кончил работу? Words which are adjuncts to Что
случилось? Что произошло здесь? pronoun кто? take the
masculine: 'Who has come?’ ‘Who is ready?’ ‘Which of the students
have finished the work?’ ‘Which of the students have finished the
work?’ the pronoun что? take the neuter: ‘What has happened?’
‘What has happened here?’ 170
 DECLENSION OF THE PRONOUNS КТО? AND ЧТО? Nom.
кто? что? Gen. кого? чего? Dat. кому? чему? Acc. кого? что? Instr.
кем? чем? Prep. о ком? о чём? The pronouns какой? ‘what (sort
of)?’ and который? ‘which?’ agree with the nouns they qualify in
gender, number and case and are declined as adjectives (какой as
большой; который as новый). The pronoun чей? ‘whose?’ also
agrees with the noun it qualifies in gender, number and case.
DECLENSION OF THE PRONOUN ЧЕЙ? Singular Masculine and
Neuter Feminine Nom. чей (учебник)? чьё (письмо)? чья (книга)?
‘whose (textbook)?’ ‘whose (letter)?’ ‘whose (book)?’ Gen. чьего
(учебника, письма)? чьей (книги)? Dat. чьему (учебнику,
письму)? чьей (книге)? Acc. чей (учебник)? чьё (письмо)? чью
(книгу)? чьего (брата)? ‘whose (brother)?’ Instr. чьим (учебником,
письмом)? чьей (книгой)? Prep. о чьём (учебнике, письме)? о
чьей (книге)? Plural Nom. Gen. Dat. Acc. Instr. Prep. чьи
(учебники, письма, книги)? ‘whose (textbooks, letters, books)?'
чьих (учебников, писем, книг)? чьим (учебникам, письмам,
книгам)? чьи (учебники, письма, книги)? чьих (братьев, сестёр)?
‘whose (brothers, sisters)?’ чьими (учебниками, письмами,
книгами)? о чьих (учебниках, письмах, книгах)? THE PRONOUN
СКОЛЬКО? The pronoun сколько? ‘how many?’, ‘how much?’ is
declined as an adjective in the plural. Сколько? in the nominative
requires a noun in the genitive. Сколько людей? ‘How many
people?’ 171
 Сколько книг? ‘How many books?’ Сколько времени?
‘How much time?’ Сколько воды? ‘How much water?’ In the oblique
cases the pronoun сколько? agrees with the noun it qualifies, the
noun taking the plural. Nom. сколько людей? сколько книг? ‘how
many people?’ ‘how many books?’ Gen. скольких людей? скольких
книг? Dat. скольким людям? скольким книгам? Acc. скольких
людей? сколько книг? Instr. сколькими людьми? сколькими
книгами? Prep. о скольких людях? о скольких книгах? Exercise
26. Read through the texts. What questions do the italicised words
answer? 1. «Теперь садитесь, — взглянув на часы, сказал отец.
— Сейчас начнётся самое главное ». Он подошёл и включил
радиоприёмник. Все сели и замолчали. Сначала было тихо. Но
вот раздался шум, гул, гудки. Потом что-то стукнуло, зашипело,
и откуда-то издалека донёсся мелодичный звон. Чук с Геком
переглянулись. Они угадали, что это. Это в далёкой-далёкой
Москве, под красной звездой, на Спасской башне звонили
золотые кремлёвские часы. И этот звон — перед Новым годом —
сейчас слушали люди и в городах, и в горах, в степях, в тайге,
на синем море. И тогда люди встали, поздравили друг друга с
Новым годом и пожелали всем счастья. 2. Поезда только что
прошли в обе стороны, и на платформах никого не было. Из
тёмных тоннелей дул прохладный ветерок. Далеко под землёй
что-то гудело и постукивало. Вдруг пустынные платформы
ожили, зашумели. Внезапно возникли люди. Они шли,
торопились. Их было много, но становилось всё больше, целые
толпы, сотни... Отражаясь в блестящих мраморных стенах,
замелькали их быстрые тени, а под высокими светлыми
куполами зашумело, загремело разноголосое эхо. И тут я понял,
что это народ едет веселиться в Парк культуры, где сегодня
открывается блестящий карнавал. {Гайд.) Exercise 27. Make up
sentences, using the interrogative pronouns кто?, что?, какой?,
чей?, который?, сколько? NEGATIVE PRONOUNS THE PRONOUNS
НИКТО, НИЧТО, НИКАКОЙ, НИЧЕЙ The pronouns никто ‘nobody’,
ничто ‘nothing’, никакой ‘no’ and ничей ‘nobody’s’ are formed by
adding the negative particle ни to the interrogative pronouns кто?,
что?, какой?, чей? The negative pronouns are declined as the
corresponding interrogative pronouns. The predicate of a sentence
containing the negative pronoun никто, ничто, никакой or ничей is
invariably, preceded by the negative particle не. Никто не ответил
на мой ‘Nobody answered my question.’ вопрос. 172
 Его ничто не интересует. Она не слушала ничьих
советов. В этом деле не возникло никаких трудностей. "Не is not
interested in anything.’ "She would not listen to anybody’s advice.’
"No difficulties arose in this business.’ The pronouns никто and
ничто are generally used either as the subject of a sentence: Никто
не ответил на мой вопрос. Ничто не мешает ему заниматься. or
as the object: Я никого не встретил по дороге сюда. Он ничего не
забыл. В комнате никого нет. Я никому не скажу об этом.
‘Nobody answered my question.’ ‘Nothing interferes with his studies.’
‘I met nobody on my way here.’ ‘He forgot nothing.’ ‘There is nobody
in the room.’ ‘I won’t tell anyone about it.’ Prepositions and the
pronouns никто and ничто are spelt as separate words, the
preposition being placed between the particle ни and the pronoun
(кто or что): Ни у кого нет этой книги. Я завтра ни к кому не
пойду. Он ни за что не согласится. Он ни с кем не простился. Я
его ни о чём не спрашивал. ‘Nobody has that book.’ T won’t go to
see anyone tomorrow.’ ‘He will never agree.’ ‘He did not say good-
bye to anyone.’ ‘I did not ask him about anything.’ The pronouns
никакой and ничей are used as attributes and agree with the noun
they qualify in gender, number and case. Ему не нужно ничьей
помощи. ‘Не does not need anyone’s help.’ Он не боится никаких
трудное- ‘Не is not afraid of any difficulтей. ties.’ Prepositions and
these pronouns are spelt as separate words, the preposition being
placed between the particle ни and the pronoun. Он не соглашался
ни на какие ‘Не would not agree to any conуступки. cessions.’
Exercise 28. Read through the sentences; state the case of the
negative pronouns. 1 . В эту ночь никто на корабле не спал. (
Пауст .) 2. Теперь ничто не напоминало ей [Наташе] причину её
грусти. {Л. Т .) 3. Я чувствовал себя счастливым... Но отчего я
был счастлив? Я ничего не желал, я ни о чём не думал... Я был
счастлив. {Тург.) 4. Всё тихо было в саду. Я кликнул шёпотом
Веру, кликнул в другой раз, в третий... Ничей голос не
отозвался. {Тург.) 5. Он не терялся ни в каких случаях. (А. Т.) 6.
Вернуться домой не было никакой возможности. {Тург.) 7. Мне
ничьего сочувствия не нужно. {Тург.) 8. Я не хочу печалить вас
ничем. (77.) 173
 Exercise 29. Replace the demonstrative and possessive
pronouns with negative ones. Models: 1. Это его не интересует.
Ничто его не интересует. 2. Эти вопросы его не интересуют.
Никакие вопросы его не интересуют. 3. Я не брал твоих книг. Я
не брал ничьих книг. 1 . Он не забыл этого. 2. Они не знают об
этом. 3. Эти лекарства не помогали. 4. Она недовольна вашей
работой. 5. Он с этой задачей не может справиться. 6. Эти
препятствия нас не остановят. 7. Он не согласен с этими
доводами. 8. Он не слушал наших советов. 9. Ты не обратил
внимания на это. 10. Она не отвечала на мой вопросы. Exercise
30. Change the declarative sentences into negative ones, replacing
the pronouns всё, все with никто, ничто. (a) Model: Все забыли об
этом. Никто не забыл об этом. 1. Всех заинтересовал этот
вопрос. 2. Брат всем рассказал о своём путешествии. 3.
Посетители обо всём спрашивали. 4. Вошедший человек
поздоровался со всеми. 5. Он виноват во всём. 6. Он у всех
спрашивал дорогу. 7. Брат купил билеты в театр для всех. (b)
Model: Все студенты нашей группы участвовали в лыжных
соревнованиях. Никто из студентов нашей группы не участвовал
в лыжных соревнованиях. 1. Докладчик согласился со всеми
выступавшими. 2. Все члены комитета поддержали это
предложение. 3. Все пассажиры вышли из вагона. 4. Он
советовался со всеми товарищами. 5. Он обращался за помощью
ко всем своим друзьям. THE PRONOUNS НЕКОГО AND НЕЧЕГО
The pronouns некого ‘nobody’ and нечего ‘nothing’ have no
nominative. They are formed from interrogative pronouns by means
of the negative particle не and are declined as the interrogative
pronouns кто? and что? They are stressed on the particle не in all
the cases. Nom. Gen. некого нечего Dat. некому нечему Acc.
некого нечего Instr. некем нечем Prep. не о ком не о чем Некого
послать за билетами. ‘There is nobody to send for the tickets.’ Ему
нечего читать. ‘He has nothing to read.’ Prepositions and the
pronouns некого and нечего are spelt as separate words, the
preposition being placed between the particle не and the pronoun
(кого or чего). 174
 Нам не о чем говорить. ‘There is nothing for us to speak
about.’ Ему не с кем посоветоваться. ‘Не has nobody to turn to for
advice.’ The pronouns некого and нечего are used in impersonal
sentences which express the impossibility of an action owing to the
absence of a performer or object. Некого послать за билетами
means ‘There is nobody to send for the tickets' (there is no
performer of the action). Ему нечего читать means ‘He has nothing
to read’ (there is no object of the action). Некому пойти за
билетами means ‘There is nobody to go for the tickets’ (there is no
performer of the action). The predicate of impersonal sentences with
the pronouns некого and нечего is the infinitive of a verb: Нечего
читать. Некому рассказать это. Не с кем поговорить. The noun or
pronoun denoting the dative. Мальчику нечего делать. Мне не с
кем посоветоваться. Некому пойти за билетами. ‘There is nothing
to read.’ ‘There is nobody to tell this to.’ ‘There is no one to talk
with.’ the performer of the action takes ‘The boy has nothing to do.’
‘I have nobody to turn to for advice.’ ‘There is nobody to go for the
tickets.’ Exercise 31. Compare the pairs of sentences with the
pronouns никто, ничто and некого, нечего. Explain the difference
in their meaning. никто, ничто Он ничего не сказал. Я никого не
спросил. Он никому не рассказал об этом. Он ни о чём не
рассказывал. Никто не пошёл в магазин. Никто не заботился о
ребёнке. некого, нечего Ему нечего было сказать. Мне некого
было спросить. Ему некому было рассказать об этом. Ему не о
чем было рассказать. Некому было пойти в магазин. Некому
было заботиться о ребёнке. Exercise 32. Replace the complex
sentences with simple sentences containing the pronouns некого
and нечего. Write down your sentences and mark the stress in the
pronouns. (Note that the verbs in the subordinate clauses are in the
conditional mood.) Model. У меня не было ничего , что я мог бы
подарить ему на память. Мне нечего было подарить ему на
память. 1 . Не было ничего, во что можно было бы завернуть
книгу. 2. Не было никого, у кого можно было бы узнать дорогу.
3. Нет человека, с которым я мог бы сегодня пойти в кино. 4. Не
было ничего, чем мы могли бы заняться в тот вечер. 5. Нет
ничего, за что можно было бы похвалить этого мальчика. 6. Нет
человека, который смог бы руководить нашим кружком. 7. Не
было людей, которых нам нужно было бы ждать. 8. Нет
человека, которому можно было бы поручить это дело. 9. Нет
человека, от которого я мог бы получать письма. Exercise 33.
Give negative answers to the questions. 175
 1. С кем вы встретились по дороге? 2. Чьё сочинение
вам понравилось? 3. Кто из вас знает этот рассказ? 4. К кому
мне обратиться с этим вопросом? 5. Кого послать за книгами? 6.
С кем мне посоветоваться об этом? 7. О чём он сообщил тебе? 8.
В какой театр вы идёте? 9. Пришли ли вы к какому-нибудь
выводу по этому вопросу? 10. Чью статью вы использовали в
своей работе? 11. Что вы слышали об этом? 12. Кому вы
расскажете об этом? Exercise 34. Write out the sentences, filling in
the blanks with the pronouns никто, ничто or некого, нечего in the
required form. Mark the stress in the pronouns. 1. Мы не говорили
... . 2. Нам говорить было ... . 3. Он не посоветовался ... . 4. Ему
... было посоветоваться. 5. Мы не боимся ... . 6. Нам бояться ... .
7. Открыть дверь было ... . 8. Ребёнок не слушается ... . 9. Мне
... радоваться. 10. Он не заботится .... 11. Нам беспокоиться ... .
12. Я не встретился ... . 13. Меня благодарить ... . 14. Им
спорить ... . 15. Ждать нам было ... . 16. Нашей работой
руководить ... . 17. Сам виноват. Жаловаться ... . Exercise 35.
Find the negative pronouns in the sentences and state their case.
What parts of the sentence are they? Point out the personal and the
impersonal sentences. 1. В доме все уже легли, но никто не спал.
(Чех.) 2. Я ничего не слышал, кроме шума листьев. ( Тург .) 3. Я
добрался, наконец, до угла леса, но там не было никакой
дороги. (Тург.) 4. Есть было нечего, да и не хотелось. (Аре.) 5.
Писать было легко. Никто не мог оторвать меня от любимых
мыслей. Ни о чём, совершенно ни о чём не надо было думать,
кроме как о рассказе, который я писал. (Пауст.) 6. Мы медлили.
Никому не хотелось двигаться. Деревня за рекой ещё спала.
(Пауст.) 7. Я свою долю художника ни на что не променяю.
(Пауст.) 8. Он уже рассказал мне о себе всё, а мне было нечего
рассказывать. (Л.) 9. Ничто так не сближает людей, как
пережитые вместе трудности. (Фад.) 10. Утром холодно, топить
печи некому, сторож ушёл куда-то. (Чех.) 11. Прения опять
возобновились, но часто наступали перерывы, и чувствовалось,
что говорить больше не о чем. (Л. Т.) 12. Скучен день до вечера,
коли делать нечего. (Proverb) INDEFINITE PRONOUNS Most
indefinite pronouns are formed by adding the particle -to, -либо,
-нибудь or кое- to the interrogative pronouns кто?, что?, какой?,
чей?, сколько?: кто-то ‘somebody’, что-то ‘something’, чей-то
‘somebody’s’, какой-то ‘some’; кто-либо ‘somebody’, что-либо
‘something’, чей-либо ‘somebody’s’, какой-либо ‘some’; кто-нибудь
‘somebody’, что-нибудь ‘something’, чей-нибудь ‘somebody’s’,
какой-нибудь ‘some’, сколько-нибудь ‘some’ (quantity); кое-кто
‘somebody’, кое-что ‘something’, кое-чёй ‘somebody’s’, кое-какой
‘some’. The indefinite pronouns with the particles -то, -либо,
-нибудь, коеare declined as pronouns without these particles (кого-
нибудь, комунибудь, с кем-нибудь). The particles are always joined
to the pronoun by a hyphen. The particles -то, -либо, -нибудь
follow and the particle кое- precedes the pronoun. If a pronoun with
the particle кое- is used with a preposition, the latter follows the
particle and no hyphen is spelt. Он рассказал нам кое о чём. ‘Не
told us something.’ Он побеседовал кое с кем. ‘Не talked to some
people.’ 176
 If pronouns with the particles -то, -либо, -нибудь are used
with prepositions, the latter precede the pronouns (от кого-нибудь,
с кемлибо, у кого-то). The pronouns with the particle -либо (кто-
либо, что-либо, чейлибо, какой-либо) have the same meaning as
the pronouns with the particle -нибудь (кто-нибудь, что-нибудь,
чей-нибудь, какойнибудь). Pronouns with the particle -либо are
generally used in the literary language, e. g.: Это вряд ли прибавит
что-либо ‘This is unlikely to add anything существенное к тому, что
уже of importance to what has alсказано. ready been said.’
Pronouns with the particle -нибудь are used both in colloquial
speech and in the literary language. Я, может, что-нибудь не так
сказала? (М. Г.) Художественное произведение лишь тогда
значительно и полезно, когда оно в своей идее содержит какую-
нибудь общественную задачу. (Черн.) ‘May be I’ve said something
wrong?’ ‘A work of art is important and useful only when its idea
contains some social implication.’ USE OF THE INDEFINITE
PRONOUNS, WITH THE PARTICLES -TO AND -НИБУДЬ 1 . Pronouns
with the particle -to are used when the sentence speaks of an
indefinite person or object unknown to the speaker, but probably
known to others: Кто-то тихо постучал в дверь. ‘Somebody tapped
on the door softly.’ This means that the person who tapped on the
door is definite, but the speaker has no idea who it is. Что-то с
шумом упало, на пол. ‘Something fell on the floor noisi!y.’ This
means that though the object which fell on the floor is quite definite,
the speaker has no idea what it is. 2. Pronouns with the particle
-нибудь (or -либо) are used when the sentence speaks of an
indefinite person or object unknown both to the speaker and to
everyone else. Позови кого-нибудь. ‘Call somebody (i.e. no matter
whom).’ Дайте мне что-нибудь почи- ‘Give me something to read
(i. e. тать. no matter what).’ 12— 1525 177
 Если кто-нибудь придёт, позовите меня. ‘Should anyone
come, call me (i.e. no matter who comes).’ Exercise 36. Read
through the sentences and account for the use of the pronouns in
the right-hand and left-hand columns. Расскажи мне что-нибудь.
Пусть кто-нибудь придёт. Тебе нужно поговорить об этом с кем-
нибудь из преподавателей. Я не знаю, принёс ли он что-нибудь.
Звонил мне кто-нибудь ? Если кто-нибудь придёт, попросите его
подождать меня. Я возьму что-нибудь почитать. Он сказал мне
что-то, но я не расслышал. Там кто-то пришёл. Я видел тебя
вчера в институте, когда ты разговаривал с кем-то. Я вижу, что
он что-то принёс. Тебе кто-то звонил. Когда я пришёл домой, я
узнал, что кто-то приходил ко мне (был у меня). Он взял что-то
почитать. Exercise 37. Read through the sentences. Explain the
difference in their meaning. Он стал звать кого-то на помощь.
Брат обещал дать ему какую-то книгу. Она просит кого-то
прийти. Её попросили спеть какую-то песню. Он говорил, что
надо применить какой-то новый метод. Ему будет помогать кто-
то из товарищей. Он стал звать кого-нибудь на помощь. Брат
обещал дать ему какую-нибудь книгу. Она просит кого-нибудь
прийти. Её попросили спеть какую-нибудь песню. Он говорил,
что надо применить какой-нибудь новый метод. Ему будет
помогать кто-нибудь из товарищей. Exercise 38. Read through the
sentences and account for the use of the pronouns with the particles
-mo and -нибудь. E Вот кто-то вышел из дома и остановился на
крыльце. (Чех.) 2. В комнате раздались чьи-то шаги. (Аж.) 3.
Скажите же мне какую-нибудь новость! (Л.) 4. Вдруг что-то,
похожее на песню, поразило мой слух. (Л.) 5. Ему чрезвычайно
не нравилось, когда кто-нибудь заводил речь о его молодости.
(Чех.) 6. Я вставал рано, с рассветом, и тотчас же принимался за
какую-нибудь работу. (Чех.) 7. Почему вас так долго не было?
Случилось что-нибудь? (Чех.) 8 Вдруг позади нас в овраге
раздался шум: кто-то спускался к источнику. (Тург.) 9. Но
главное очарование моря заключалось в какой-то тайне,
которую оно всегда хранило в своих пространствах. (Кат.) 10.
Она [Наташа] не могла и не умела делать что-нибудь не от всей
души, не изо всех сил. (Л.Т.) 11. «Бывает у тебя кто-нибудь?
Читаешь ты?» — спросил брат. (М.Г.) 12. Раньше она никогда не
чувствовала себя нужной кому-нибудь, а теперь ясно видела,
что нужна многим. (М. Г.) Exercise 39. Write out the sentences,
filling in each blank with the particle -нибудь or -mo. 1 . Он сказал
мне что-... важное, но я не могу сейчас вспомнить, что он
сказал. Расскажи мне что-... интересное. 2. — Что ты ищешь? —
Я ищу какую-... интересную книгу. — Брат принёс сегодня
какую-... новую книгу, попроси у него. 3. Пусть кто-... откроет
окно. Кто-... открыл окно, и в комнату ворвался свежий ветер. 4.
Я надеялся узнать у кого-... дорогу. Неожиданно я столкнулся с
кем-... в темноте. 5. Мы услышали, что кто-... вошёл в соседнюю
комнату. Я не знаю, придёт ли к нам кто-... сегодня. 6.
Вернувшись домой, я спросил, не звонил ли мне кто-... . Мне
ответили, что кто-... звонил. 7. Если вы о чём-... захотите
спросить меня, позвоните мне по телефону. Тебя ищет Сергей.
Он хочет спросить тебя о чём-... . 8. Сегодня он о чём-...
рассказывал, и все слушали очень внимательно. Вообще, когда
он о чём-... рассказывает, все слушают с интересом. 9. Когда
поезд останавливался на какой-... большой станции, пассажиры
выходили из вагона подышать свежим воздухом. Поезд только
что остановился на какой-... большой станции. 10. Он закончит
работу в срок, если ему что-... не помешает. Он не успел
закончить работу. 178
 потому что ему что-... помешало. 1 1. Приведи в
порядок комнату, каждую минуту может кто-... войти. Вот кто-...
идёт. 12. Я не знаю, принёс ли он что-... . Я вижу, что он что-...
принёс. 13. В нашу комнату зашёл сосед и спросил, не хочет ли
кто-... пойти на концерт. Кто-... из моих соседей взял у него
билёт. 14. Если бы кто-... помог мне, я давно бы уже кончил
работу. 15. Мы можем переночевать в каком-... доме. 16. Он
что-... крикнул нам, но мы не расслышали. 17. Когда я пришёл
домой, я увидел на своём столе чьё-... письмо. 18. Поздно
вечером мы увидели огни какой... деревни. 19. Нужно спросить
об этом у кого-... из его родных. 20. Он не уверен, сможет ли он
чём-... тебё помочь. Exercise 40. Fill in the blanks with the particles
required by the sense. Вдруг впереди меня послышался треск
сучьев, и вслед за тем я услышал чьи-... шаги. Кто-... шёл
мёрной тяжёлой походкой. Я испугался и хотёл было уйти назад,
но поборол в себё чувство страха и остался на мёсте. Вслед за
тем я увидел в кустах какую-... тёмную массу. Это был большой
медвёдь. (Арс.) USE OF THE INDEFINITE PRONOUNS WITH THE
PARTICLE KOEPronouns with the particle кое- (кой-) are used when
the sentence speaks of something known to the speaker, but
unknown to the person spoken to: Я хочу рассказать тебё кое Т
want to tell you something.’ о чём. The speaker knows what he is
going to say, but the person spoken to has no idea of it. Pronouns
with the particle кое- may be used with the meaning of ‘some’. Он
встретил кое-кого из своих ‘Не met some of his friends.’
товарищей. Exercise 41. Read through the sentences and account
for the use of the pronouns with the particle кое-. 1 . Я шёл к тебё,
нёс кое-что тебё я показать. (Я.) 2. Ночь была хотя и тёмная, но
благодаря выпавшему снёгу можно было кое-что рассмотрёть.
(Арс.) 3. У Ростовых, как и всегда по воскресёньям, обёдал кое-
кто из близких знакомых. (Л. Т.) THE INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
НЕКТО, НЕЧТО, НЕКИЙ, НЕКОТОРЫЙ, НЕСКОЛЬКО The pronouns
некто ‘certain’, нечто ‘something’, некий (-ая, -ое, -не) ‘certain’,
некоторый (-ая, -ое, -ые) ‘some’ and несколько ‘several’ are also
indefinite pronouns. 1 . The pronouns некто and нечто are used
only in the nominative and in the accusative which is identical with
the nominative. The pronoun нечто is neuter. It is always
accompanied by an attribute. Случилось нечто удивительное.
‘Something astonishing has happened.’ Я вижу нечто
неопределённое. Т see something vague.’ t2* 179
 The meaning of the pronoun нечто is similar to that of the
pronoun что-то. The pronoun что-то is used either with or without
an attribute. Что-то случилось. ‘Something has happened.’ The
pronoun некто is used only in the nominative before the names of
men or women: Пришёл некто Иванов. ‘A certain Ivanov has come.’
^ Пришла некто Иванова. ‘A certain Ivanova has come.’ 2. The
pronoun некий changes for gender, number and case and is used as
an attribute. It is rarely used in the oblique cases. Приехал некий
художник. ‘Some artist has come.’ Выступала некая Иванова. ‘A
certain Ivanova spoke.’ The pronouns некто, нечто and некий are
generally used in the literary language. 3. The pronoun некоторый
follows the declension pattern of adjectives and is used as an
attribute. Некоторые студенты нашей группы увлекаются
туризмом. Я говорил с некоторыми студентами. Некоторое время
все молчали. Некоторую часть пути все шли молча. ‘Some of the
students of our group go in for hiking.’ T spoke to some of the
students.’ ‘Everyone was silent for some time.’ ‘Part of the way they
all walked on in silence.’ The meaning of the pronoun некоторый is
similar to that of pronouns with the particle кое-: кое-какой, кое-
что, кое-кто. Я взял с собой кое-какие книги. Я взял с собой
некоторые книги. Я взял с собой кое-что из вещей. Я взял с
собой некоторые вещи*. Кое-кто из студентов увлекается
туризмом. Некоторые студенты увлекаются туризмом. 4. The
pronoun несколько denotes an indefinite number of objects. The
pronoun несколько in the nominative or in the accusative which is
identical with the nominative requires the genitive plural of the noun.
Вошло несколько человек. ‘Several people came in.’ Он принёс
несколько книг. ‘He brought several books.’ 180 T took some books
with me.’ T took some of the things with me.’ ‘Some of the students
go in for hiking.’
 The pronoun несколько is declined as an adjective in the
plural. In the oblique cases несколько agrees with the noun it
qualifies. Брат пришёл домой с несколькими товарищами.
Туристы разместились в нескольких палатках. ‘The brother came
home with several friends.’ ‘The hikers were accommodated in
several tents.’ Exercise 42. Read through the sentences and point
out the indefinite pronouns. 1 . И здесь он [Серёжка] увидел
нечто, настолько поразившее его воображение, что вынужден
был остановиться. ( Фад .) 2. Мысль о том, что здесь должен
быть парк, возникла среди старых комсомольцев. Некоторые из
них и сейчас ещё работали в Краснодоне. (Фад.) 3. Потух свет и
в некоторых окнах первого этажа, и эти окна тоже
распахнулись. (Фад.) 4. Мне приснился сон, которого никогда не
мог я позабыть и в котором до сих пор вижу нечто пророческое.
(П.) 5. Вдруг немного впереди нас, в темноте, зажглось
несколько огоньков. (Тург.) 6. Месяца два назад умер у нас в
городе некий Беликов, учитель греческого языка. (Чех.) Exercise
43-Fill in the blanks with negative pronouns and indefinite particles
to suit the sense. Я понял, что заблудился. Дальше идти было
нельзя; впереди было какое-... болото. Я пошёл налево и вышел
на узкую заросшую дорожку, по которой давно не ездили. Я не
знал, куда она меня приведёт, но делать было ... , и я пошёл по
ней, надеясь выйти к какой-... деревне. Я шёл долго, но ...
признаков жилья не было видно. Кругом густой лес. Давно уже
... нога не ступала здесь. Я прошёл несколько километров, но ...
деревни не было. Стало темнеть. Через некоторое время
появились огни какой-... деревни. Теперь мне ... было
беспокоиться. Я решил переночевать в каком-... доме. Подойдя к
калитке крайнего дома, я постучал, но ... не открывал. Я
постучал ещё раз и прислушался. Не было слышно ... шагов.
Тогда я толкнул калитку и, споткнувшись обо что-..., вошёл во
двор. Как только я постучал в дверь, послышались чьи-... шаги,
потом кто-... загремел замком, и дверь открылась.
 The Numeral CLASSIFICATION OF NUMERALS According to
their meaning, numerals are divided into cardinal, collective and
ordinal. Cardinal and collective numerals denote the quantity of
objects and answer the question сколько? ‘how many?’ Сколько
окон и дверей в ауди- “How many windows and doors тории? — В
аудитории две are there in the lecture-hall?” двери и пять окон.
“There are two doors and five windows in the lecture hall.” cardinal
numerals. Сколько детей у брата? брата двое детей. Сколько
суток он ехал? — Он ехал четверо суток. How many children has
the brother?” “The brother has two children.” How many days did he
travel?” “He travelled four days.” Один ‘one’, два ‘two’, три ‘three’,
четыре ‘four’, пять ‘five’, etc. are У Двое ‘two (of them)’, трое ‘three
(of them)’, четверо ‘four (of them)’, пятеро ‘five (of them)’, шестеро
‘six (of them)’, семеро ‘seven (of them)’ are collective numerals.
Ordinal numerals denote the serial order in which an object stands
and answer the question который? ‘which?’ Который месяц вы
занимаетесь языком? — Шестой месяц. Который раз ты читаешь
эту книгу? — Второй раз. How long have you been studying the
language?” “More than five months.” Which time do you read this
book?” “A second time.” Первый ‘first’, второй ‘second’, третий
‘third’, четвёртый ‘fourth’, пятый ‘fifth’, etc. are ordinal numerals.
Exercise 1. Write out the text and underline the cardinal numerals
once and the ordinal numerals twice. What questions do they
answer? Я учусь на втором курсе экономического факультета. На
нашем курсе сто двадцать пять студентов. У нас восемь учебных
групп. Я в четвёртой группе. Сегодня у нас две лекции и один
семинар. Первая лекция — по политической эконб182
 мии, вторая лекция — по математике. Лекция по
политической экономии будет в двадцать четвёртой аудитории,
лекция по математике — в седьмой аудитории. Семинар будет в
двенадцатой аудитории. CARDINAL NUMERALS Simple, Compound
and Composite Numerals According to their structure, numerals are
divided into simple, compound and composite. Simple numerals:
один ‘one’, два ‘two’, три ‘three’, четыре ‘four’, пять ‘five’, шесть
‘six’, семь ‘seven’, восемь ‘eight’, девять nine’, десять ‘ten’, сорок
‘forty’, сто ‘hundred’, тысяча ‘thousand’, миллион ‘million’, миллиард
‘milliard’ (or ‘billion’). Compound numerals: 1. Одиннадцать ‘eleven’,
двенадцать ‘twelve’, тринадцать ‘thirteen’, четырнадцать ‘fourteen’,
пятнадцать ‘fifteen’, ... девятнадцать ‘nineteen’. 2. Двадцать
‘twenty’, тридцать ‘thirty’, пятьдесят ‘fifty’, ... восемьдесят ‘eighty’,
девяносто ‘ninety’. 3. Двести ‘two hundred’, триста ‘three hundred’,
четыреста ‘four hundred’, пятьсот ‘five hundred’, шестьсот ‘six
hundred’, ... девятьсот ‘nine hundred’. The component parts of a
compound numeral are spelt as one word. Composite numerals
consist of two or more simple or compound numerals, e. g.
двадцать один ‘twenty-one’, сто двадцать ‘one hundred and
twenty’, триста пятнадцать ‘three hundred and fifteen’, четыреста
восемьдесят шесть ‘four hundred and eighty-six’, тысяча девятьсот
сорок шесть ‘one thousand nine hundred and forty-six’. The
component parts of a composite numeral are spelt as separate
words: тридцать семь ‘thirty-seven’, сто сорок ‘one hundred and
forty’. Spelling of Cardinal Numerals 1. The numerals 15, 16, 17, 18,
19, 20 and 30 take the soft mark only at the end of the word:
пятнадцать, шестнадцать, семнадцать, восемнадцать,
девятнадцать, двадцать, тридцать. 2. The numerals 50, 60, 70, 80
and 500, 600, 700, 800, 900 take the soft mark in the middle of the
word between its component parts: пятьдесят, шестьдесят,
семьдесят, восемьдесят, пятьсот, шестьсот, семьсот, восемьсот,
девятьсот. 183
 CARDINAL NUMERALS From 1 to 10 From 11 to 20 Tens
Hundreds 1 — ОДИН 2 — два 3 — три 4 — четыре 5 — пять 6 —
шесть 7 — семь 8 — восемь 9 — девять 10 — десять 11 —
одиннадцать 12 — двенадцать 13 — тринадцать 14 —
четырнадцать 15 — пятнадцать 16 — шестнадцать 17 —
семнадцать 18 — восемнадцать 19 — девятнадцать 20 —
двадцать 10 — десять 20 — двадцать 30 — тридцать 40 — сорок
50 — пятьдесят 60 — шестьдесят 70 — семьдесят 80 —
восемьдесят 90 — девяносто 100 — сто 200 — двести 300 —
триста 400 — четыреста 500 — пятьсот 600 — шестьсот 700 —
семьсот 800 — восемьсот 900 — девятьсот Exercise 2. Read the
numerals given in the above table, paying attention to the correct
pronunciation of the numerals from 1 1 to 20. Exercise 3. Copy out
the sentences, writing the numbers in words. Underline the simple
numerals once, the compound numerals twice and the composite
numerals with a wavy line. 1. В Москве 9 вокзалов. 2. В Москве и
Московской области 103 высших учебных заведения. 3. В
Московском университете 16 факультетов. 4. От Москвы до
Ленинграда 649 километров. 5. Длина Волго-Донского канала-
101 километр. На канале 13 шлюзов и 3 насосных станции. 6.
Канал имени Москвы имеет длину 128 километров. Cardinal
Numerals Used with a Noun Cardinal numerals except один ‘one’
and два ‘two’ do not change for gender. The numeral один has three
gender forms: один for the masculine, одна for the feminine, одно
for the neuter: один дом ‘one house’, одна книга ‘one book’, одно
письмо ‘one letter’. The same is true of composite numerals whose
last component is один; e.g. двадцать один дом ‘twenty-one
houses’, двадцать одна книга ‘twenty-one books’, двадцать одно
письмо ‘twenty-one letters’. The numeral два has only two forms:
два for the masculine and neuter and две for the feminine: два
дома ‘two houses’, два письма ‘two letters’, две книги ‘two books’.
The same is true of composite numerals whose last component is
два; e. g. сорок два дома ‘forty-two houses’, сорок два письма
‘forty-two letters’, сорок две книги ‘forty-two books’. All the other
cardinal numerals do not change for gender and are used in one and
the same form with all the nouns: три дома ‘three houses’, три
книги ‘three books’, три письма ‘three letters’. Nouns used with the
numerals 1, 21, 31, 41, etc. (i.e. numerals whose last component is
один, одна or одно) take the nominative: один дом ‘one house’,
одна кнйга ‘one book’, одно письмо ‘one letter’; двадцать один
дом twenty-one houses’, тридцать одна кнйга ‘thirty-one books’.
Nouns used with the numerals 2, 3, 4; 22, 23, 24; 32, 33, 34, etc. (i.
e. 184
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