 Chapter 07 (원자 구조와 주기성)  Chapter 08 결합: 일반 개념

Electromagnetic Radiation (전자기 복사): Chemical Bonds (화학 결합):

Energy traveling through space as waves - Ionic Bonding (이온 결합): Electrostatic attraction
- Wavelength (λ, 파장): Distance between wave peaks. between oppositely charged ions
- Covalent Bonding (공유 결합): Sharing of electron
- Frequency (ν, 진동수): Number of cycles per second.
pairs between atoms
- Speed of Light (c, 빛의 속도):  =3.00×108 m/s
>>>    : 미터 단위. 파장×진동수=빛 의속도 Bond Energy (결합 에너지):
diffraction: 회절 Energy required to break a bond

Planck’s Quantization: Related to Coulomb’s Law (쿨롱 법칙):    × 


     (h = Planck's constant (6.626×10⁻³⁴ J·s)) -   : ion charge -r: distance between ion centers

1. (+)-(+) repulsion 2. (-)-(-) repulsion
Photoelectric Effect (광전 효과):
3. (+)-(-) attraction
Threshold frequency (임계 진동수) must be exceeded.
>>> bond if system can lower potential energy

de Broglie Wavelength (드브로이 파장):    >>> bond length: distance when P.E.is minimal

Polar covalent bond:Unequal sharing of electrons
Bohr Model:
Electrons orbit nucleus in quantized levels.
Electronegativity (전기음성도):
단전자 이온, 수소에서의 에너지 준위 공식:
Atom's ability to attract shared electrons
  ×   ×  
   
  Measured by Pauling Scale.

Electronegativity difference determines bond polarity
 
∆    ×          
 
Dipole Moment (쌍극자 모멘트):
- : 전자가 n번째 궤도에 있을 때의 에너지
Separation of (+) and (-) charges in a molecule.
- : 원자번호 - : 주양자수
Polar bonds but zero dipole moment >> possible

Quantum Numbers (양자수): Describe electron's state.

Ions and Electron Configuration:
- n: Principal quantum number: size/energy level
- Cations (양이온): Smaller than their neutral atoms.
- l: Angular momentum: shape (s, p, d, f)
- Anions (음이온): Larger than their neutral atoms.
- ml: Magnetic quantum number: orientation
- Isoelectronic Series (등전자 이온): Ions with same
- ms: Spin quantum number: ±½ (파울리-배타원리) electron configuration.

▪ For principal quantum level n = 5, determine the Lattice Energy (격자 에너지):
number of allowed subshells (different values of l), and
give the designation of each Energy released when gaseous ions form an ionic solid

ü 5개, 5s, 5p, 5d, 5f, 5g Increases with charge and decreases with ionic radius.
Exothermic (Ionic charge↑, distance of ions in soild↓)

Orbital Shapes (오비탈의 형태):

Nodes: areas of zero probability in an orbital Bond Type and Character (결합의 성격):
- Percent Ionic Character (이온성 비율):
- s-orbital / p-orbital / d, f-orbitals
Aufbau principle(쌓음 원리). Electrons fill the lowest No bond is 100% ionic or covalent; most are
in-between.
energy levels.
Hund’s rule(훈트규칙): maximum number of unpaired - Localized Electron (LE) Model (국소화 전자 모형):
electrons Electrons exist as lone pairs or bonding pairs

Ionization energy: Energy required to remove an Lewis Structure represent electron arrangement.
electron from a gaseous atom or ion (예외조심)
Duet/Octet rule
- The electrons in the filled 2s orbital provide some 1. Sum the valence electrons from all the atoms
shielding for electrons in the 2p orbitals
2. Identify the central atom
- The extra electron repulsions in the doubly occupied
oxygen 2p orbital. 3. Form single bond between each pair of bound
4. Octets of outside atoms -> Octets of central atom
PES: determine the relative energies of electron in 5. Form multiple bonds
individual atoms
Electron affinity: Energy change associated with the Valence electron: 최외각전자
addition of an electron to a gaseous atom
∆ ≈ 끊는 결합 에너지  형성되는 결합 에너지
Atomic Radii: distance between atoms in chemical
compound 붕소=boron / SF6 등은 3d 오비탈 사용 가능
Resonance structure: Actual structure is the average
 Chapter 09 공유 결합과 오비탈 이론  Chapter 10 Summary: 액체와 고체
단일/이중/삼중 결합과 상관 없음
States of Matter:
Hybridization (혼성 오비탈화): Liquids and solids are condensed phases (응축상)
결합을 위한 새로운 오비탈 형성 Liquids: incompressible/have surface tension/viscosity.
- sp³: tetrahedral (4 electron pairs) → e.g., CH₄, NH3
- sp²: trigonal planar (3 pairs, 120°) → e.g., C₂H₄ Intermolecular Forces (분자 간 인력):
- sp: linear (2 pairs, 180°) → e.g., CO₂, C₂H₂ - Dipole–Dipole Forces (쌍극자 간 힘): Attraction
between polar molecules. Distance↑Strength↓

σ (Sigma) Bond: 기본 결합 - Hydrogen Bonding (수소 결합): Strong dipole

interaction; occurs with H bonded to N, O, or F.
π (Pi) Bond: 기본 결합의 위/아래에 위치한 평행한 결합
- London Dispersion Forces (분산력): Weak forces from
- Triple bond (삼중 결합) = 1 σ + 2 π temporary dipoles in all molecules.
- Polarizability: 분산력 형성 가능성↑ (전자수↑)
Expanded Octets – d-orbital Hybridization > Polarizability/Strength↑in large atoms/molecules.
- dsp³: trigonal bipyramidal → e.g., PCl₅, I3-
- d²sp³: octahedral → e.g., SF₆, XeF₄ Physical vs Chemical Changes (물리 변화 vs 화학 변화):
- Physical: No change in composition (e.g., boiling)
VSEPR Model (전자쌍 반발 이론): - Chemical: Bonds break/form → form new substances
Predicts molecular shape to minimize electron pair (e.g., combustion)
repulsion
Electron domain geometry vs. molecular shape Properties of Liquids (액체의 성질):
not always precise (PH3) - Surface Tension (표면 장력): Resistance to surface
linear/trigonal/tetrahedral(109.5)->107, 104.5 area increase.
planar=2D - Capillary Action (모세관 현상): Rise of liquid in a
narrow tube; by cohesive and adhesive forces.
- Viscosity (점도): Resistance to flow; high in complex
Localized Electron Model molecules with strong forces (e.g., glycerol).
Lewis structure → VSEPR model
- Assumes that electrons are localized Gas: Particles moving rapid. Intermolecular force↓
- Not deal effectively with unpaired electrons Liquid: Intermolecular force↑. molecular motion↑
- Not provide direct information about bond energies Solids: Intermolecular force↑, molecular motion↓
- Crystalline Solids (결정질 고체): Ordered structures
Molecular Orbital (MO) Theory (분자 오비탈 이론): - Ionic / Molecular / Atomic (by lattice point)
전자가 분자 전체에 걸쳐 비국소화 되었다는 개념 - Amorphous Solids (비결정질 고체): Disordered
- Bonding MO (σ, π): 동일한 위상의 오비탈 겹침
전자 밀도 높음. 에너지 낮아서 안정적임. 결합 형성. nuclei Closest packing model: aba(hcp) , abc(ccp)
- Antibonding MO (σ*, π*): 서로 다른 위상 오비탈.
전자 밀도 낮음. 에너지 높아서 불안정. 결합 방해 Metallic Bonding (금속 결합):
- Bond Order (결합 차수): 결합의 강도/존재여부 판단식 - Electron Sea Model: Metal cations in a sea of
Bond Order = (#bonding e - #antibonding e) / 2 delocalized electrons → explains conductivity,
malleability.
결합 오비탈이 에너지 준위가 낮으므로 먼저 채워짐
- Band Theory: Molecular orbitals form energy bands.
그러므로 수소 분자 형성에는 무조건 결합 오비탈
Give Electro configuration = draw MO
Alloys (합금):
- Substitutional Alloy: Similar size atoms replace host
Paramagnetism vs Diamagnetism metal atoms (e.g., brass)
- Paramagnetic: unpaired electrons (자기장에 끌림) - Interstitial Alloy: Smaller atoms fill in gaps (e.g.,
- Diamagnetic: all electrons paired (자기장에 반발) carbon in steel --- mild<medium<high-carbon/Alloy)
B2는 전자가 홀수. 따로 들어감 (비짝지은전자)=자성 있음
Network Solids (공유 결합 결정): direct covalent bonds
1. Bond order, bond energy, bond length are related - Diamond: sp³-hybridized carbon. tetrahedral
2. Bond order is not same as bond energy (거의 비례) - Graphite: Layers of sp²-hybridized carbon →
conducts electricity. trigonal planar
3. N2 molecule will have a triple bond because of the
large bond energy associated with it - Silica(SiO2): Silicon-oxygen compound
4. The O2 molecule is known to be paramagnetic. - Silicates: Based on SiO4 tetrahedra. Cations required
>>> O2는 비짝지은전자 2개 존재. (2px) , (2py) 1 1 - Glass: Sillica heated above 1600 and cooled rapidly
σ(2pz) < π(2px), π(2py) < π*(2px), π*(2py) < σ*(2pz)
Semiconductors (반도체):
Photoelectron Spectroscopy (PES): 전자 에너지 수준을 - n-type: Doped with extra electrons
알아내는 데 사용되는 실험적 기법 - p-type: Doped with electron deficiencies (holes)
- p–n junction (접합 다이오드): Allows current in one
direction (rectification)
Molecular Solids: Contain strong covalent bonding /  Chapter 11 Summary: 용액의 성질
weak molecular bonding

Solution Composition (용액의 조성)

Ionic solids: - Solution (용액) / Solute (용질 / Solvent (용매)
Typically, larger ions are packed in the closest
packing arrangement. Smaller ions fits into holes.   
- Molarity (몰농도):   
  
Packed to maximize electrostatic attraction and
minimize repulsions   
- ​Molality (몰랄농도):   
- size: Trigonal < Tetrahedral < Octahedral  
- ZnS: ccp structure, tetrahedral holes   
- Mass Percent:  × 
- NaCl: ccp structure, octahedral holes (net#=4)   

- Mole Fraction (몰분율):    
Vaporization (Evaporation)    
: Endothermic. Liquid molecule escape liquid’s surface   
- Normality:   
 
Heat of caporization (ΔHvap) > depends on reaction type
: Energy required to vaporize 1 mole of a liquid (1atm) ▶ acid-base: 1 mole of protons
▶ osidation-reduction reations: 1 mole of electrons
Condensation
: Process by which vapor molecules reform a liquid Energy of Solution Formation
1. Expand solute (endothermic)
Equilibrium
2. Expand solvent (endothermic)
: Point which no further net change occurs
3. Solute–solvent interaction (exothermic)
Pvapor=Patmosphere-PHg column
Δsolution=Δ1+Δ2+Δ3
“Like dissolves like” → polar vs nonpolar
Vapor pressure
- 온도 일정 → 더 많은 분자가 기화=증기 압력↑
Solubility Factors (용해도 요인)
Liquids with high vapor pressure are volatile(휘발성)
- Structure: Polar vs nonpolar (e.g., vitamins)
- Pressure: Gases↑ pressure↑ solubility↑
(Henry’s Law: =)
- Temperature:
Solids: solubility ↑ with temp
Gases: solubility ↓ with temp
Non-volatile solute: solvnet v.p.↓ b.p.↑
Vapor pressure of pure solvent > v.p.of solution.
Pure solvent emits vapor to achieve equilibrium.

∆  Colligative Properties:

ln         
  Depend on number of particles, not identity
T; Temperature (Kelvin) - Vapor Pressure Lowering
ΔHvap: Enthalpy of vaporization : Raoult's Law soln=solvent0solvent
R: Universal gas constant soln: 용액의 증기압 (기울기)
C: Constant characteristic of a given liquid solvent: 용매의 몰분율 (x)
At melting point, (l) and (s) have same vapor pressure 0solvent: 순수 용매의 증기압 (y)
Modified Raoult’s law: Ptotal=PA+PB=APA0+BPB0
Phase Diagram of Water Ideal solution: (l)-(l) law that obeys Raoul’t law
Triple point (T3): all three phases exist simultaneously
Critical Point (P3): defined by critical P and T ΔHsoln
- Critical P: Pressure required to produce liquefaction (-): strong interaction. negatice deviation. v.p.↑
- Critical T: Temperature above which vapor can't be (+): weak interaction. positive deviation. v.p.↓ (e-h)
liquefied, irrespective of the pressure applied
Solid/liquid line has negatice slope! - Boiling Point Elevation (끓는점 상승): Δ=⋅solute
Density of (s) H2O is smaller than the (l) - Freezing Point Depression (어는점 내림): Δ=⋅solute
- Osmotic Pressure (삼투압): Π(atm)=
Sublimation: 승화 ((s) → (g)) (R=0.08206L⋅atm/K⋅mol)
Isotonic solutions: identical osmotic P (등장액)
Phase Diagram of Carbon Dioxide Hypertonic: 고장액/ Hypotonic: 저장액 (세포 팽창/파열)
Liquid stae does not exist at a P of 1atm Desalination: removal of dissolved salt from solution
Solid/liquid line has positice slope   
van’t Hoff Factor   
Density of (s) CO2 is greater than the (l)   