UNIT – II

Disasters: Disasters classification; Natural disasters (Floods, Drought,

Cyclones, Volcanoes, Earthquakes, Tsunami, Landslides, Coastal erosion, Soil
erosion, Forest fires etc.); Manmade disasters (Industrial pollution, Artificial
flooding in urban areas, Nuclear radiation, Chemical spills, Transportation
accidents, Terrorist strikes, etc.); Hazard and Vulnerability profile of India,
Mountain and Coastal areas.

– Disasters Classification [Or] Type of Disasters:

There are two types of disasters namely:

1. Natural disasters.
2. Manmade disasters.

Both natural and man-made disasters which have devastating input resulting loss
of human life, loss of livelihoods, property and environmental degradation.
Disasters disrupts normal functioning of society and leave long lasting impact.

1. Natural disasters: Certain disasters occur in nature, without human

provocation. They are listed below:

i. Floods.
ii. Drought.
iii. Cyclones.
iv. Volcanoes.
v. Earthquakes.
vi. Tsunami.
vii. Landslides.
viii. Coastal erosion.
ix. Soil erosion.
x. Forest fires etc.

2. Manmade or Man Induced or Artificial or Anthropogenic disasters:

Certain disasters occur in nature by humans activities. They are listed below:

i. Industrial pollution.
ii. Artificial flooding in urban areas.
iii. Nuclear radiation.
iv. Chemical spills.
 v. Transportation accidents.
vi. Terrorist strikes, etc.

Note: Both Natural & Manmade disasters are explained clearly in sections
2.2 & 2.3

– Natural Disasters (Floods, Drought, Cyclones, Volcanoes, Earthquakes,

Tsunami, Landslides, Coastal Erosion, Soil Erosion & Forest Fires Etc.):
Natural disasters: Natural disasters are disasters that occur as a natural process
of weather patterns or other factors affecting Earth.
Or
Natural disasters occur in nature, without human provocation.
Types of Natural disasters: These types of natural disasters can include:
1. Floods.
2. Drought.
3. Cyclones.
4. Volcanoes.
5. Earthquakes.
6. Tsunami.
7. Landslides or mudslides.
8. Coastal erosion.
9. Soil erosion.
10.Forest fires etc.
FLOODS
Definition:
Flood is a state of high water level along a river channel or on the coast that leads
to inundation of land, which is not usually submerged. Floods may happen
gradually and also may take hours or even happen suddenly without any warning
due to breach in the embankment, spill over, heavy rains etc.
Or
Floods are sudden and temporary inundation of a large area as an overflowing of
rivers or reservoirs.
 Or
A flood occurs when the volume of water in the river becomes greater than bank‐
full stage the extra water spills over the banks and spreads in sheets all along and
away from the banks governed by available slope. This condition is called flood.

Introduction:
Floods are relatively slow in occurrences and often, occur in well‐identified
regions and within expected time in a year. Floods occur commonly when water
in the form of surface run‐off exceeds the carrying capacity of the river channels
and streams and flows into the neighbouring low‐lying flood plains. At times, this
even goes beyond the capacity of lakes and other inland water bodies in which
they flow.
Floods can also be caused due to a storm surge (in the coastal areas), high intensity
rainfall for a considerably longer time period, melting of ice and snow, reduction
in the infiltration rate and presence of eroded material in the water due to higher
rate of soil erosion. Though floods occur frequently over wide geographical area
having disastrous ramifications in many parts of the world, floods in the South,
Southeast and East Asian countries, particularly in China, India and Bangladesh,
are frequent and equally disastrous.
Types/Classification of Floods:
According to their duration flood can be divided into different categories:
1. Slow‐Onset Floods: Slow Onset Floods usually last for a relatively longer
period, it may last for one or more weeks, or even months.
2. Rapid‐Onset Floods: Rapid Onset Floods last for a relatively shorter period,
they usually last for one or two days only.
3. Flash Floods: Flash Floods may occur within minutes or a few hours after
heavy rainfall, tropical storm, failure of dams or levees or releases from dams,
and it causes the greatest damages to society.
Magnitude & Frequency of Flood:

 The magnitude of a flood is generally indicated by the discharge of water

from a channel at a particular point. The discharge of flow is commonly
indicated by means of a hydrograph.
 As the name indicates, a hydrograph is a plot between discharge of a stream
at a particular place in cubic meters/sec or cubic feet/sec over a period of
time (day/week/month/year). A flood is often indicated by the Peak in a
hydrograph.

 If we have hydrographs of a river for longer periods (or years) then it can
be used for flood prediction studies.
 If we have longer periods of hydrographs, the frequency of flood i.e. its
recurrence or periodicity can be predicted.
 If a flood has return period of 10 years it means it occurs once in 10
years.

Flood Hazard in India/Distributional Pattern of Floods in India:

Floods occur in almost all the river basins of the country. Various states of India
face heavy loss of lives and property due to recurrent floods. National Flood
Commission identified 40 million hectares of land as flood‐prone in India.
Assam, West Bengal and Bihar are among the high flood‐prone states of India.
Apart from these, most of the rivers in the northern states like Punjab and Uttar
Pradesh, are also vulnerable to occasional floods. It has been noticed that states
like Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana and Punjab are also getting inundated in recent
decades due to flash floods. This is partly because of the pattern of the monsoon
and partly because of blocking of most of the streams and river channels by
human activities. Sometimes, Tamil Nadu experiences flooding during
November‐ January due to the retreating monsoon.
Most of the flood affected areas lie in the Ganga basin, Brahmaputra basin
(comprising of Barak, Tista, Torsa, Subansiri, Sankosh, Dihang and Luhit), the
north western river basin (comprising Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej, Beas and the
Ghagra), peninsular river basin (Tapti, Narmada, Mahanadi, Baitarani, Godavari,
krishna, Pennar and the Kaveri) and the coastal regions of Andhra Pradesh,
Tamilnadu, orissa and Kerala. Assam, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Orissa are some
of the states who have been severely prone to floods. Our country receives an
annual rainfall of 1200 mm, 85% of which is concentrated in 3‐4 months i.e June
to September. Due to the intense and periodic rain, most of the rivers of the
country are fed with huge quantity of water, much beyond their carrying capacity
Monitoring of Floods:

Anticipating floods before they occur allows for precautions to be taken and
people to be warned so that they can be prepared in advance for flooding
conditions.

In order to make the most accurate flood forecasts for waterways, it is best to have
a long time‐series of historical data that relates stream flows to measure past
rainfall events. Radar estimates of rainfall and general weather forecasting
techniques are also important components of good flood forecasting.
Possible Risk Reduction Measures:

1. Mapping of the flood prone areas is a primary step involved in reducing the
risk of the region. Historical records give the indication of the flood inundation
areas and the period of occurrence and the extent of the coverage. Warning can
be issued looking into the earlier marked heights of the water levels in case of
potential threat. In the coastal areas the tide levels and the land characteristics will
determine the submergence areas. Flood hazard mapping will give the proper
indication of water flow during floods.

2. Land use control will reduce danger of life and property when waters
inundate the floodplains and the coastal areas. The number of casualties is related
to the population in the area at risk. In areas where people already have built their
settlements, measures should be taken to relocate to better sites so as to reduce
vulnerability. No major development should be permitted in the areas which are
subjected to high flooding. Important facilities like hospitals, schools should be
built in safe areas. In urban areas, water holding areas can be created like ponds,
lakes or low‐lying areas.

3. Construction of engineered structures in the flood plains and strengthening

of structures to withstand flood forces and seepage. The buildings should be
constructed on an elevated area. If necessary build on stilts or platform. Flood
Control aims to reduce flood damage. This can be done by decreasing the amount
of runoff with the help of reforestation (to increase absorption could be a
mitigation strategy in certain areas), protection of vegetation, clearing of debris
from streams and other water holding areas, conservation of ponds and lakes etc.

Flood Diversion include levees, embankments, dams and channel improvement.

Dams can store water and can release water at a manageable rate. But failure of
dams in earthquakes and operation of releasing the water can cause floods in the
lower areas. Flood Proofing reduces the risk of damage. Measures include use of
sand bags to keep flood water away, blocking or sealing of doors and windows
of houses etc. Houses may be elevated by building on raised land. Buildings
should be constructed away from water bodies.

4. Flood Management: In India, systematic planning for flood management

commenced with the Five Year Plans, particularly with the launching of National
Programme of Flood Management in 1954. During the last 48 years, different
methods of flood protection structural as well as non-structural have
been adopted in different states depending upon the nature of the problem and
local conditions.

Causes of Floods:
1. Natural Causes:
i. Heavy Rainfall: Heavy rainfall raises the water level. When the water
level is higher than the river bank or the dams, the water comes out from
the river, and there will be flooding.
ii. Snowmelt: Because of global warming, the temperature of current years is
higher than the temperature of years ago. The ice caps melt in summer, and
the water goes into the sea. The water raises the sea level, and makes the
river level rise. When river level rises, flooding may occur.
iii. Relief (release): Flooding often occurs in lowlands. This is because rivers
flow more slowly in low-lying areas. If the water volume increases
suddenly, floods occur.
iv. Coastal flooding: Flooding also occurs in coastal areas. High tides or
storms cause the water level to rise. If the water level is higher than the
level of the coastal lowland, flooding will occur.
2. Human Causes:
i. Deforestation: Large areas of forests near/besides the rivers have been
cleared. The lands are used to make room for settlement, roads and
farmland. Less vegetation protects the soil; the soil is quickly lost to rivers
and the sea. This raises the river bed, so the river overflows its banks easily.
ii. Poor farming: Some farming practices can damage the vegetation cover,
which might also become a reason for flooding.
iii. Poor water management: When the dams are poorly constructed or
maintained, they can easily collapse and this result in flooding. Compared
to concrete dams, several earthen dams might fail.
iv. Population pressure: Because of large population, everything needs
more, like wood, land and food. These results in storing more water, when
it can’t be maintained properly, overflow of reservoirs might take place
causing floods in the downstream.
Typical Adverse Effects/Impacts:

1. Casualties: Human and livestock death due to drowning, serious injuries and
outbreak of epidemics like diarrhoea, cholera, jaundice or viral infections are
common problems faced in flood affected areas. Even wells, other source of
drinking water get submerged resulting in acute shortage of safe drinking water
during floods. Consequently often people are forced to drink the contaminated
floodwater, which may cause serious diseases.

2. Structural damage: During floods mud huts and buildings built on weak
foundations collapse endangering human lives and property. Damage may also
be cause to roads, rail, dams, monuments, crops and cattle. Floods may uproot
trees and may cause landslides and soil erosion.

3. Material loss: Household articles including eatables, electronic goods, beds,

clothes, furniture get submerged in water and get spoilt all materials mounted
on ground e.g. food stock, equipment, vehicles, livestock, machinery, salt pan and
fishing boats can be submerged and spoilt.

4. Utilities damage: Utilities such as water supply, sewerage, communication

lines, power-lines, transportation network and railways are put at risk.

5. Crop loss: Apart from the loss of human and cattle life, floods cause severe
devastation of standing agricultural crops. Floods water spoils the stored food-
grains or harvested crop. Floods may affect soil characteristics and may turn them
infertile due to the erosion of the top soil or in coastal areas agricultural lands may
turn saline due to flooding by sea water.

6. Flood control: Flood control can be achieved through various means. The
floodwater can be reduced by reducing the run-off water through afforestation.
Forests promote rainwater percolation in the ground, thus recharging the
groundwater and reducing the run-off water. Construction of dams also reduces
flood water through storage. Dams can store water, which cannot be
accommodated in the river downstream may cause floods. Water can be released
in a controlled manner from the dam. Desilting, deepening and increasing
embankment increase the capacity of a river/channel/drain.
Precautions:

Some precautionary measures are as follows:

1. Build houses away from flood prone area.

2. Keep yourself alert and updated to weather and flood forecasting
information.
3. In case evacuation warnings are issued, immediately go to the shelters
provided.
4. When you are moving to a shelter, move your valuable articles to safer
elevated places so that they are not destroyed by flood water.
5. Store extra food, such as rice, pulses etc. for emergency.
6. Do not touch any loose electric wire to avoid electrocution.
7. Do not spread rumours or listen to them.
8. Make provision for adults and children who need special diet.
9. After the flood is over, get yourself and your family members inoculated
against diseases and seek medical care for injured and sick.
10. Clear the house and dwellings of debris.
11.Report any loss to the revenue authorities.
Flood Benefits:
Floods (in particular more frequent or smaller floods) can also bring many
benefits, such as:
1. Recharging ground water, making soil more fertile and increasing nutrients
in some soils.
2. Flood waters provide much needed water resources in arid and semi‐arid
regions where precipitation can be very unevenly distributed throughout
the year.
3. Freshwater floods particularly play an important role in maintaining
ecosystems in river corridors and are a key factor in maintaining floodplain
biodiversity.
4. Flooding can spread nutrients to lakes and rivers, which can lead to
increased biomass and improved fisheries for a few years.
5. Fish, such as the weather fish, make use of floods in order to reach new
habitats.
6. Bird populations may also profit from the boost in food productioncaused
by flooding.
 DROUGHT
Definition:
Droughts may be defined as a condition that arises from too little precipitation
(rain or snow) for an extended period of time for normal farming practices to be
conducted.
Or
Drought is an event that results from lower than normal expected rainfall over a
season or period. The low rainfall is insufficient to meet the needs of human
beings, plants, animals and agriculture. Short fall in rain results in drying of
rivers, lakes, reservoirs and drying of wells due to excessive withdrawal and poor
recharge of ground water and loss of crop yield due to shortage of water are some
of the main indicators of drought.

Introduction:
 68% of the net area sown in the country is prone to drought.
 Out of this 33% is chronically drought prone, receiving rainfall less than
750mm per annum.
 35% drought prone that receive rainfall between 750-1125 mm per
annum.
Types/Classification:
Droughts can be categorized into the following types:
1. Meteorological Drought: It occurs when the average rainfall and snowfall is
below average for an extended period of time, thereby causing a natural shortage
of available water.
2. Agricultural Drought: It occurs when the soil moisture is not sufficient to
support the production of crops.
3. Hydrological Drought: This type of drought occurs when the water levels in
aquifers, lakes and reservoirs, fall below the average levels. This can occur even
during average or above average precipitation, when water consumption by
humans is more, thus lowering the water reserves.
Distributional Pattern:

Causes:

Drought occurs due to shortage of rainfall. As per Meteorological Department if

rainfall is deficient by more than 10% of the annual average rainfall, the condition
is said to be that of drought. The severity of drought is determined by the extent
of deviation of rainfall from the average. In the recent past frequency of periods
of drought have increasing due to deforestation and environmental degradation.
 Effects/Impacts:
1. Economic impacts: It includes the monetary effects of drought to people.
Following are some of the examples:
i. Droughts destroy the growth of crops, with lower yields and crops are of
poor quality. In order to provide sufficient water to crops, farmers have to
spend more money to irrigate their fields.
ii. The livestock of ranches may be lost. More money may have to be spent
to feed and water the livestock.
iii. Fishes and other aquatic organisms are lost due to drought.
iv. The recreation and tourism industry incurs loss.
v. The income from timber production may be lost owing to reduced timber
production due to wild fires, impaired productivity of forest land and loss
of young trees.
vi. Businesses that process various food stuffs may lose business due to loss
of crops by drought.
vii. Since the hydropower will be in short supply, the power generating
companies will have to spend more to provide alternative sources of power
to their customers.
viii. Water companies will have to spend more for new or supplemental water
resource development.
ix. The transportation industries suffer loss due to impaired navigability of
barrages, and ships in streams, rivers and canals owing to decreased water
levels.
x. Shortage in food production and disrupted food supply causes increase in
the import of food at higher costs. So, there is inflation in food prices.
2. Environmental impact: It includes loss to the environment by way of forest
fires, erosion of soil, damage to all living forms and their habitat, decline in the
water and the air quality. Some of the examples are as under:
i. Due to lack of food and drinking water, due to loss of wet lands and
vegetation there is greater mortality of fish and wildlife habitat.
ii. Shortage of food and water leads to diseases in animals.
iii. The wildlife may leave the drought stricken areas and migrate to other
places.
iv. The endangered species are at an increased stress.
v. The water levels in the reservoirs, ponds and lakes decrease. The wetland
also decreases.
vi. Drought causes the soil to dry up and become prone to erosion by wind,
resulting in reduced soil quality. This leads to loss of biological
productivity of the landscape.
vii. Loss of biodiversity and extinction of species.
3. Social impacts: It involves public safety and health, disputes arising due to
water shortage and lifestyle changes. Some of the examples in this category are:
i. The revenue loss caused by drought may cause mental and physical stress
on people.
ii. The heat stress, mental stress and physical stress may contribute to loss of
human life and suicidal tendencies.
iii. Reduction in recreational activities.
iv. People migrate to other places.
v. The reduction in nutrition due to inflation, causes malnutrition and
famine.
vi. A general increase in poverty leads to changes in lifestyle and quality of
life.
Drought Control Measures:
A drought-like situation can be avoided by the following ways:
1. Rain water harvesting: This is one of the most important and economical
tool of water conservation, used for collecting and storing the rain water
from roof tops and land surface to provide water for agriculture, industries
and domestic use.
2. Crop Rotation: Rotation of perennial crops and leguminous plants
alternating with cash crops controls soil erosion and helps the formation
of better quality soil.
3. Channelizing the rivers: By building canals in drought prone areas is an
efficient way to combat the effects of drought.
4. Cloud seeding: It is an artificial technique to stimulate the precipitation
process and form rain. The method involves sprinkling silver iodide
aerosols into the upper part of clouds. The water droplets in the clouds
attach to silver iodide and freeze. The ice crystals stick together and fall
as snow.
5. Desalination of sea water: Desalination plants are set up to covert sea
water and contaminated water to drinking water. Desalinated water is
 used mostly in the Middle East, North Africa, California and parts of
Florida in the US.
6. Risk mitigation efforts by the Government: These include Drought
Prone Area Program (DPAP), Desert Development Program (DDP),
National Watershed Development Project for Rain-fed areas (NWDPRA),
Watershed Development Program for Shifting Cultivation (WDPSC),
Integrated Water Development Project (IWDP), Integrated Afforestation
and Economic Development Project Scheme (IAEPS).
CYCLONES

Definition:

Cyclone is a region of low atmospheric pressure surrounded by high atmospheric

pressure resulting in swirling atmospheric disturbance accompanied by powerful
winds blowing in anticlockwise direction in the Northern Hemisphere and in the
clockwise direction in the Southern Hemisphere. They occur mainly in the
tropical and temperate regions of the world.

Or

Cyclones are violent storms, often of vast extent, characterised by strong and high
winds rotating about a calm center of low atmospheric pressure. This center
moves onwards, often with velocity of around 50 km/h. Cyclones strike suddenly
though it takes time for them to build up. Cyclone is generally followed by heavy
rains causing floods. Satellite tracking can predict on possible affected areas and
inhabitants fore-warned can be made for warning. Warning and evacuation is
done along the projected path.
Introduction:

 Long coastline of 8000 kms.

 Pre-monsoon (May-June) and post-monsoon (Sept-Oct) cyclones.
 Coastal districts of Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and Gujrat most prone to
cyclone.
 Most casualties caused by coastal inundation due to tidal waves, storm
surges and torrential rains.
 Cyclones are known by different names in different parts of the world:
• Typhoons in the Northwest Pacific Ocean west of the dateline.
• Hurricanes in the North Atlantic Ocean, the Northeast Pacific
Ocean east of the dateline, or the South Pacific Ocean.
• Tropical cyclones the Southwest Pacific Ocean and Southeast
Indian Ocean.
• Severe cyclonic storm (the North Indian Ocean).
• Tropical cyclone (the Southwest Indian Ocean).
• Willie‐Willie in Australia.
• Tornado in South America

Types/Classification:

The term 'cyclone' actually refers to several different types of storms. They occur
in different places, and some occur over land while others occur over water. What
they all have in common is that they are spinning storms rotating around that low
‐pressure center.

1. Tropical cyclones: Tropical cyclones are what most people are familiar with
because these are cyclones that occur over tropical ocean regions. Hurricanes and
typhoons are actually types of tropical cyclones, but they have different names so
that it's clear where that storm is occurring. Hurricanes are found in the Atlantic
and Northeast Pacific, typhoons are found in the Northwest Pacific. If you hear
'tropical cyclone,' you should assume that it's occurring in the South Pacific or
Indian Ocean, but for this lesson, we'll use it refer to all types of tropical ocean
cyclones.

We can also further describe tropical cyclones based on their wind speeds. They
are called category 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5, increasing with intensity and wind speed as the
number increases. A category 1 cyclone is the weakest, with wind speeds of 74‐
95 mph. A category 5 cyclone, on the other hand, is extremely dangerous
and has the potential for major damage. Category 5 cyclones have wind speeds
of 155 mph and above!

2. Polar cyclones: Polar cyclones are cyclones that occur in polar regions like
Greenland, Siberia and Antarctica. Unlike tropical cyclones, polar cyclones are
usually stronger in winter months. As you can see, these storms really do prefer
the colder weather! They also occur in areas that aren't very populated, so any
damage they do is usually pretty minimal.

3. Mesocyclone: Mesocyclone is when part of a thunderstorm cloud starts to

spin, which may eventually lead to a tornado. 'Meso' means 'middle', so you can
think of this as the mid ‐point between one type of storm and the other. Tornadoes
all come from thunderstorm clouds, but not all thunderstorm clouds make
tornadoes. In order for a tornado to occur, part of that cloud has to spin, and
though you can't really see this happening, this is the intermediate, or 'meso' step
from regular cloud to dangerous spinning cloud running along the ground.

General Characteristics:

Cyclones in India are moderate in nature. Some of the general characteristics of

a cyclone are:

1. Strong winds.
2. Exceptional rain.
3. Storm surge.

Cyclones are generally accompanied by strong winds which cause a lot of

destruction. In some cases it is accompanied by heavy downpour and also the rise
in the sea which intrudes inland there by causing floods.

Development of a Cyclone:

The development of a cyclone covers three stages namely:

1. Formation and initial development state: Four atmospheric/oceanic

conditions are necessary for the formation of a cyclone namely:

i. A warm sea temperature in excess of 26 degree centigrade, to a depth of

60 meters, which provides abundant water vapour in the air by
evaporation.
 ii. High relative humidity (degree to which the air is saturated by to a height
of about 7000 meters, facilitates condensation of water vapor into droplets
and clouds, releases heat energy and induces drop in pressure).
iii. Atmospheric instability (an above average decrease of temperature with
altitude) encourages considerable vertical cumulus cloud convection when
condensation of rising air occurs.
iv. A location of at least 4‐5 latitude degrees from the Equator allow the
influence of the force due to the earth’s rotation (Coriolis force) to take
effect in inducing cyclonic wind circulation around low pressure centers.

2. Fully matured: The main feature of a fully mature tropical cyclone is a spiral
pattern of highly turbulent giant cumulus thundercloud bands. These bands spiral
inwards and form a dense highly active central cloud core which raps around a
relatively calm zone. This is called the “eye” of a cyclone. The eye looks like a
black hole or a dot surrounded by thick clouds. The outer circumference of the
thick cloud is called the ‘eye wall’.

3. Weakening or decay: A tropical cyclone begins to weaken as soon as its

source of warm moist air is abruptly cut off. This is possible when the cyclone
hits the land, on the cyclone moves to a higher altitude or when there is the
interference of another low pressure.

Depending on their track on the warm tropical sea and proximity to land a cyclone
may last for less than 24 hours to more than 3 weeks. On an average the life cycle
of a cyclone (a cyclone to complete these three stages mentioned above) takes six
days. The longest cyclone is typhoon John which lasted for 31 days (August to
September, 1994 in the north east and north west pacific basins).

Distributional Pattern:
The map of India shows the areas that are generally affected by strong winds/
cyclones.
Some of the major cyclones that have affected the country in the past are as
mentioned in table below:
Elements at Risk:

Strong winds, torrential rains and flooding cause a huge loss to life and property.
The 1999 Super Cyclone of Orissa killed more than 10,000 precious lives with
women and children greatly affected. Apart from loss to life there is a huge loss
to infrastructures like houses built of mud, older buildings with weak walls,
bridges, settlements in low lying areas.

Effects of Cyclones and Hurricanes:

1. Tropical cyclones cause heavy rainfall and landslides.

2. They cause a lot of harm to towns and villages, causing severe damage to
kuccha houses. Coastal businesses like shipyards and oil wells are
destroyed.
3. They harm the ecosystem of the surrounding region.
4. Civic facilities are disturbed.
5. Agricultural land is severely affected, especially in terms of water supply
and soil erosion.
6. It causes harm to human, plant and animal life.
7. Communication systems are badly affected due to cyclones.

Possible Risk Reduction Measures:

1. Coastal belt plantation: Green belt plantation along the coastal line in a
scientific interweaving pattern can reduce the effect of the hazard. Providing a
cover through green belt sustains less damage. Forests act as a wide buffer zone
against strong winds and flash floods. Without the forest the cyclone travel freely
inland. The lack of protective forest cover allows water to inundate large areas
and cause destruction. With the loss of the forest cover each consecutive cyclone
can penetrate further inland.

2. Hazard mapping: Meteorological records of the wind speed and the

directions give the probability of the winds in the region. Cyclones can be
predicted several days in advance. The onset is extensive and often very
destructive. Past records and paths can give the pattern of occurrence for
particular wind speeds. A hazard map will illustrate the areas vulnerable to
cyclone in any given year. It will be useful to estimate the severity of the cyclone
and various damage intensities in the region. The map is prepared with data inputs
of past climatological records, history of wind speed, frequency of flooding etc.
 3. Land use control: Designed so that least critical activities are placed in
vulnerable areas. Location of settlements in the flood plains is at utmost risk.
Siting of key facilities must be marked in the land use. Policies should be in place
to regulate land use and building codes should be enforced.

4. Engineered structures: Structures need to be built to withstand wind forces.

Good site selection is also important. Majority of the buildings in coastal areas
are built with locally available materials and have no engineering inputs. Good
construction practice should be adopted such as:

i. Cyclonic wind storms inundate the coastal areas. It is advised to construct

on stilts or on earth mound.
ii. Houses can be strengthened to resist wind and flood damage. All elements
holding the structures need to be properly anchored to resist the uplift or
flying off of the objects. For example, avoid large overhangs of roofs, and
the projections should be tied down.
iii. A row of planted trees will act as a shield. It reduces the energy.
iv. Buildings should be wind and water resistant.
v. Buildings storing food supplies must be protected against the winds and
water.
vi. Protect river embankments.
vii. Communication lines should be installed underground.
viii. Provide strong halls for community shelter in vulnerable locations.
5. Flood management: Torrential rains strong wind and storm range leads to
flooding in the cyclone affected areas. There are possibilities of landslides too.
Flood mitigation measures could be incorporated (see section on floods for
additional information).

6. Improving vegetation cover: The roots of the plants and trees keep the soil
intact and prevent erosion and slow runoff to prevent or lessen flooding. The use
of tree planted in rows will act as a windbreak. Coastal shelterbelt plantations can
be developed to break severe wind speeds. It minimizes devastating effects. The
Orissa calamity has also highlighted the need for urgent measures like shelterbelt
plantation along cyclone‐prone coastal areas. Species chosen for this purpose
should not only be able to withstand the impact of strong cyclonic winds, but
also check soil erosion.

VOLCANOES

Definition & Introduction:

Volcanoes are openings in the earth's crust created when molten material under
the crust is propelled upward though the surface. The magma chamber collects
the magma that is expelled to the surface in an eruption. A volcanic event could
be:
1. Destructive, with voluminous lava flows or explosive activity. This usually
occurs when magma is sticky and contains a lot of gas. Hot debris particles called
pyroclastic are expelled during violent explosions. Heavier pieces land near the
crater and lighter pieces can be carried by the wind for hundreds of miles.

2. Non-destructive, with little release of solids or magmatic liquid. These

eruptions occur when the magma is more fluid and contains less gas. The solids
or magma rocks and lava cools on its slope.

Causes and Distribution of Volcanoes:

Volcanoes are generally found where tectonic plates are diverging orconverging.
A mid-oceanic ridge, for example the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, has examples of
volcanoes caused by divergent tectonic plates pulling apart; the Pacific Ring of
Fire has examples of volcanoes caused by convergent tectonic plates coming
together. By contrast, volcanoes are usually not created wheretwo tectonic
plates slide past one another. Volcanoes can also form where there
is stretching and thinning of the Earth's crust in the interiors of plates, e.g., in the
East African Rift, the Wells Gray-Clearwater volcanic field and the Rio Grande
Rift in North America. This type of volcanism falls under the umbrella of "Plate
hypothesis" volcanism. Volcanism away from plate boundaries has also been
explained as mantle plumes. These so-called "hotspots", for example Hawaii, are
postulated to arise from upwelling diapirs with magma from the core–mantle
boundary, 3,000 km deep in the Earth.

Environmental Impacts of Volcanic Eruptions:

Volcanic eruptions can be extremely damaging to the environment, particularly

because of a number of toxic gases possibly present in pyroclastic material. It
typically consists mainly of water vapor, but it also contains carbon dioxide and
sulphur dioxide gas. Other gases typically found in volcanic ashes are hydrogen
sulphide, hydrogen chloride, hydrogen fluoride, carbon monoxide, and volatile
metal chlorides.

Carbon dioxide emitted from volcanoes adds to the natural greenhouse effect.
Sulphur-dioxides cause environmental problems, because they are converted to
sulphuric acid in the stratosphere; the main cause of acid rain. Furthermore,
sulphate aerosols are formed, which reflect solar radiation and absorb heat,
thereby cooling the earth. Sulphate aerosols also take part in chemical reactions,
forming ozone destructive material.

EARTHQUAKES

Definition:

It is the sudden shaking of the earth crust. The impact of an earthquake is sudden
and there is hardly any warning, making it impossible to predict.

Or

An earthquake is a phenomenon of shaking on the surface of the earth, due to the

movement along geological faults present in the earth’s lithosphere. It is usually
what happens when two blocks of the earth suddenly slip past one another, or
break apart from each other as a result of tension caused by prolonged energy
build up. This sudden release of energy from the fault plane will generate seismic
waves to travel in all directions. The seismic waves that reach the earth’s surface
cause an earthquake.
Or
Earthquake is a sudden release of energy accumulated in deformed rocks of earth
crust causing the ground to tremble or shake. Earthquake can occur suddenly any
time of the year without any warning causing severe loss of life and property
(Fig). We are aware of the severe damage caused by earthquakes of Latur (1993)
and Bhuj (2002).

Introduction:

Earthquake is one of the most destructive natural hazard. They may occur at any
time of the year, day or night, with sudden impact and little warning. They can
destroy buildings and infrastructure in seconds, killing or injuring the inhabitants.
Earthquakes not only destroy the entire habitation but may de- stabilize the
government, economy and social structure of the country.

Globally, earthquakes result in a loss of about 50,000 lives every year.

Earthquakes over 5.5 magnitude on the Richter scale are progressively damaging
to property and human life. However, there are many other factorsthat influences
the damage pattern. Massive earthquakes generally occur near the junction of
two tectonic plates, e.g., along the Himalayan range, where the Indian plate goes
below Eurasian plate. The Indian sub- continent situated on the boundaries of two
continental plates is very prone to earthquakes. Some of the most intense
earthquakes of the world have occurred in India. Fortunately, none of these have
occurred in any of the major cities. According to latest seismic zoning map
brought out by the Bureau of Indian Standard (BIS), over65 percent of the
country is prone to earthquake of intensity Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale
(MSK) VII or more.

India has been divided into four seismic zones according to the maximum
intensity of earthquake expected (Figure below). Of these, zone V is the most
active which comprises of whole of Northeast India, the northern portion of Bihar,
Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, J&K, Gujarat and Andaman & Nicobar Islands.
India has highly populous cities and the constructions in these cities are not
earthquake resistant. Regulatory mechanisms are weak, thus any earthquake
striking in one of these cities would turn into a major disaster. Six major
earthquakes have struck different parts of India over a span of the last 15 years.

Earthquakes come in many forms:

 Felt as a shock under your feet, or
 Powerful and destructive enough to flatten an entire city.
 Can happen anywhere, land or sea.
Terminology:
1. Focus or Hypocenter: The point on the fault where slip starts is the Focus or
Hypocenter.

2. Epicenter: The point vertically above this on the surface of the Earth is the
Epicenter.

3. Focal Depth: The depth of focus from the epicenter, called as Focal Depth.

4. Epicentral distance: Most of the damaging earthquakes have shallow focus

with focal depths less than about 70km. Distance from epicenter to any point of
interest is called epicentral distance.
Types/Classification of Earthquakes:

1. Depth of focus as basis:

i. Shallow: Depth of focus lies up to 60km below the surface.

ii. Intermediate: Depth of focus lies between 60-300km below the surface.
iii. Deep seated: Depth of focus lies between 300-700km below the surface.

2. Magnitude as basis (See classification above in Magnitude).

3. Cause of origin as basis:

i. Tectonic earthquakes: Caused due to relative displacements of blocks of

the crust of the earth along the rupture planes.
ii. Non-tectonic earthquake: Caused due to volcanic eruptions, atomic
explosions landslides and subsidence.

Earthquake Hazards Zoning of India:

The major reason for the high frequency and intensity of the earthquakes is that
the Indian plate is driving into Asia at a rate of approximately 47 mm/year.
Geographical statistics of India show that almost 54% of the land is vulnerable
to earthquakes. A World Bank & United Nations report shows estimates that
around 200 million city dwellers in India will be exposed to storms and
earthquakes by 2050. The latest version of seismic zoning map of India given in
the earthquake resistant design code of India [IS 1893 (Part 1) 2002] assigns four
levels of seismicity for India in terms of zone factors. In other words, the
earthquake zoning map of India divides India into 4 seismic zones (Zone 2, 3, 4
and 5) unlike its previous version which consisted of five or six zones for the
country. According to the present zoning map, Zone 5 expects the highest level
of seismicity whereas Zone 2 is associated with the lowest level of seismicity.
The latest seismic zoning map can be accessed from The India Meteorological
Department website.
Each zone indicates the effects of an earthquake at a particular place based on the
observations of the affected areas and can also be described using a descriptive
scale like Modified Mercalli intensity scale…
Zone 5: Covers the areas with the highest risks zone that suffers earthquakes of
intensity IX or greater. The IS code assigns zone factor of 0.36 for Zone 5.
Structural designers use this factor for earthquake resistant design of structures in
Zone 5. It is referred to as the Very High Damage Risk Zone. The state of
Kashmir, the western and central Himalayas, the North-East Indian region and
the Rann of Kutch falls in this zone. Generally, the areas having trap or basaltic
rock are prone to earthquakes.
Zone 4: This zone is called the High Damage Risk Zone and covers areas liable
to intensity VIII or higher. The IS code assigns zone factor of 0.24 for Zone 4.
The Indo-Gangetic basin and the capital of the country (Delhi), Jammu and
Kashmir fall in Zone 4. In Maharashtra, Patanarea (Koyananager) also comes
under zone 4.
Zone 3: The Andaman and Nicobar Islands, parts of Kashmir, Western
Himalayas fall under this zone. This zone is classified as Moderate Damage Risk
Zone which is liable to intensity VII. The IS code assigns zone factor of
0.16 for Zone 3.
Zone 2: This region is liable to intensity VI or less and is classified as the Low
Damage Risk Zone. The IS code assigns zone factor of 0.10 (maximum horizontal
acceleration that can be experienced by a structure in this zone is 10% of
gravitational acceleration) for Zone 2.

The entire Himalayan Region is considered to be vulnerable to high intensity

earthquakes of a magnitude exceeding 8.0 on the Richter scale, and in a
relatively short span of about 50 years, four such major earthquakes have
occurred in the region.

The Circulations inside Earth:

 Convection currents develop in the viscous Mantle, because of prevailing

high temperature and pressure gradients between the Crust and the Core,
like the convective flow of water when heated in a beaker.
 These convection currents result in a circulation of the earth’s mass; hot
molten lava comes out and the cold rock mass goes into the Earth. The
mass absorbed eventually melts under high temperature and pressure and
becomes a part of the Mantle.
 Many such local circulations are taking place at different regions
underneath the Earth’s surface, leading to different portions of the Earth
undergoing different directions of movements along the surface.

Tectonic Plates/Plate Tectonics:

 German scientist Alfred Wegener, in 1915 proposed that, 200 million

years ago the earth had only one continent called Pangaea.
 Pangaea broke into pieces that slowly drifted into the present
configuration of continents.
 The convective flows of Mantle material cause the Crust and some
portion of the Mantle, to slide on the hot molten outer core.
 This sliding of Earth’s mass takes place in pieces called Tectonic Plates.
 The surface of the Earth consists of seven major tectonic plates and many
smaller ones.
These plates move in different directions and at different speeds from those of
the neighbouring ones.

1. Convergent Boundaries: Sometimes, the plate in the front is slower; then,

the plate behind it comes and collides (and mountains are formed).

2. Divergent Boundaries: Sometimes two plates move away from one another
(and rifts are created).

3. Transform Boundaries: Two plates move side-by-side, along the same

direction or in opposite directions.

The convergent boundary has a peculiarity (like at the Himalayas) that

sometimes neither of the colliding plates wants to sink.
Elastic Rebound Theory:

 Tectonic plates are made of elastic but brittle rocky material.

 Hence, elastic strain energy is stored in them during the relative
deformations that occur due to the gigantic tectonic plate actions taking
place in the Earth.
 When the rocky material along the interface of the plates in the Earth’s
Crust reaches its strength, it fractures and a sudden movement takes place
there.

 The interface between the plates where the movement has taken place
(called the fault) suddenly slips and releases the large elastic strain energy
stored in the rocks at the interface.
 The sudden slip at the fault causes the earthquake - a violent shaking of the
Earth during which large elastic strain energy released spreads out in the
form of seismic waves that travel through the body and along the surface
of the Earth.
 After the earthquake is over, the process of strain build-up at this modified
interface between the tectonic plates starts all over again.
 Earth scientists know this as the Elastic Rebound Theory.

Seismic Waves:

Large strain energy released during an earthquake travels as seismic waves in

all directions through the Earth’s layers, reflecting and refracting at each
interface. These waves are of two types:

1. Body waves.
2. Surface waves.
The surface waves are restricted to near the Earth’s surface (See Fig. below).
Body waves consist of Primary Waves (P-waves) and Secondary Waves (S-
waves), and surface waves consist of Love waves (L-waves).

Fig: Arrival of Seismic Waves at a Site

1. The P – waves (Primary waves):

 P-waves are also called primary waves, push and pull waves.
 These are the fastest waves in which the particles vibrate in the direction
of propagation.
 The velocity of P-wave is related to the rigidity of the medium and its
density.

2. The S – waves (Secondary waves):

 S-ways are also called secondary waves.

 In these waves particles vibrate right angles to the direction of
propagation of the wave.

3. The L – waves (Long waves or surface waves):

 L-waves also called Long waves or surface waves.

 These waves are sluggish and recorded only after the arrival of the P and
S waves.
 S-waves do not travel through liquids.
 S-waves in association with effects of Love waves cause maximum
damage to structures.
Recording of Earthquakes:

 The instrument used to record the motion of seismic waves is called

seismograph.
 The record produced by the instrument is called Seismogram.
 A seismograph is designed for recording either the horizontal or the
vertical component of ground motion.
 A seismograph, has three components – the sensor, the recorder and the
timer.
i. The Sensor: The pendulum mass, string, magnet and support.
ii. The Recorder: The drum, pen and chart paper constitute the
recorder.
iii. The Timer: The motor that rotates the drum at constant speed
forms the timer.
 Pendulum type seismographs are generally used.

Principle of Seismograph:

 A pen attached at the tip of an oscillating simple pendulum (a mass hung

by a string from a support) marks on a chart paper that is held on a drum
rotating at a constant speed.
 A magnet around the string provides required damping to control the
amplitude of oscillations.

 One such instrument is required in each of the two orthogonal horizontal

directions.
  For measuring vertical oscillations, the string pendulum is replaced with a
spring pendulum oscillating about a fulcrum

 Today, digital instruments using modern computer technology are more

commonly used.
 The digital instrument records the ground motion on the memory of the
microprocessor that is in-built in the instrument.

Magnitude of Earthquake:

 Magnitude is a quantitative measure of the actual size of the earthquake.

 Magnitude of an earthquake is a measure of its size.
 Professor Charles Richter noticed that,
a. At the same distance, seismograms of larger earthquakes have
bigger wave amplitude than those of smaller earthquakes.
 b. For a given earthquake, seismograms at farther distances have
smaller wave amplitude than those at close distances.
 These prompted him to propose the now commonly used magnitude scale,
the Richter scale.
 It is obtained from the seismograms and accounts for the dependence of
waveform amplitude on epicentral distance. This scale is also called Local
Magnitude scale.
 Earthquakes are classified based on magnitude as

Intensity of Earthquake:
 Intensity is an indicator of the severity of shaking generated at a given
location.
 Intensity is a qualitative measure of the actual shaking at a location during
an earthquake, and is assigned as Roman Capital Numerals.
 There are many intensity scales. Two commonly used ones are the
Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) Scale and the Medvedev–Sponheuer–
Karnik (MSK) Scale.
 Both scales are quite similar and range from I (least perceptive) to XII
(most severe).
 The intensity scales are based on three features of shaking:
1. Perception by people and animals.
2. Performance of buildings.
3. Changes to natural surroundings.
 The distribution of intensity at different places during an earthquake is
shown graphically using isoseismals, lines joining places with equal
seismic intensity.
Possible Risk Reduction Measures:

1. Community preparedness: Community preparedness is vital for mitigating

earthquake impact. The most effective way to save you even in a slightest shaking
is 'DROP, COVER and HOLD'.

2. Planning: The Bureau of Indian Standards has published building codes and
guidelines for safe construction of buildings against earthquakes. Before the
buildings are constructed the building plans have to be checked by the
Municipality, according to the laid down bylaws. Many existing lifeline buildings
such as hospitals, schools and fire stations may not be built with
earthquake safety measures. Their earthquake safety needs to be upgraded by
retrofitting techniques.

3. Public education is educating the public on causes and characteristics of an

earthquake and preparedness measures. It can be created through sensitization
and training programme for community, architects, engineers, builders, masons,
teachers, government functionaries teachers and students.

4. Engineered structures: Buildings need to be designed and constructed as per

the building by laws to withstand ground shaking. Architectural and engineering
inputs need to be put together to improve building design and construction
practices. The soil type needs to be analysed before construction. Building
structures on soft soil should be avoided. Buildings on soft soil are more likely to
get damaged even if the magnitude of the earthquake is not strong as shown in
Figure below. Similar problems persist in the buildings constructed on the river
banks which have alluvial soil.

Mitigation of Earthquake:
 National, State & Dist. Disaster Management Authorities should be
established.
 Large number of strong ground motion recorders should be installed.
 Identification and quantification of where the hazard exists should be
made.
 Seismic zonation (macro and micro) should be done.
 Numerical simulations should be done if there is no previous data.
  Review of building bye-laws (codes of practice) should be done, with
every advancement in research.
 Considering probable input forces, buildings should be analyzed,
designed and constructed with utmost care.
 Implementation gap should be reduced between poor and rich.
 Critical information should reach the emergency response team in time,
to prevent further losses.
 Earthquake engineering in undergraduate engineering/architecture
curricular.
 Hospital preparedness and emergency health management in medical
education.
 Retrofitting of life-line structures (old/vulnerable).
 Urban earthquake vulnerability reduction programme.
 Mainstreaming mitigation in rural areas.
Causes of Earthquakes:

Earthquakes develop in the crust of the earth (earth’s surface, submarine levels,
down to the ocean floors). The inner part of the earth contains massive energy.
Some of which escapes through cracks and other volcanic activity. The energy
stored causes the tectonic plates to slide, glide, knock and move around other
tectonic plate. After a period of time, the built up energy and movement causes
huge tension in the plates and there is a massive pressure on the fault lines. The
pressure resulting from built up energy causes the fault line give way, and plates
move over, against or apart from each other.

Hazardous Effect/Impacts of Earthquakes:

Ground shaking itself is not dangerous. However, the resulting damage to
buildings and other structures and the risk of casualties from falling debris can
make it extremely hazardous. The real dangers to people are being crushed in a
collapsing building, drowning in a flood caused by a broken dam or levee, getting
buried under a landslide, or being burned in a fire.
Some of the earthquake effects that can be harmful to people are:
1. The Effect of Ground Shaking: The first main earthquake hazard
(danger) is the effect of ground shaking. Buildings can be damaged by the
shaking itself or by the ground beneath them settling to a different level
than it was before the earthquake (subsidence).
 2. Ground Displacement: The second main earthquake hazard is ground
displacement (ground movement) along a fault. If a structure (a building,
road, etc.) is built across a fault, the ground displacement during an
earthquake could seriously damage or rip apart that structure.
3. Flooding: The third main hazard is flooding. An earthquake can rupture
(break) dams or levees along a river. The water from the river or the
reservoir would then flood the area, damaging buildings and maybe
sweeping away or drowning people.
4. Tsunamis and Seiches: A temporary disturbance or oscillation in the
water level of a lake, esp.one caused by changes in atmospheric pressure
can also cause a great deal of damage.
5. Fire: The fifth main earthquake hazard is fire. These fires can be started
by broken gaslines and power lines, or tipped over wood or coal stoves.
They can be a serious problem, especially if the water lines that feed the
fire hydrants are broken, too. For example, after the Great San Francisco
Earthquake in 1906, the city burned for three days. Most of the city was
destroyed and 250,000 people were left homeless.
TSUNAMI [OR] SEISMIC SEA WAVE [OR] TIDAL WAVE

Definition:

A tsunami is a very long‐wavelength wave of water that is generated by sudden

displacement of the seafloor or disruption of any body of standing water. Tsunami
are sometimes called "seismic sea waves", although they can be generated by
mechanisms other than earthquakes. Tsunami have also been called "tidal
waves", but this term should not be used because they are not inany way related
to the tides of the Earth. Because tsunami occur suddenly, often without warning,
they are extremely dangerous to coastal communities.

Or

Tsunami is also called seismic sea wave, or tidal wave, catastrophic ocean wave,
usually caused by a submarine earthquake occurring less than 50 km (30 miles)
beneath the seafloor, with a magnitude greater than 6.5 on the Richter scale.
Underwater or coastal landslides or volcanic eruptions also may cause a tsunami.
The term tidal wave is more frequently used for such a wave, but it is a misnomer,
for the wave has no connection with the tides.
Introduction:

The term Tsunami has been derived from a Japanese term Tsu meaning 'harbor'
and nami meaning 'waves'. Tsunamis are popularly called tidal waves but they
actually have nothing to do with the tides.

These waves which often affect distant shores, originate by rapid displacement
of water from the lake or the sea either by seismic activity, landslides, volcanic
eruptions or large meteoroid impacts.

Whatever the cause may be sea water is displaced with a violent motion and
swells up, ultimately surging over land with great destructive power. The effects
of a tsunami can be unnoticeable or even destructive.

Physical Characteristics of Tsunami:

All types of waves, including tsunami, have a wavelength, a wave height, an

amplitude, a frequency or period, and a velocity.
1. Wavelength: It is defined as the distance between two identical points on a
wave (i.e. between wave crests or wave troughs). Normal ocean waves have
wavelengths of about 100 meters. Tsunami have much longer wavelengths,
usually measured in kilometers and up to 500 kilometers.

2. Wave height: It refers to the distance between the trough of the wave and the
crest or peak of the wave.

3. Wave amplitude: It refers to the height of the wave above the still water line,
usually this is equal to 1/2 the wave height. Tsunami can have variable wave
height and amplitude that depends on water depth as we shall see in a moment.

4. Wave frequency or period: It is the amount of time it takes for one full
wavelength to pass a stationary point.

5. Wave velocity: It is the speed of the wave. Velocities of normal ocean waves
are about 90 km/hr while tsunami have velocities up to 950 km/hr (about as fast
as jet airplanes), and thus move much more rapidly across ocean basins. The
velocity of any wave is equal to the wavelength divided by the wave period.

V = λ/P

Tsunami are characterized as shallow‐water waves. These are different from the
waves most of us have observed on the beach, which are caused by the wind
blowing across the ocean's surface. Wind generated waves usually have period
(time between two successive waves) of five to twenty seconds and a wavelength
of 100 to 200 meters. A tsunami can have a period in the range of ten minutes to
two hours and wavelengths greater than 500 km.

How Tsunami are Generated?

The geological movements that cause tsunamis are produced in three major ways.
The most common of these are fault movements on the sea floor, accompanied
by an earthquake. They release huge amount of energy and have the capacity to
cross oceans. The degree of movement depends on how fast the earthquake occurs
and how much water is displaced. Fig blow shows how an earthquake causes
tsunami.
The second most common cause of the tsunami is a landslide either occurring
under water or originating above the sea and then plunging into the water. The
largest tsunami ever produced by a landslide was in Lituya Bay, Alaska 1958.
The massive rock slide produced a wave that reached a high water mark of 50 ‐
150 meters above the shoreline.

There is an average of two destructive tsunami per year in the Pacific basin.
Pacific wide tsunami is a rare phenomenon, occurring every 10‐12 years on the
average. Most of these tsunamis are generated by earthquakes that cause
displacement of the seafloor, but, as we shall see, tsunami can be generated by
volcanic eruptions, landslides, underwater explosions, and meteorite impacts.

1. Earthquake: Earthquakes cause tsunami by causing a disturbance of the

seafloor. Thus, earthquakes that occur along coastlines or anywhere beneath the
oceans can generate tsunami. The size of the tsunami is usually related to the size
of the earthquake, with larger tsunami generated by larger earthquakes. But the
sense of displacement is also important. Tsunami are generally only formed when
an earthquake causes vertical displacement of the seafloor.
2. Volcanic Eruptions: Volcanoes that occur along coastal zones, like in Japan
and island arcs throughout the world, can cause several effects that might generate
a tsunami. Explosive eruptions can rapidly emplace pyroclastic flows into the
water, landslides and debris avalanches produced by eruptions can rapidly move
into water, and collapse of volcanoes to form calderas can suddenly displace the
water.

3. Landslides: Landslides moving into oceans, bays, or lakes can also generate
tsunami. Most such landslides are generated by earthquakes or volcanic
eruptions.

4. Underwater Explosions: Nuclear testing by the United States in the Marshall

Islands in the 1940s and 1950s generated tsunami.

5. Meteorite Impacts: While no historic examples of meteorite impacts are

known to have produced a tsunami, the apparent impact of a meteorite at the end
of the Cretaceous Period, about 65 million years ago near the tip of what is now
the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico, produced tsunami that left deposits all along
the Gulf coast of Mexico and the United States.

Mitigation of Risks and Hazards:

The main damage from tsunami comes from the destructive nature of the waves
themselves. Secondary effects include the debris acting as projectiles which then
run into other objects, erosion that can undermine the foundations ofstructures
built along coastlines, and fires that result from disruption of gas and electrical
lines. Tertiary effects include loss of crops and water and electrical systems which
can lead to famine and disease.

Typical Adverse Effects/Impacts:

Local tsunami events or those less than 30 minutes from the source cause the
majority of damage. The force of the water can raze everything in its path. It is
normally the flooding affect of the tsunami that causes major destruction to the
human settlements, roads and infrastructure thereby disrupting the normal
functioning of the society.

Withdrawal of the tsunami causes major damage. As the waves withdraw towards
the ocean they sweep out the foundations of the buildings, the beaches get
destroyed and the houses carried out to sea. Damage to ports and airports may
prevent importation of needed food and medical supplies. Apart from the
physical damage, there is a huge impact on the public health system. Deaths
mainly occur because of drowning as water inundates homes. Many people get
washed away or crushed by the giant waves and some are crushed by the debris,
causes.

There are very few evidences which show that tsunami flooding has caused large
scale health problem. Availability of drinking water has always been a major
problem in areas affected by a disaster. Sewage pipes may be damaged causing
major sewage disposal problems. Open wells and other ground water may be
contaminated by salt water and debris and sewage. Flooding in the locality may
lead to crop loss, loss of livelihood like boats and nets, environmental degradation
etc.

Possible Risk Reduction Measures:

While it is of course not possible to prevent a tsunami, in certain tsunami prone

countries some measures have been taken to reduce the damage caused on shore.
Japan has implemented an extensive programme of building tsunami walls of up
to 4.5 m (13.5 ft) high in front of populated coastal areas. Other localities have
built flood gates and channels to redirect the water from incoming tsunamis.
However, their effectiveness has been questioned, as tsunamis are often higher
than the barriers.

For instance, the tsunami which hit the island of Hokkaido on July 12, 1993
created waves as much as 30m (100 ft) tall ‐ as high as a 10‐story building. The
port town of Aonae on Hokkaido was completely surrounded by a tsunami wall,
but the waves washed right over the wall and destroyed all the wood framed
structures in the area. The wall may have succeeded in slowing down and
moderating the height of the tsunami but it did not prevent major destruction and
loss of life. Some other systematic measures to protect coastlines against tsunamis
include:

1. Site planning and Land management: Within the broader framework of a

comprehensive plan, site planning determines the location, configuration, and
density of development on particular sites and is, therefore, an important tool in
reducing tsunami risk.

 The designation and zoning of tsunami hazard areas for such open‐space
uses as agriculture, parks and recreation, or natural hazard areas is
 recommended as the first land use planning strategy. This strategy is
designed to keep development at a minimum in hazard areas.
 In areas where it is not feasible to restrict land to open‐space uses, other
land use planning measures can be used. These include strategically
controlling the type of development and uses allowed in hazard areas, and
avoiding high‐value and high occupancy uses to the greatest degree
possible.

2. Engineering structures: Most of the habitation of the fishing community is

seen in the coastal areas. The houses constructed by them are mainly of
lightweight materials without any engineering inputs. Therefore there is an urgent
need to educate the community about the good construction practices that they
should adopt such as:

 Site selection: Avoid building or living in buildings within several hundred

feet of the coastline as these areas are more likely to experience damage
from tsunamis.
 Construct the structure on a higher ground level with respect to mean sea
level.
 Elevate coastal homes: Most tsunami waves are less than 3 meters in
height. Elevating house will help reduce damage to property from most
tsunamis.
 Construction of water breakers to reduce the velocity of waves.
 Use of water and corrosion resistant materials for construction.
 Construction of community halls at higher locations, which can act as
shelters at the time of a disaster.

3. Flood management: Flooding will result from a tsunami. Tsunami waves will
flood the coastal areas. Flood mitigation measures could be incorporated.

Predictability/Warning:

There are two distinct types of tsunami warning:

1. International tsunami warning systems.

2. Regional warning systems.

Tsunamis have occurred in all the oceans and in the Mediterranean Sea, but the
great majority of them have occurred in the Pacific Ocean. Since scientists cannot
exactly predict earthquakes, they also cannot exactly predict when a tsunami will
be generated.
1. International tsunami warning systems: Shortly after the Hilo Tsunami
(1946), the Pacific Tsunami Warning System (PTWS) was developed with its
operational center at the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center (PTWC) near
Honolulu, Hawaii. The PTWC is able to alert countries several hours before the
tsunami strikes. The warning includes predicted arrival time at selected coastal
communities where the tsunami could travel in few hours. A tsunami watch is
issued with subsequent arrival time to other geographic areas.

2. Regional warning systems: It use seismic data about nearby earthquakes to

determine if there is a possible local threat of a tsunami. Such systems are capable
enough to provide warnings to the general public in less than 15 minutes.

In India, the Survey of India maintains a tide gauge network along the coast of
India. The gauges are located in major ports as shown in the figure. The day‐to‐
day maintenance of the gauge is carried with the assistance from authorities of
the ports.

Apart from the tide gauge, tsunami can be detected with the help of radars. The
2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, recorded data from four radars and recorded the
height of tsunami waves two hours after the earthquake. It should be noted that
the satellites observations of the Indian Ocean tsunami would not have been of
any use in delivering warnings, as the data took five hours to process and it was
pure chance that the satellites were overhead at that time. However, in future it
is possible that the space based observation might play a direct role in tsunami
warning.

What to do when a Tsunami warning is issued?

1. Listen to a radio, Coast Guard emergency frequency station, or other

reliable source for updated emergency information. Authorities will issue
a warning only if they believe there is a real threat from tsunami.
2. Follow instructions issued by local authorities. Recommended evacuation
routes may be different from the one you use, or you may be advised to
climb higher.
3. If you are in a tsunami risk area, do the following:
i. If you hear an official tsunami warning or detect signs of a tsunami,
evacuate at once. A tsunami warning is issued when authorities are
certain that a tsunami threat exists, and there may be little time to get
out.
ii. Take your Disaster Supplies Kit. Having supplies will make you
more comfortable during the evacuation.
iii. Get to higher ground as far inland as possible. Officials cannot
reliably predict either the height or local effects of tsunamis.
Watching a tsunami from the beach or cliffs could put you in grave
danger. If you can see the wave, you are too close to escape it.
iv. Return home only after local officials tell you it is safe.

What to do after a Tsunami?

1. Continue listening to the radio, Coast Guard emergency frequency

station, or other reliable source for emergency information.
2. Help injured or trapped persons. Give first aid where appropriate.
3. Help a neighbour who may require special assistance‐infants, elderly
people, and people with disabilities.
4. Use the telephone only for emergency calls.
5. Stay out of the building if waters remain around it.
6. When re‐entering buildings or homes, use extreme caution.
7. Wear sturdy shoes.
8. Use battery‐powered lanterns or flashlights when examining buildings.
9. Examine walls, floors, doors, staircases, and windows to make sure that
the building is not in danger of collapsing.
 10. Inspect foundations for cracks or other damage.
11.Look for fire hazards.
12. Check for gas leaks.
13. Look for electrical system damage.
14.Check for sewage and water line damage.
15. Use tap water if local health officials advise it is safe.
16. Watch out for animals, especially poisonous snakes that may have come
into buildings with the water.
17. Watch for loose plaster, drywall and ceilings that could fall.
18. Take pictures of the damage, both building and its contents, for insurance
claims.
19. Open the windows and doors to help dry the building.
20. Shovel mud while it is still moist to give walls and floors an opportunity
to dry.
21. Check food supplies.

LANDSLIDES [OR] MASS MOVEMENT [OR] LAND SLIPS [OR]

MUDSLIDES

Definition & Introduction:

A landslide or landslip is a geological phenomenon which includes a wide range

of ground movements, such as rockfalls, deep failure of slopes and shallow debris
flows, which can occur in offshore, coastal and onshore environments. Although
the action of gravity is the primary driving force for a landslide to occur, there are
other contributing factors affecting the original slope stability. Typically, pre-
conditional factors build up specific sub-surface conditions that make the
area/slope prone to failure, whereas the actual landslide often requires a trigger
before being released.
Or

In many regions of the world a temporary instability of superficial mass of soil

and rock has always been an acute problem. These superficial mass may leave
their original position abruptly or extremely slowly and start their downgrade
movement or vertically downward sinking.

This Movement of the ground may entail loss to property and life, especially
when they happen to occur in or near the populated areas, along highways,
railway lines, dams and reservoirs, tunnels or under heavy structures.
Such movements of the superficial masses have been termed in common
language as landslides or landslips, technically termed as Mass Movement.

 About 25% of the total geographical area of India is prone to landslides.

 Entire Himalayas, North eastern region, western ghats are perennially
affected by landslides.

Important Terminology:

1. Landslide Hazard refers to the potential of occurrence of a damaging

landslide within a given area; such damage could include loss of life or injury,
property damage, social and economic disruption, or environmental degradation.

2. Landslide Vulnerability reflects the extent of potential loss to given

elements (or set of elements) within the area affected by the hazard, expressed on
a scale of 0 (no loss) to 1 (total loss); vulnerability is shaped by physical, social,
economic and environmental conditions.

3. Landslide Risk refers to the probability of harmful consequences-the

expected number of lives lost, persons injured, extent of damage to property or
ecological systems, or disruption of economic activity –within a landslide prone
area. The risk may be individual or societal in scope, resulting from an interaction
between the hazard and individual or societal vulnerability.

4. Landslide Risk Evaluation is the application of analyses and judgments

(encompassing physical, social, and economic dimensions of landslide
vulnerability) to determine risk management alternatives, which may include
determination that the landslide risk is acceptable or tolerable.
Types/Classification:

Many classification has been suggested for Mass movements attributed to a

number of factors such as variety of geological situations, nature of surface, speed
with which failure occurs etc.

On the basis of type of failure, mass movements are divided into 3 types,

1. Flowage.
2. Sliding.
3. Subsidence.

1. Flowage:

 By flowage is understood a downgrade movement of mass along no

definite surface of failure.
 Mass involved in this type of failure is primarily unconsolidated or loosely
packed or rendered so by natural processes of decay and disintegration.
 The result is that the movement is distributed throughout the mass and in
a highly irregular manner.

 Flowage is further distinguished into slow and rapid flowage.

 In the slow flowage, failure is not easily perceptible. The ground may be
moving downslope at as such low rates as few centimeters a year or even
less.
 In rapid flowage, however, the movement of failing mass may be easily
visible and the mass may travel a few meters or more a day.
2. Sliding:

 True landslide is a type of mass failure in which a superficial mass fails

by moving as a whole along a definite surface of failure.
 The surface of failure may be planar or semi circular in outline.
 It is often characteristic of a landslide that the mass above the failure
surface is unstable whereas the material lying below this surface is
generally stable.
 In unconsolidated deposits, loose inherently weak rock masses, sliding
commonly takes place along curved shear surfaces.

 But when the mass involved is hard, brittle and coherent, such as massive
rocks, shear surfaces are broadly planar in nature. In such cases, a set of
joint planes or bedding planes or fault planes may be the most convenient
natural planes of failure.

3. Subsidence: It is defined as sinking or settling of the ground in almost

vertically downward direction which may occur because of removal of natural
support from the underground or due to compaction of the weaker rocks under
the load from overlying mass.
Distributional Pattern:
Landslides constitute a major natural hazard in our country, which accounts for
considerable loss of life and damage to communication routes, human
settlements, agricultural fields and forest lands. The Indian subcontinent, with
diverse physiographic, seismic, tectonic and climatological conditions is
subjected to varying degree of landslide hazards; the Himalayas including North
eastern mountains ranges being the worst affected, followed by a section of
Western Ghats and the Vindhyas. Removal of vegetation and toe erosion have
also triggered slides. Torrential rainfall on the deforested slopes is the main factor
in the Peninsular India namely in Western ghat and Nilgiris. Human intervention
by way of slope modification has added to this effect. Figure shows landslide
hazard zonation map of India.
Monitoring of Mass Movements:

 Detection of possibility of failure before its occurrence by noting the

present conditions is called Monitoring.
 Monitoring of slopes may be achieved by using conventional surveying
techniques.
 Land or mass movement can be ascertained using electronic equipment,
laser equipment, settlement gauges and extensometers.
  Pore water pressure can be measured using the Piezometers and thus
possibility of failure by pore water pressure can be understood.

Causes:
Landslides occur when the stability of the slope changes from a stable to an
unstable condition. A change in the stability of a slope can be caused by a number
of factors, acting together or alone.
Natural causes of landslides include:
1. Ground water (pore water) pressure acting to destabilize the slope.
2. Loss or absence of vertical vegetative structure, soil nutrients, and soil
structure (e.g. after a wildfire).
3. Erosion of the toe of a slope by rivers or ocean waves.
4. Weakening of a slope through saturation by snow melt, glaciers melting,
or heavy rains earthquakes adding loads to barely stable slope earthquake-
caused liquefaction destabilizing slopes volcanic erosion Landslides are
aggravated by human activities.
Human Causes include:
1. Deforestation, cultivation and construction, which destabilize the already
fragile slopes.
2. Earthwork which alters the shape of a slope, or which imposes new loads
on an existing slope.
3. In shallow soils, the removal of deep-rooted vegetation that binds
colluviums (loose, unconsolidated sediments) to bedrock.
4. Construction, agricultural or forestry activities (logging) which change
the amount of water which infiltrates the soil.
Adverse Effects:
The most common elements at risk are the settlements built on the steep slopes,
built at the toe and those built at the mouth of the streams emerging from the
mountain valley. All those buildings constructed without appropriate foundation
for a given soil and in sloppy areas are also at risk. Roads, communication lines
are vulnerable.
Control of Mass Movements:

1. Drainage:

 Water presence is the one of the factor that leads to the mass movement.
 Avoid water content either by surface or sub-surface methods.
 Construct series of ditches.
 Backfill the pits on the soil surface with concrete or asphalt to prevent the
water impounding.
 Cover the slope surface with granular material to remove excess rainfall.
 Remove the cracks and fissures in the surface by filling with cement,
bitumen or clay mixture.
 Construct interception drains (To reduce pore water pressure).
 Oiling of slope surfaces.
 Electroosmosis.
 Heating the slope surface to avoid water content.

2. Retaining structures:

 Construct Retaining walls and buttresses.

 These are suitable where:
i. The ground is neither too fine nor too plastic.
ii. The sliding mass is likely to remain dry.
iii. The movement is of a shallow nature and limited extent.
3. Slope reinforcement by rock bolting:

Rock Bolts:

 Rock bolts are used to tie up different rock blocks together there by
improving the stability of rock mass.
 A rock bolt is a steel bar of suitable dia (2-25mm) and length (60cm-5m)
one end of which is designed for expanding and other end is threaded to
take a nut and washer.
 Such a bolt is inserted into a hole drilled in the rock at a proper angle with
the plane of weakness and its end within the rock is made to expand
whereby it fits tightly into the rock.
 The other end is tied on a plate with the help of a nut and washer. The rod
is generally pre-stressed and is always placed in tension.
 When placed in the above fashion, the rock bolt held up within the two
ends of the bolt gets compressed and hence stabilized against falling.
Rock Anchors:

 Rock anchors are structural elements made up of cables, bars. Like bolts,
it is also placed in previously drilled holes and then whole or part of them
is bonded to the rock using a proper technique.
 They may be tensioned after placing in the hole before or after grouting
which is an integral part of anchorage system.
 Anchor system may exceed 20-30m in length and once installed they
modify the original stress field of the rock to a considerable extent.
 Use corrosion resistant materials for rock anchors.

4. Slope treatment:

 Treat the top layers of formation.

 Apply concrete or mortar on the top surface.
 The mixture of cement and sand (1:3) with little water is applied on the
face under pressure and thus the slopes gains sufficient strength on
hardening.
 Flatten the slope to ensure stability.
 Decreasing the load on slopes (For example on hill roads, reduce the
traffic).
  Provide benches at the foot of the slope.
 Promote afforestation (Vegetation cover reduces the infiltration of
water).

Preventive Measures:

A significant reduction in landslide hazards can be achieved by preventing or

minimizing the exposure of population and facilities to landslides and by
physically controlling landslides that occur. The problem of management of
landslides through effective control measures would require enormous financial
resources, which will never be available. Hence, the wisdom lies in full
exploitation of human resources and in making best use of local skills and
materials.

Some critical measures that should be undertaken to prevent further landslides are
drainage measures which would include surface draining, and sub-surface
drainage, erosion control measures which would consist of bamboo check dams,
terracing, jute and coir netting, rock fall control measures which would comprise
grass plantation, vegetated dry masonry wall, retaining wall, and afforestation.

The control works that are actually carried out in the landslide areas are primarily
for the purpose of saving life. Secondly, for the preservation of public structures
and buildings and thirdly, prevent the disruption of road traffic and to prevent
flooding in the event of a landslide damming (build a dam across) a river.

COASTAL EROSION

Definition & Introduction:

Coastal erosion is the loss or displacement of land, or the long-term removal of

sediment and rocks along the coastline due to the action of waves, currents, tides,
wind-driven water, waterborne ice, or other impacts of storms. The landward
retreat of the shoreline can measured and described over a temporal scale of tides,
seasons, and other short-term cyclic processes. Coastal erosion may be caused by
hydraulic action, abrasion, impact and corrosion by wind and water, and other
forces, natural or unnatural.

On non-rocky coasts, coastal erosion results in rock formations in areas where

the coastline contains rock layers or fracture zones with varying resistance to
erosion. Softer areas become eroded much faster than harder ones, which
typically result in landforms such as tunnels, bridges, columns, and pillars. Over
time the coast generally evens out. The softer areas fill up with sediment eroded
from hard areas, and rock formations are eroded away. Also abrasion commonly
happens in areas where there are strong winds, loose sand, and soft rocks. The
blowing of millions of sharp sand grains creates a sandblasting effect. This effect
helps to erode, smooth and polish rocks. The definition of abrasion is grinding
and wearing away of rock surfaces through the mechanical action of other rock
or sand particles.

Example: The coastline of North Cove, Washington has been eroding at a rate of
over 100 feet per year, earning the area the nickname "Wash away Beach." Much
of the original town has collapsed into the ocean. The area is said to be the fastest-
eroding shore of the United States' West Coast. Measures were finally taken to
slow the erosion, with substantial slowing of the process noted in 2018.

Coastal Processes:

1. Hydraulic action: Hydraulic action occurs when waves striking a cliff face
compress air in cracks on the cliff face. This exerts pressure on the surrounding
rock, and can progressively splinter and remove pieces. Over time, the cracks can
grow, sometimes forming a cave. The splinters fall to the sea bed where they are
subjected to further wave action.

2. Attrition: Attrition occurs when waves cause loose pieces of rock debris
(scree) to collide with each other, grinding and chipping each other,progressively
becoming smaller, smoother and rounder. Scree also collides with the base of the
cliff face, chipping small pieces of rock from the cliff or have a corrasion
(abrasion) effect, similar to sandpapering.
3. Solution: Solution is the process in which acids contained in sea water will
dissolve some types of rock such as chalk or limestone.

4. Abrasion: Abrasion, also known as corrasion, occurs when waves break on

cliff faces and slowly erode it. As the sea pounds cliff faces it also uses the scree
from other wave actions to batter and break off pieces of rock from higher up the
cliff face which can be used for this same wave action and attrition.

5. Corrosion: Corrosion or solution/chemical weathering occurs when the sea's

pH (anything below pH 7.0) corrodes rocks on a cliff face. Limestone cliff faces,
which have a moderately high pH, are particularly affected in this way. Wave
action also increases the rate of reaction by removing the reacted material.

Factors that influence Erosion Rates:

1. Primary factors: The ability of waves to cause erosion of the cliff face
depends on many factors.

The hardness (or inversely, the erodibility) of sea-facing rocks is controlled by

the rock strength and the presence of fissures, fractures, and beds of non- cohesive
materials such as silt and fine sand.

The rate at which cliff fall debris is removed from the foreshore depends on the
power of the waves crossing the beach. This energy must reach a critical level
to remove material from the debris lobe. Debris lobes can be very persistent and
can take many years to completely disappear.

Beaches dissipate wave energy on the foreshore and provide a measure of

protection to the adjoining land.

The stability of the foreshore, or its resistance to lowering. Once stable, the
foreshore should widen and become more effective at dissipating the wave
energy, so that fewer and less powerful waves reach beyond it. The provision of
updrift material coming onto the foreshore beneath the cliff helps to ensure a
stable beach.

The adjacent bathymetry, or configuration of the seafloor, controls the wave

energy arriving at the coast, and can have an important influence on the rate of
cliff erosion. Shoals and bars offer protection from wave erosion by causing storm
waves to break and dissipate their energy before reaching the shore.
Given the dynamic nature of the seafloor, changes in the location of shoals and
bars may cause the locus of beach or cliff erosion to change position along the
shore.

Coastal erosion has been greatly affected by the rising sea levels globally. There
has been great measures of increased coastal erosion on the Eastern seaboard of
the United States. Locations such as Florida have noticed increased coastal
erosion. In reaction to these increases Florida and its individual counties have
increased budgets to replenish the eroded sands that attract visitors to Florida and
help support its multibillion-dollar tourism industries.

2. Secondary factors:

i. Weathering and transport slope processes.

ii. Slope hydrology.
iii. Vegetation.
iv. Cliff foot erosion.
v. Cliff foot sediment accumulation.
vi. Resistance of cliff foot sediment to attrition and transport.
vii. Human Activity.

3. Tertiary factors:

i. Resource extraction.
ii. Coastal management.

Control Methods:
There are three common forms of coastal erosion control methods. These three
include:

1. Hard-erosion controls.
2. Soft-erosion controls.
3. Relocation.

1. Hard-erosion controls: Hard-erosion control methods provide a more

permanent solution than soft-erosion control methods. Seawalls and groynes
serve as semi-permanent infrastructure. These structures are not immune from
normal wear-and-tear and will have to be refurbished or rebuilt. It is estimated
the average life span of a seawall is 50–100 years and the average for a groyne
is 30–40 years. Because of their relative permanence, it is assumed that these
structures can be a final solution to erosion. Seawalls can also deprive public
access to the beach and drastically alter the natural state of the beach. Groynes
also drastically alter the natural state of the beach. Some claim that groynes could
reduce the interval between beach nourishment projects though they are not seen
as a solution to beach nourishment. Other criticisms of seawalls arethat they
can be expensive, difficult to maintain, and can sometimes cause further damage
to the beach if built improperly.

Natural forms of hard-erosion control include planting or maintaining native

vegetation, such as mangrove forests and coral reefs.

2. Soft-erosion controls: Soft erosion strategies refer to temporary options of

slowing the effects of erosion. These options, including Sandbag and beach
nourishment, are not intended to be long term solutions or permanent solutions.
Another method, beach scraping or beach bulldozing allows for the creation of an
artificial dune in front of a building or as means of preserving a building
foundation. However, there is a U.S. federal moratorium on beach bulldozing
during turtle nesting season, 1 May – 15 November. One of the most common
methods of soft erosion control is beach nourishment projects. These projects
involve dredging sand and moving it to the beaches as a means of reestablishing
the sand lost due to erosion. In some situations, beach nourishment is not a
suitable measure to take for erosion control, such as in areas with sand sinks or
frequent and large storms. Dynamic revetment, which uses loose cobble to mimic
the function of a natural storm beach, may be a soft-erosion control alternative in
high energy environments such as open coastlines.

3. Relocation: Relocation of infrastructure any housing farther away from the

coast is also an option. The natural processes of both absolute and relative sea
level rise and erosion are considered in rebuilding. Depending on factors such
as the severity of the erosion, as well as the natural landscape of the property,
relocation could simply mean moving inland by a short distance or relocation can
be to completely remove improvements from an area. Typically, there has been
low public support for “retreating.
 SOIL EROSION

Definition:
The loose superficial layer of earth’s crust is the soil. The various components of
the soil are mineral matter, soil water, soil organic matter, soil organisms, and
soil air. Soil degradation refers to the undesirable depletion of the physical
components of the soil, thereby rendering it unhealthy for cultivation. This may
also be referred to as soil retrogression/regression.
Causes of Soil Erosion:
1. Soil erosion by water: This may further be categorized as Sheet erosion,
Rill erosion, Inter-rill erosion and gully erosion, Riparian erosion and
erosion due to rains.
2. Soil erosion by wind.
3. Deforestation.
4. Natural factors like heavy rainfall, drought, steep slopes, floods, severe
storms and tornadoes, etc.
5. Human induced factors like intensive farming, unmanaged construction
of buildings and roadways.
6. Due to gravity, the land and water are pushed downhill.
7. Compaction of soil by cattle.
8. Desertification.
9. Salinization of soils.
10.Organic and nutrient depletion.
11.Chemical contamination.
12.Landslides.
13.Acidification of soil.
Control of Soil Erosion:
1. Strip cropping.
2. Planting leguminous plants in soil to restore soil fertility.
3. Soil erosion by wind can be checked by retaining the stubble of the crops
in the soil, crop rotation, proper grazing of the cattle.
4. Developing good vegetation and constructing physical structures
stabilizes the slipping away of soil.
5. Humic acid can be added to soil to prevent excess salination.
6. Soil pH balance has to be restored.
 7. Growth of macroscopic and microscopic soil organisms should be
promoted.
8. Use of anthropogenic chemicals in farming should be discouraged.
9. Soils may be rejuvenated by the process of active mineralization.
10.Crop rotation must be encouraged.
11.Grazing should be carried on in a controlled fashion.
12.Afforestation.
13. Terracing.
14. Building of dams across streams, and deep ditches or gullies, control soil
erosion by water.
FOREST FIRES [OR] WILD FIRES

Bush fires, forest fires, and mine fires are generally started by lightning, but also
by human negligence or arson. They can burn thousands of square kilometers. If
a fire intensifies enough to produce its own winds and "weather", it will form into
a fire storm. A good example of a mine fire is the one near Centralia,
Pennsylvania. Started in 1962, it ruined the town and continues to burn today.
Some of the biggest city-related fires are The Great Chicago Fire, The Peshtigo
Fire (both of 1871) and the Great Fire of London in 1666.

Casualties resulting from fires, regardless of their source or initial cause, can be
aggravated by inadequate emergency preparedness. Such hazards as a lack of
accessible emergency exits, poorly marked escape routes, or improperly
maintained fire extinguishers or sprinkler systems may result in many more
deaths and injuries than might occur with such protections.
– Manmade Disasters (Industrial Pollution, Artificial Flooding in Urban
Areas, Nuclear Radiation, Chemical Spills, Transportation Accidents &
Terrorist Strikes, Etc.):
Manmade disasters: Man induced hazards are hazards caused by human action
or inaction. They are contrasted with natural hazards. Anthropogenic hazards may
adversely affect humans, other organisms and biomes and ecosystems. The
frequency and severity of hazards are key elements in some risk analysis
methodologies.
Or
Manmade disasters occur in nature by humans activities.
Types of manmade disasters:
1. Industrial pollution.
2. Artificial flooding in urban areas.
3. Nuclear radiation.
4. Chemical spills.
5. Transportation accidents.
6. Terrorist strikes, etc.
INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION

Definition & Introduction:

Industrial pollution is the pollution which can be directly linked with industry.
This form of pollution is one of the leading causes of pollution worldwide.
There are a number of forms of industrial pollution. Industrialpollution can also
impact air quality, and it can enter the soil, causing widespread environmental
problems.

Industrial activities are a major source of air, water and land pollution, leadingto
illness and loss of life all over the world. The World Health Organisation (WHO)
estimates that outdoor air pollution alone accounts for around 2% of all heart and
lung diseases, about 5% of all lung cancers, and about 1% of all chest infections.
Six Causes of Industrial Pollution:

The causes of industrial pollution are extensive but here is a list of some of the
top reasons.

1. Industrial Growth that is Unplanned: A lot of air and water pollution has
occurred from companies who ignored rules or standard practices to facilitate
rapid growth. Industrial growth has been a frequent culprit for pollution.

2. Lack of Effective Policies: Many industries have been able to ignore or

entirely by pass pollution laws because the policies are either not valid, or not
adequately enforced by pollution control boards. The result has been significant
pollution that has had a direct effect on many people.

3. The Sheer Number of Industries: There are many industries and factories,
and most of them are polluting the air every day. Small sectors that have to rely
on grants from the government to keep operating are often able to avoid following
environmental regulations. Those companies have been discovered to release
significant amounts of toxic gas, making pollution an even more substantial issue
from those smaller industries.

4. Using Old and Outdated Technology: Updating technology is expensive,

and there are many companies and plants which are relying on outdated
technology to continue operating their business successfully. Older technologies
tend to produce large amounts of waste.

Even when companies realize the harmful effect they are having on the
environment, they choose to save money by keeping their old systems instead of
upgrading.

5. Natural Resource Use: Raw material is necessary for a lot of industries,

which requires them to pull underground elements. One of the most common
forms of leaching from natural resources is fracking for oil. When industries pull
minerals, the process causes pollution in the soil and also causes oil leaks and
spills that are harmful and deadly to people and animals.

6. Improper Disposal of Waste: One of the most common forms of soil and
water pollution are because of companies who do not dispose of their waste
correctly. This is one of the most significant causes of pollution because the
effects include severe and chronic health issues and lower air quality.

The Effects of Industrial Pollution:

The causes of industrial pollution are extensive but here is a list of some of the
top reasons.

1. Water Pollution: The ecosystem has been significantly impacted because of

pollution, and the consequence will affect many future generations. Big industries
and manufacturing plants use significant amounts of water from nearby lakes,
rivers, and oceans to operate.

During the manufacturing process, the water is exposed to chemicals, heavy

metals, organic sludge, and radioactive waste. That water is then dumped back
into its original water source. Not only does this process affect the plants, animals,
and insects in their habitat, farmers also use that water for irrigation, causing
harmful effects to the food we eat.

Water pollution has caused many different groundwater sources to be labeled as

unsafe for people and animals alike. Once it is rendered dangerous, the only use
for that water is for it to be reused in the plants that initially harmed it.

2. Soil Pollution: Soil pollution is the result of land degradation, and it is caused
because of human-made (xenobiotic) chemicals as a result of industrial activity,
the improper disposing of waste and various agricultural chemicals. Soil
pollution poisons agriculture and sometimes kills local vegetation.

The results of soil pollution include chronic health concerns for people who work
with soil, for farmers, and for people who consume the fruits and vegetables from
contaminated land.

3. Air Pollution: Similar to water and soil pollution, air pollution has been the
culprit for many illnesses, increasingly frequent over time. The effects of air
pollution have an impact on everyone, every day. It is caused by the smoke
released by various industries.

4. Animal Extinction: Pollution is one of the most significant contributors to

global warming. There are conspiracy theories and people who believe global
warming doesn’t exist, but scientists and environmentalists have proven the
existence of global warming.

The rapid increase of global warming is of concern to many people. The

greenhouse gasses, and the smoke that causes it is released into the air daily and
causing consequential problems. Glaciers are melting, polar animals are
becoming extinct, tsunamis, hurricanes, floods, and other natural disasters are
increasing, and all of those are the effects of global warming.

5. Natural Resource Use: Industrial pollution continues to cause significant

damage to the earth and all of its inhabitants. It disrupts natural habitats and
rhythms, affecting wildlife and ecosystems. Animals are becoming extinct, and
habitats are being destroyed.

Pollution is the culprit for oil spills and radioactive material leaks, and both of
those types of disasters take years to decades to clean up.

Facts about Industrial Pollution:

Industrial pollution is wreaking havoc on the planet. Every nation is affected, and
there are many people who are working tirelessly to increase awareness and
advocate for change. The activities that are causing pollution include:

1. Burning fossil fuels like oil, natural gas, and petroleum.

2. Burning coal.
3. Chemical solvents used in dyeing and tanning industries.
4. Untreated gas and liquid waste being released into the environment.
5. Improper disposal of radioactive material.

Control/Reducing Industrial Pollution:

As the harmful effects of industrial pollution increase, there are many agencies
and individuals who are working to reduce carbon footprints and live and work
eco-friendlier. Here are some of the different steps being taken to reduce and
eliminate pollution:
 1. Development of better technology for waste disposal.
2. Increased recycling efforts.
3. Development of cooling rooms or bins that allow industries to recycle the
water they need instead of pushing it back into the natural water source it
came from.
4. Adopting organic water and soil cleaning methods, like using microbes that
feed off of metal and waste.
5. Creating policies that prevent land misuse.

Other Ways to Control/Reduce Industrial Pollution:

Here are some of the ways companies are working to reduce industrial
pollution.

1. Source Control: Adopting new technology, efficiently training employees for

safe use and disposal of waste, and being more conscientious about the raw
materials used can help control industrial pollution at the source.

2. Industry Site Selection: Putting more consideration into where new sites are
located, and the potential impact of the environment surrounding it can help
reduce harmful consequences.

3. Proper Treatment of Industrial Waste: By developing and implementing

adequate treatment habits for handling industrial waste, pollution can be reduced.

4. Planting and Rebuilding: Rebuilding habitats by planting more trees and

plants can help give wildlife back their homes and the trees can help purify air,
output oxygen, and act as a buffer against the environment.

5. Stricter Laws and Enforcement: While we do have the Environmental

Protection Agency (EPA) working to correct the damage from pollution, they
need more ability to take action against the companies who do not follow proper
protocol. Rule enforcement needs to have stronger consequences and more
significant rewards for the companies who do operate properly.

6. Regular Environmental Impact Assessments: Being a responsible

company or industry should require regular environmental impact assessments
that are reported for evaluation. If there are harmful impacts discovered during
the review, actions to correct the negative consequences should be developed and
enforced.
ARTIFICAL FLOODING IN URBAN AREAS [OR] URBAN FLOODING

Flooding in urban areas can be caused by flash floods, or coastal floods, or river
floods, but there is also a specific flood type that is called urban flooding.

Urban flooding is specific in the fact that the cause is a lack of drainage in an
urban area. As there is little open soil that can be used for water storage nearly all
the precipitation needs to be transport to surface water or the sewage system.
High intensity rainfall can cause flooding when the city sewage system and
draining canals do not have the necessary capacity to drain away theamounts of
rain that are falling. Water may even enter the sewage system in one place and
then get deposited somewhere else in the city on the streets. Sometimes you see
dancing drain covers.

Throughout Europe urban flooding happens fairly frequently. The virtual tour
shows two examples, Hull in England in 2007 and Mestre in Italy in 2007. The
same sort of thing can happen in rural areas and is then called ponding.

Urban floods are a great disturbance of daily life in the city. Roads can be blocked,
people can’t go to work or to schools. The economic damages are high but the
number of casualties is usually very limited, because of the nature of the flood.
The water slowly rises on the city streets. When the city is on flat terrain the flow
speed is low and you can still see people driving through it. The water rises
relatively slow and the water level usually does not reach life endangering
heights.

What causes urban flooding?

Urban flooding occurs when water flows into an urban region faster than it can
be absorbed into the soil or moved to and stored in a lake or reservoir. It can be
caused by flash flooding, coastal flooding, river floods or rapid snow melt.
 NUCLEAR DISASTERS [OR] NUCLEAR RADIATION

Definition: Sudden release of huge amount of harmful radiations or radioactive

materials or both together in environment in a small area either through explosion
of a nuclear bomb or in the operation of nuclear reactors and other nuclear related
activities.

Causes:

1. Intentional use of nuclear weapons in the event of war.

2. Accidental explosion of nuclear weapons.
3. Accidents in nuclear power projects.
4. Terrorist attacks.

CHEMICAL SPILLS [OR] CHEMICAL DISASTERS

Definition: Chemical hazards refers to chemicals used in industries, agriculture

and household activities that have a potential to cause irreparable harm to life,
property and environment, including a large number of fatalities.

Hazardous chemicals are of the following types:

1. Inflammable.
2. Reactive.
3. Toxic.
Causes: Caused by chemical, mechanical, civil, electrical or other process
failures due to accident, negligence or incompetence, in an industrial plant which
may spill over to the areas outside the plant or with in causing damage to life,
property and environment. Or Due to occurrence of emission, fire or explosion
involving one or more hazardous chemicals in the course of industrial activity
(handling), storage or transportation or due to natural events leading to serious
effects inside or outside the installation likely to cause loss of life and property
including adverse effects on the environment.

Following the Bhopal Gas Disaster in 1984, major incidences of chemical

disasters in India include:

 A fire in an oil well in Andhra Pradesh (2003).

 A vapour cloud explosion in the Hindustan Petroleum Corporation
Limited Refinery (HPCL), Vishakhapatnam (1997).
 An explosion in the Indian Petrochemicals Corporation Limited (IPCL)
Gas Cracker Complex, Nagothane, Maharashtra (1990).
 TRANSPORTATION ACCIDENTS

Transportation accidents includes:

1. Road Accidents.
2. Rail Accidents.
3. Air Accidents.
4. Boat Accidents.

Road Accidents:

Definition: Both National and State Highways are particularly vulnerable to

serious road accidents. Apart from these, roads in hilly sections and ghat areas
are also vulnerable to road accidents due to road vehicles falling into pits.
Congestion in traffic is inevitable and the consequences are road accidents.

Or

Road networks are developed for better connectivity and service. Increased
number of vehicles, violation of traffic rules, speeding, drunken driving and poor
maintenance of vehicles as well as of roads are some of the main causes of road
accidents.

Causes: In most cases due to human failures and in a few rare cases these are
caused by technical failures such as failure of brakes etc. Road accidents also
occur under conditions of impaired visibility, slippery road surface etc.
Safety Measures/Precaution: In order to avoid accidents following safety
measures can be adopted:

1. Look on either side of the road before crossing.

2. Use zebra crossing while crossing the road by foot.
3. Wear helmet while riding a two-wheeler.
4. Use seat belt provided in your car.
5. Drive only if you possess a proper driving license.
6. Be familiar with road markings and honour them.
7. Maintain a safety distance from the vehicle in front.
8. Do not jump lanes. It becomes difficult for other vehicles, on the road to
anticipate your move.
9. Do not be rash and do not try to overtake unnecessarily.
10.The best way to be safe on roads is to follow “lane driving”.
11.While driving avoid sudden acceleration and deceleration.
12.Replace the worn tyres and faulty headlamps.
13.Check the tyre pressure, radiator water, brake oil and fuel frequently.
14.Dip your beam whenever you spot an oncoming vehicle.
15.Follow the maintenance schedule prescribed by the manufacturer.
16.Overcome impatience, anger and intoxication during driving. Road rage
is dangerous.
17. In case a mishap occurs stay calm.
18. In case of fire, try to get out as early as possible and do not worry about
the baggage.

Rail Accidents:

Definition: Principal mode of transport for both passengers and goods in the
country. railways are confronted with disasters arising out of cyclone, floods,
fires, bomb blasts and accidents etc., involving trains. While a railway accident
can occur at any stretch of railway track, experience has shown that portion of
railway track having double line sections are particularly vulnerable to serious
rail accidents.

Or

The most common type of rail accident is derailment due to human error,
sabotage or natural landslide in a hilly track, or fire. Rail accidents lead to large
number of casualties and material damage. Indian Railways incur heavy loss due
to such accidents every year.
Causes:

1. Breaches of tanks due to heavy rains.

2. Cyclone/flash floods.
3. Human failures.
4. Equipment failures.
5. Heavy rains leading to washing away of the track/collapse of bridges.
6. Landslides.
7. Breach of rules on unmanned railway level crossing.
8. Sabotage.
9. Tampering with track

Safety Measures/Precaution:

1. At railway crossings pay attention to the signal and the swing barrier. Do
not get underneath and try to get across.
2. In case of a unmanned crossing, get down from the vehicle and look at
either sides of the track before crossing.
3. Do not stop the train on a bridge or tunnel where evacuation is not
possible.
4. Do not carry inflammable material in a train.
5. Do not lean out of a moving train.
6. Do not smoke in train.
7. Do not pull the emergency cord unnecessarily.
Air Accidents:

Definition: 3 types; mid-air collisions, forced landings, crash due to technical

snags or air-crash in mountainous terrain due to poor visibility. Past experience
shows that majority of air accidents occur either during take-off or landing and
also take place at remote inaccessible places like forests, hilly and mountainous
regions, high seas, etc.

Or

Air accidents may occur due to technical problems, fire, poor landing and take-
off, weather conditions, hijacking, bombing etc.

Causes: Causes of air accidents are either human failure of pilots, air traffic
controllers or technical failures of on board, landing instruments. In rare cases it
may also be the result of terrorist activities.

Safety Measures/Precaution:

1. Pay attention to the flight crew safety demonstration.

2. Carefully read the safety card in the pocket.
3. Know where is the nearest emergency exit and learn how to open it.
4. Always keep your seatbelt fastened when seated.
5. Stay calm, listen to the crew members and follow their instructions.
 6. Before you try to open any emergency door yourself, look outside the
window. If you see a fire outside the door, do not open it or the flame may
spread into the cabin. Try to use an alternate route for escape.
7. Remember, smoke rises. So try to stay down if there is smoke in the cabin.
8. If you have a cloth, put it over your nose and mouth.

Boat Accidents:

Definition: Either due to cyclones or floods, or over loading of the boat, poor
quality of equipment in the boat, poor maintenance and consequent breakdown
and of course human error of judgment.

Causes: A major cause for boat accidents is due to lack safety consciousness on
the part of crew, which leads to unsafe situations such as overloading,
overcrowding, sailing in adverse weather and collision.

TERRORISM

Terrorism is a controversial term with varied definitions. One definition means

a violent action targeting civilians exclusively. Another definition is the use or
threatened use of violence for the purpose of creating fear in order to achieve a
political, religious, or ideological goal. Under the second definition, the targets
of terrorist acts can be anyone, including civilians, government officials, military
personnel, or people serving the interests of governments.
Definitions of terrorism may also vary geographically. In Australia, the Security
Legislation Amendment (Terrorism) Act 2002, defines terrorism as "an action
to advance a political, religious or ideological cause and with the intention of
coercing the government or intimidating the public", while the United States
Department of State operationally describes it as "premeditated, politically-
motivated violence perpetrated against non-combatant targets by sub national
groups or clandestine agents, usually intended to influence an audience".

– Hazard & Vulnerability Profile of India:

 – Mountain & Coastal Areas:

Since early civilisation, coastal areas have been attractive settling grounds for
human population as they provided abundant marine resources, fertile agricultural
land and possibilities for trade and transport. This has led to high population
densities and high levels of development in many coastal areas and this trend is
continuing into the 21st century. At present, about 1,2 billion people live in coastal
areas globally, and this number is predicted to increase to 1,8-5,2 billion by the
2080s due to a combination of population growth and coastal migration. Along
with this increase follows major investments in infrastructure and the build
environment.

The characteristics of coastal environments, however, pose some great challenges

to human habitation. Coastlines are highly dynamic natural systems that interact
with terrestrial, marine and atmospheric processes and undergo continuous
change in response to these processes. Over the years, human society has often
failed to recognize the hazards related to these dynamics and
this has led to major disasters and societal disruption to various degrees. Even
today, coastal development is often taking place with little regard to the
hazards present in these environments, although climate change is likely
increase the general hazard levels. Societal activities in coastal areas can also
pose a hazard to the natural balance of coastal systems, thereby disrupting e.g.
sensitive ecosystems and subsequently human livelihood.

Coastal hazard management has become an increasingly important aspect of

coastal planning in order to improve the resilience of society to coastal
hazards. Possible management options include hard engineering structures,
soft protection measures, various accommodation approaches as well as a
managed retreat from the coastline. For addressing coastal hazards, it is also
important to have early warning systems and emergency management plans
in place to be able to address sudden and potential disastrous hazards e.g.
major flooding events. Events as the Hurricane Katrina affecting the southern
USA in 2005 and the cyclone Nargis affecting Myanmar in 2008 provides
clear examples of the importance of timely coastal hazard management.

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