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i

■ The Ethics of Sport

ii
iii

The Ethics of Sport

Essential Readings

EDITED BY

Arthur L. Caplan and

Brendan Parent

3
iv

1
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the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education
by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University
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© Oxford University Press 2017

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You must not circulate this work in any other form

and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Caplan, Arthur L., editor. | Parent, Brendan., editor.
Title: The ethics of sport : essential readings / edited by Arthur L. Caplan and
Brendan Parent.
Description: New York : Oxford University Press, [2017] Identifiers: LCCN 2016006208 |
ISBN 9780190210991 (pbk. : alk. paper) | ISBN 9780190210984 (hardcover : alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Sports—Moral and ethical aspects.
Classification: LCC GV706.3 .E866 2016 | DDC 796.01—dc23
LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2016006208

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Paperback printed by WebCom, Inc., Canada

Hardback printed by Bridgeport National Bindery, Inc., United States of America
v

This reader is dedicated to Meg Caplan

■ 
and Jane Pucher.
vi
vii

■ CONTENTS

Acknowledgments xi

PA R T I ■    What Is Sport? 1

1 Selection from What is Sport? 3

ROLAND BARTHES

2 Normative Theories of Sport: A Critical Review 6

SIGMUND LOLAND

PA R T I I ■    Categories and Discrimination 19

A Professional vs. Amateur

3 Uneven Bars: Age Rules, Antitrust, and Amateurism
in Women’s Gymnastics 25
RYA N M . RO DEN B ERG A N D A N DR E A N . E AG L EM A N

4 Going Pro in Sports: Providing Guidance to Student-​Athletes in

a Complicated Legal and Regulatory Environment 43
GLENN M. WONG, WARREN ZOLA, AND CHRIS DEUBERT

B Gender
5 Women in Sport: Gender Relations and Future Perspectives 101
GERTRUD PFISTER

6 Out of Bounds? A Critique of the New Policies

on Hyperandrogenism in Elite Female Athletes 119
K A T R I N A K A R K A Z I S , R E B E C C A J O R D A N - ​Y O U N G ,

GEORGI A N N DAV IS, A N D SI LV I A CAM P ORESI

C Race
7 Race Relations Theories: Implications for Sport Management 147
EARL E. SMITH AND ANGEL A HAT TERY

8 ‘Black Athletes in White Men’s Games’: Race, Sport

and American National Pastimes 168
DAVID K. WIGGINS

vii
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viii ■ Contents

D Disability
9 The “Second Place” Problem: Assistive Technology in Sports
and (Re) Constructing Normal 197
DENISE A. BAKER

10 More Similar Than Different: The Psychological Environment

of Paralympic Sport 217
KRISTEN D. DIEFFENBACH AND TR ACI A. STATLER

PA R T I I I ■    Athletes as Role Models 227

11 Professional Athletes and Their Duty to Be Role Models 229

S A N D R A LY N CH , DA RY L A DA I R , A N D PAU L J O N S O N

12 An Exploratory Study of Professional Black Male Athletes’

Individual Social Responsibility (ISR) 242
KWAME AGYEMANG AND JOHN N. SINGER

PA R T I V ■    Power and Corruption 265

13 Universities Gone Wild: Big Money, Big Sports, and Scandalous

Abuse at Penn State 267
HENRY A. GIROUX AND SUSAN SEARLS GIROUX

14 Investigating Corruption in Corporate Sport: The IOC and FIFA 278

ANDREW JENNINGS

15 ¿Plata o plomo?: Why Do Footballers Fix Matches? 290

DECLAN HILL

PA R T V ■    Risk, Choice, and Coercion 305

A Dangerous Sports
16 The Organization and Regulation of Full-Contact Martial Arts:
A Case Study of Flanders 309
JIKKEMIEN VERTONGHEN, MARC THEEBOOM, ELS DOM,

VEERLE DE BOSSCHER, AND REINHARD HAUDENHUYSE

B Football and Concussions

17 Concussion and Football: Failures to Respond by the NFL and
the Medical Profession 331
DAVID ORENTLICHER AND WILLIAM S. DAVID
ix

Contents ■ ix

C Managing Risk
18 Player Safety in Youth Sports: Sportsmanship and Respect as
an Injury-​Prevention Strategy 347
DOUGLAS E. ABRAMS

19 Health and Sports Law Collide: Do Professional Athletes Have

an Unfettered Choice to Accept Risk of Harm? 369
KEN J. BERGER

PA R T V I ■    Medicine and Sports 387

20 Ethical Issues in Sports Medicine: A Review and Justification

for Ethical Decision Making and Reasoning 389
BRUCE H. GREENFIELD AND CHARLES ROBERT WEST

PA R T V I I ■    What About Animals? 399

21 Humans, Horses, and Hybrids: On Rights, Welfare,

and Masculinity in Equestrian Sports 401
KUTTE JÖNSSON

22 Is Hunting a “Sport”? 418

JOHN AL AN COHAN

PA R T V I I I ■    Enhancement and Improvement 455

23 Sports Enhancement 459

T H O M A S H. M U R R AY

24 Performance-​Enhancing Substances in Sports: A Review of

the Literature 468
A M I T M O M AYA , M A RC FAWA L , A N D R EED ES T ES

25 Science at the Olympics: Four Selections 494

26 The Ethics of Technologically Constructed Hypoxic
Environments in Sport 500
SIGMUND LOLAND AND ARTHUR CAPLAN

27 Gene Transfer for Pain: A Tool to Cope with the Intractable or

an Unethical Endurance-Enhancing Technology? 511
SI LV I A CAM P ORESI A N D M I CHAEL J. MCN AM EE

Publication Acknowledgments 525

x
xi

■ ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The editors would like to thank Jessica Wico of the NYU Langone Medical Center,
Division of Medical Ethics; Emily Sacharin and Peter Ohlin of Oxford University
Press; Dena Burke of the NYU School of Professional Studies; Dennis Di Lorenzo,
Dean of the NYU School of Professional Studies; and Mark Gourevitch, MD, and
Robert Grossman, MD, of the NYU Langone Medical Center. They would also
like to thank Scott Briggs and Jason Chung for their work in compiling and edit-
ing this volume. They give special thanks to NYU Sports and Society, especially
its chair, Arthur R. Miller.

xi
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1

■ PART I

What Is Sport?

What makes something a sport as opposed to an exhibition, recreation, or a

hobby? To know what ought to happen and what ought to be prevented in and
around sport—​t he ethics of sport—​we should know not only the rules but also
the essence of sport. We all have our intuitions, but crafting a good definition is
difficult. For every quality that seems essential to the meaning of sport, there is at
least one activity without that quality that is called a sport.
Do sports need teams? There are several sports that can be played between
individuals—​tennis, running, cycling, boxing. Do sports need winners and
losers? We do not always keep score. The “sportness” of basketball, or ultimate
Frisbee, or squash does not disappear if you lose track of the points. Do sports
need competition between people? One can play many sports completely alone—​
racquetball, golf, sailing. Some might say that when playing alone, one is com-
peting with oneself to improve time or score. If the sole player is not looking to
improve, though, does the activity stop being a sport and become recreation?
What about strategy? It often helps individuals and teams win, but playing with-
out following steps in the winning plan does not mean you are no longer engag-
ing in the sport.
Do sports need physical exertion? Many argue that competitive video-​game
playing is a sport. It even carries the name “E-​sports.” Many also believe that
“speed cubing” is a sport, which involves solving versions of the Rubik’s Cube
in record time. Do these competitors need to get their heart rates up, or use as
many muscle groups as soccer players or jai alai players, for their activities to be
considered sports?
Maybe sports require entertainment value. While there are some sports that
have few spectators, all sports usually entertain their participants. However, we
all know of “blowouts,” during which one side loses badly and feels far from en-
tertained. Furthermore, there are countless entertaining activities that we would
not call sports, so entertainment value is not sufficient by itself.
In ­chapter 1, a selection from Roland Barthes’s “What is Sport?” several of
these qualities are described in sports, which make them reflect human desire
and struggle. The author’s epic descriptions illustrate how sports mirror society.
They give us a space to play out our passions and face our fears without the con-
sequences imposed by “real” life, a form of escape. Yet, sports can carry serious
consequences when they cause permanent injury to players and fans, start riots,
2

2 ■ What Is Sport?

damage relations between countries, or become venues for terrorism. So, sports
might be too intertwined with reality to be strictly a form of escapism.
Sigmund Loland, in c­ hapter 2, proposes several theories of sport based on
different qualities. First, he offers that sports are an instrument to achieve goals,
whether political, social, or cultural. This quality is clearly not sufficient because
many nonsport activities are instrumental in this way, but is it even necessary?
Can a sport be played simply for its intrinsic enjoyment? According to the per-
former theory, the answer is yes. The key quality here is that sports serve as a
source of satisfaction for the athlete.
Loland provides another alternative: that sports might be the demonstration
and improvement of performance. We love seeing athletes break records and
create new strategies for excellence. Yet, prioritizing this quality can be danger-
ous: there is no logical end to making athletes and their sports bigger, faster, and
stronger, while there are limits to how much physical impact the human body
can take. Furthermore, the rules of a sport begin to look less important if we care
too much about performance power. As rules break down the sport loses struc-
ture, and the body in which the spirit of sport lives dissolves. So perhaps rules of
play are essential to sport.
After establishing some core qualities, we can begin questioning how to pre-
serve and promote them to make sports better. What makes a good team? How
can athletes be virtuous winners and losers? How should we balance risk with
safety? At what point does the focus on entertainment detract from the integrity
or purity of the game? What is fair competition? Who should have access to the
game? Under what circumstances can the rules be broken?
Questions like these are the focus of this reader. The answers are nuanced,
different for each sport, and perhaps some questions are unanswerable. Sports
have great power to promote human flourishing and cause suffering. Seeking
the answers to ethical questions in sport and acting on them is our duty as fans
and participants, so that we might enable sports to better serve those who engage
in them.
3

1 Selection from What is Sport?

■ ROLAND BARTHES

[Translated by Richard Howard]

What need have these men to attack? Why are men disturbed by this spectacle?
Why are they totally committed to it? Why this useless combat? What is sport?
Bullfighting is hardly a sport, yet it is perhaps the model and the limit of all
sports: strict rules of combat, strength of the adversary, man’s knowledge and
courage; all our modern sports are in this spectacle from another age, heir of
ancient religious sacrifices. But this theater is a false theater: real death occurs
in it. The bull entering here will die; and it is because this death is inevitable that
the bullfight is a tragedy. This tragedy will be performed in four acts of which the
epilogue is death.
First, passes of the cape: the torero must learn to know the bull—​that is, to
play with him: to provoke him, to avoid him, to entangle him deftly, in short to
ensure his docility in fighting according to the rules.
Then the picadors: here they come, on horseback at the far end of the ring,
riding along the barrier. Their function is to exhaust the bull, to block his charges
in order to diminish his excess of violence over the torero.
Act three. The banderillas.
A man alone, with no other weapon than a slender beribboned hook, will tease
the bull: call out to him … stab him lightly … insouciantly slip away.
Here comes the final act. The bull is still the stronger, yet will certainly die …
The bullfight will tell men why man is best. First of all, because the man’s cour-
age is conscious: his courage is the consciousness of fear, freely accepted, freely
overcome.
Man’s second superiority is his knowledge. The bull does not know man; man
knows the bull, anticipates his movement, their limits, and can lead his adversary
to the site he has chosen, and if this site is dangerous, he knows it and has chosen
it for this reason.
There is something else in the torero’s style. What is style? Style makes a dif-
ficult action into a graceful gesture, introduces a rhythm into fatality. Style is
to be courageous without disorder, to give necessity the appearance of freedom.
Courage, knowledge, beauty, these are what man opposes to the strength of the
animal, this is the human ordeal, of which the bull’s death will be the prize.
Furthermore what the crowd honors in the victor, tossing him flowers and
gifts, which he graciously returns, is not man’s victory over the animal, for the
3
4

4 ■ What Is Sport?

bull is always defeated; it is man’s victory over ignorance, fear, necessity. Man
has made his victory a spectacle, so that it might become the victory of all those
watching him and recognizing themselves in him.
And what do they recognize in the great car racer? The victor over a much
subtler enemy: time. Here all of man’s courage and knowledge will be focused
on one thing: the machine. By the machine man will conquer, but perhaps by
the machine he will die. So that here the relation between man and the machine
is infinitely circumspect: what will function very fast must first be tested very
slowly, for speed is never anything but the recompense of extreme deliberation;
first of all, the gears must be verified, for a great deal will be asked of them: up to
2500 changes of speed an hour; the site of the competition must also be carefully
checked, the track first of all, its angles, its curves, its levels …
Next, in order to try it out, to race alone, with no other enemy but time, and
to confront in this effort both the machine and the terrain together, for it is all
three at once that the racer must first of all conquer before triumphing over his
human rivals.
Finally and above all it is the engine that must be prepared and where we find
an embarrassment of riches, much like those found in an inspired brain: here
twelve sparkplugs must be changed every five laps.
We are at Sebring in Florida; this is a twelve-​hour race among different types
of cars. Once the race starts, an implacable economy will govern each atom of
movement, for time is henceforth everywhere.
On straight drives, it is the motor’s effort that is most important, yet this effort
remains human in its way: in it are deposited the labor, the inventiveness, and
the care of dozens of men who have prepared, refined, and checked the most dif-
ficult of equations: an extreme power, a minimal resistance, whether of weight
or of wind.
But on the turns, apart from the machine’s suspension, it is the racer who does
everything; for here, space is against time. Hence the racer must be able to cheat
space, to decide whether he can spare it … or if he will brutally cut it down; and
he must have the courage to drive this wager to the brink of the impossible.
It is not only the racer who struggles against time, it is his whole team. At
Sebring, the track is a former airfield, on which tires are quickly worn down;
some teams manage to change them in a minute and a half: to them too belongs
a share of the final victory. In this combat against time, terrible as the conse-
quences may sometimes be, there is no fury, only an immense courage focused
on the inertia of things. Hence the death of a racer is infinitely sad: for it is not
only a man who dies here, it is a particle of perfection which vanishes from this
world. But it is precisely because such perfection is mortal that it is human.
No sooner is everything lost in one place than other men will begin again in
another.
Here is the start of one of the world’s Grand Prix races: it is a crucial test, be-
cause the more powerful the machine, the heavier it is, and from this paradox the
5

Selection from What is Sport? ■ 5

greatest speed must be derived: hence there is no starter on these cars: to suppress
a few kilos is to gain a few seconds.
It is these preparations for starting that give the car race its meaning: that of a
victory over weight and the inertia of things. At rest, these cars are heavy, passive,
difficult to maneuver: as with a bird hampered by its wings it is their potential
power that weighs them down. Yet once lined up, approaching their function,
which is combat, they already become lighter, grow impatient.… Once started,
these machines will gradually transform their mass into agility, their weight into
power; no sooner are they in their element, which is speed, than they will wrap
the entire world in it, on the most varied tracks and circuits: at Nürburgring, the
most dangerous; at Monaco, the most torturous; from Monza, the most exhaust-
ing, to Spa, the fastest.
To stop is virtually to die. If the machine fails, its master must be informed of
the fact with a certain discretion. For a great racer does not conquer his machine,
he tames it; he is not only the winner, he is also the one who destroys nothing.
A wrecked machine generates something like the sadness caused by the death of
an irreplaceable being, even as life continues around him.
This is the meaning of a great automobile race: that the swiftest force is only
a sum of various kinds of patience, of measurements, of subtleties, of infinitely
precise and infinitely demanding actions.
What this man has done is to drive himself and his machine to the limit of
what is possible. He has won his victory not over his rivals, but on the contrary
with them, over the obstinate heaviness of things: the most murderous of sports
is also the most generous.
6

2 Normative Theories of Sport

A Critical Review

■ SIGMUND LOLAND

My address today will be another contribution to what can be considered a

classic topic in the social sciences and humanities of sport, namely the (pos-
sible) relationship between sport and value. More specifically, my paper can be
seen as a prolongation of the philosophical discourse on these issues that can
be found, among other places, in Bob Simon’s and Nick Dixon’s presidential
addresses from 2000 and 2002, respectively [30, 8]. In his address, Simon drew
a basic distinction between an externalist point of view in which sport is seen
as mirroring or enforcing the values of wider society and variants of internal-
ism in which sport is seen as having a significant degree of normative autonomy
and as a source of value within itself. Simon argued in favor of what he called
broad, interpretive internalism built on articulation of the particular normative
principles that seem to underlie sport. Dixon built on Simon’s distinctions and
presented an interpretation of a broad, interpretive internalism on moral-​realist
foundations.
The distinction between internalist and externalist theories will be of rele-
vance in what I will say here. However, I will not to the same extent as Simon
and Dixon dwell on the philosophical and metaethical premises of these theo-
retical possibilities. Instead, I will attempt to flesh out in more substantial detail
what externalist and internalist theories of sport might look like and what their
consequences might be. More specifically, I will describe what I take to be three
ideal-​t ypical kinds of normative theories of competitive sport and discuss criti-
cally some of their ethical implications and their potential in the understanding
of sport as a normative sphere.

■ INSTRUMENTALISM

Views on the relationships between sport and value take many forms. One of
the more rudimentary forms is instrumentalism. The terminology is self-​
explanatory. Instrumentalist views are externalist views in the sense that sport
is considered to have no particular value by itself but is attributed value from
interests on the outside. Simply put, instrumental views consider sport a means,
or an instrument, toward external goals.
6
7

Normative Theories of Sport ■ 7

What, then, are these goals? Sport has been used for religious, social, and po-
litical purposes from its very beginning. For example, the ancient Greek Olympic
Games were parts of a religious cult and served as a cultural and political cel-
ebration of Greek identity, or Greekness [10]. Strict instrumentalism, such as
the deliberate use of sport to reach political goals, seems to arise with modern
sport in the 19th and 20th centuries [16, 28]. A paradigmatic case can be the
former German Democratic Republic (GDR), which together with other com-
munist countries saw the role of sport as the demonstration of the superiority of
communist over capitalist man [27]. Although the external goal is different, the
instrumental view seems predominant in the commercial sport entertainment in-
dustry, as well. Sport seems to matter only insofar as it has commercial potential.
In an essay on sport broadcasting, Paul Klein of ABC (American Broadcasting
Company) is quoted in describing commercial sport television as “the business of
selling audiences to advertisers” [6]‌. Sport is not even part of the formula.
It should be added, however, that instrumentalism deals not only with rewards
in terms of prestige and profit but also with social and, to a certain extent, moral
goals, as well. Today there are many projects by public and ideal operators in
which sport is used as a means to reach social goals, for instance in the treatment
of adolescents with psychosocial problems, in the integration of minority groups
into larger society, or, more ambitiously, in the development of democratic vir-
tues and civic society.1 Moreover, to an increasing degree in the Western world,
sport and physical activity are seen as key means in maintaining and improving
health and fitness levels in the population.
What are the implications of instrumentalist views for sport ethics? The
answer is simple. The moral relevance of sport has to be judged on the basis of
the goals it is supposed to serve. If sport is intended to serve nonmoral goals
such as political or commercial payoff, moral ideals in sport are usually given
little weight. Examples can be the systematic drug use in the former GDR or
deeply problematic personal histories from the commercial sport scene such as
that of heavyweight boxer Mike Tyson. What counts here is ideological prestige,
or public attention and profit, no matter what the human costs. If the external
goals are moral goals, such as the all-​round education of the individual, social
integration of marginalized groups, or the development of democratic ideals and
civic society, moral ideals are usually taken more seriously. In youth sport, for
example, references to moral education and the ideal of fair play are frequent, and
it seems reasonable to assume that these ideals have an impact on practice [20].
How can instrumentalist views be critically assessed? What is their potential
in the understanding of sport as a normative sphere? To a certain extent, their
reputation is worse than they deserve. Instrumentalism has a certain common-
sense appeal. It provides ready and concrete answers to questions such as “What
is sport good for?” Moreover, instrumentalist views challenge idealist concep-
tions of sport as a politically neutral and ideal sphere of universal value, views not
uncommon in the traditional rhetoric of sport leaders and politicians.
8

8 ■ What Is Sport?

On the other hand, when it comes to the understanding of sport as a nor-

mative sphere, instrumentalism has little or no explanatory force. I shall not
spend time on reviewing the elaborate and extensive critique of external-
ist theories in general and of neo-​Marxist theories in particular offered by,
among others, Morgan [23]. Let me just mention one obvious point. The ef-
ficient use of sport to reach various goals, whether we talk of socially and mor-
ally desirable ones or not, depends on people being motivated for, engaged in,
or at least interested in, sport in itself. Take as an example the sociohygienic
goal of increasing the fitness level of a population. If sport is to be an efficient
means in this respect, there is a need for knowledge of what kinds of sport will
serve the purpose, of the optimal frequency and intensity of the activity, and,
most important, of motivational aspects and perceived values of the various
activities among those who take part. Instrumentalism builds on the premise
that people value sport. In its ideal-​t ypical versions, however, instrumentalism
offers no conception of this valuing at all and seems ignorant of its own very
raison d’être.
This is an explanatory weakness that might have serious practical con-
sequences. If sport fails to realize the goals to which it is considered a means,
instrumentalist views offer no help whatsoever. There are no resources here for
critical reflection on sport itself and its failure, and hence, what can be done
about it. I turn now to theories that offer more substantial theses on sport-​specific
norms and values and in which sport is considered a relatively autonomous nor-
mative field. That is, I turn now to internalist theories.

■ PERFORMANCE THEORIES

Some internalist theories see the core values of sport as being the demonstration
and constant improvement of performance. Hence, I will call them performance
theories.
The idea of sport as a constant search for improved performance stands strong
in much of current sport practice. Especially in elite sport, the performance
principle seems to be the social logic around which everything else is organized
[15]. For instance, in a seminar on the possibilities for new records in athletics,
the coach Frank Dick stated that “limits are (the misconceived) products of the
human mind” and that predictions on limits of human performance are foolish
and doomed to fail [7]‌. I am sure he spoke for more than himself. This under-
standing echoes ideas in the theorizing about sport. Pierre de Coubertin talked
of the sporting record as having the same function in Olympism as the law of
gravity in Newtonian mechanics—​it is “the eternal axiom” [21]. With its empha-
sis on measurable, individual performance and quantification of growth, sport
can be seen as a paradigmatic expression of the core values of modernity: free-
dom, rationality, and progress [14, 26]. At its best, sport demonstrates human
9

Normative Theories of Sport ■ 9

freedom and possibility and transcendence of what have previously been thought
of as traditional ideas of human limitations.
Some sport philosophers have developed these ideas into more reflective and
systematic philosophical theses. I will look into two examples here. Based on a
classic liberal framework from John Stuart Mill, Tamburrini [32] argues against
sport essentialism and in favor of a nonpaternalist approach with individual free-
dom to continuous improvement of performance as a key principle. In a new col-
lection of essays, Gebauer [12] suggests that we should see sport as part of what
French situationist Guy-​Ernest Debord calls la société du spectacle—​t he society
of the spectacle. In sport, the free postmodern subject appears, seeking its chance
and constructing itself through the maximization of its performance potential
with whatever means seem appropriate.
What are the implications of performance theories for sport ethics? Because
of the focus on improvement and progress, performance theories usually imply
strong requirements on precise performance measurements. In Tamburrini in
particular, a primary ideal is fairness understood as equality of external condi-
tions and development of advanced measurement techniques.
However, the fairness ideal is given limited validity. Performance theories
accept few or no limitations and regulations on performance enhancement
outside of the competitive setting. For instance, within his liberal framework,
Tamburrini rejects the rationale for sex classifications. Let those compete who
can challenge and match each other independent of sex! Both Tamburrini and
Gebauer are skeptical as to general moral evaluations of cheating. On rational-
istic, utilitarian grounds, Tamburrini defends Diego Maradona’s handball goal
in a 1986 World Cup game against England as “blameful rightdoing.” Cheating
in games is not defensible as a general norm because this would deprive sport of
(utilitarian) value. In the longer run, however, Maradona’s particular handball
can be expected to add a certain “agonistic flavor” and increase the overall joy
and excitement over matches between England and Argentina. From this point
of view, Maradona’s handball was the right thing to do. Gebauer reaches radi-
cal conclusions, too. Athletes search for their chance in sport, and competitions
are radical challenges in which they try to overcome each other with whatever
means possible. The athlete who can “bend” the rules when necessary is the
free and creative athlete with potential for innovative performance. Moreover,
both Tamburrini and Gebauer pose critical questions to restrictions on the use
of performance-​ enhancing biochemical substances and medical technology.
Although they do not endorse the use of drugs, both consider the justification
of a ban problematic and, in Tamburrini’s case, unjustifiable. In the discussion
of the use of genetic technology, Tamburrini takes a step farther and writes of a
world of genetically engineered athletes in which unfair genetic and biological
inequalities are overcome and human character can flourish in its pure form.
As is evident from what is said so far, performance theories imply a significant
skepticism toward traditional sport ethics. Whereas Tamburrini is critical of
10

10 ■ What Is Sport?

most regulations on performance enhancement outside of competitions, Gebauer

is skeptical about the whole idea of sport ethics. According to Gebauer’s strong
internalist view, it is unfair and intellectually dishonest to imply or judge a prac-
tice based on some kind of theoretically deduced ethical system with origins out-
side of sport itself. What counts in sport is not ethical reflection but practical
action. Tamburrini and Gebauer unite in the idea that there is no human essence,
or telos. Or rather, what is uniquely human is the ability to perform, expand, and
transcend.
To what extent do performance theories provide insights into sport as a nor-
mative sphere? Different from instrumentalism, these are substantial normative
theories. Competitive sport is about the constant improvement of performance
and the transcendence of limits. Moreover, performance theories reject, to a cer-
tain extent with strong arguments, traditional ideas of restrictions on perfor-
mance such as on the use of certain drugs and biotechnological means.
Still, performance theories are open to several lines of critique. One possible
critique concerns their simplicity. Performance theories do not really seem to
take account of the many and diverse social realities of sport. For instance, there
are few signs here of an understanding of the complex values and motivational
structures in individual and collective interest in sport. As Morgan [24] points
out in his critique of Gebauer’s position, there is no emphasis here on sport as a
social practice with a history and with particular traditions and ideals. People
seem to value competitive sport because, among other things, it gives experiences
of excitement, challenge, and mastery, of a sense of belonging, of identity, of sym-
bolic conflict, and so forth. It seems as if very few of those engaged and interested
in sport, even at the highest level, would subscribe to the idea that sport is about
performance and progress only.
Another criticism is that, in their strong internalism, performance theories
seem to take the form of some kind of reversed instrumentalism. The goal of
performance enhancement seems to overrule all other social, cultural, and moral
norms and values. Enhanced performance seems to be considered the goal that
justifies all means—​the surrounding world becomes a smorgasbord of options
open to athletes’ free choice. It is difficult to understand why performance is
given clear-​cut normative superiority here—​t here are few or no real strong nor-
mative arguments to support it. Moreover, the strong emphasis on performance
might seem irrational with regard to some of its consequences. Let us look at the
case of performance-​enhancing drugs.
Most performance-​enhancing drugs have a cost in terms of a risk for harm.
Performance theorists such as Tamburrini and Gebauer would probably agree
that the optimal solution is no use of potentially harmful drugs. Still, their view
is, and here I am talking of Tamburrini in particular, that the ban on drugs im-
plies unjustified restrictions on individual freedom and is an expression of strong
paternalism. Therefore, the ban should be lifted. However, the use of efficient
performance-​enhancing drugs by one athlete or team exerts a coercive force on
11

Normative Theories of Sport ■ 11

competing athletes and teams [3, 25]. In a no-​ban situation, drug-​using athletes
gain a competitive advantage. To be able to compete, nonusers are more or less
forced to change strategy into use. At least in this scenario, it is possible to argue
that the liberal attitude to performance-​enhancing means and methods leads to
more severe restrictions on individual freedom and self-​determination than in
the current situation with a ban on drugs.
The final but perhaps most radical criticism of performance theories is their
inclination toward the extreme. These theories link with a perfectionist tradition
in ethics in which individuals and their actions are judged by a maximal stan-
dard of achievement. This is reminiscent of technological optimism of various
kinds, such as that of midwar Italian futurists with their deep fascination with
speed and the merging of humans and machines or today’s optimistic beliefs in
artificial intelligence (AI) and in the potential values of the cyborg. For instance,
in an essay on the philosophy of technology, Cooper [4]‌refers to AI researcher
Marvin Minsky, who argues against anthropological essentialism and talks pro-
vocatively of the human brain as a meat-​machine. Minsky suggests that future
generations should enhance performance by inserting microchips in the brain,
cyborg style so to speak. The alternative, Minsky says, is to continue to walk
around as “dressed-​up chimpanzees.” In this way, Minsky can be seen to provide
a possible rationale for Tamburrini’s ideas of the ultimately fair conditions of a
future gene-​manipulated performance sport.
Perfectionism, combined with sociological naiveté and technological opti-
mism, can become deeply problematic. In his recent book with the telling title
Better than Well—​American Medicine Meets the American Dream, Elliot [9]‌
describes American subcultures that take the new medical technology as their
opportunity to transcend limitations of all kinds and pursue what to most of us
appear to be more or less twisted ideas of self-​realization. For instance, there is a
group of voluntary amputees who, in their feeling of not being at home in their
bodies, amputate an arm or a leg to feel “real.” Elliot talks of “the tyranny of hap-
piness.” As a critical comment on performance theories, we could perhaps talk of
a similar “tyranny of the record.”
These criticisms can be countered, of course. A response to the point on sim-
plification is more or less implicit in the writings of Tamburrini and Gebauer.
They are both concerned with understanding sport as a sphere of value in
itself and are skeptical about contextualization in which sport is linked with
traditional values. We find similar responses to the question of unintended social
consequences and extreme perfectionism. What seems sociologically naïve and
technologically problematic today might look different tomorrow. For instance,
in a few decades current expert medical knowledge might be common knowl-
edge. Drugs designed according to individual genetic profiles might be used
knowledgeably by most of us, and biochemical and gene-​technological means
might be part of everyday life inside and outside of sport. In such a context, cur-
rently banned biomedical technology might appear as legal means that empower
12

12 ■ What Is Sport?

the individual and make way for new understandings of what sport, athletic per-
formances, and, in fact, human life are all about.

■ PERFORMER THEORIES

The critiques of performance theories are derived primarily from theorists who
interpret the values of sport quite differently. I turn now to what I will call per-
former theories of sport. Again, at least to a certain extent, the reference is inter-
nalist in the sense that sport is considered to have a source of value from within.
In addition, sport is considered to have the potential of generating values other
than those of the society of which sport is a part. Sport has a relative autonomy
and its own particular normative logic. Performer theories are built on a broader
interpretation of the value of sport. More specifically, these theories link sport
to moral ideals of human development. What is at stake here is not the improve-
ment of performances but the improvement of performers.
A comment is warranted on the relationship in performer theories between
sporting values and more general ideals. Moral ideals of human development,
whether we talk of Aristotelian, Kantian, or other interpretations, are developed
independent of and outside of sport. Does this not make performer theories into
externalist, instrumental theories, really? This is not necessarily the case. As will
be shown below, in performer theories, general ideals and sport-​specific values
are considered to be interwoven and interdependent on each other. For instance,
several scholars have seen the values of sport as dependent on the realization of
internal goods in MacIntyre’s sense of the term [22]. These are goods that can be
realized only in practicing sport according to its particular standards of excel-
lence. Through the realization of internal goods, the path lies open to the devel-
opment of more general moral virtues and moral character. There is a typical
Aristotelian thought here. One becomes good by becoming a good chooser and
doer. This is done not just by choosing or doing the right actions for instrumen-
tal reasons but by choosing and doing them in the right way. In the good life,
each particular action reflects the whole and the whole is reflected in its parts [5]‌.
Hence, the realization of ideals of human development in performance theories
depends on the realization of values originating in sport itself, which again is a
characteristic of internalist theories of sport.
There are many versions of performer theories of sport. Historically, a thick
interpretation of de Coubertin’s Olympism in which sport is seen as a sphere for
education and moral development can be one example [21]. The amateur ideol-
ogy of last century’s England is another. According to amateurism, if practiced
according to a certain disinterested and impartial attitude, sport is considered to
cultivate dignity in defeat and modesty in victory—​characteristics of the moder-
ate, sensible person [1, 31]. Current developments of performer theories in sport
philosophy can be found in, for instance, works of Fraleigh [11], Simon [29],
Morgan [23], and Loland [19]. I shall outline briefly my own ideas.
13

Normative Theories of Sport ■ 13

One key idea in performer theories is that, if practiced in the right manner,
sport has the potential to become a sphere of human flourishing in which indi-
viduals can realize their particular talents and abilities through their own efforts.
A relevant presupposition in this respect, agreed on in most ethical theories, is
that we should not treat people differently in significant matters based on in-
equalities that they cannot influence or control in any significant way and for
which they therefore cannot be held responsible [2]‌. In other words, to secure
equal opportunity to perform in sport, we should eliminate or compensate for
what from a moral point of view are nonrelevant inequalities. In what follows,
I will call this the fair-​opportunity principle (FOP). In a sense, my theory of fair
play [19] is an articulation of the particular normative interpretations and impli-
cations of FOP in sport.
First, and in agreement with performer theories, performance theories in-
clude strict demands on equality of opportunity. However, the justification of
FOP is rooted in different ideals and has more far-​ranging consequences. In per-
former theories, equality of opportunity means more than concern for exact, ob-
jective measurements under standardized conditions. There is a further interest
in individual and system inequalities.
In many sports, competitors are classified according to athletes’ sex and age.
Based on FOP, performer theories offer a critical perspective in this respect. In
some sports, this seems justifiable, in other sports not. Think of a continuum here.
At the one end there are sports such as 100-​meter sprint running in which basic
biomotor abilities such as explosive strength and speed are crucial. Statistically,
and because of biological inequalities between the sexes, young men have an ad-
vantage over women and older men. Classification seems justified. At the other
end of the continuum sports such as archery, shooting, sailing of various kinds,
and curling can be found. Here, technical and tactical skills seem far more im-
portant, and, depending on equal access to resources, women can compete on an
equal level with men, and older people with younger people.
In other sports, there seems to be too little classification. In boxing, the mar-
tial arts, and weight lifting, body mass is crucial to performance, and there are
classes accordingly. In sports such as basketball and volleyball, height has signifi-
cant and systematic impact on performance. In gymnastics, being small seems
equally important. In line with FOP, in these sports competitors should be classi-
fied according to body size, or, more specifically, according to body height.
Performer theories usually also imply regulations on inequalities in support-
ing systems: the economic, technological, scientific, and human performance-​
enhancing support of an athlete or a team. Inequalities in system strength cannot
be controlled or influenced by the individual in any significant way, and, if ex-
erting significant impact on performance, they ought to be eliminated or com-
pensated for. Inequalities in equipment and technology can be eliminated or
at least compensated for by strict standardization procedures. In the throwing
events in athletics, for instance, or in most sailing classes, rules define strictly the
Exploring the Variety of Random
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Libitinam evadere, luv. 12, 122. 1. Hbo, avi, atus, are [*llbus ; see R.
LIQV-, LIB-]. L L i t. A. Inge n., to take out att a sample, take a lime
of: quodcunque cibi digitis libaverit, O.AA. 1, 577. — B. Esp. 1. To
take a taste of, taste, sip : iecur, L. 25, 16, 3 : flumina libant snmma
leves, V. O. 4, 54 : vernas Pasco libatis dainants, H. S. 2, 6, 67. — II.
Praegn., in re>ny. A. To pour out, offer as a libation, spill, a drink-
offering: in mensam laticum honorem, Y. ' , n , of pure wine, V. 5,
77. — With dat. : Ooeano libemus, . 4, 381. — With abl.: Hoc auro
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LIBO 588 LICET teri aure*), V. 7, 245.— Abl. absol. : libato

(i. e. postquarn libatum est), V. 1, 737. — B. To besprinkle: pateris
altaria, V. 12, 174. — C. To offer, dedicate, consecrate (esp. of first-
fruits) : certasque fruges certasque bacas sacerdotes publice libanto,
Leg. 2, 19 : diis dapes, L. 39, 43, 4 : tristia doua cineri, V. 3, 303. —
P o e t. : Celso lacrimas libamus adcmpto, 0. P. 1, 9, 41.— III.
Melon. A. To touch light-, ly, graze: sunimam celeri pede libat
harenam, 0. 10, 653 : oscula natae, kissed lightly, V. 1, 256. — B. To
impair : vins, L. 21, 29, 6: virginitatein, 0. — IV. Fig., to lake out,
cull, extract, gather, compile, collect : ex variis ingeniis
excellentissima quaeque libavimus, Inv. 2, 4 : libaudus est etiani ex
omni genere urbanitatis facetiarum quidam lepos, Or. 1, 159 : neque
ea, ut sua, possedisse, sed u.t aliena libasse, Or. 1, 218. 2. Libo,
onis, m., a family name in the gens Scribonia, H. libra, ae,/. [R.
CLI-]. I. Prop., a balance, pair of scales: altera librae lanx, Fin. 5, 91.
— Eap. in phrases: libra et aere, by scale and balance, i. e. in due
form, L. 6, 14, 6: quod quis libra mercatur et aere, H. E. 2, 2, 158:
sine libra atque labulis, i. e. without legal formalities (of a
nuncupative will), Or. 1, 228. — II. Melon. A. Libra, the Balance (a
constellation), V. G. 1, 208 ; H., O.— B. A plummet, level ; hence: ad
librarn fecerat turrts, by the level, i. e. of equal height, Caes. C. 3,
40, 1. — C. As the standard of weight, a pound, Roman pound (cf.
as) : coronam auream libram pondo lovi donuni posuit, L. 4, 20, 4 :
una Farris, H. 8. 1, 5, 69. libramentum, I, n. [libro]. I. P r o p., a
weight, load : grave plumbi, L. 24, 34, 10 : aries libramento plumbi
gravatus, L. 42, 63, 4. — II. M e t o n., a geometrical plane, surface:
libramentum, in quo nulla omnino crassitudo sit, Ac. 2, 116. libraria,
ae, f. [libra], she who weighs out tasks, forewoman, luv. 6, 475.
librarioluB, I, m. dim. [2 librarius], a copyist, transcriber, scribe, Balb.
14: ex librariolis Latinis, Leg. 1, 7. librarium, see librarius, II. B.
librarius, , adj. [3 liber; L. § 309]. I. In gen., of books, belonging to
books: scriba, copyist, Agr. 2, 32: taberna, bookseller's shop, Phil. 2,
21 : scriptor, traiuwi-ibfi- of books, H. AP. 354. — II. Esp. as subst.
A. Jftue., /ii/ixt, $cribe, secretary, Agr. 2, 13 : librum ut tuis librariis
daret, Alt. 12, 40, 1 : librarii inendum, L. 38, 55, 8.— B. Neut., a
place to keep books, book-case, book-cfiest : exhibe librarium illud
legum vestrarum, Mil. 33. libratus, adj. with comp. [P. of libro]. — P r
o p., brandished ; hence, with impetus: ictus, Ta. — Comp.: pondere
ipso libratior ictus, with more impetus, L. 30, 10, 13; see also libro.
Hbrilis, e, adj. [libra ; L. § 314]. — P r o p., of a pound ; hence,
praegn. : fundae, throwing stones each wei.ghing a pound, 7, 81, 4.
libro, avl, atus, are [libra]. I. Prop., to poise, balance, hold in
equilibrium: terra librata ponderibus, 7\isc. 6, 69 : Hbravit in alas
Ipse suum corpus, 0. 8, 201. — Poet. : Vela dubia librantur ab aura,
are swayed, 0. f. 3, 585. — II. P r a e g n., to swing, sway, brandish,
set in motion, hurl, dash, cast, launch, Jling, throw: summa telum
librabat ab aure, V. 9, 417: ferro praefixum robur, V. 10, 479 :
caestus, V. 5, 479 : dextra libratum fulmen ab aure Misit, 0. 2, 311 :
librata cum sederit glans, L. 38, 29, 6: his (lapillis) sese per niibila
librant, V. G.4, 196: corpus in herbs, stretch, O. F. I, 429. Hbum, T,
n. [uncertain], a cake, pancake (flour, rjade up with milk or oil, and
baked) : rustica liba, 0. F. 3, 670 : adorea liba per herbam Subiciunt
epulis, V. 7, 109 : Plena dooms libis venalibus, luv. 3, 187: suum
Bacch>. uicemus honorem, . . . et Ijba feremus, V. G.. 2, 394 : liba
recuso; Pane egeo, H. E. 1, 10, 10: patulum, luv. 16, 38. Libunius,
adj., of Liburnia (a part of Illyria) ; hence, masc. as siibst. : Liburnl,
the Liburnians, L., V. : Liburnus, a Liburnian slave, luv. — Fvm. as
subst., a light, fast-sailing vessel, Liburnian galley, brigaidinc, H. 1,
37, 30 ; Caes., Ta. Libya, ae, f., = Atf3i>t), Libya, North Africa west
of Egypt, C., H. Libycus, adj., = AI/JWKOC, of Libya, Libyan, V., H. —
Poet., African, 0. Libye, es,/. (poet, for Libya), Africa, V., 0., luv.
Libyphoenices, um, m., = Aiflvtyoivuctc., Libyphocnicians ; a Libyan
people descended from Phoenicians, L. 1. Libya, yos, m., = Aiftvc, a
Libyan, S., 0. 2. Libya, — , m., a ship-master, O. Libyatia, idis,/., =
Aiftvarif, Libyan: ursa, V. licens. entis, adj. with comp. [P. of licet],
free, uwre'strai tied, bold, forward, licentious: licentior dithyrambus,
Or. 3, 186. — Plur. n. as subst.: multa licentia Dicere, 0. AA. 1, 569.
licenter, adv. with comp. [licens], freely, at pleasure, without
restraint, boldly, impudently, licentiously: at quam licenter! ND. 1,
109: errare, Orator, 77: id fa cere, L. 26, 10, 4 : scribere, H. AP. 265
: licentius cum domina vivere, Gael. 57 : Romanes laxius licentiusque
futures, more remiss in discipline, S. 87, 4. licentia, ae,/. [licens ; L.
§ 266]. I. P r o p., freedom, liberty, license, leave: nobis nostra
Academia magnam licentiam dat, ut, etc., Off". 3, 20 : pueris non
omnem ludendi liirntiam damus, Off. 1, 108: tantum licentiae dabat
gloria, CM. 44 : sumpta pudenter, H. AP. 61. — II. Praegn. A.
Boldness, presumption, license: (militum) licentiam reprehendere, 7,
52, 3 : ad male dicendum, Font. 40 : a Deiiiocrito omnino haec
licentia, ND. 1, 107. — Of style : poetarum, Or. 3, 163: iuvenilis
quaedam dicendi, Brut. 316. — B. Unrestrained liberty, license,
dissoluteness, licentiousness, wantonness : deteriores sumus
licentia, T. Jfeaut.48'3: nimia illaec licentia evadit in aliquod malum,
T. Ad. 508 : omnium rerum infinita atque intoleranda, Agr. 1, 15:
licentia libidoque, 2 Verr. 8, 77 : huius saeculi, Gael. 48 : habere
impunitatem et licentiam sempiternam, Mil. 84 : malle licentiam
suam quam aliorum libertatem, L. 3,' 37, 8 : militum, N. Eum. 8, 2 :
indomitam Refrenare licentiam, H. 3, 24, 29. — Of things : magna
gladiorum est licentia, i. e. murder ix prevalent, Fam. 4, 9, 4 :
inmensa licentia ponti, 0. 1, 309. — C. Person., the goddess of
license: templum Licentia.' (i.
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L 1 C E T r>89 LIGNUM Agr. 2, 19. — B. With neut.pron. as

subject: si illud non licet, Saltern hoc licebit, T. Eim. 639 : licere id
dicimus, quod . . . conceditur. Neque enim quod quisque potest, id ei
licet, Phil. 13, 14: raihi id, quod rogaret, ne licere quidein, Att, 14,
19,4: quid decent vos, non quantum liceat vobis, spectare, Post. 11 :
sin hominibus tan turn licere iudicas, quantum possunt, vide, ne,
etc., Phil. 13, 15: sin ei labebit id quod non licet, Quinct. 94 : nihil,
quod per leges liceret, Mil. 43 : Cui tantum de te licuit ? who had
suc/titoower over you? V. 6, 502. — C. With inf.: inpune opta|e istuc
licet, T. Hec. 464 r Modo liceat vivere, T. ffeaut. 981 : licetne scire ex
te? T. Hec. 873: hie subitam commutationem fortunae videre licuit,
Caes. C. 3, 27, 1 : si 1'acere omnino non licebit, Phil. 13, 14 : licet
hoc videre, Or. 3, 99 : veretur ne non liceat tenere hereditatem, Att.
13, 48, 1 : licetne extra ordinem pugnare? L. 23, 47, 1 : poscere ut
perculsis instare liceat, L. 2, 65, 2. — With inf. pass. : intellegi iam
licet, nullum fore imperium, Rep. 1, 60 : hie cognosci licuit,
quantum, etc., Caes. (7. 3, 28, 4 : evocari ex insula Cyprios non licet,
Att. 5, 21, 6 : cooptari sacerdotem licebat, Fam. 3, 10, 9 : in eum
ordinem cooptari licet, 2 Verr. 2, 120: id primum in poetis cerni licet,
Or. 3, 27. — With dat. : licet nemini contra patriam ducere
exercitum, no man is at liberty to, etc., Phil. 13, 14 : ut tibi id facere
liceat, Rep. 1, 10 : M. Catoni licuit Tusculi se in otio delectare, Rep.
1, 1 : quaerere, qui licuerit aediticare navem senator!, 2 Verr. 5, 45 :
meamet facta mihi dicere licet, S. 85, 24. — D. With ace. and inf. :
Non licet hominem esse, etc., T. ffeaut. 666 : si licet me latere, T.
ffeaut. 672 : Hocin me miserurn non licere meo modo ingeniiun f rui
! T. ffeaut. 401 : eodem ut iure uti senem Liceat, T. Hec. 1 1 : non
licet me isto tanto bono uti, 2 Verr. 5, 154 : cum non liceret Romae
quemquam esse, etc., 2 Verr. 2, 100 : ex eis locis, in quibus te
habere nihil licet, 2 Verr. 5, 45 : liceat esse miseros. Lig. 18 : medios
esse iam non licebit, Att. 10, 8, 4 ; ut iam liceat omnia conplecti, Fin.
5, 26. — With dot. of person: si civi Romano licet esse Gaditanum,
Balb. 29: mihi non licet esse piam, 0. H. 14, 64 : is erat annus, quo
per leges ei consulem fieri liceret, Caes. C. 3, 1, 1. — B. With dat.
predic. and esse: liceat his ipsis esse salvis, Fl. 104: qua re iudici
mihi non esse liceat, Post. 17: ut iis ingratis esse non liceat, Off. 2,
63 : quo in genere mihi neglegenti esse non licet, Att. 1, 17, 6:
quibus otiosis ne in communi quidem otio liceat esse, Cael. 1 ; cf.
cur his esse liberos non licet, Fl. 71 : illis timidis et ignavis licet esse,
L. 21, 44, 8. — Rarely with other verbs : cui tribuno fieri non liceret,
Har. R. 44 : ut sibi per te liceat innocenti vitam in egestate degere,
Rose. 144 : cum postulasset . . . ut sibi triumphanti urbem invehi
liceret, L. 38, 44, 10. — With ellips. of pron. : atqui licet esse beatis
(sc. iis), H. 8. 1, 1, 19 : licet eminus esse Fortibus, 0. 8, 406 :
Hannibal precatur deos ut incolumi cedere atque abire liceat, L. 26,
41, 1Q,: sibi vitam filiae sua cariorem fuisse, L. 3, 50, 6. — P. With
ut (rare) : neque iam mihi licet neque est integrum, ut, etc., Mur. 8.
— G. With suhj. : ut lubet, ludas licet, you may, T. Ph. 347 : fremant
omnes licet, dicam, etc., let them all rage, Or. 1, 195 : vel ipsi hoc
dicas licet, Att. 5, 1,4: studium deponat licebit, Rose. 49 : Sis multa
dives tellure licebit, H. Ep. 15, 19: cantantes licet eamus, V. E. 9, 64:
licebit curras, H. 1,28,35. II. Me ton., introducing a concession, be it
that, granted that, conceding that, even if, although,
notwithstanding (passing into a conjunction ; cf. quamvis,
quamquam, etsi). — With subj. : quoniam suscepi, licet undique
omnes mihi terrores impendeant succurram, Rose. 31 : omnia licet
concurrant, Att. 14, 4, 2 : licet me desi dicatis, Plane. 90 : Licet
superbus ambules, H. Ep. • licet ingens ianitor . . . exsanguls terreat
umbras, , 400. — With part, for subj. : isque, licet caeli regioi motos,
Mente deos adiit, 0. 15, 62. — Correl. with f< licet tibi significarim,
ut ad me venires, tamen, etc , Att. 3, 12, 3. — With certe: licet enim
hoc qui vis arbitratu suo reprehendat . . . ccrte levior reprehensio
et»t, Ac. 2, 102. — Rarely strengthened by quamvix: quamvis licet
insectemur istort (i. e. licet insectemur, quantum vis, etc.), Ttutc. 4,
53 : quamvis euumeres multos licet, Leg. 3, 24. Lichas, ae, rn., =
Ai'^af. I. An attendant of Hercules, O.— II. A Latin, V. Licinius, a, a
gentile name ; see esp. Archias, Crassus. Iiicinus, I, in., a very rich
barber, freed/man of Augustus, H. AP. 301. — Plur. : possidere plus
Licinis, luv. licitatio, ouis, f. [licitor ; freq. of liceor]. — In an auction,
a bidding, offering of a price : exquisitis palarn pretiis et
licitationibus factis, 2 Verr. 2, 133 al. licitator, oris, m. [licitor; freq. of
liceor], a bidder: licitatoribus defatigatis, Dom. 115. licitus, adj. \_P.
of licet], permitted, allowed, allowable, lawful (poet. ; cf. permissus,
honestus): sermo, V. 8, 468. licium, i, n. [R. 2 LAC-, LIC-]. I. Prop.,
in weaving, o cross thread ; plur., the woo/(opp. stamen, tela, the
warp): licia telae Addere, i. e. weave, V. G. 1, 286. — II. Me ton., in
gen., a thread: Licia dependent, longas velantia saepes, 0. F. 3, 267.
— Used in charms and spells : Tune cantata ligat cum fusco licia
rhombo, 0. F. 2, 576 : Terna tibi haec primum triplici diversa colore
Licia circumdo, V. E. 8, 73. lictor, oris, m. [R. 2 LIG-], a lictor, official
attendant upon a magistrate: Romulus se augustiorem lictoribus
duodecim sumptis fecit, L. 1, 8, 2. Twenty-four lictors walked in
single file before a dictator, twelve before a consul, six before a
praetor, carrying the fasces (see fascis, II.) : consularis, H. 2, 16, 10
; they also scourged or beheaded condemned criminals, L. 1, 26, 8
al. It was unlawful for other officers or for private citizens to be
attended by lictors, Caes. C. 1,6, 7. Licyninia, ae,/. I. A slave, mother
of Helenof, V. — II. A woman praised by Horace. ligamen, inis, n. [1
ligo], a band, tie, bandage (poet.), 0. 14, 230. Ligdus (Lyg-), if m., a
Cretan, husband of Teletttma, 0. Ligea. ae, f.,=. \iytia (clear-voiced),
a wood-nymph, V. 1. Liger, eris, m.., a progredi, Caes. C. 3, 76, 3. —
Sup. ace. : ligj. 10, 25, 6: procul a castris lignatum pabulagressi, L.
25, 34, 4. i, n. [R. 1 LEG-, LIG-]. I. Prop., gathered od (opp. materia,
timber; only plur.) : ligua et "cumdarc, ignem subicere, 2 Verr. 1, 69:
ignem ridibus fieri iussit, 2 Verr. 1, 45 : ligna super
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LIGO 590 L I M U S foco Large reponens, H. 1, 9, 5 :

lignorum aliquid posce •ocius, luv. 7, 24. — Pro v. : In silvam ligna
ferre, i. e. carry coals to Newcastle, H. S. 1, 10, 34.— II. Met on. A.
In Ren., timber, wood: hos lignum stabat ad usfts, i. e. to .make
tables, luv. 11, 118.— B. A piece of wood, something .made of
wood: fisso ligno, spearshaft, V. 9, 413 : leges in•cidere ligno, a
wooden table, H. AP. 399 : mobile, a puppet, H. 8. 2, 7, 82 : Vana
supervacui dicunt chirographa ili, Or. 1 80. — Comp. : genus
librorum limatius, Fin, 5, 12 : Comia t urbanus fuerit limatior idem,
H. /S. 1, 10, 65. limbus, 1, m. [cf. \o/3oc]- I. P r o p., a border, hem,
dge, selvage, fringe: Sidoni:iin piclo clilainydein ciiriunata limbo, V. 4,
137: chlamys, quam limbus obibat Aueus, 0. 5, 51. limen, inis, n. [R.
2 LAC-, LIC-]. I. Prop., a crositpiece, threshold, head-piece, lintel, .till
: primo Limine. at the uter threshold, luv. 1," 96: Ter limen tetigi (an
ome^, O. Tr. 1, 3, 55. — Plur. (poet.): haec limina, Intra qmm^liH'r
t, luv. 14, 45. — II. Melon. A. A door, entrance: limen exire, T. ffec.
378 : limen intrare, Phil. 2, 45 : marmoreum, H. E. 1, 18, 73 : fores
in liminibus prot'anarum aedium anuae nominantur, ND. 2, 67 : ad
valvas se templi limenque convertisse, Caes. C. 3, 105, 3 : penetrare
aulas et limina regum, V. G. 2, 504 : ipso in limine portae, V. 2, 242 :
n limine portus, the very entrance, V. 7, 598 : Ansoniae, border, V.
10, 355 : densos per limina tende corymbos, luv. 6, 52. — B. A
house, dwelling, abode : matronae nulla auctoritate virorum conlineri
limine poterant, at home, L. 34, 1, 5 : ad limen consulis adesse, etc.,
L. 2, 48, 10 : limine pelli, V. 7, 579. — Plur. : suos ad limina due-it, V.
3, 347 al. : deorum Limina, temples, V. 2, 366. — C. The barrier (in
a racecourse; poet.): limen relinquunt, V. 5. 316. — III. Fig., a
beginning (late): in limine victoriae, Curt. 6, 3, 10 al. limes, itis, m.
[R. 2 LAC-, LIC-]. — Prop., a cross-path ; hence, I. Melon. A. A path,
passage, road, way, track: eo limite Athenienses signa extulerunt, L.
31, 24, 10: profectus hide transversis limitibus, L. 31, 39, 5 : lato te
limite ducam, V. 0, 328 : acclivis, 0. 2, 19 : limite recto fugere, 0. 7,
782 : transversi, by-roads, L. 22, 12, 2 : limes Appiae, the line of the
Appian street, L. 22, 15, 11 : solito dum flumina currant Limite,
channel, 0. 8, 558: FlammilVniinque trahens spatioso limite crinem
Stella, track, 0. 1 5, 849 : turn longo limite sulcus Dat lucem, V. 2,
697 : Secttis in obliquo est lato curvamine limes, the zodiac, 0. 2,
130: lalum per agmen Ardens limitem agit ferro, V. 10, 514. — B. A
boundary, limit, land-mark (between two fields or estates): partiri
limite campum, V. G. 1, 126: Saxum antiquurn, Limes agro positus,
litem ut discerneret arvis, V. 12, 898 : effodit medio de limite saxum,
luv. 16, 38 : certi, H. E. 2, 2, 171. — C. A fortified boundary-line,
boundarywall: limite acto promotisque praesidiis, Ta. G. 29. — II.
Fig. A. A boundary, limit: Aestual infelix angusto limite inuiHli, luv.
10, 169. — B. A way, path: bene meritis de patria quasi limes ad
caeli aditum patet, Rep. 6. 26 : idem limes agendus erit, i. e. the
same means, O. A A. 3, 558. Limnate, es,/., a daughter of the
Ganges, O. limo, avi, atus, fire [lima], I. In gen., to file, polish,
finish: stilus hoc maxime ornat ac limat, Or. 3, 190: ut ars aliquos
Iqmare non possit, Or. 1, 115: vir noslrorum hominum urban itate
limatus, ND. 2, 74. — II. E s p. A. To investigate accurately, clear up:
veritas ipsa limatur in disputation*-, Off. 2, 35 : mendacium
Subtiliter, Phaedr. 3, 10,49. — B. To file off, take away from, diminish
: tantum alter! adfinxit, de altero limavit, Or. 3, 36 : de tua prolixa
beneficaque natura limavil aliquid posterior annus, Finn. 3, 8 : mea
commoda, H. E. 1, 14, 38 : se ad minutarum causaruii1 genera, i. e.
limited himself, Opt. G. 9. limdsus, adj. [3 limus], full of mud, slimy,
miry, muddy : planities, S. 37, 4 : iuncus, i. e. growing in muddy
places, V. E. 1, 49 : lacus, V. 2, 135 : flumina, 0. 1, 634. 1. limus,
adj. [R. 2 LAC-, LIC-], sidelong, askew, aslant, askance : limis
subrisit ocellis, 0. Am. 3, 1, 33. — E 1 1 i p t. ; limis specto (cf.
oculis), T. Eun. 601 : ut limis rapias quid, etc., by a side glance, H. 8.
2, 5, 52. 2. limus, I, m. [R. 2 LAC-, LIC-], an apron crossed with
purple (worn by atlendanls al sacrifices) : Velali limo, V. 12, 120.
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L I M U S 591 LINTRICULUS 3. limus, I, m. [R. LI-]. I. L i t.,

slime, mud, mire : limum saxa trahunt, S. 78, 3 : frumenti acervos
sedisse inlitos limo, L. 2, 5, 3 : prof undo limo cum ipsia equis hausti
aunt, L. 31, 37, 8: munis obducto late tenet omnia limo, V. G. 1, 116
: amnes Felicem trahunt limum, V. G. 2, 188 : limo Turbata aqua, H.
S. 1, 1, 59: veteri craterae limus • adhaesit, H. 5. 2, 4, 80: Limus ut
hie durescit igni, clay, V. 8, 79 : limumque inducere monstrat, O. F.
3, 759. — II. Fig., filth, pollution: Pectora sic mea sunt limo vitiata
vmal»rum, 0. P. 4, 2, 17. Limyre, es,/., a city of Lycia, 0. linea (Hnia),
ae,/. [linens]. I. P r o p., a linen thread, string, line, plumb-line :
perpendiculo et linea uti, Q. Fr. 3, 2. — Esp. in phrases expressive of
directness: solida corpora ferri suo deorsum pondere ad Hneaiu,
perpendicularly, Fin. 1, 18 : saxa, quae rectis lineis suos ordines
servant, in horizontal courses, 7, 23, 5 : (ignis) rectis lineis in
caelestem locum subvolat, vertically, Tusc. 1, 40. — II. M eto n., a
line, mark, bound, limit, goal : extrema linea, Amare hand nil est, i.
e. to see the loved one at a distance, T. Eun. 640: cogit nos linea
iungi, i. e. the boundary of the seats •(in the theatre), 0. Am. 3, 2,
19. — Fig. : est peccare tam•quam transire lineas, to pass the mark,
Par. 20: mors ultima linea rerum est, H. E. 1, 16, 79. llneamentum (
Hnia- ), T, n. [ lineo, are, to make straight, from linea]. I. Lit, a line,
stroke, mark : in geometria lineamenta, fonnae, etc., Or. 1, 187 :
liniamentum, loii'gitudo latitudine carens, Ac. 2, 116. — II. Melon. A
A feature, lineament: quae conformatio liniamentorum, ND. 1, 47 :
liniamenta hospitae, 2 Verr. 2, 89 : habitum oris lineamentaque
intueri, L. 21, 4, 2: animi liniamenta sunt pulchriora quam corporis.
Fin. 3, 75. — B. Plur., designs, drawings, delineations:
adumbratorum de•orum liniamenta, ND. 1,75: operum liniametita, 2
Verr. 4) 98. — III. Fig., a feature, lineament : numerus quasi
extrema liniamenta orationi attulit, finish, Orator, 186: •Catonis
liniamenta, outlines, Brut. 298. lineus, adj. [linum; L. § 299], of flax,
of lint, flaxen, • linen-: vincula, V. 5, 510: terga, lining (of a shield),
V. 10, 784. Lingones. urn, m., a people of Celtic Gaul, with a city
Lingonex (now Lanares), Caes., L. lingua, ae,/. [old dingua, cf.
Germ. Zunge ; Engl. tongue]. n. Prop., the tongue: lingua haeret
metu, T. Eun. 977: •exsectio linguae, Clu. 191 : lingua haesitantes,
Or. 1, 115: lingua properante Legere, 0. P. 3, 5, 9 : lingua titubante
•loqui, O. Tr. 3, 1, 21 : Non mini si linguae centum sint, V. G. 2, 43 :
linguam exserere (in derision or contempt), L. 7, 10, 5: lingua eiecta,
Or. 2, 266. — II. Me ton. A. A tongue, utterance, speech, language:
mare et ignara lingua •commercio prohibebant, S. 18, 5: dissimilis,
S. C. 6, 2 : verborum copia in nostra lingua, Caec. J51 : (homines)
barvbari lingua, 2 Verr. 4, 112: Largus opum, lingua melior, V. 11,
338: Facilem benevolumqne lingua tua iam tibi me reddidit, T. Hec.
761 : Latium beare divite lingua, H. E. 2, 2, 120: lingua quasi flabello
seditionis contionem ven•tilare, Fl. 54: linguam continere, Q. Fr. 1,
38: tenere, 0. F. 2,602: moderari, S. 82, 2: linguae solutio, Or. 1,
114: litiguam ad iurgia solvere, 0. 3, 261 : quidam operarii lingua
celeri et exercitata, Or. 1, 88 : ut vitemus linguas hominum, Fam. 9.
2, 2 : Aetolorum linguas retundere, check, L. 33, 31, 8 : prompta ac
temeraria, L. 22, 44, 7 : re vati noceat mala lingua futuro, V. &'. 7,
28 : Favete linguis, i. e. .give attention, H. 3, 1, 2 : linguis animisque
favent^s, luv. 12, 83: nam lingua mali pars pessima servi, luv. 9, 121
: mercedem imponere linguae, i. e. speak for w< fav 7ll4« — B.
Tongue, speech, dialect, language Graeca, Fin. 1, 10: (Massilia) tarn
procu gionibus, disciplinis linguaque divisa, Fl. ,guae scientiam
habere, 1, 47,4 : qui ipsorum linguinostril Galli, appellantur, 1, 1, 1 :
dissimili lingua, S. 0. •, 2: lingua utraque, i. e. Greek and Latin, H. S.
1, 10, 28: Graeca lingua loquentes, N. Milt. 3, 2 : Syrus in Tiberim
Orontes Et linguam et mores vexit, luv. 3, 63. — C. Of animals, the
voice, note, song, bark (poet.): linguae volucrum, V. 3, 361 :
linguam praecludere (of a dog), Phaedr. 1, 23, 6. — D. A tongue of
land: eminet in altum lingua, in qua urbs situ est, L. 44, 11, 3. — III.
Praegn. A. Tongue, garrulity, insolence: lingua promptus hostis, L. 2,
46, 15: poenam lingua commeruisse, 0. 5, 551 : paterna, 0. 6, 218 :
magna, H. 4, 6, 2 : materna, boasting, 0. 4, 670. — B. Fluency,
eloquence, readiness of speech : quibus lingua prompta, L. 22, 44, 7
: Est animus tibi, est lingua, H. E. 1, 1, 67. lingula, /. dim. [lingua].
— Prop., a little tongue. — M e t o n., a tongue of land: oppida in
extremis linguh'8, 3, 12, 1 ; see also ligula. Hnia, liniamentum, see
line-. liniger, gera, gerum, adj. [linum + R. GES-], linen-wearing,
clot/ied in linen: turba, 0. 1, 747: grege linigero circumdatus, luv. 6,
533. lino, levl, litus, ere [R. LI-]. I. L i t., to daub, besmear, anoint,
spread, rub over : cera Spiramenta, V. G. 4, 39 : spicula vipereo
felle, 0. P. 1, 2, 18 : cannina linenda cedro, H. AP. 332 : Sabinum
quod ego ipse testa Conditum levi (sc. pice), sealed with pitch, H. 1,
20, 3 : Nam quis plura linit victuro dolia mustoV luv. 9, 58: faciem,
luv. 6, 481 : plurima cerno, digna lini, that deserve erasure (by
rubbing the wax tablet with the broad end of the style), 0. P. 1, 5,
16. — Poet.: paribus lita corpora guttis, adorned at regular Intervals,
V. G. 4, 99. — II. M e t o n., to bedaub, bemire : Unit ora luto, 0. F.
3, 760. — Poet. : carmine foedo Splendjda facta, degrade H. E. 2, 1,
237. Jlinqud, llqul, — , ere [R. LIC-, LINQV-]. I. Prop., to go away,
have, quit, forsake, depart from (cf. destituo, desero) : Linquebat
comite ancilla, luv. 6, 119. — With ace. : terrain, Plane. 26 : Nil
intentatum nostri liquere poetae, H. AP. 285 : Linquenda tellus, H. 2,
14, 21.— Poet. : trepidantem liquerunt nervi, strength forsook him,
0. 8, 363 : Linquor et ancillis excipienda cado, swoon away, 0. H. 2,
130: Linquebant dulcis animas, died, V. 3, 40 : vitam, 0. 13, 522. —
With dat. : Socios ignotae terrae, abandon., V. 5, 795. — E s p. with
two ace., to leave : quern Seminecem liquit, V. 5, 275 : Hanc
ignaram linquo, V. 9, 288 : nil inausum, i. e. try everything, V. 7, 309.
— II. F i g., to leave, give up, resign, abandon, relinquish :
linquamus haec, Or. 3, 38 : linquamus naturam, artlsque videamus,
Or. 3, 180 : Linque severa, H. 3, 8, 28. linter (lunter), tris,/., =
if\vvri\p [see R. PLY-]. I. In gen., a trough, vat, tub : cavat arbore
lintres, V, G. 1, 262. — II. Me ton., a boat, skiff", wherry: luntribus
materiem in insulam convehere, Mil. 74 : flumen lintribus iunctis
transire, 1, 12, 1 : vis navium lintriumque, L. 21, 26, 8. — Po et. :
Naviget hinc alia iam mihi linter aqua, i. e. let me turn to something
else, 0. F. 2, 864. Linternum, see Liternum. linteum, 1, n. [linteus]. I.
Prop., a linen cloth : linteis et vitro delatis, Post. 40 : inscripta lintea,
i. e. curtains (used as a sign), luv. 8, 168: lintea componit, luv. 3,
263. — II. Met on. A. Linen: Tarquinienses (polliciti sunt) lintea in
vela, L. 28, 45, 15. — B. A sail: certum est dare lintea retro, V. 3,
686: non tibi sunt Integra lintea, H. 1, 14, 9 : inplere lintea ventis, 0.
9, 592. linteus, adj. [linum], of linen, linen- : lintea vestis, 2 Verr. 5,
146 : tunica, L. 9, 40, 3 : Lintei libri, an ancient ••'•- ' ' '" hten, and
preserved in the temple of : 1 2 al. : thorax, a linen breastplate, L.
•h. 1, 4. lUitricoluH (lunt-), I, m. dim. [linter], a amaU boat, hfrrf
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L I N U M r>92 LIS linum, 1, «. [cf. X.W1 I. Lit, /ox: lini

inopia, 3, j tale) cum liquescimus 7««- 2, 52.-B. Tbm*, «•*»•%: 13,
6 : rcticulum tenuissimo lino, 2 tfsrr. 6, 27 : Urit lini j fortuna
hquescit, 0. 76. 4 campum seges, V. G. 1, 77.— II. Meton. A. A
thread: iiquet, see liqueo. rope, cable: subducere. carbasa net,
knitter's net, toils: positarum lina plagarum. 0. 7, 768: nee lina sequi
nodosa sinebam, 0. 7, 807 : umida, a fishes net, V. G. 1, 142:
cymbae Unique magister, i.e. the fisherman, luv. 4, 45. Linus (-OB),
I, m., = \ivoq, a son of Apollo and Terpsichore, V. Lipare, es, =
Atiropij, Lipara, an island north of Sicily, and a city upon it, now
Lipari, V. Liparae, arum, /., = ai Aiirapcu, the Liparian Islands, jEolic
Islands, L. Liparaeus, adj., of Lipare, Liparaean, H., luv. Liparensis, e,
adj., of Lipara, Liparaean, C., L. — Plwr. L. § 287]. I. ILit., flowing,
fluid, liquid: vei)cnuni. <>. 4, 600: odores, liquid unguents, H. 1, 5,
2: sorores, fountain-nymphs, 0. 1, 704. — Neiit. as subst. : tibi si sit
opua liquidi non amplius urna, water, H. 8. 1, 1, 64 : Cum liquido
mixta polenta, 0. 5, 464. — H. Meton. A. Clear, bright, transparent,
limpid, pure : fontes, V. E. 2, 69 : Falernum, H. E. \, 15, 84: ignis; V.
E. 6, 33 : a«r, V. G. 1, 404 : aether, H. 2, 20, 2 : Baiae, H. 3, 4, 24 :
color, H. 4, 8, 7: liquidior lux, Curt. 7, 11, 22: ros, 0. 3, 164:
liquidissimus amnis, 0. 6, 400: nox, V. 10, 272: aestas, V. G. 4> 59 :
iter, serene way (through the air), V. 6, 217. — B. Of sounds, clear,
pure: voces, V. G. 1,410: cui liquidam pater Vocem cum cithara
dedit, H. 1, 24, 3. — III. Fig. A. Flowing, continuing without
interruption : genus sermonis, m. as subst., the people of Lipara, G.
j ^ 2, 159.— B. Unmixed, unadulterated : alqd purum lilippio, — , —
, ire [lippus], to have watery eyes, be blear- quidumque ham-ire,
Caec. 78 : voluptas, Fin. 1, 58. eyed: cum leviter lippirem, Att. 7, 14,
1. liquo, — , atus, are [*liquu8 ; R. LIQV-], to »/»«/> figlippitudo,
inis,/. [lippus], blearedness, rheum, inflam- ', uid, melt, dissolve,
liquefy: liquatae Gut tae (poet.), Tuxc. 2_ mation of the eyes :
diuturna, Tusc. 4, 81 : molestior, Att. 8, 12,1. lippus, adj. [cf . XtVo,
d\ua, adeps], blear-eyed, bleared, inflamed: Non tamen idcireo
contemnas lippus inungi, H. K 1, 1, 29: oculis collyria lippus Inlinere,
H. 8. 1, 5, 80. — P r o v. : Omnibus et lippis notum et tonsoribus, i.
e. to the whole world, H. 8. 1, 7, 3. — P o e t. : fuligine lippus, i. e.
blinded, luv. 10, 130. — Of mental blindness: oculis lippus inunctis,
H. S. 1, 3, 25. 26. — Meton., to strain, filter, clarify: vina liques, H.
1,. 11,6. 1. liquor, — , HquI, dep. [LIQV-], to be fluid, be H, /it-id,
flow,melt, dissolve (poet.): turn toto corpore sudor Liquttur,. V. 9,
813 : huic (arbori) atro liquuntur sanguine guttiie, V. 3,28; Liquitur in
lacrimas, O. 15, 549: tabe Liquitur, ut glacies, 0. 2, 808 ; see also 2
liquens. 2. liquor, Gris, m. [R. LIQV- ; L. § 237]. I. P r<> p., fluidity,
ffiiiifiit-Kx : aquae, ND. 2, 26. — II. Meton., » 19 : liquefactum
plumbum, V. 9, 558 : saxa (Aetnae), i. e. I us liquor Secernit
Europen ab Afro, the sea, H. 3, 3, 46 lava, V. G. 1, 473 : flamma
Tura liquefaciunt, 0. 7, 161 : caeca medullae Tabe liquefactae,
putrid, 0. 9, 1 75 : liquefacta bourn per viscera, V. G. 4, 555 :
liquefacta rursus unda, cleared, 0. 3, 486. — II. Fig., to weaken,
enervate: quos millae lactitiae liquefaciunt voluptatibus, Tusc. 5, 16:
liquefiunt pectora curis, 0. P. 1, 2, 57. 1. liquens, ntis, adj. [P. of
\K\\MQ\, floioing, fluid, liquid: Tina, V. 4, 238 : campi, i. e. ocean, V.
6, 724 : fluvius, gliding, V. G. 4, 442 : undae, 0. 8, 457. 2. liqueus,
ntis, adj. [P. of \\c(\\or\,flowing, fluid, liquid: mella, V. 1, 432 :
flumina, V. 9, 679. liqued, licui, — , ere [R. LIQV-]. — Prop., to be
fluid (see 1 liqueus). — Hence, f i g., to be clear, be manifest, be
apparent, be evident (only third pers. sing.): de deis habere, quod
liqueat, ND. 1, 29 : cui neutrum licuerit, nee esse deos nee non
esse, ND. 1, 117: te Hquet esse meum, O. TV. 1, 1, 62 : corpus esse
liquebat, 0. 1 1, 718. — With dat. : Iiquet mihi deierare non vidisse,
etc., / am free to swear, etc.. T. Eun. 331. — Esp. with non, it doth
not appear, is not evident, is doubtful: non liquere dixerunt (iudices),
Liriope, es,^., a fountain-nymph, mother ofNartusus, (X 1. Liris, is,
m., a river between Latium and ('«iii]i>i//i\Tt'/, altercation: Lites
inter eos niaxumae, T. Kun. 734 : philosophi aetatem in litibus
conterunt, Leff. 1, .r>3 : (jrammatici certant et adhuesub iudice lis
cst, H. AP. 78 : inter vos componere lites, V. E. 8, 108 : I, ilium et
rixae cupidi, H. 3, 14, 26: de terrae noininr, O. 6, 71 : exemplum
Utem quod lite resolvit, xolvt* : in emu litis aestimare, Post. 1*2: in
litibus aestimandis, .v///te for damages, Clu. 116: lis capitis, Clu. 76
: cum id de quo Panaetio non Iiquet, reliquis vide- a capital charge,
Clu. 116 : quid, si cum pro altero dicas, atur clarius, Div. 1, 6: cum
causam non audisset, dixit ]ju,m tu;mi facias? i. e. plead for yourself
(instead of your sibi liquere, Caec. 29. liquesco, — , — , ere, inch,
[liqueo]. come fluid, melt, liquefy : tabes nivis liquescentis, L. 21,30,
« : haec ut cera lique'seit, V. E. 8, 80; 0. 5, 431 : Voln cusque
I'hiilybs vasta fornace liquescit, V. 8, 446 : Corporn »;,!> las lis
detur, non recusamus, Com. 3 : de tota lite pacfoeda iaoeiit . . .
dilapsa liquescunt, i. e. putrefy, 0. 7, 5M t < -'in facere, Com. 40: in
suam rem liteiu vertere, L. 3, — II. Meton. A. To g row soft,
ejfeminatt : qua (volui !. client) Or. 2, 305. — HI. M e t o n., the
subject of an action, Prop., to lie- matter in dispute: quanta summa
litium fuissetr Post. 37: .•re utrum rem an litem dici oporteret, Mur.
27 : •••vere aestimatae, Mur. 42 : quo minus secundum eas
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LISCUS 593 LITUUS Liscus, I, m., a chief of the Aedui,

Caes. Litaiia, ae,/., a forest of C'inalpine Gaul, C., L. iitatio, onis, f.
[lito], a propitiation, success in sacrifice : DDStiiie matures sine
litatione caesae, L. 27, 23, 4 : senatus maioribus liostiis usque atl
litiitioiieni sacri Heart iussit, L. 41. 15,4. Litaviccus. I. m.,a general of
the Aedui, Caes. (Htera), see lit tern. Liternum (Lint-), 1, «., a city of
Campania, now Patria, L., U. liticen. inis, m. [littius + R. 1 CAN-], a
player on the c/nri»n ; Pint:, Rep. 2, 40. litigator, oris, m. [litigo], a
party to a lawsuit, litigant ; Pin,:, F,wi. 12, 30? 1. litigidsus, adj.
[litigiura]. I. Pr op., full of dispute*, quarrelsome: fora, 0. F. 4, 188:
disputatio, persistent, Fin. 5, 76 : homo minime litigiosus,
contentious, 2 Verr. 2, 37 : nimium, Caec. 14. — II. Met on., in
controversy, disputed : praediolum, Or. 3, 108. litigo, avl. atus, are
[*litigus; lis + tf. 1 AG-]. I. In g e ii., to dispute, quarrel, strive :
mecum, T. Hec. 507 : Hirtiurn cum Quinto acerrime Htigasse, Att.
13, 37, 2. — II. E * p., to sue, go to law, litigate: aliquot in causis,
Cael. 27 : Respicit haec qui litigat, luv. 7, 141. lito, avl, atus, are. I.
TV make an acceptable sacrifice, obtain favorable omens: nee
auspicato, nee litato instruunt ac'iem, without favorable omens, L. 5,
38, 1 : Manlium egregie litasse, L. 8, 9, 1 : non facile litare, L. 27,
23, 1. — Pass. with dot.: cum pluribus deis immolatur, ut litetur aliis,
aliis non litetur, Div. 2, 38. — With abl.: proxuma hostiii litatur saepe
pulcherrime, Div. 2, 36 : aninia Argolica, i. e. the life of Iphigenia, V.
2, 118: humanis hostiis, Ta. G. 9. — Poet, with ace. : sacra bove, 0.
F. 4, 630 : sacris litatis, V. 4, 50: sacris ex more litatis, 0. 14, 156. —
II. M eton. A. Of a victim, to give favorable omens : Yictima nulla
litat, 0. 15, 794. — B. To make atonement, propitiate, appease,
satisfy: litemus Lentulo, parentemus Cethego, Fl. 96. — Pass,
impers. : Sanguine quaerendi reditus, animaque litandum Argolica,
V. 2, 118. litoreus, adj. [litus], of the sea-shore, shore-, beach- :
harena, 0. 15, 725 : Cancer, 0. 10, 127: aves, V. 12, 248. littera
(better than Htera), ae,/. [R. LI-]. I. P r o p., a letter, alphabetical
sign, written sign of a sound : (epistula) Graecis conscripta litteris, 5,
48, 3 : sus rostro si humi A litteram inpresserit, Div. 1, 23 :
priscarum litterarum notae, Div. 2, 85: maximis Utteris incisum, 2
Verr, 2, 154: lenis appellatio litterarum, Brut. 259 • alqd litteris
mandare, commit to writing, 6, 14, 3 : littera salutaris, tristis (i. e. A
and C in the ballots of the jurors, for absolve, condemno), Mil. 15:
provocatis ostentata inanibus litteris, as a pretence, L. 3, 56, 13 : ad
me litteram numquam misit, not a line, Fam. 2, 17, 6. — II. Me ton.
A. A handwritini/ : Alexidis manum amabam, quod tarn prope
accedebat ad similitudinem tuae litterae, Att. 7, 2, 3: Arguit ipsorum
quos littera, luv. 13, 138. — B. Plur. 1. In gen., a writing, document,
record: litterae publicae, records, 2 Verr. 4, 140; Caes. : ratio oinnis
et omries litterae, accounts, Quinct. 38: praetoris litterae, edict, 2
Verr. 5, 56. — Sing, (poet.): iiinget nos littera, inscription, 0. 11, 706
: littera poscetur, tit-knowledgment in writing, 0. A A. 1, 428. — 2. E
s p., a lett> /•, tpistle : mittuntur ad Caesarem ab Cicerone litterae,
5, 40, 1 : eas (litteras) milii reddidit, Att. 5, 21, -i : meas acceperat
litteras, Att. 5, 21, 7: litteras Caesari s. nittir. 5/47, 5: nullas iis
praeterquam ad te et ad Bru,n;, iedi litteras, Fam. 3, 7, 1 : per
litteras mandare, ne, et C. 2, 13, 3 : litteris Labieui certior nebat,
etc., 2, 1, i ri apud aliquem per litteras, Att. 5, 21, 13 : invit. quern
per litteras, Att. 13, 2, 2 : civitatum animos temptare, Caes. C. 1, 40,
1 : liber litterarum missan adlatarum, a book of letters sent ami
received, Font. 4, ,,// in «/• literature, Leg. 1, 5 : Graecae de
philosophia litterae. />/ii/oxophical literature, Div. 2, 5 : Graecis
litteris studere, Brut. 78 : damnum Hortensi interim Latinae litterae
fecerunt, Brut. 125 : quod litteris exstet, PherecA'des primus dixit,
etc., Tusc. 1, 38 : parvae et rarae per eadem tempora litterae fuere,
L. 6, 1, 2 : cupidissimus litterarum fuit, N. Cat. 3, 1 : omnis varietas
litterarum mearum, writings, Fam. 15, 4, 12 : non nihil temporis
tribuit litteris, N. Hann. 13, 2. — HI. Fig., learning, the sciences,
liberal education, scholarship, letters: fac periclum in litteris, T. Eun.
476 : sit mini orator tinctus litteris; audierit aliquid, legerit, Or. 2, 85:
erat in eo plurimae litterae, Brut. 265 : scire litteras, to be educated,
Fin. 2, 12 : litterarum admodum nihil sciebat, Brut. 210 : homo sine
ingenio, sine litteris, 2 Verr. 4, 98 : fuit in illo ingenium, ratio,
memoria, litterae, cura, cogitatio, diligentia, Phil. 2, 116: mihi nihil
libri, nihil litterae, nihil doctrina prodest, Att. 9, 10, 2 : litterarum
cognitio, Or. 3, 127. litterate (liter-), adv. with comp. [litteratus]. I.
Prop., learnedly, intelligently : scriptorum veterum litterate peritus,
critically skilled. Brut. 205 : belle et litterate dicta, clever sayings, Or.
2, 253 : rationes perscriptae scite et litterate, Pis. 61. — Comp.:
perbene Latine loqui et litteratius quam, etc., accurately, Brut. 108.
— H. Melon., to the letter, literally : respondere, Har. R. 17.
litteratura (liter-), ae,/. [litterae], a writing, Part. 26. litteratus
(liter-), adj. with sup. [littera], lettered, learned, liberally educated;
Canius nee infacetus et satis litteratus, Off. 3, 58: homines, Mur. 16:
servi, Brut. 87: concursus hominum litteratissimorum, Arch. 3 :
quern litteratissimum fuisse iudico, Fam. 9, 16, 4. — Melon., of
things: otium, learned leisure, Tusc. 5, 105: senectus, Brut. 265.
litterula (liter-), ae, /. dim. [littera]. I. Prop., a little letter, Att. 6, 9, 1
: accepi tuam epistulam vacillantibus litterulis, Fam. 16, 15, 2. — II.
Melon., in plur. A. A short letter, note: hoc litterularum exaravi, Att.
12, 1, 1. — B. Grammatical knowledge, literary learning, liberal
studies: quern propler lillerularum nescio quid lubenter vidi, Att. 7, 2,
8 : litterulae meae oblanguerunt, Fam. 16, 10, 2 : Litterulis Graecis
imbutus, H. E. 2, 2, 7. litura, ae, /.[/?. LI- ; L. § 2 1 6]. I. P r o p. , a
smearing ; hence, es p., a smearing of the wax on a writing-tablet to
erase ii'hat is written, blotting out, erasure, correction : unius
nominis litura,. 4 rcA. 9: tabularum, 2 Verr. 2,187. — II. Melon. A. A
passage erased, erasure: videtis extremam partem nominis
demersam esse in litura, 2 Verr. 2, 191 : litterae lituraeque ornnes
adsimulatae, 2 Verr. 2,189: carmen multa litura coercere, H. AP. 293.
— B. In writing, a blot, blur : Littera suffusas quod habet
maculosalituras, 6. Tr. 3. 1, 15. 1. litus, P. of lino. 2. litus, oris, n. [Jt.
LI-]. I. P r o p., the sea-shore, seaside, beach, strand (cf. ripa, river-
bank : ora, sea-coast) : molle atque aperlum, 5, 9, 1 : quid est tarn
commune quam . . . litus eiectis, Hose. 72 : esse in lilore, 2 Verr. 5,
40: praetervolare litora, H. Ep. 16, 40: Circaeae raduntur litora
terrae, V. 7, 10: petere, 0. 2, 844: inlrare, 0. 14, 104 : litoris ora, V.
3, 396 : Litus arant, V. 7, 798 : mncosa litora Boebes, O. 7, 231. —
Pro v. : litus arare, i. e. labor in vain, 0. Tr. 5, 4, 48 : litus sterili
versamus aratro, luv. 7, 49: in litus hnrenas fundere, carry coals to
Newcastle, 0. Tr. 5, 6, 44. — II. Melon., a river-bank: hostias
constituit omnis in litore, Inv. 2, 97 : viridique in litore conspicitur
sus, V. 8, 83 : percussa fluctu litora, V. E. 5, 83. lituus, m.
[uncertain]. I. Prop. A. A crooked ateif
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LIVENS 594 LOCUS borne by on augur, augur's crook,

crosier, augural wand: (opp. conduce) : vectigalia, Agr. 1,7:
portorium, Li><. dextra="" maim="" baculuni="" sine="" nodo=""
aduncum="" tenens="" quem="" agrum="" frumento="" l.="" :=""
fundum="" verr.="" volituuin="" appellarunt="" lituus="" iste=""
vester="" insigue="" cem="" i.="" e.="" rant="" for="" pay=""
the="" stage="" luv.="" disciplina="" au="" div.="" quirinalis=""
v.="" lituo="" pulcher="" minus="" hsccciq03="" yielded=""
com.="" quirinus="" f.="" b.="" a="" crooked="" wind-in-="" to=""
give="" out="" on="" contract="" making="" have="" itrument=""
curved="" trumpet="" cornet="" clarion:="" equi="" labor="" est=""
done="" by="" contract:="" statuarn="" faciendam="" phil.=""
ftmera="" .="" pati="" g.="" lam="" pugnae="" signa="" da-=""
statuas="" demoliendas="" ansoturus="" erat="" tubae=""
permixtus="" sonitus="" h.="" ribus="" cibaria="" publice=""
locantur="" praebenda="" hose.="" cornua="" cum="" lituis=""
audita="" ii.="" m="" e-="" lunoni="" templum="" exstruendum=""
vestimenta="" ton.="" signal:="" de="" fiowiriso="" att.=""
meae="" profectionis="" livens="" entis="" adj.="" of="" liveo=""
bluish="" lead-colored="" black="" and="" blue="" livid:=""
plumbum="" pruna="" crura="" compedibus="" am.=""
margarita="" ta.="" a.="" lived="" ere="" n.="" liv-="" be=""
livent="" rubigine="" denies="" hvidulus="" dim.="" inclined=""
envy="" lividus="" prop.="" in="" gen.="" leaden="" color=""
vada="" racemi="" exercitui="" facienda="" secanda=""
marmora="" put="" place="" profitably="" beneficia="" apud=""
gratos="" bene="" facta="" male="" locata="" arbitror="" off.=""
locrenses="" ium="" m.="" locrianx="" people="" locris="" c.=""
locrl="" orum="" aoicpoi="" loci-is="" locris.="" idis="" country=""
loeri="" mainland="" greece="" locull="" locus="" little=""
places="" hence="" receptacle="" with="" compartments=""
coffer="" casket="" satchel="" pocket:="" minimum="" loculos=""
demittere="" esp.="" livid="" bruised:="" livida="" armis=""
gramina="" continue="" loculis="" depromit="" eburnis="" o.=""
bracchia="" ora="" inanissimi="" clu.="" laevo="" suspensi=""
tabulamque="" meton.="" deadly:="" materno="" fervent=""
lacerto="" s.="" neque="" comitantibus="" itur="" adipata=""
veneno="" iii.="" fig.="" envious="" invidious="" spiteful=""
malicious:="" malevoli="" et="" lividi="" tusc.="" nos=""
nostraque="" odit="" things="" obliviones="" destructive=""
praise="" hvor="" oris="" lit.="" spot="" bruise="" ostendere=""
nigram="" facie="" tumidis="" lipurse="" locuples="" etis="" or=""
plur.gfn.="" comp.="" sup.="" r.="" ple-="" rich="" lands=""
substantial="" opulent="" dives="" abundans="" copiosus=""
quod="" turn="" res="" pecore="" locorum="" possessionibus=""
ex="" quo="" pecuniosi="" locupletee="" vocavoribus="" offam=""
uva="" conspecta="" livorem="" ducit="" ab="" bantur="" rep.=""
qui="" magno="" acre="" alieno="" maiore="" taint="" spite=""
malice="" ill-="" etiam="" possessiones="" habent.="" sunt=""
locupletes="" cat.="" will="" poet.="" cf.="" invidia="" ergo=""
summotum="" patria="" j="" wealthy="" opulent:="" egebatf=""
proscindere="" livor="" desine="" p.="" rumpere="" immo=""
mulier="" copiosa="" plane="" loedax="" p="" e="" r="" s="" o=""
al.="" lixa="" ae="" lic-="" liqv-="" sutler="" camp-follower=""
lixae="" permixti="" militibus="" non="" sequebatur="" modo=""
insignibus="" profectum="" lixarum="" modum="" negotiari=""
ne="" exercitum="" sequerentur="" locatid="" onis="" placing=""
disposition="" letting="" leasing="" quae="" consulum=""
locatione="" reficiebatur="" operum="" locationes=""
praediorum="" rusticorum="" farming="" hiring="" lease=""
locator="" one="" who="" lets="" lessor:="" fundi="" locatum=""
something="" let="" subject="" lease:="" cuples="" aquila=""
lucrative="" post="" centurion="" locupletem="" optare=""
podagram="" man="" as="" subst.:="" lycurgus="" agro=""
locupletium="" plebi="" ut="" servitio="" colendoa="" dedit=""
proscriptiones="" fern.:="" nupsit="" avaro="" ahl.="" praeds=""
frugibus="" annns="" mancipiis="" snp.="" urbs=""
locupletissima="" urbes="" caes.="" f="" i="" well="" stored=""
provided="" richly="" supplied="" domus="" or.="" oratione=""
rebus="" ipsis="" ieiunior="" fin.="" latina="" lingua=""
locupletior="" quam="" graeca="" responsible="" trustworthy=""
trusty="" safe="" .fiire:="" reus="" that="" can="" fulfil="" his=""
engagement="" pythagoras="" plato="" locupletissimi=""
auctores="" iubent="" auctor="" thucydides="" brut.="" testis=""
fl.="" tabellarius="" q.="" fr.="" iudicia="" locato="" fiunt=""
grow="" leases="" nd.="" locitd="" are="" freg.="" hire="" agelli=""
paulum="" t.="" ad.="" loco="" avi="" atus="" l="" lay="" set=""
dispose="" arrange:="" cohortes="" fronte="" ca-="" fls-:=""
sapientem="" locupletat="" ipsa="" natura="" elodavera="" area=""
crates="" adversas="" locari="" iubet="" quentiam="" artium=""
mstrumento="" pictucaes.="" milites="" super="" vallum=""
munimentis="" ris.="">• e- adorn> Inv- 2' l3, 9, 6. locupleto, avi,
atus, are [locuples], to make rich, enrich (cf. dito) : homines
fortunis, Agr. 2, 68 : aniieos suos, Post. 'Lit., to place, put, lay, ! 4:
Africam equis, armis, viris, pecunia, X. Ham. 4, 1.— 4 : cum sol ita
locatus fuisset, ut, etc., Rep. 1, 23 : Fundamenta (urbis), V. 4, 266 :
urbem sedesque, V. 1, 247 : litore Moenia, V. 3, 17 : gramineoque
viros locat ipse sedili, V. 8, 176 : vicos, Ta. G. 16 : stipendium et
commeatum, S. 90, 2. — II. Fig. A. In gen., to place, put, set, lay,
fix, establish, constitute : inter recte factum atque peccatum media
locus, I, m. (plur. loci, single places ; loca, places connected, a
region). I. Lit. A. In gen., a place, spot: coacto in unum locum
exercitu, Caes. C. 3, 73, 2 : ad aciem instruendam opportunus, 2, 8,
3 : locorum situm naturam regionis nosse, L. 22, 38, 9 : Romae per
omuls locos, S. 30, 1 : loci communes, public places, parks, 2 Verr.
2, 112: de locabat quaedam,^4c. 1, 37 : homines in amplissimo
gradu loco superiore dicere, i. e.from the judicial bench, 2 Verr.
dignitatis, Mur. 30 : eo loco locati sumus, ut, etc., Lael. 40: 2, 102:
Celsior ipse loco (i. e. celsiore loco), 0. 1, 178:.et res certis in
personis ac temporibus locata, Or. 1, 138: prudentia est locata in
delectu bonorum et malorum, contitt* in, Off. 3, 71. — B. P r a e g
n., to place by contract. 1. ex super' ore et ex aequo loco sermones
habiti, i. e. orations and co*<.versations fam.="" :="" ex=""
inferiore="" loco="" i.="" e.="" before="" a="" judge="" or.=""
primus="" locus="" aedium="" die="" filing="" on="" the="" of=""
woman="" to="" place="" in="" marriage="" give="" away="" mar-
="" grownd-floor="" n.="" praef.="" b.="" esp.="" an=""
appoinitd="" riage="" marry="" filiam="" suam="" t.="" ph.=""
nuptum="" virginem="" station="" post="" position="" movere=""
drive="" from="" pa.="" let="" lease="" hire="" farm="" out=""
deicere="" h.="" ceder=""/>
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LOCUS 595 LONGE give way, S. C. 9, 4 : legio locum non

tenuit, Caes. C. 1, 44, 4. — Plur.: Turn loca sorte legunt, V. 5, 132:
loca iussa tenere, V. 10, 238. — 2. Place, room: ut locus in foro
daretur amicis, Mur. 72 : Nee locus in tumulos sufficit, 0. 7, 613:
locum sibi fecit, 0. 1, 27 : non erat his locus, right place, H. AP. 19:
locum ad spectandum dare, Mur. 73. — Plur. : loca, L. 34, 44, 6. —
3. A lodging, quarters : locus inde lautiaque legatis praeberi iussa, L.
28, 39, 19 al. — 4. A place, spot, locality, region, country : non hoc
ut oppido praeposui, sed ut loco, Alt. 7, 3, 10: est locus, Hesperiam
dicunt, V. 1, 530. — P o e t. : numina vicinorum Odit uterque locus,
each neigfiborhood, luv. 15, 37. — Plur. rarely loci : locos tenere, L.
5, 35, 1 : occupare, S. 18, 4 : explorare, V. 1, 306. — Usually loca:
venisse in ilia loca, Fam. 9, 2, 5 : ea loca incolere, that region, 2, 4,
2 : qui turn ea tenebant loca, L. 1, 1, 6. II. F i g. A. Place, position,
degree, rank, order, office : summo loco natus, 5, 25, 1 : ultimo loco
natus, Fl. 24 : in antiquum locum gratiae restitutus, 1, 18, 8:
legationis princeps locus, head, 1, 7, 3 : summus locus civitatis, Clu.
150 : tua dignitas suum locum obtinebit, Fam. 3, 9, 2 : quern locum
apud ipsum Caesarem obtinuisti ? Phil. 2, 71 : Socrates voluptatem
nullo loco numerat, Fin. 2, 90 : eodem loco habere, quo, etc., Pnro.
C. 41 : indignantes eodem se loco esse, quo, etc., L. 42, 37, 8 : qui
locum tenuit virtute secundum, V. 5, 258 : de locis contendere, i. e.
precedence, 5, 44, 2 : signiferos loco movit, degraded, Caes. C. 3,
74, 1. — Plur. loca: ut patricii recuperarent duo consularia loca, L.
10, 16, 8 : quinque augurum loca, L. 10, 8, 3 : omnia loca obtinuere,
ne cui plebeio aditus esset, L. 4, 57, 11 : Vesta loca prima tenet, 0.
F. 6, 304. — B. Place, position, situation, condition, relation, state :
in eum iam res rediit locum, ut, etc., T. Heaut. 359. — Usu. abl. sing.
: Peiore res loco non potis est esse, T. Ad. 344 : is si eo loco esset,
negavit, etc., Fam. 4, 4, 4: Quo res summa loco? In what state.1 V.
2, 322: Quo sit fortuna loco? V. 9, 723: quo sit Romana loco res, H.
E. 1, 12, 25 : missis nuntiis, quo loco res essent, L. 2, 47, 5 : primo
loco, first in order, luv. 5, 12 : se (eos) eodem loco quo Helvetios
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