Module – 3
(Online Teaching) Pow.-Ampli., Oscillators., & Op-Amp.
Introduction To
Analog Electronic Circuits
By
Venkata Sridhar .T M.Tech,PhD*,MIETE
Assistant Professor of ETC.
IIIT-Bhubaneswar.
Module – 3
Power Amplifier: Classifications, Class-A, Class-B and
Class-C Amplifier Circuits, Transfer Characteristics, Power
Dissipation and Conversion Efficiency of Power Amplifiers.
Feedback and Oscillators: Concept of positive and Negative
Feedback: Four Basic Feedback Topologies, Practical Feedback
Circuits, Basic Principle of Sinusoidal Oscillator, Wein-Bridge,
Phase Shift and Crystal Oscillator Circuits.
Operational Amplifier: Ideal Op-Amp, Differential Amplifier,
Op-AMP parameters Open-loop and Closed-loop Gains,
Applications of Op-Amp, Instrumentation amplifier, Voltage
limiters, µA 741-Op-Amp.
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Power Amplifiers:
Classification Of
Amplifiers
1. According to frequency capabilities.
Amplifiers are classified as audio amplifiers , radio frequency amplifiers
• AF Amplifier are used to amplify the signals lying in the audio range ( i.e. 20
Hz to 20 kHz )
• RF amplifiers are used to amplify signals having very high frequency.
2. According to coupling methods.
• R-C coupled amplifiers,
• Transformer coupled amplifiers
• Direct Coupled
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Classification Of
Amplifiers
3. According to
a. Voltage amplifiers use.
• Amplify the input voltage, if possible with minimal current at the output.
• The power gain of the voltage amplifier is low.
• The main application is to strengthen the signal to make it less affected by noise
and attenuation.
• Ideal voltage amp. have infinite input impedance & zero output impedance.
a. Power amplifiers
• Amplify the input power, if possible with minimal change in the output voltage
• Power amp. are used in devices which require a large power across the loads.
• In multi stage amplifiers, power amplification is made in the final stages
✔ Audio amplifiers and RF amplifiers use it to deliver sufficient power the load.
✔ Servo motor controllers use power it to drive the motors.
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Classification Of
Amplifiers
Parameter Voltage amplifiers Power amplifiers
current gain low high
Voltage gain high low
Heat dissipation low high
cooling mechanism not required required
Transistor Size Small Large to dissipate heat
Base Width small Wide to handle higher
current
Beta Usually high >100 Low usually < 20
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Figure 1.1: Amplifier
classes Vs Conduction
angle
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Class B amplifier: When an amplifier is biased at cutoff
so that it operates in the linear region for 180o of the
input cycle and is in cutoff for 180o
Class AB amplifiers: are biased to conduct for slightly
more than 180o
Both are more efficient than a class A amplifier;
A disadvantage of class B or class AB is that it is more
difficult to implement the circuit in order to get a linear
reproduction of the input waveform.
The term push-pull refers to a common type of class B
or class AB amplifier circuit in which two transistors are
used on alternating half-cycles to reproduce the input
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The class B amplifier is biased at the cutoff point so that
It is brought out of cutoff and operates in its linear region when the input signal
drives the transistor into conduction.
The Circuit only conducts for the
positive half of the cycle.
Can not amplify the entire cycle
emitter-follower circuit
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To amplify the entire cycle, it is necessary to add a second class B amplifier
that operates on the negative half of the cycle.
The combination of two class B amplifiers working together is called push-pull
operation
There are two common approaches for using push-pull amplifiers to
reproduce the entire waveform.
1. Transformer Coupling
✔ The input transformer
thus converts the input
signal to two
out-of-phase signals for
the two npn transistors.
✔ The output transformer combines the signals by permitting current in both
directions, even though one transistor is always cut off.
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2. Complementary Symmetry Transistors
✔ The figure shows one of the most popular types of push-pull class B amplifiers
using two emitter-followers and both positive and negative power supplies.
✔ This is a complementary amplifier because one emitter-follower uses an npn
transistor and the other a pnp, which conduct on opposite alternations of the
input cycle.
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Crossover Distortion
✔ When the dc base voltage is zero, both transistors are off and the input signal
voltage must exceed VBE before a transistor conducts.
✔ Because of this, there is a time interval between the positive and negative
alternations of the input when neither transistor is conducting, as shown in
Figure.
✔ The resulting distortion in the output waveform is called crossover distortion.
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Feedback and Oscillators:
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(or) Feedback Topologies:
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Oscillators:
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The use of positive feedback that results in a feedback
amplifier having closed-loop gain |Af | greater than 1 and
satisfies the phase conditions will result in operation as an
oscillator circuit.
An oscillator circuit then provides a varying output signal.
If the output signal varies sinusoidally, the circuit is referred to
as a sinusoidal oscillator.
If the output voltage rises quickly to one voltage level and later
drops quickly to another voltage level, the circuit is generally
referred to as a pulse or square-wave oscillator.
In reality, no input signal is needed to start the oscillator going.
Only the condition βA=1 must be satisfied for self-sustained
oscillations to result. This is known as the Barkhausen criterion
for oscillation. In practice, βA is made greater than 1 and the
system is started oscillating by amplifying noise voltage, which
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Types of Oscillator Circuits
Phase-shift oscillator
Wien bridge oscillator
Tuned oscillator circuits
Crystal oscillators
Unijunction oscillator
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Neglecting loading effects of the op-amp input and output impedances, the
analysis of the bridge circuit results in
and
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Tuned Oscillator Circuits
Tuned oscillators use a parallel LC resonant circuit (LC tank)
to provide the oscillations.
There are two common types:
Colpitts—The resonant circuit is an inductor and two capacitors.
Hartley—The resonant circuit is a tapped inductor or two
inductors and one capacitor.
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A crystal oscillator is basically a tuned-circuit oscillator using a piezoelectric
crystal as a resonant tank circuit. The crystal (usually quartz) has a greater stability
in holding constant at whatever frequency the crystal is originally cut to operate.
Crystal oscillators are used whenever great stability is required, such as in
communication transmitters and receivers.
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The inductor L and capacitor C represent electrical equivalents
of crystal mass and compliance, while resistance R is an electrical
equivalent of the crystal structure’s internal friction.
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Operational Amplifier
An operational amplifier, or op-amp, is a very high gain
differential amplifier with high input impedance and low output
impedance.
Typical uses of the operational amplifier are to provide voltage
amplitude changes (amplitude and polarity), oscillators, filter
circuits, and many types of instrumentation circuits.
An op-amp contains a number of differential amplifier stages to
achieve a very high voltage gain.
Figure below shows a basic op-amp with two inputs and one output
as would result using a differential amplifier input stage.
Each input results in either the same or an opposite polarity (or
phase) output, depending on whether the signal is applied to the plus
(+) or the minus (-) input.
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Figure: Basic op-amp.
Figure: Single-ended operation.
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Figures: Double-ended (differential) operation.
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Double-Ended Output
Figure: Double-ended output.
Figure: Double-ended output Figure: Double-ended output.
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Op Amps Applications
⚫ Audio amplifiers
⚫ Speakers and microphone circuits in cell phones, computers,
mpg players, boom boxes, etc.
⚫ Instrumentation amplifiers
⚫ Biomedical systems including heart monitors and oxygen
sensors.
⚫ Power amplifiers
⚫ Analog computers
⚫ Combination of integrators, differentiators, summing
amplifiers, and multipliers
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Symbols for Ideal and Real Op Amps
OpAmp uA741
LM111 LM324
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Terminals on an Op Amp
Positive power supply
(Positive rail)
Non-inverting
Input terminal
Output terminal
Inverting input
terminal
Negative power supply
(Negative rail)
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Op Amp Equivalent Circuit
vd = v2 – v1
A is the open-loop voltage gain
v2
v1
Voltage controlled
voltage source
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3-stage Op-Amp
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Ideal Op Amp
1)
The open-loop gain, Av, is very large, approaching infinity.
2)
The current into the inputs are zero.
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Ideal Op Amp with Negative Feedback
Golden Rules of Op Amps:
1. The output attempts to do whatever is necessary to
make the voltage difference between the inputs zero.
2. The inputs draw no current.
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Typical Op Amp Parameters
Parameter Variable Typical Ideal Values
Ranges
Open-Loop A 105 to 108
Voltage Gain
∞
Input Ri 105 to 1013 Ω
Resistance
∞Ω
Output Ro 10 to 100 Ω 0Ω
Resistance
Supply Vcc/V+ 5 to 30 V N/A
Voltage -Vcc/V- -30V to 0V N/A
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Op- Amp Applications
Non-inverting Op-Amp
Uses: Amplify…straight up
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Inverting Op-Amp
Uses: Analog inverter
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Comparator
Uses: Low-voltage alarms, night
light controller
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Pulse Width Modulator
⚫ Output changes when
⚫ Vin ~= Vpot
⚫ Potentiometer used to vary duty
cycle
Uses: Motor controllers
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Summation
Uses: Add multiple sensors inputs until
a threshold is reached.
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Difference
If all resistors are
equal:
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Integrating Op-Amp
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Differentiating Op-Amp
(where Vin and Vout are functions of time)
Further Op-Amp can be used in filtering applications also
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Non-ideal Op Amp
⚫ Output voltage is limited by supply voltage(s)
⚫ Finite gain (~105)
⚫ Limited frequency response
⚫ Finite input resistance (not infinite)
⚫ Finite output resistance (not zero)
⚫ Finite slew rate
⚫ Input bias currents
⚫ Input bias current offset
⚫ Input offset voltage
⚫ Finite common mode rejection ratio (CMRR)
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Common-Mode Operation
When the same input signals are applied to both inputs, common-mode
operation results, as shown in Fig. below. Ideally, the two inputs are equally
amplified, and since they result in opposite polarity signals at the output, these
signals cancel, resulting in 0-V output. Practically, a small output signal will
result.
Figure: Common-mode operation.
Common-Mode Rejection
A significant feature of a differential connection is that the signals which are
opposite at the inputs are highly amplified, while those which are common to the
two inputs are only slightly amplified—the overall operation being to amplify the
difference signal while rejecting the common signal at the two inputs. Since noise
(any unwanted input signal) is generally common to both inputs, the differential
connection tends to provide attenuation of this unwanted input while providing an
amplified output of the difference signal applied to the inputs. This operating
feature, referred to as common-mode rejection
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Filters
FILTERS AND SIGNALS
A filter is a circuit that is designed to pass a specified band of
frequencies while attenuating all signals outside this band.
Filter networks may be either active or passive.
Passive filter networks contain only resistors, inductors, and
capacitors.
Active filters, which are the only type covered in this text, employ
operationalamplifiers (op-amps) as well as resistors and capacitors.
The output from most biological measuring systems is generally
separable into signal and noise. The signal is that part of the data in
which the observer is interested; the rest may be considered noise.
This noise includes unwanted biological data and nonbiological
interference picked up by or generated in the measuring equipment.
Ideally, we would like to remove it while retaining the signal, and
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The frequency-domain behavior of a filter is described
mathematically in termsof its transfer function or network
function. This is the ratio of the Laplace transforms of its output
and input signals. The voltage transfer function of a filter can
therefore be written as,
where s is the complex frequency
variable.
BASIC FILTER TYPES
There are four basic filter types:
1. The first type is the low-pass filter (LPF).
2. The inverse of the low-pass is the high-pass filter (HPF)
3. Band-pass filters
4. Band-reject filters
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FILTERS Responses
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FILTERS Responses
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FILTERS Responses
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ACTIVE FILTERS(Theory and Design)
WHY ACTIVE FILTERS?
An active filter is a network of passive R, C elements, and one or
more active elements. Its function is to simulate the action of the
usual passive RLC filters. The active element is usually one or more
op-amps.
The single system parameter that dictates the filter technology is
frequency. Figure below, illustrates the advantages of active filtering
compared to passive techniques as a function of frequency.
Active filters offer accuracy, stable tuning, and high immunity to
electromagnetic interference. The high input and low output
impedance found in active filters allow combinations of two or more
stages without the interaction found in passive cascades.
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PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
Active filters find use in a wide variety of applications. Some of the more
widely recognized are described below.
The “touch-tone” telephone systems use active filters to
1. TONE SIGNALING decode the dual tone generated at the telephone into the
characters 0–9, “*”, and “#”.
The four commonly recognized brainwaves, delta,
2. BIOFEEDBACK theta, alpha, and beta, can be segregated using active
band-pass filtering techniques.
Applications of active filters to instrumentation is the
3. INSTRUMENTATION most diverse of all fields.
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4. DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEMS
The noise caused by input switches or high-speed logic is removed with
low-pass active filters. Signals reproduced from digital information
through a digital-to-analogconverter often appear as staircases.
5. AUDIO
Electronic music and audio equalizers use a large number of active filters.
Synthesizers combine various low-pass, high-pass, and bandpass functions to
generate waveforms that have spectral densities similar to orchestra
instruments.
6. LAB SIGNAL SOURCES
Because of the active filter characteristics, high-purity oscillators are easily
designed with very few components.
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THE VOLTAGE-CONTROLLED VOLTAGE SOURCE
(VCVS)
In many applications where a high-impedance source must be
interfaced to a filter, a non-inverting VCVS op-amp filter may be
used. Typical input impedances are greater than tens of mega ohms,
and output impedances are typically less than a few ohms. This, of
course, depends on the amplifier being used.
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For a circuit operating in the non-inverting mode, for an ideal
op-amp, we find from figure above, the gain K.
From node v1, we have:
because Vi = V1 (for an ideal op-amp).
Generally speaking, the VCVS active filters are much easier to
tune and are adjustable over a wider range, without affecting the
network parameters, than the infinite gain topologies.
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Sallen–Key Filters
There are many ways of constructing active filters.
One general-purpose circuit that is widely used is that of Sallen
and Key.
We refer to the Sallen and Key circuit as a VCVS because it uses
an op-amp and two resistors connected so as to constitute a
voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS).
Such a configuration offers good stability, requires a minimum
number of elements, and has low impedance, which is important for
cascading filters with four or more poles.
FREQUENCY RESPONSE NORMALIZATION
Several parameters are used to characterize a filter’s
performance. The most commonly specified parameter is frequency
response. When given a frequency-response specification, the
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❖ This is accomplished by transforming the required response to a
normalized low-pass specification having a cutoff of 1 rad/s.
❖ This normalized response is compared with curves of normalized
low-pass filters that also have a 1 rad/s cutoff.
❖ After a satisfactory low-pass filter is determined from the curves,
the tabulated normalized element values of the chosen filter are
transformed or de-normalized to the final design.
The basic for normalization of filters is the fact that a given
filter’s response can be scaled or shifted to a different frequency
range by dividing the reactive elements by a frequency-scaling
factor (FSF). The FSF is the ratio of the desired cutoff frequency
of the active filter to the normalized cutoff frequency, i.e.:
Note: The FSF must be a dimensionless number. So, both the numerator and denominator
76 of Equation must be expressed in the same units, usually rad/s.
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Any linear active or passive network maintains its transfer function if
all resistors are multiplied by an impedance-scaling factor (ISF)
and all capacitors are divided by the same factor ISF. This occurs
because the ISFs cancel one another out in the transfer function.
Impedance scaling can be mathematically expressed as
where Rn and Cn are the normalized values.
Frequency and impedance scaling are normally combined into one
step rather than performed sequentially. The denormalized values
are then given by
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FIRST-ORDER LOW-PASS FILTER
FIGURE: First-order LPF with gain K.
The above figure shows the first-order low-pass filter with
non-inverting gain K.
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FREQUENCY RESPONSE (LPF)
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FIRST-ORDER HIGH-PASS FILTER
Above figure shows the first-order high-pass filter with
noninverting gain K.
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FREQUENCY RESPONSE (HPF)
From the transfer function Equation we have
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Figure below shows the frequency response of the filter.
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Bandpass Filter
Figure below shows a bandpass filter using two stages, the first a
high-pass filter and the second a low-pass filter, the combined
operation being the desired bandpass response.
Figure : Bandpass active filter.
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Band-reject filter
Twin T-network provides
alternative paths through which vi
can reach the amplifier’s Input:
Low-freq. path: R – R
High-freq. path: C – C
At intermediate frequencies the
two paths provide Opposing phase
angles, indicating a tendency For
signals to cancel each other.
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Further Refer
Elect. Devices and Circuit Theory
By
Robert .L. Boylestad
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