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 PA L G R AV E S T U D I E S I N

GLOBAL
HIGHER
E D U C AT I O N

25 YEARS OF
T R A N S F O R M AT I O N S O F
H I G H E R E D U C AT I O N S Y S T E M S
I N P O S T- S O V I E T C O U N T R I E S
REFORM AND CONTINUITY

EDITED BY JEROEN HUISMAN,

A N N A S M O L E N T S E VA , I S A K F R O U M I N
Palgrave Studies in Global Higher Education

Series Editors
Roger King
School of Management
University of Bath
Bath, UK

Jenny Lee
Centre for the Study of Higher Education
University of Arizona
Tuscon, Arizona, USA

Simon Marginson
Institute of Education
University College London
London, UK

Rajani Naidoo
School of Management
University of Bath
Bath, UK
This series aims to explore the globalization of higher education and the
impact this has had on education systems around the world including East
Asia, Africa, the Middle East, Europe and the US. Analyzing HE systems
and policy this series will provide a comprehensive overview of how HE
within different nations and/or regions is responding to the new age of
universal mass higher education.

More information about this series at

http://www.palgrave.com/gp/series/14624
 Jeroen Huisman • Anna Smolentseva
Isak Froumin
Editors

25 Years of
Transformations of
Higher Education
Systems in Post-Soviet
Countries
Reform and Continuity
Editors
Jeroen Huisman Anna Smolentseva
University of Ghent National Research University
Ghent, Belgium Higher School of Economics
Moscow, Russia
Isak Froumin
National Research University
Higher School of Economics
Moscow, Russia

Palgrave Studies in Global Higher Education

ISBN 978-3-319-52979-0    ISBN 978-3-319-52980-6 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-52980-6

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017964090

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018 This book is an open access
publication
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The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
This volume is dedicated to the memory of our colleagues, Dmitry Semyonov,
Evgeny Kniazev and Natalya Drantusova, in recognition of their original
contribution to the study of post-Soviet higher education and its
institutional landscape.
 Preface: Challenges and Advantages of
Exploring Post-Soviet Higher Education

The Soviet Union fell apart a quarter of a century ago. Fifteen newly born
countries started their independent development in 1991 and a formerly
unified higher education system was divided up. The basic commonality of
Soviet design at the beginning of the independent era and the dramatic
transformations of the post-Soviet period serve as the point of departure
for this study.
Post-Soviet countries have different histories, and their socialist past is
not the only thing that builds their identities. Yet, it would be incorrect to
deny the significance of such a long and intense period in their national
histories. This experience is still on the table. Politicians, experts and aca-
demics still often discuss the present while referring to the past. However,
such references are not enough to grasp the effect of the Soviet past on
modern states and bring insights to understand the further development
of these societies. Both academic and pragmatic discourse lack a wide sys-
temic picture.
The studies of post-socialist countries are especially crucial as they
debunk the myths. Soviet society was not monolithic. Norms and practices
changed over time and varied among communities. Identification of the
real differences and similarities beyond the proclaimed statements is
important and requires a generous amount of ambitious studies.
Nevertheless, even very general assumptions about the Soviet past can
result in great contributions to the discussion, especially if the research is
comparative. Juxtaposition can reveal the core rationales for changes and
the foundations of the current state of affairs. The simultaneous start of

vii
viii PREFACE: CHALLENGES AND ADVANTAGES OF EXPLORING POST-SOVIET...

countries’ own trajectories makes the observed period the field of ‘natural
experiment’ which should be described.
In studies of post-Soviet higher education, researchers usually focus on
particular issues. Academic discourse consists of a number papers that
investigate several topics of higher education development (e.g. outcomes
of reforms, internationalization, academic profession); they often consider
several countries of the post-Soviet space. Yet, we rarely see articles which
elaborate on higher education systemic development in its entirety. In
order to investigate a given problem, researchers naturally have to limit
the comprehensiveness of view. We therefore saw a niche for a book that
would contribute to building the background for further studies.
Context matters. That is why the design of this book reflects the diver-
sity of national pathways in higher education. At the start, we were faced
with several alternatives to proceed with the book composition. On the
one hand, the narrative could have flowed around particular aggregated
categories, with the chapters covering as many countries as possible. The
topics could have been major sets of reforms, fluctuations in basic system
indicators, or problems to be resolved in the context of higher education
development. However, after several discussions, we selected a more
demanding approach which, on the bright side, promised a deep and pro-
found contribution. This book is a collection of country cases, each of
them shaped in accordance with a common framework, yet each country
chapter provides a comprehensive view. The introduction chapter aims to
reveal a cumulative understanding of the object of study and the topic of
the higher education landscape in general.
Writing in this manner demanded extensive expertise from the contribu-
tors as well as their being personally embedded in the contexts. The search
for authors was a tricky task. The complicated process of finding academi-
cally relevant people required enlisting the efforts of several layers in our
professional networks. Fortunately, the idea behind the study and the ambi-
tion to cover the whole set of post-Soviet countries appealed to a number
of people around the globe, to whom we are thankful for their help.
The states examined have gone through hard times. We did not pur-
posefully pick the moment for the start of the project, but by chance the
two years of the study turned out to be an extraordinary period for this
part of the world. Under these conditions, the outstanding academic
integrity and ethics of the authors and editors became a real asset for the
project.
 PREFACE: CHALLENGES AND ADVANTAGES OF EXPLORING POST-SOVIET...
   ix

The second major challenge in the fulfilment of this task was obviously
the lack of data. First of all, due to a number of reasons, data is not likely
to be available for the countries studied. Our retrospective view intended
to involve some dynamic pictures. We faced difficulties in collecting and
comparing even aggregate numbers. At the beginning we were lacking
such common characteristics as number of higher education institutions
and student body in private sector, funding and research performance in
higher education, and so on.
Moreover, investigation of the institutional landscape requires a capa-
bility to differentiate the types of HEIs and their roles in the system. The
wide variations between countries, especially in the size of their higher
education systems, make it impossible to rely on a universalistic approach
to data collection and analysis. Such an approach might have weakened
the results. Due to these reasons a mixed approach was selected. The
authors used both qualitative and quantitative methods. Analyses were
based on a number of expert interviews, fragments of data and literature
reviews. In every case, the choice of relevant techniques and methodology
resulted from numerous discussions between the respective authors, edi-
tors and the coordination team.
We hope that this study will make one more step in the gradual move-
ment towards opening up opportunities for research on the post-Soviet
space built on transparent data and keen academic interest. Based on results
of the project, we created a web timeline of higher education key policy
events in all post-Soviet countries. We expect that the scope of this tool will
expand, and it will aggregate more useful information for further work.
The demand for a thorough grasp of post-Soviet higher education
transformations in each former Soviet Republic seemed natural at the
start. Basically, we assumed that national higher education systems reflect
changes in societies and the economic and political environment. The
institutional landscape of higher education, the structure of the system
and the set of ‘rules of the game’ can tell us a great deal about the society
in which they are rooted.

Moscow, Russia Dmitry Semyonov

 Daria Platonova
 Acknowledgements

This book is a result of the international research project ‘Higher Education

Dynamics and Institutional Diversity in Post-Soviet Countries’. The idea
of a study covering the national higher education systems of the entirety
of the former USSR emerged at the National Research University Higher
School of Economics (HSE) in 2012–2013.
This project continued two previous HSE studies. In 2012, Evgeny
Knyazev and Natalya Drantusova reopened the discussion about the insti-
tutional landscape in Russian higher education. They started to develop a
project framework to explore higher education institution types and their
transformations and released several papers on the issue. Regretfully, in
November 2013, a sudden tragedy in the sky terminated their lives. We
dedicate this book to the memory of our colleagues.
In 2013, Isak Froumin, Yaroslav Kouzminov and Dmitry Semyonov
attracted attention to the issue of the evolution of higher education institu-
tions in Russia. In their paper they conceptualized the idea of studying
institutional diversity as a result of transformations in the broader environ-
ment and higher education policy in particular. Obviously, the Soviet legacy
became a natural object to address, as well as the post-dissolution period.
This retrospective approach became the core for the post-Soviet research.
Hence, in 2014, thanks to the inspiration and tremendous support of
the Institute of Education (HSE), we took the opportunity to launch
research on higher education development in all 15 countries. From the
very beginning, we received full endorsement and strong support for
the study from Yaroslav Kouzminov, rector of the HSE, who shared his
­expertise and participated in discussions.

xi
xii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Such a voluminous and complex study would not be meaningful with-

out discussions with our colleagues around the world. Martin Carnoy
(Stanford University) took a significant part in shaping the idea.
With such a scale and diversity of cases, it is hard to overestimate the
heroic work of the editors: Anna Smolentseva, Jeroen Huisman, Isak
Froumin. After several rounds of discussions with them, the research
became focused on the two key issues—higher education policy changes
and institutional diversity in all post-Soviet countries.
Jeroen Huisman came up with a framework which laid out the ground
for all the authors. The straightforward and consistent design of the com-
parative research vitalized the whole idea. Thanks to his efforts, the case
studies remained focused on the most important issues. His accurate and
careful attention to each chapter has ensured that this book complies with
modern academic standards.
The enormous efforts of Anna Smolentseva, both in content develop-
ment and communication with the authors, made this book come to life.
Her ability to assemble the whole picture gave the common output its
consistency. The extensive expertise and enthusiasm of Isak Froumin wid-
ened the book’s ambition and outlook. His passionate approach pushed
the matter through even the most problematic situations.
We would like to thank the World Bank Moscow Office for its organi-
zational support. Our personal thanks are extended to Denis Nikolaev and
Kirill Vasiliev for their help in the recruitment of the research teams, as
well as for fruitful discussions and participation in the project workshops.
Support from the Basic Research Programme of the National Research
University Higher School of Economics is also gratefully acknowledged.
We would also like to thank Amanda Schimunek for her high-quality
language editing and Natalia Rosyaikina for the administrative support.
The team of the Laboratory for University Development (Institute of
Education, HSE) backed us throughout. Their engagement imparted a lot
of confidence and provided the solid base for thoughts and coordination.
The spin-off of the study, the web timeline of higher education changes,
was developed by Lukas Bischof as a leader, Zumrad Kataeva and Daria
Platonova.
In 2016 the summary articles on the country cases of the prospective
book were published in the newsletter Higher Education in Russia and
Beyond (HERB), #2(8)-2016.1 The issue Higher Education Landscape in
Post-Soviet Countries: 25 Years of Changes gained a lot of interest from the
readers around the globe, which reassured our belief in the relevance of
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
   xiii

the book to the academic demand. The credit for this goes to the HERB
editorial team and coordinators, who came up with an idea and got the
issue perfectly fulfilled.
Our greatest acknowledgement is reserved for the 31 researchers for
the country case studies, who committed themselves to this project for
two years, who were so involved in discussions, who hunted down the pre-
cious data and who so patiently worked through the several versions.
Thanks to their energies, the project was enriched by the several work-
shops and panels around the world. During the Conference of the Russian
Association of Higher Education Researchers (RAHER) in 2014 and in
2015, we held project workshops in Moscow (Russia), where all the
research teams presented the results. We would like to thank Mark Johnson
for his great contribution to the discussion and fruitful comments.
With active participation of the research teams, we had project panels
and roundtables at the CIES Annual Conference in Washington D.C.
(USA) in 2015, where Stephen Heyneman (Vanderbilt University) pro-
vided very helpful feedback to the idea and preliminary findings. Also, some
reflections had been presented at the session at the European Conference
on Educational Research (ECER) in 2015 in Budapest (Hungary).
This book could only have happened thanks to the efforts of this large
and diverse team of ambitious researchers.

Postscript
When this book was ready for print we received tragic news. Dmitry
Semyonov, director of our research project, died in a car crash at the age
of 31. During his short life he created the strong academic unit at the
Institute of Education – Laboratory for Universities Development focused
on higher education studies. He was a very creative leader who proposed
exciting new topics for study. His studies and publications informed
Russian higher education policies.
He was a real leader of our project. He managed to mobilize 15 research
teams and the editors. He raised funds, organized seminars and work-
shops, was involved in data collection and initiated substantive discussions.
We will always remember the joy of working with him.

Note
1. https://herb.hse.ru/en/2016--2(8).html
 Contents

1 Transformation of Higher Education Institutional

Landscape in Post-Soviet Countries: From Soviet Model
to Where?   1
Anna Smolentseva, Jeroen Huisman, and Isak Froumin

2 Common Legacy: Evolution of the Institutional

Landscape of Soviet Higher Education  45
Isak Froumin and Yaroslav Kouzminov

3 Armenia: Transformational Peculiarities of the Soviet

and Post-Soviet Higher Education System  73
Susanna Karakhanyan

4 Higher Education Transformation, Institutional Diversity

and Typology of Higher Education Institutions
in Azerbaijan  97
Hamlet Isakhanli and Aytaj Pashayeva

5 Belarus: Higher Education Dynamics and Institutional

Landscape 123
Olga Gille-Belova and Larissa Titarenko

xv
xvi Contents

6 Inverted U-shape of Estonian Higher Education: Post-

Socialist Liberalism and Postpostsocialist Consolidation 149
Ellu Saar and Triin Roosalu

7 Georgia: Higher Education System Dynamics

and Institutional Diversity 175
Lela Chakhaia and Tamar Bregvadze

8 Looking at Kazakhstan’s Higher Education Landscape:

From Transition to Transformation Between 1920
and 2015 199
Elise S. Ahn, John Dixon, and Larissa Chekmareva

9 Institutional Strategies of Higher Education Reform

in Post-Soviet Kyrgyzstan: Differentiating to Survive
Between State and Market 229
Jarkyn Shadymanova and Sarah Amsler

10 Latvia: A Historical Analysis of Transformation

and Diversification of the Higher Education System 259
Ali Ait Si Mhamed, Zane Vārpiņa, Indra Dedze, and Rita
Kaša

11 Lithuanian Higher Education: Between Path Dependence

and Change 285
Liudvika Leišytė, Anna-Lena Rose, and Elena
Schimmelpfennig

12 Moldova: Institutions Under Stress—The Past,

the Present and the Future of Moldova’s Higher
Education System 311
Lukas Bischof and Alina Tofan
 Contents 
   xvii

13 Russia: The Institutional Landscape of Russian Higher

Education 337
Daria Platonova and Dmitry Semyonov

14 Higher Education in Tajikistan: Institutional Landscape

and Key Policy Developments 363
Alan J. DeYoung, Zumrad Kataeva, and Dilrabo Jonbekova

15 The Transformation of Higher Education

in Turkmenistan: Continuity and Change 387
Victoria Clement and Zumrad Kataeva

16 Ukraine: Higher Education Reforms and Dynamics

of the Institutional Landscape 407
Nataliya L. Rumyantseva and Olena I. Logvynenko

17 Uzbekistan: Higher Education Reforms and

the Changing Landscape Since Independence 435
Kobil Ruziev and Umar Burkhanov

Appendix  461
 List of Figures

Fig. 2.1 Governance of Soviet higher education and research in the

1980s (Source: Zinov’ev and Filippov 1983) 54
Fig. 2.2 Number of HEIs in the USSR (Source: Authors using
data from Narodnoye obrazovaniye i kultura v USSR:
Statisticheskiy ezhegodnik [Education and Culture
in the USSR: Statistic Yearbook] (1989). Moscow:
Finansy i statistika) 61
Fig. 2.3 Graduates by form of education (Source: Authors
using data from Narodnoye obrazovaniye i kultura v USSR:
Statisticheskiy ezhegodnik [Education and Culture in
the USSR: Statistic Yearbook] (1989).
Moscow: Finansy i statistika) 65
Fig. 3.1 Number of HEIs with total enrolment figures (in thousands)
at the start of selected academic years (Data collected from
different sources: UNESCO, HE in the USSR, Monographs
on HE edited by L. C. Barrows; Khudaverdyan, K. S, 1960) 75
Fig. 3.2 Enrolment in tertiary education institutions in Armenia
(Statistical Yearbook of Armenia: http://www.armstat.am/
en/?nid=45&year=2014)80
Fig. 3.3 Student enrolment per major (BA level) (Statistical Yearbook of
Armenia): http://www.armstat.am/en/?nid=45&year=2014)80
Fig. 3.4 Official labour force demand submitted by employers
(Statistical Yearbook of Armenia: http://www.armstat.am/
en/?nid=45&year=2014)81
Fig. 3.5 Distribution of HEIs and number of students (Statistical
Yearbook of Armenia: http://www.armstat.am/
en/?nid=45&year=2014)89

xix
xx List of Figures

Fig. 4.1 Student enrolment in higher education (1960–2014) (Source:

SSC 2014) 104
Fig. 4.2 Number of private and public HEIs in Azerbaijan, 1960–2014
(Source: State Statistical Committee 2014) 105
Fig. 4.3 International students based on home country (2013–2014)
and Dynamics in International Student Participation since 2000
(Source: SSC (2014), *Commonwealth of Independent States) 109
Fig. 4.4 Student body characteristics for 2014/2015 (Source: State
Statistical Committee 2014) 112
Fig. 5.1 Change in the number of HEI students in Belarus (thousands),
1940–2015 (Source: MORB 2001, 2013b; NSCRB 2013,
2014, 2015) 130
Fig. 5.2 Change in the number of HEIs in Belarus, 1940–2015
(Source: MORB 2001, 2013a; NSCRB 2013, 2014, 2015) 130
Fig. 5.3 Change in the number of students by study profile between
1990–1991 and 2012–2013 (Source: MORB 2001, 2013a) 134
Fig. 6.1 Number of HEIs in Estonia 1990–2015 (Source: Statistics
Estonia; Estonian ministry of education) 156
Fig. 6.2 Number of students in Estonian HEIs, 1980–2015 (Source:
Statistics Estonia) 158
Fig. 6.3 Number of state-financed and fee-paying students in
Estonian HEIs, 1993–2015 (Source: Ministry of education
and research) 159
Fig. 7.1 Number of HEIs and enrolments in Soviet Georgia (Source:
Savelyev et al. 1990) 176
Fig. 7.2 Number of HEIs 182
Fig. 7.3 Absolute student enrolments 183
Fig. 7.4 Classification of Georgian HEIs in the 1990s by prestige
and rank 187
Fig. 7.5 Number of admitted students in HEIs 191
Fig. 8.1 Demographic trends (1985–2012) (Source: Adopted from
the Agency of Statistics of the Republic of Kazakhstan (2013)) 204
Fig. 8.2 Education reform timeline (1991–2020) (Source: Adopted
from OECD (2007, 112)) 205
Fig. 8.3 HEI trends over time by institutions 1940–2014 (Sources:
Adopted from Brunner and Tillett (n.d.); MoES (2014, 2015);
Ministry of Economics (2015); Moskva-Finansy i Statistika
[Moscow Finance and Statistics] (1989, 202); OECD (2007,
40); Zhakenov (n.d.)) 207
Fig. 8.4 Distribution of universities in Kazakhstan in AY2014–15
(Source: MoES (2015)) 208
 List of Figures 
   xxi

Fig. 9.1 Number of HEIs in the Kirgiz Soviet Socialist Republic,

1932–1991 (Source: Authors using data from Orusbaeva
1982 and NSC 2008) 232
Fig. 9.2 The HEI landscape in Kyrgyzstan (Source: Authors using
data from Orusbaeva 1982) 234
Fig. 9.3 Number of HE students in the Kirgiz Soviet Socialist Republic,
1932–1991 (Source: Authors using data from Orusbaeva 1982
and NSC 2008) 235
Fig. 9.4 Secondary school graduates and student enrollment in
vocational and higher education institutions, 1991–2013
(Source: Authors using data NSC 2014c) 239
Fig. 9.5 Part-time and full-time, day, and evening-class students
(Source: Authors using data from NSC 2014a) 244
Fig. 9.6 Dynamics of higher education enrollment by fields of study,
2000–2014 (Source: Source: Authors using data from
NSC 2008, 2015) 245
Fig. 9.7 The HEI landscape in Kyrgyzstan, 2015 (Source: Authors
using data from NSC 2008, 2015) 246
Fig. 10.1 Milestones in the development of the higher education
system in Latvia, 1990–2014 (Source: Authors) 264
Fig. 10.2 The dynamics of HEIs in Latvia, 1990–2014 (Source:
Authors based on data from MoES, 1991 to 2014) 265
Fig. 10.3 The dynamics of HE student enrolment in Latvia,
1990–2014 (Source: Authors based on data from MoES,
1991 to 2014) 266
Fig. 10.4 Proportion of the number of students in different fields
of study (Source: Authors based on data from MoES 1998
to 2014) 271
Fig. 10.5 Proportion of students by age group (Source: Authors
based on data from MoES 1998 to 2014) 272
Fig. 11.1 Number of schools of higher education and number of
students in Lithuanian SSR (1970–1990) (Source: Statistics
Lithuania: Official Statistics Portal) 288
Fig. 12.1 Timeline of important developments in higher education
policy in the Republic of Moldova 316
Fig. 12.2 Number of public and private HEIs in the Republic of
Moldova320
Fig. 12.3 Development of the total number of students enrolled
on a budget and tuition-fee basis (in both private and
public HEIs) 321
Fig. 12.4 Government expenditure on education 2000/2005–2013 327
xxii List of Figures

Fig. 12.5 Admission numbers by type of prior schooling

(2000/2005–2013)328
Fig. 13.1 Timeline of key higher education reforms in Russia,
1991–2015 (Source: Developed by the authors) 342
Fig. 13.2 Number of graduates by study field (Source: Aggregative
groups calculated by authors based on data from the Federal
State Statistics Service (2015)) 343
Fig. 13.3 Number of students in HEIs and age cohort participation
(17–25), 1991–2014, Russia (Source: Calculated by the
authors. Data from Federal State Statistics Service (2015)) 344
Fig. 13.4 Enrolment by source of financing and type of HEIs, 1995–2013,
Russia (Source: Calculated by authors. Data from: before 2000,
Education in the Russian Federation (2006); for 2000–2010,
Education in the Russian Federation (2012); after 2010,
Federal State Statistics Service (2015)) 346
Fig. 13.5 Public spending on higher education as a share of total public
expenditure on education and public spending on education
as a share of total public expenditure (per cent) (Source:
Calculated by authors. Data for expenditure from: before
2003, Education in the Russian Federation (2006); after 2003,
Roskozna (2015) and FSSS (2015)) Note: Due to the reform
of the financial system in 2003, the data before and after 2003
cannot be directly compared. 347
Fig. 13.6 Russian HEIs by nominal types, 1998–2012 (Source:
Education in the Russian Federation 2006; Federal State
Statistics Service, 2015) 352
Fig. 14.1 HEIs in Tajikistan, 1991–2013 369
Fig. 14.2 Student enrolments in Tajikistan (in thousands): 1991–2013 369
Fig. 14.3 Number of enrolled students by specialization, 1991 and
2010 (Source: The Ministry of Education and Science) 374
Fig. 14.4 Higher education institutions by presidential quota,
2014/2015375
Fig. 15.1 Higher education participation rate 1991–2011, in %
(age cohort 20–24) (Sources: http://www.cisstat.com)395
Fig. 16.1 Numbers of HEIs by levels of accreditation, 1990–2015
(The data for 2014–2015 and 2015–2016 are not fully
comparable to data from previous years as they do not take
into account institutions that remained in the occupied
territories and the zone of military conflict in Donetsk,
Lugansk and Crimea. Source: State Office of Statistics of
Ukraine (2016)) 415
 List of Figures 
   xxiii

Fig. 16.2 Numbers of students in HEIs by levels of accreditation,

1990–2015 (The data for 2014–2015 and 2015–2016 are
not fully comparable to data from previous years as they do
not take into account institutions that remained in the
occupied territories and the zone of military conflict in
Donetsk, Lugansk and Crimea. Source: State Office of
Statistics of Ukraine (2016)) 415
Fig. 17.1 Share of GDP by industrial origin in Uzbekistan, 1993–2012
(Source: ADB (2015)) 439
Fig. 17.2 Employment by economic sector in Uzbekistan, 1991–2012
(Source: ADB (2015)) 440
Fig. 17.3 Timeline of key changes in HE since independence 443
Fig. 17.4 Hierarchical structure of the higher education system
in Uzbekistan 450
Fig. 17.5 Geographic distribution of HEIs and student population
in 2012–13 (Source: MHSSE (2013)) 453
Fig. 17.6 Demand for and supply of higher education places,
1996–2014 (Source: MHSSE (2015)) 454
 List of Tables

Table 1.1 The key reforms in higher education in post-Soviet countries 21

Table 2.1 State HEIs in Russia in 1913 48
Table 2.2 Number of HEIs in the USSR by the specialization of the
institution59
Table 3.1 Higher education landscape in Armenia in 1991 76
Table 3.2 Armenian HEIs by legal status: regulatory landscape 91
Table 3.3 Higher education landscape in Armenia in 2015 92
Table 4.1 Main credentials awarded during the Soviet period 99
Table 4.2 Types of HEIs that emerged between 1919 and 1990
with student numbers for 2013–2014 100
Table 4.3 State defined characteristics of HEIs 107
Table 4.4 State defined typology of HEIs 113
Table 4.5 Classification of HEIs in Azerbaijan 115
Table 5.1 Main types of HEIs in the Byelorussian Republic,
1990/1991 academic year 127
Table 5.2 Typology of Belarusian HEIs at the beginning of the 2010s 136
Table 5.3 Characteristics of various HEI types (based on data for
2012–2013)138
Table 6.1 Main types of HEIs in Estonia in 1990/1991 and
1993/1994 academic year 153
Table 6.2 Number and share of students in Estonian HEIs by
study field 161
Table 6.3 Main types of HEIs in Estonia in the 2013/2014
academic year 162
Table 7.1 Classification of Georgian HEIs by the end of the 1980s 178
Table 7.2 Performances of private HEIs 187
Table 7.3 Current typology of Georgian HEIs 190

xxv
xxvi List of Tables

Table 8.1 Kazakhstani HEIs (AY1988–89) 202

Table 8.2 Types of Kazakhstani HEIs in AY1990–91 203
Table 8.3 HEIs by type based on the law “On Education” (2007) 210
Table 8.4 The Kazakhstani HE landscape between 1993 and 2010 217
Table 8.5 Characteristics of HEIs 218
Table 9.1 Higher education institutions in the Kirgiz Soviet
Socialist Republic, 1980 233
Table 9.2 Dynamics of institutional growth in Kyrgyz higher
education, 1991–2016 237
Table 9.3 Dynamics of student population, public and private
HEIs, 1991–2013 238
Table 9.4 Classification of higher education institutions in
Kyrgyzstan, 2015 247
Table 10.1 Types of HEIs in Latvia by 1989 characteristics 262
Table 10.2 Types of HEI in Latvia by 2015 characteristics
and ministerial affiliation 274
Table 11.1 Typology of higher education institutions in
Lithuania in 1990 291
Table 11.2 Typology of higher education institutions in
Lithuania in 2016 301
Table 12.1 HEIs in Moldova during the Soviet period 314
Table 12.2 Types of HEIs in 2015 324
Table 13.1 Expenditure on education (total and higher education)
in the USSR and Russian SFSR in 1981 and 1987
(in billion rubles and %) 338
Table 13.2 Number of HEIs by type, number of students by form
of learning and their shares, 1990 340
Table 13.3 Types of HEIs in Soviet Russia 341
Table 13.4 Structural transformations of the Russian economy
1991–2014343
Table 13.5 Distribution of HEIs by ministry and other agencies,
Russia, 2014 349
Table 13.6 Indicators and measurement 355
Table 13.7 Classification of HEIs in Russia, 2015 356
Table 14.1 Classification of HEIs as of 1989/1990 367
Table 14.2 Typology of higher education institutions as of
2014/2015370
Table. 15.1 Number of higher education institutions in
Turkmenistan during 1940–1990 390
Table 15.2 Distribution of higher education institutions by
sector (1988) 391
Table 15.3 Classification of Soviet HEIs (1988) 392
 List of Tables 
   xxvii

Table 15.4 Number of higher education institutions and number

of students from 2000 to 2011 395
Table 15.5 Current classification of higher education institutions
(2016)400
Table 16.1 Typology of HEIs by specialisation in 1941 410
Table 16.2 Typology of HEIs by type of specialisation in 1988 411
Table 16.3 Typology of higher education institutions in Ukraine
in 2016 418
Table 17.1 Horizontal diversity by HEI type in 1988–89 442
Table 17.2 Horizontal diversity by HEI type in 2015 448
Table 17.3 HE quality diversity based on demand, selectivity and
public perception 452
Table 17.4 Academic qualification of full-time HEI staff in 2013 456
Table A.1 State HEIs in Russia in 1913 462
Table A.2 Non-governmental HEIs in 1913 462
Table A.3 State and non-state HEIs, number of students and
share of women by types of HEIs in the Russian Empire
in 1914/15 463
Table A.4 Number of HEIs and students by types of HEIs in the
USSR in 1922 and 1925 464
Table A.5 Number of HEIs in the USSR in 1940–1988 465
Table A.6 Share of enrolment by the types of HEIs, % 465
Table A.7 Engineers in the USSR, thousand students 466
Table A.8 Graduates by the forms of education, thousand students 466
Table A.9 Number of HEIs in the Soviet Republics 466
Table A.10 Number of HEIs in 1988 467
Table A.11 Number of universities and university students in 1988 468
Table A.12 Number of students in 1988 469
Table A.13 Number of students and share of full-time students in 1990 470
Table A.14 Dynamics of student number in the Soviet Republics,
thousand470
Table A.15 Dynamics of student number per 10,000 population in
the Soviet Republics 471
Table A.16 Age cohort participation in higher education (20–24 age
cohort) in Soviet Republics 471
Table A.17 Competition at entrance exams per 100 places in 1988 472
Table A.18 Share of women in student body in the Soviet Republics
in 1988 472
Table A.19 Number of higher education institutions 473
Table A.20 Number and share of non-state HEIs 474
Table A.21 Number and share of enrolment in non-state HEIs 475
Table A.22 Share of students paying tuition fees 476
xxviii List of Tables

Table A.23 Number of students in 1991–2013 477

Table A.24 Share of full-time students, % 478
Table A.25 Age cohort participation in higher education
(17–25 age cohort) in 1991–2013 478
Table A.26 Gross enrolment ratio, tertiary, % 479
 CHAPTER 1

Transformation of Higher Education

Institutional Landscape in Post-Soviet
Countries: From Soviet Model to Where?

Anna Smolentseva, Jeroen Huisman, and Isak Froumin

Introduction
In 1991, the Soviet model of higher education in 15 republics of the
USSR, with its 5.1 million students and 946 higher education institutions,
started 15 independent journeys. All post-Soviet systems shared the lega-
cies of the single Soviet approach to higher education provision: a cen-
trally planned organization and financing, subordination to multiple
sectoral ministries, a national curriculum, a vocational orientation based
on the combination of strong basic education and narrow specialized job-­
related training, a nomenclature of types of higher education institutions,
­tuition-free study places and guaranteed employment upon ­graduation
combined with mandatory job placement. Despite these commonalities,
the sociocultural and economic disparities across the republics were

A. Smolentseva (*) • I. Froumin

National Research University Higher School of Economics, Moscow, Russia
J. Huisman
University of Ghent, Ghent, Belgium

© The Author(s) 2018 1

J. Huisman et al. (eds.), 25 Years of Transformations of Higher
Education Systems in Post-Soviet Countries, Palgrave Studies in Global
Higher Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-52980-6_1
2 A. SMOLENTSEVA ET AL.

remarkable: for example, in the structure of the economy, the level of

urbanization, the cultural and ethnic diversity and demographic trends, as
well as the number of higher education institutions, the number of stu-
dents and higher education participation rates.
After gaining their independence, all new countries faced similar chal-
lenges. First of all, there were the challenges of the consolidation of the
new nation and the introduction of a market economy. Second, the col-
lapse of the centrally planned economy was associated with economic
decline, political instability, a drastic drop in public funding and brain
drain from higher education and research institutions to other sectors of
the economy or overseas. Many post-Soviet countries—Armenia,
Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kyrgyz Republic, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan and
recently Ukraine—experienced armed conflicts, which deeply affected
their societies and economies. The similarities and differences between the
national contexts, together with the challenges of the independence
period, created a unique constellation of political, economic, sociocultural
and demographic conditions in each country.
In higher education, almost all the new nations adopted a similar
package of reforms, many of these neo-liberal in nature (Silova and
Steiner-­Khamsi 2008; Smolentseva 2012) that aimed to “normalize”
their higher education systems. This would be achieved through the
establishment of a non-state sector, the introduction of tuition fees in
the public sector, national standardized tests for admission exams to
higher education, decentralization of the governance and—although not
in all countries—loans for students and performance-based funding. The
argument in favour of this particular set of reforms was socially con-
structed (Fourcade-­Gourinchas and Babb 2002), in terms of the per-
ceived need to follow a certain ideal type. Reform was presented as
following the ideal type of the single model of excellence in higher edu-
cation (Heyneman 2010), or catching up, not lagging behind other
countries (Silova and Steiner-­Khamsi 2008) in the context of an increas-
ing interest in and greater opportunities to attend higher education. The
main features of the ideal type of higher education were taken from the
Western world. The implementation of the reforms varied in speed and
timing across countries. Some countries were not so much affected in
the early years of independence (in particular, Turkmenistan), but in
 TRANSFORMATION OF HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONAL LANDSCAPE… 3

recent years that country too has become more responsive to interna-
tional policy trends.
Other important reforms across the region included efforts to over-
come Soviet ideological legacies and align higher education systems with
the goals of new nation building. Thus, Soviet ideological courses were
excluded from curricula. Along with the change of the official language in
all countries, titular nation language became predominant in higher edu-
cation instruction, and the higher education programmes were supple-
mented by courses on national history and culture.
All of these transformations have dramatically affected individuals,
social groups and institutions of post-Soviet societies, including higher
education. All have had to adapt to their rapidly changing environments.
That has eventually resulted in a range of changes in the structure of
national higher education systems and in—what we term—their institu-
tional landscapes, the overall institutional composition of the higher edu-
cation system.
Despite the scale and importance of the changes that have taken place,
there are only few comparative studies of post-Soviet higher education
transformation. In many countries, the weakness of the social sciences due
to a lack of research funding, together with the long-standing isolation
from international research communities, partly explains that absence.
Interestingly, comparative research with a focus on secondary education
in post-Soviet systems seems more prolific than research on higher educa-
tion (e.g. Phillips and Kaser 1992; Silova 2010a). There are publications
which aim to analyse several countries of the region and/or the nature of
post-­Soviet transformations (see Heyneman 2010; Johnson 2008; Silova
2009, 2010a; Silova and Steiner-Khamsi 2008). There appear to be no
comparative higher education studies on the region based on primary data
collection and analysis, as distinct from studies consisting of reviews of
literature and policy documents (but see Silova 2010b; Slantcheva and
Levy 2007).
This book is the outcome of the first ever study of the transforma-
tions of the higher education institutional landscape in 15 former USSR
countries following the disintegration of the Soviet Union (1991). It
explores how the single Soviet model that developed across the vast and
diverse territory of the Soviet Union over several decades changed into
4 A. SMOLENTSEVA ET AL.

15 unique national systems, systems that have responded to national

and global developments while still bearing significant traces of the
past. This study is distinctive in that (a) it presents a comprehensive
analysis of the higher education reforms and transformations in the
region in the last 25 years; (b) it focuses on institutional landscape
through the evolution of the institutional types established and devel-
oped in pre-Soviet, Soviet and post-­Soviet times; (c) it embraces all 15
countries of the former USSR; and (d) it provides a comparative analy-
sis of the drivers of transformations of institutional landscape across
post-Soviet systems.
The institutional landscape of higher education is one of the key char-
acteristics of higher education systems. Approaching higher education
transformations through the lens of changes in the institutional landscape
enables several goals to be achieved. First, it makes it possible to incorpo-
rate the dynamic dimension, to trace the processes of change. Second, it
includes an analysis of the drivers of change, which opens up the opportu-
nity for systematic analysis of higher education system transformations and
the factors behind them, including governmental policies, institutional
behaviour, demographic change, global forces and others. Third, it allows
the researcher to look at system level while keeping in mind the diversity
of the institutions.
Despite an increasing interest in studying institutional landscapes and
institutional diversity in higher education around the world (Huisman
1998; Huisman et al. 2007; van Vught 2009), very little research has been
focused on the institutional landscape in post-Soviet systems, despite the
major transformations in those landscapes (for Russia, see Knyazev and
Drantusova 2014; Froumin et al. 2014).
In the remainder of this chapter we present a conceptual framework
which guided the project. Following a short introduction to the Soviet
model and an overview of the reforms that took place across the 15 sys-
tems, the chapter focuses on the project findings—the changes in the insti-
tutional landscape, its drivers and a brief reflection on what the future may
bring. This chapter also introduces all country cases included in the study
and highlights their main points, after which it concludes with our final
reflections on the changes in higher education institutional landscapes in
15 post-Soviet countries.
 TRANSFORMATION OF HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONAL LANDSCAPE… 5

The Conceptual Approach and Research Design

The concept of the institutional landscape covers two aspects. First, it
denotes the idea of institutional (or organizational) diversity. Higher edu-
cation systems consist of a variety of institutions. These institutions may
differ in various respects. Birnbaum (1983) distinguished various dimen-
sions of diversity, and many of these will also figure in our description and
analysis of the post-Soviet systems. Particularly, three dimensions are key
to our project: systemic diversity, differences in size, type and control
within a higher education system; structural diversity, differences in
­historical and legal foundations; and programme diversity, differences in
degree level, area, mission and emphasis of programmes within the
institutions.
The second aspect of the landscape signifies how the different dimen-
sions of diversity play out in a particular system. That is, various stakehold-
ers classify higher education institutions on the basis of the various diversity
dimensions. Governments are key players by, for example, labelling certain
higher education institutions as polytechnics or universities of applied sci-
ences or—as we will see in the subsequent chapters—as academies, insti-
tutes and (research) universities. Whereas governments are key, there are
other actors that may figure, for instance, representatives of certain types
of institutions (e.g. the Russell Group in the UK, the Group of Eight in
Australia).
Two concepts are helpful to make more sense of this second aspect:
vertical and horizontal differentiation (Teichler 1988). Horizontal differ-
entiation refers to making distinctions between types of higher education
institutions on the basis of their function within the broader fabric. Such
differentiation likely reflects the needs and demands of different groups in
society, including the government (see also Taylor et al. 2008). As such,
the landscape or configuration could be seen as a reflection of a social pact
(Gornitzka 2007). Following this logic, it makes sense to distinguish, for
example, hogescholen from universities in the Netherlands, because they
fulfil different roles, professional education versus academic education,
and applied research versus basic research, respectively. That such distinc-
tions are not watertight (as the demise of the binary systems in, e.g. the
UK and Australia shows) is beyond the point: there is (or has been) a
functional reason to label higher education institutions differently.
Vertical differentiation refers to differences in status and prestige, with
further connotations like “elite” and “high quality”. Such differences are
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
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BURMESE CHESS. 179 by hostile pawns. The power of

queening is confined to the three1 advanced, pawns on right hand
side ; and thus the first pawn queens in four moves, the second in
three, and the third in two moves. But we will speak of this
presently. As the game is peculiar in the pawns being put in fighting
position, and in strike of each other : so the defensive position of the
King is equally remarkable. The King stands in a strong
intrenchment. He fights as it were " with his back to the wall," being
close to a corner, and thus protected on one side and the rear, while
he has guards to protect him on the other side and the front. Of
these guards the Elephants, being of the same colour, defend each
other, and three diagonal points each, the Queen protects three
diagonal points, and the King protects all those in the rear, besides
giving support to his guards. Thus all the surounding squares are
protected from attack. O 1 Captain Cox gives the privilege of
queening to the^re right hand pawns : but this is a mistake. Were it
so, each player would be enabled to queen at his first move, if
placed originally as in diagram ; for if all five were to be in the
advanced line, one would be already on the line. This, therefore, is
evidently a mistake, in writing five for three. Mr. Scott — who, of
course, is a great authority — says that the four pawns to the right
may queen, but this seems unlikely, as the fourth pawn would be at
striking distance if placed in the advanced row, and so might as well
not be placed on the board. Na
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180 BURMESE CHESS. As all these pieces move only one

square at a time, they often remain in much the same position all
through the game, unless the King, in the ardour of battle, thinks
more of attacking his opponent than of defending himself. Owing to
this strong position there is no sudden checkmate at an early period
of the game, or so long as most of the pieces are in the field ; and
when the principal pieces are much reduced, it becomes very
difficult, unless an additional piece can be obtained by queening a
pawn, to get a checkmate. A good way of getting into the fortress is
to place a Castle opposite each Bishop, at A and B, and then taking
one of the Bishops with some other piece. This move will be seen in
Game I, move A, where 2 takes
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BUBMESE CHESS. 181 eight squares around the King," but

he does not state whether these squares are those around the
original position of the King, or whether they must be in a square
contiguous to the King, wherever he may be. It cannot be supposed
that a game like this — where the King is so securely intrenched
behind his guards ; where the Castles and Knights, and these
matched against others of their like, are the only formidable pieces
— can be a very brilliant one. Indeed, where the players are pretty
equal, it must be a heavy, wearisome, uninteresting game. Even the
queening of the pawns is of such trifling advantage, being allowed
only when the Queen is taken, that it scarcely enters into
consideration. We give, however, two examples: — GAME I. Red.
White. J_ 65—64 _L 73—74 — 85—84 — 52—53 - 64—53 j. — 42—
53 j_ — 45—44 - 12—13 _ 44—53 _|_ 2 41—53 J_ 2 56—64 JL 13—
24 J_
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182 BURMESE CHESS. Red. _L H— 13 O 36—26 J_ 13—12

+ 25—24 j_ 75—64 J_ j_ 55—64 d D 57—67 2 65—44 — 44—63 /
— 63—44 O 26—25 j_ 64—63 v/ n 67—77 / — 77—37 0 25—26 —
26—25 1 12—11 D 37—36 O 25—14 — 14—25 — 25—14 JL 63—62
D 36—35 + J_ 11 — 10 becomes ([ O 14—23 — 23—32 — 32—33
— 33—22 — 22—11 d 10—21 — 21—12 O 11—21 — 21—31 — 31—
21 — 21—22 White. D 30—31 J_ + 72-61 D 31—41 _L 63—64
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BURMESE CHESS. 183 Red. GAME II. Wliite. J_ 55—54 JL

63—64 - 75—64 J_ - 73—64 J. 2 56—64 J_ + 72—73 D 17—77 —
61—72 2 64—52 jLv/ O 71—61 _ 52—73 +/
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184 BURMESE CHESS. BURMESE CHESS, No. II. The

following variety of the game agrees better with other games of
Chess, where the Pawn in queening takes the power of one of the
superior pieces, which the Queen in Oriental chess never is. The only
difference in this game is that it. allows the three right hand Pawns
to become Castles when they reach the diagonal line : and the game
becomes one of some interest. Every attention has now to be given
to these three Pawns : for when one of them reaches the diagonal,
the player has immediately three Castles to his opponent's two, and
can then afford to exchange Castles, indeed, it is to his interest to
do so, for by such exchange the proportion of strength in Castles
becomes 2:1, instead of 3 : 2. The following are examples of this
game . — GAME I. Red. _L 55—54 - 24—23 — 34—23 J_ — 75—64
J_ D 17—77 — 77—73 J. 45—44 D 73—76 j_ 44—53 d D 87—77 2
46—34
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BURMESE CHESS. 185 Red. White. — 42—34 D 20—21 - 34

—53 JL v/ + 62—53 2 D 76—73 +/ O 72—62 + 36—35 » 2 33—54
J_ JL 65 — 54 2 JL 64 — 65 becomes Q + 35—44 + 53—64 D 73—
74 J_ 52—53 + 44—35 D 65—85 J_ * 2 56—64 + J_ 53—64 2 D 74
—64 J_v/ O 62—52 - 77—67 D 85—86 — 64—66 - 86—66 D _ 67—
66 D J_ 84—85 - 66—86 2 51—72 O 26—36 — 72—53 ([ 46—55 -
53—74 D 86—87 J_ 85—86
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186 BURMESE CHESS. GAME II. Red. _L 55—54 _ 54—63

j_ — 85—84 _ 75—84 _|_ _ 45—34 _|_ — 24—23 — 14—23 J_ 2 56
—64 D 87—77 — 17—12 J_ 23—12 Q 2 64—43 + 25—14 2 43—31
+ 14—23 2 31—43 D 77—57 j_ 34—43 2 — 65—64 D 57—53 2 46—
65 — 65—46 _ 46—34 _]_ + 23—34 2 _|_ 43—42 4. 34—23 JL _ 23
—24 — 34—43
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BURMESE CHESS. 187 Red. Wliite. j_ 64—53

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188 BURMESE CHESS. GAME III. White. Bed. JL 83—84 j_

75—84 JL D 80—84 J_ - 55—54 JL 63—64 i _ 54—53 — 42—53 J_ 2
46—54 2 51—63 JL 45—44 jL 53—44 JL 2 54—62
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BURMESE CHESS. GAME IV. 189 Red. White. + 55—54 _L

42—43 - 54—63 J_ + 72—63 JL - 34—43 J_ J_ 32—43 JL 2 56—44
— 52—53 - 44—56 — 53—54 J_ 45—54 J_ _ 43—54 J_ - 65—54 J_ i
4. 63—64 - 75—64 + J_ 73—74 D 87—77 1 d 62—73 JL 64—73 ([ 2
41—53 D 77—75 — 51—72 2 46—67 JL 83—84 D 75—76 — 74—85
_L 2 67—55 2 2 53—65 n 76—66 - 72—53 _L 73—72 + 61—72 JL 2
56—64 _L 85—86 D 66—76 - 84—85 — 76—75 D 10—60 2 64—43 2
65—77 ([ 35—44 J_ 86 — 87 becomes D - 44—53 2 2 77—56 D 75
—73 D 87—17 D O 26—17 D j_ 85—86 2 55—63 / O 71—61 + 36—
45 J_ 86—87 becomes D O 17—26 D 87—83 D 73—76 4- 72—63 2 -
76—56 2 — 63—52 2 43—22 J_ D 83—53 ([ - 22—34 __ 53—83 D
56—76 — 83—86 2 34—53 / O 61—50 D 76—86 D D 80—86 D / O
26—35 — 86—83 2 53—32 O 50—61 1 White sacrifices 4- and ([ , in
order to "queen " a 2 _L 85—76 D better.
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190 BURMESE CHESS. Red. White. J_ 14—13 Q 60—30 —

24—23 JL 12—23 J_ — 13—12 D 30—32 2 v/ + 25—34 — 32—12 J_
_ 34—25 _ 83—33 / O 35—44 — 33—83 -f 25—36 — 12—14 / O 44
—35 — 83—33 / - 35—46 — 14—15 - 46—47 — 33—83 - 47—37 —
83—87 / — 37—26 J_ 23—24 4- 36—25 D 87—86 / - 45—36 + 52—
53 O 26—27 D 86—87 / — 27—26 + 53—44 + 36—27 — 44—35 / O
26—36 D 87—86 / - 36—45 _ 15—25 + — 45—34 — 25—27 + Gives
up the game.
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XIV. SIAMESE CHESS The following particulars of this game

have been procured for me from Prince Devavvongse, Minister of
Foreign Affairs of H.M. the King of Siam, through the kindness of E.
B. Gould, Esq., H.B.M.'s Consul at Bangkok, August, 1889. " British
Legation, Bangkok, Oct. 22, 1889. "DEAR SIR, I took an opportunity
to make enquiries of Prince Devawongse, the King of Siam's Minister
for Foreign Affairs, and a keen chess player, both at the native game,
and our European one, on the subject of your letter of the 23rd of
April. I left your letter with the Prince, who appeared to take much
interest in the subject, and promised to supply me with a record of a
game played by good Siamese chess players. This he ultimately did,
and I now forward a copy of the rough record the Prince gave me.
Yours faithfully, E. B. Gould."
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192 SIAMESE CHESS. Names of the pieces. King — Khun

(Lord), Queen — Met, no meaning. Bishop — Jfhon, no meaning.
Knight — Ma (Horse). Castle — Rua (Boat). Pawn — Bia (Cowrie
shell) generally used for the Pawns. The King moves one square in
any direction: but in his first move he can move as a Knight. The
Queen has the usual Oriental move of one square diagonally : but in
her first move she can take two squares, if desirable. The Queen is
placed on the right hand of the King. The Bishop has the move of
the Kin in the Japanese game : one square diagonally every way,
and one straight forward. The Knight's move is the same as ours,
The Castle's move, also, is the same as ours. The Pawns stand on
the third row, and " queen " on the sixth. Siam, being a maritime
country, appears to have taken the game partly from India and
Burmah, and partly from Japan. From India she adopted the name
of boat ; and from Burmah and Japan the Bishop's move ; the only
difference between the two being that in the Burmese game the
Bishop only moves in the straightforward line, whereas in the
Japanese game it both moves and takes. The Pawns stand on the
third row, as in the Japanese game. The name of the Bishop, Khon
in Siamese, seems a corruption of the Burmese Chein, and the
Chinese Sang : while the name of the Knight, Ma, a horse, is taken
from the Chinese and Japanese.
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SIAMESE CHESS. 193 In the following game Chong Kwa

and Coy took the white pieces, and Nai Chang took the black. The
game is played upon our chess-board, and the numbers refer to
those given in our chess notation, p. 116. White. Black. J_ 52—53 1
_|_ 55—54 — 62—63 2 + 67— 6« 2 70—62 3 — 66—55 - 20—41 4
_L 65—64
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194 SIAMESE CHESS. White. Black. d 74—63 35 D 54—56

D 70—75 36 + 53—44 2 43—64 37 a 56—55 D 75—76 \ 38 0 36—
47 O 51—41 39 a 55—65 2 64—72 40 — 65—85 + 31—40 41 — 85
—55 — 40—51 42 + 44—53
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SIAMESE CHESS. White. Black. O 63—74 74 2 65—53 y _|_

44—53 2 75 D 60—66 a 2 56—64 76 O 46—55 d 43—54 77 D 66—
86 2 64—43 y 78 O 55—46 - 43—51 79 D 86—82 104 — 57—77 2
44—36 y 105 O 17—27 - 36—15 J_ y 106 - 27—17 - 15—36 y 107 -
17—27 - 36—44 108 D 77—75 J_ 14 — 1!) Queens 109 - 75—76 y 2
44—56 110 — 76—50 2 > O 46—56 D 111 O 27—37 + 35—36 Mate
112 i Good move. 195 o
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XV. TUEKISH CHESS, The Turks generally make their "

board " of cloth, embroidered over to form the cells, several of
which, and sometimes all, as in this example, have ornaments or
flowers in the centre. Such a chess- cloth with the men can easily be
carried about in a bag, and so be always ready to be placed on the
divan or carpet. The photograph represents such a board in my
possession with the ivory men, the powers of which will be seen by
the order in which they stand. The King is placed on the right of the
Queen, and can take one Knight's move at any time of the game,
but only one. The pawns move one square at a time. In castling, the
King can be placed on the Rukh's square, or on any other within that
distance. The other rules are the same as those of the European
game. This is the game as played by the author in Asia Minor in
1845. The variations from our game are unimportant, and not
sufficient to rank Turkish chess as a distinct game, like several other
Oriental games of chess, but is interesting only from the form of the
pieces, and from its embroidered cloth,
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XVI. TAMERLANE'S CHESS OR GREAT CHESS. MS. 260—

Eoyal Asiatic Society, Hyde — De ludis Orientalibus 1694 Bland —
Persian Chess 1850 Forbes— The History of Chess - - 1860 As we
are indebted chiefly to the poem of Saleius Bassus for the Ludus
Latrunculorum ; and to the Bhavishya Purana solely for the Indian
game of Chaturanga ; so for the knowledge of Tamerlane's chess we
are indebted exclusively to the anonymous author of the Persian MS.
260 belonging to the Royal Asiatic Society. Professor Forbes, who
gives us a most detailed translation of this, gives us also the
following extract from the preface of this MS., in which we see that
the author believed that his work would give him the reward of
Paradise, and that God himself assisted him in his play. Another
celebrated chess player, Alau el Din of Tabriz, called Ali the chess
player, declared that he once saw Mahomet in a vision, who
presented him with a bag of chess-men,
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198 TAMERLANE'S CHESS. by using which afterwards he

was ever victorious. All these chess players write in a very vain-
glorious style. This anonymous author says :— " Many a one has
experienced a relief from sorrow and affliction in consequence of this
magic recreation ; and this same fact has been asserted by the
celebrated physician Muhammad Zakaria Razi in his book entitled '
The Essences of Things,' and such is likewise the opinion of the
physician Ali Bin Firdaus, as I shall notice more fully towards the end
of the present work, for the composing of which I am in the hope of
receiving my reward from God, who is Most High, and Most Glorious.
" I have passed my life since the age of fifteen years among all the
masters of chess living in my time : and since that period till now
when I have arrived at middle age, I have travelled through Irak -
Arab and Irak-Ajam, and Khurasan, and the regions of Mawaraal-
Nahr, and I have there met with many a master in this art, and I
have played with each of them, and through the favour of Him who
is Adorable and Most High, I have come off victorious. " Likewise, in
playing without seeing the board, I have overcome most opponents,
nor had they the power to cope with me. I, the humble sinner now
addressing you, have frequently played with one opponent over the
board, and at the same time I have carried on four different games
with as many adversaries without seeing the board, whilst I
conversed freely with nay friends all along, and through the Divine
favour I conquered them all. Also in the Great Chess I have invented
sundry positions, as well
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TAMERLANE'S CHESS. 199 as several openings, which no

one else ever imagined or contrived. " There are a great number of
ingenious positions that have occurred to me in the course of my
experience, in the common game as practised at the present day ;
and many positions given as won by elder masters, I have either
proved to be capable of defence, or I have made the necessary
corrections in them, so that they now stand for what they were
originally intended to be. I have also improved and rendered more
complete all the rare and cunning stratagems hitherto recorded or
invented by the first masters of chess. In short I have laid before the
reader all that I have myself discovered from experience, as well as
whatever I found to be rare and excellent in the labours of my
predecessors." l The author's description of the game is rafcher
prolix, so we will give it in other words ; — The game played by
Timur the Tartar, called afterwards, when wounded in the leg, Timur
lenk, lame Timur, and, as corrupted by us, Tamerlane the Great,
consisted of a board of eleven squares by ten, with two outlying
squares,2 making a total of 112 squares. In this game the principal
pieces occupy the second row. In the middle is the Shah, 1, having
on his right his Vizir, 2, and on his left his Ferz, or General, 3. Next
to these on either side is a Zarafah, Giraffe, 4 ; then a Taliah,
advanced picket, 5 ; then an Asp, Horse or Cavalry, 6 ; and lastly the
Rukh, Chariot, 7. Behind the Rukh is a Pil, or Phil, Elephant, 8 ;
behind the advanced picket is a Jamal, Camel, 9 ; 1 Forbes, History
of Chess, p. 80, 81. 2 Outside of squares, 18 and 111.
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200 TAMERLANE'S CHESS. and behind the Vizir and Ferz

are Ddbbabdhs, war engines, 10. These occupy the first line, a
Piyade, Pawn, occupies each square of the third line. The Ferz, and
each of the pieces on the right of the Shah, has its proper Pawn, 15
; but the left hand Giraffe has an Elephant's Pawn, 14, in front; the
Picket has a Camel's Pawn, 13 ; the Horse has a War engine's Pawn,
12 ; and the left hand Rukh has the Pawn of pawns, 11. As these
names and the respective powers of the pieces are very difficult to
be remembered, I adopt names which are more intelligible to
Western ears, so that the name shall at once enable us to determine
the power of the piece. The principal pieces are divided into three
classes, according to their moves, which are the Straight, the
Diagonal, and the Mixed. Of the Straight moves are the Vizir, the
Dabbabah, and the Rukh. As the moves of the pieces are all
analogous, and varying only in power, we will change the names to
others which will better remind us of their moves ; and call them the
Vizir, moving only one square forwards, backwards, or sideways; the
Dabbabah we will change to the Castle, moving always two squares
in the same directions, and hopping over the first if covered ; and
the Rukh, moving any number of squares, as our Rook, but without
jumping. For the Castle I employ an ivory Castle of the ordinary size
; for the Vizir one of smaller size ; and for the Rukh a boxwood one
of larger size. Of the Diagonal moves are the Ferz, the Pil, and the
Taliah. In like manner, and for the same reason,
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