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Other documents randomly have
different content
established for the revision of the text of the "Corpus Juris", has the
force of law, even when it differs from that of St. Raymond. It is
forbidden to introduce any change into that text (Brief "Cum pro
munere", 1 July, 1580). Among the other editions, mention may be
made of that by Le Conte (.Antwerp, 1570), of prior date to the
Roman edition and containing the partes decisa; that of the brothers
Pithou (Paris, 1687) ; that of Bohmer (Halle, 1747), which did not
reproduce the text of the Roman edition and was in its textual
criticism more audacious than happy; the edition of Richter (Leipzig,
1839); and that of Friedberg (Leipzig, 1879-1881). All these authors
added critical notes and the partes decisce. To indicate the principal
commentators on the Decretals would necessitate the writing of a
history of canon law in the Middle Ages. Mere mention will be made
of Innocent IV (d. 1254), Enrico de Segusio or Hostiensis (d. 1271),
the "Abbas antiquus" (thirteenth century), Johannes Andreee,
already mentioned, Baldus de Ubaldis (d. 1400), Petrus de
Aneharano (d. 1416), Franciscus de Zabarellis (d. 1417), Dominicus
a Sancto Geminiano (fifteenth century), Joannes de Imola (d. 1436),
Nicolo Tudesco, also called the "Abbas Siculus", or "Modernus", or "
Panormitanus" (d. 1453). Among the modern commentators, Manuel
Gonzalez Tellez and Fagnanus may be consulted advantageously for
the interpretation of the text of the Decretals. The Decretals of
Gregory IX still form the basis of canon law so far as it has not been
modified by subsequent collections and by the general laws of the
Church (see Corpus Juris Canonici). IV. Later Collections of
Decretals. — The decretals of the successors of Gregory IX were
also arranged in collections, of which several were official, notably
those of Innocent IV, Gregory X, and Nicholas III, who ordered their
decretals to be inserted among those of Gregory IX. In addition to
these, several unofficial collections were drawn up. The
inconveniences which Gregory IX had wished to remedy presented
themselves again. For this reason Boniface VIII made a new
collection of decretals which he promulgated by the Bull "
SacrosanctiE " of 3 March, 1298. This is the "Sextus Liber
Decretalium " ; it has a value similar to that of the Decretals of
Gregory IX. Boniface VIII abrogated all the decretals of the popes
subsequent to the appearance of the Decretals of Gregory IX which
were not included or maintained in force by the new collection; but
as this collection is of later date than that of Gregory I X, it modifies
those decisions of the latter collection which are irreconcilable with
its own. Clement V, also, undertook to make an official collection, but
death prevented him from perfecting this work. His collection was
published by John XXlI on 25 October, 1317, under the title of " Liber
Septimus Decretalium", but it is better known under the name of
"Constitutiones dementis V" or " Clementinie ". This is the last
official collection of decretals. The two following collections, the last
in the "Corpus Juris Canonici", are the work of private individuals.
Tliey are called " Extra vagantes , because they are not included in
the official collections. The first contains twenty
 DECRETUM 673 DEDICATION C, >ii,stitutions of John XXII,
and is named " Extrava•;antes Joannis XXII"; the second is called "
Ext ra\agantes communes" and contains the decretals of ililTerent
popes commonly met with in the manuscripts ami editions. They
were brought to their present tMrm by Jean Chap^uis in 1500 and
1503. (See CoHPns Juris C^vnonici; Extr.\vag antes; DecrelAI.S.) i.
\rRIN. Introducho in corpus juris ,■ m < 1 r. itnirK, 18891; S( HNK-
iDER. Dif Lehre von den Kir,i, ; (2nd ed., K'l'i^lwn. 1892); ScHtiLTE.
Gcsc/iiVif. '. ','_ .! ■hr Litera:!''s kanonischcn Rechls (Stuttgart, Is.:,
I.^MJ;; Taunton, / iiw of the Church (London. 1900 ; the manuals of
canon "f VON SCHERER, WeRNZ, SaGUC-LLER, SmITH. A. Van Hove.
Decretum Gelasianum. See Gelasius. Decretum Gratiani. See Corpus
Juris CaniiM.'i; Decrktal,*. Papal. Decretum of Gratian. See Corpus
Juris Oan■ iMt i; Dechb:tals, Papal. Dedication, a terra which,
though sometimes used i>t' persons who are consecrated to God's
service, is iiioic properly applied to the "setting aside" of places for a
special and sacred purpose (cf. Hastings, Diet, of tli^' Bible). The
Christian, indeed, believes that God i- I verywhere and that the
Divine Immensity fills all s) Mc; but this faith does not exclude the
idea of reM rving a special spot in which the creature may hold
communion w'ith his Creator and worship Him. That tlio setting aside
of this hallowed place was ever done with a certain show and
ceremony is evident from the (■\aniples of Jacob (Gen., xxviii, 18),
of Moses (Lev., viii, 10), and above all, of Solomon (III Kings, viii). I
his precedent of the Old Law was too obvious to be 1 1\ crlooked in
the New, and we may be sure that the iiioilcrn custom was
consecrated by Apostolic usage. I n a fragment of a martyrology
ascribed to St. Jerome I I)'.\ch^ry, Spicilegium IV) this passage
occurs: I: ■ma; dedicatio primae Ecclesiae a beato Petro con-1: iitae
et consecratee ". It is not strange, however, ill il owing to the
persecutions of the first three cenI ; 1 1 1 s, references to the
dedication of churches are exii' ini'ly rare. The first authentic
accounts of this kind are furnished by Eusebius (Hist. EccL, X, iii, iv;
Dc Vita Const., IV, xliii, in P. G., XX), and Sozomen I Hist. Eccl., II,
xxvi in P. G., XLVII) in regard to the r ithcdral of Tyre (.314) and
Constantine's church at .!> iisalem. The well-known historical
document entitled "Peregrinatio Silvia;" (Etheria) has a full de>. I
iptioiiof the celebration of the dedicatory festival of tlh- cluircli of
Jerusalem as it was witnessed by our pil^1 iM-tuithoress in the
fourth century (cf. Cabrol, I de la priere antique, p. .311). Here it will
I I' to emph;isize, in connexion with the dedication lurches, (1) the
ritual employed, (2) the minister, : ii.M-e.ssity and effects, and (4)
festival and its days. 1. In tlu; beginning the dedication ceremony
was v 1 y simple. A letter of Pope Vigilius to the BLshop of I'lai-ara
(.5.38) states: "Consecrationem cujuslibet eccl. .-ite, in qua non
ponuntur sanctuaria (reliquia;) r. li liritatem tantum sciraus esse
missarum" (We .\ that the consecration of any church in which as
(relics) are not placed consists merely in the ' ration of Masses).
That the primitive ceremonial sted mainly in the celebration of M;lss,
where were no relics, is also shown from the old "Ordines iini" (rf.
Mabillon, "Museum Italicum", II, in P. I LXXVIII, 8.57). Where relics
were used the cereIll ■ny of traiLslating and depositing them under
the a!- ir formed a notable feature of the dedication rite 'Ordo of St.
Amand" in Duchesne, "Christian dip", Ix)ndon, 190.3, Appendix;
"Ordo of Ver' in Bianchini, ed., "Lib. Pont.", III). The first r 1 1 1 [
ilete formulary is found in the Gelasian Sacramento aryinP. L..
LXXIV), which embodies the Roman liturgical usages of the seventh
century. Here the IV — 43 rite consists of prayers, sprinklings with
holy water, and blessings. So quickly, however, was this ritual
elaborated that in the ninth century it attained the completeness
which it enjoys at the present time (cf. the eighth-century "Liber
Sacramentorum" in P. L., LXXVlII; "Ordiies Romani", ed. Martene,
"De Ant. Eccl. Rit.", Ill; Daniel, "Cod. Lit.", I). The modern dedicatory
ceremonial assumes two forms according as a church is simply
blessed or solemnly consecrated. In the former case the function
consists of prayers, sprinklings of holy water, and Mass (cf. Roman
Ritual; Schulte, "Benedicenda", p. 155, etc.). The solemn rite of
consecration is described in the article ConseCR.\TION. 2. The
solemn ceremony of dedication, or consecration is found in the
Roman Pontifical and is performed de jure by a bishop (see
Consecration). The simpler rite, which is given in the Roman Ritual,
is generally reserved to bishops, but may be also undertaken by a
priest with episcopal delegation. 3. All churches, public oratories and
semi-public, if destined for Divine worship in perpetuum, must be at
least blessed before the Sacred jlysteries can be regularly celebrated
in them (Cong, of Rites, Sept., 1871). Purely private or domestic
oratories may not bo thus dedicated, but simply blessed with the
Benedidio loci (cf. Roman Ritual or Missal) on each occasion Mass is
said in them. As a rule the principal churches in every district should
be consecrated in the solemn manner, but as certain conditions are
required for licit consecration that are not always feasible (cf. Irish
Ecclesiastical Record, April, 1908, p. 430) the onlinary simple
dedication rite is regarded as practictdly tidequate. Both forms
render the place sacred, timl eoiitrilmt-e, as sacramentals, to the
sanctification of the faithful, but they differ in this that while a
church that is consecrated must, if polluted, be reconciled by a
bishop, a church that is simply blessed may be reconciled in similar
circumstances by a priest (cf. Roman Ritual). 4. Another difference in
the effects of the two forms of dedication is that a consecrated
church is entitled to celebrate each year the anniversary feast of its
consecration, which is to be held as a double of the first cla.ss with
an octave, by all the priests attached to the church. A church that is
only blessed has no right to this anniversary feast unless per
accidenx, thtit is, when it is included in the special indult granted for
the simultaneous celebration of the anniversaries of all the churches
in a district or diocese. In this case the Office and Mass must be
celebrated in every church, within the limits of the indult
independently of their consecration (Cong, of Rites, n. 38G3).
Though any day may be selected for the dedication of a church, yet
the Roman Pontifical suggests those "Sundays and solemn festive
days" which admit the dedicatory Office and Mass, as well tus the
anniversary celebration. In addition to the autli-aiin ■ ii' ! liip
foUowing may be usefully consulted; Cata i v , m !,iriiim in
Pontificale RoTnanum (Paris. 1850); i ' '
 DEDUCTION 674 DEER panied the Feast of Tabernacles,
during the celebration of which the dedication of the first temple haii
taken place. During the celebration of the feast mourning and
fasting were not allowed to begin. The Jews assembled in the
temple and synagogues bearing branches of trees and palms and
singing psalms; the Hallel (Pss. cxiii-cxviii) being sung every day. The
joyful character of the feast was also manifested by illuminations,
which may have been suggested by the "lighting of the lamps of the
candlestick" when the temple service was first restored (I Mach., iv,
50-51), or, according to very early Midrashim, by the miraculous
burning throughout the first celebration of the feast of a vial of oil
found in the temple. Since the first century a general illumination of
Hebrew houses has been customary, every house having at least
one light, and some, according to the school of the rabbis, liaving
one light for each person in the house on the first night and twice
the number on each succeeding night ; others again, having eight
lights the first night and a lesser number each night thereafter.
Modern Hebrews keep the feast on 12 Dec, with strictness, but do
not forbid servile work. At the daily morning prayer a different
portion of Numbers vii is read in the Synagogue. LiGHTFOOT, HoT(F
HebraictF (Oxford. 1859), s. v.; The Jewish Encydo-pedia, s. v.
Hanukkah, the Hebrew name of the feast; ScHuRER, A Hint, of the
Jewish People, etc., 2nd ed. of Eng. tr., I, 217, for complete
bibliography. Arthur L. McMahon. Deduction (Lat. de ducere, to lead,
draw out, derive from; especially, the function of deriving truth from
truth). I. As an argument or reasoning process: that kind of mediate
inference by which from truths already known we advance to a
knowledge of other truths necessarily implied in the former; the
mental product or result of that process. II. As a method: the
deductive method, by which we increa.se our knowledge through a
series of such inferences. I. The typical expression of deductive
inference is the syllogism. The essential feature of deduction is the
necessary character of the connexion between the antecedent or
premises and the consequent or conclusion. Granted the truth of the
antecedent judgments, the consequent must follow; and the
firmness of our assent to the latter is conditioned by that of our
assent to the former. The antecedent contains the ground or reason
which is the motive of our assent to the consequent; the latter,
therefore, cannot have greater firmness or certainty than the former.
This relation of necessary sequence constitutes the formal aspect of
deduction. It can be realized most clearly when the argument is
expressed symbolically, either in the hypothetical form "If anything
(S) is M it is P; but this S is M; therefore this S is P", or in the
categorial form, "Whatever (S) is M is P; but this S is M; therefore
this S is P". The material aspect of the deductive argument is the
truth or falsity of the judgments which constitute it. If these be
certain and evident the deduction is called demonstration, the
Aristotelian iirdSei^is. Since the conclusion is necessarily implied in
the premises, these must contain some abstract, general principle, of
which the conclusion is a special application; otherwise the
conclusion could not be necessarily derived from them; and all
mediate inferences must be deductive, at least in this sense, that
they involve the recognition of some universal truth and do not
proceed directly from particular to particular without the intervention
of the universal. II. When, starting from general principles, we
advance by a series of deductive steps to the discovery and proof of
new truths, we employ the deductive or synthetic method. But how
do we become certain of those principles which form our starting-
points? (1) We may accept them on authority — as, for example.
Christians accept the deposit of Christian revelation on Divine
authority — and proceed to draw out their implications by the
deductive reasoning which has shaped and moulded the science of
theology. Or (2) we may apprehend them by intellectual intuition as
self-evident, abstract truths concerning the nature of thought, of
being, of matter, of quantity, number, etc., and thence proceed to
build up the deductive sciences of logic, metaphysics, mathematics,
etc. Down through the Middle Ages enlightened thought was fixed
almost exclusively on those two groups of data, both sacred and
profane; and that accounts for the fulne.ss of the scholastic
development of deduction. But (3) besides being and quantity, the
universe presents change, evolution, regular recurrences or
repetition of particular facts, from the careful observation and
analysis of which we may ascend to the discovery of a third great
class of general truths or laws. This ascent from the particular to the
general is called induction, or the inductive or analytic method.
Comparatively little attention was paid to this method during the
Middle Ages. Apparatus for the accurate observation and exact
measurement of natural phenomena was needed to give the first
real impetus to the cultivation of the physical, natural, or inductive
sciences. In these departments of research the mind approaches
reality from the side of the concrete and particular and ascends to
the abstract and general, while in deduction it descends from the
general to the particular. But although the mind moves in opposite
directions in both methods, nevertheless the reasoning or inference
proper, employed in induction, is in no sense different from
deductive reasoning, for it too implies and is based on abstract,
necessary truths. Mercier, Logique (Louvain, 1905); De Wulf,
SchoIa.-^lici.sm Old and New (Dublin, London, New York, 19071. P.
Coffey. Deer, Abbey of, a once famous Scotch monastery. According
to the Celtic legend St. Columcille, his disciple Drostan, and others,
went from Hy (lona) into Buchan and established an important
missionary centre at Deer on the banks of the Ugie on lands given
him by the mormaer or chief of the district whose son he had by his
prayers freed of a dangerous illness. This happened probably in the
last quarter of the sixth century. Columcille soon after continued his
missionary journeys and left Drostan as abbot at Deer. Drostan died
here about 606. The legend receives confirmation from the fact that
the parish of ■ Aberdour venerated St. Drostan as patron. In later
years the Normans had little sympathy with the Celtic institutions, so
we find the Earl of Buchan in 1219 founding the Cistercian abbey of
New Deer about two miles westward of Columcille's foundation,
granting to the new abbey a portion of the lands of Old Deer, the
rest going to the maintenance of a parochial church. In 1551 the son
of the Earl Marischal succeeded his uncle Robert Keith as titular
Abbot of Deer holding the abbey lands in commendnm. The
flourishing monastery soon fell a prey to the Scottish Reformers.
Among its treasures is the venerable document known as the "Book
of Deer". This is one of the oldest monuments of Scottish literature,
and was ably edited in 1S69 for the Spalding Club by its secretary,
Dr. John Stuart. It had become known to scholars in 1858 when it
was found in the University of Cambridge. It was then also
discovered that the university had come into its possession in 1715
among the books of Dr. John Moore, Bishop of Norwich, which had
been purchased by George I and presented by him to the university;
how Bishop Moore had obtained it is not known. The manuscript is a
small, nearly square octavo numbering eighty-six folios of
parchment, written on both sides of the leaf in a dark brown ink, in a
hand wonderfully clear and legible, The pages had been ruled with a
sharp pointed instru 
 DEFAMATION 675 DEFINITION inrnt and the letters had
been placed under the lines, not on them. It contains the first six
chapters of the ( iospel of 8t. Matthew, a part of the fifth chapter of
St. Mark, the entire Gospel of St. John, a part of the (illiee for
visiting the sick and the Apostles' Creed. i'lic text is from the Latin
Vulgate with some peculiarities common to Irish Bible editions, and
is written in the well-known minuscule lettering of the Irish scribes;
the initial letters were greatly enlarged and iiiiuimented with patches
of colour in dragonesque li>rins, and the pages have ornamental
borders. I hiTe are also full portraits of the Evangelists. The I'.niik
then contains entries in the Gaelic tongue, the most important being
that giving an account of the I foundation of the Abbey of Deer. The
author was probalily a member of that comravmity and lived periiiips
in the eighth century. He gives no clue to his ilcntity, but signs
himself a poor wretch and asks for a Messing. The last document in
the Book is a Latin ' I'lrtfr from the great and good King David.
MnsrM.iMi.iHT, Monks of the »Vp«( (New York. 1896), II, 53; I'.
/,■,..!, I-:,,l,.,,„slical Record (1892), 865; O'Hanlon, Lives ,■: ihr Irish
s„,ni« iMublin, 1875). VI, 389; Bf.llesheim, GcscJi. I it> r knth.
KiTche in Schottland (Mainz. 1883). I, 193 and passim (tr. HnNTER-
BLATR); Janadschek, Orig. Cisl. (1877), I, 223; Skene, Celtic
Scotland^ II. Francis Mershman. Defamation. See Reputation.
Defect. See Irregularity. Defender of the Faith. See Henry VIII.
Defender of the Matrimonial Tie (Defensor mnirimonii), an official
whose duty is to defend the marriage-bond in the procedure
prescribeil for the hearing of matrimonial causes which involve the
validity or nullity of a marriage already contracted. Benedict XIV, by
his Bull "Dei Mi.seratione", 3 November, 1741, introduced this official
into the marriage procedure to guard against abuses occurring from
the ordinary procedure. An annulment of a marriage might result
from the appearance of only one of the married couple who desired
freedom to enter upon a new marriage, while the other was
apathetic and conniving at the annulment, or at times vmable or
indisposed to incur expense to uphold the marriage-tie, especially if
it implied an appeal to a higher court. Perhaps, too, the judicial
decision might induce change of opinion without sufficient warrant.
Scandal arose from the frequency of dissolution of marriages with
the freedom to enter new contracts. The Bull " Dei Miseratione"
requires that in each diocese the ordinary shall appoint a defender of
marriage, upright in character, and learned in the law, an ecclesiastic
if possible, a layman if necessary. The bishop may su.spend him or
remove him for cause, and, if he is prevented from taking part in the
procedure, substitute one with the requisite qualifications. He must
be summoned to any trial in which there is question, before a
competent judge, of the validity or nullity of a marriage, and any
proceeding will be null if he is not duly cited. He must have the
opportunity to examine the witnes,ses, and, orally or in writing, to
bring forward whatever arguments may favour the validity of the
marriage. He must be cited even though the [larty interested in the
defence of the marri.'ige be present, and all the acts of the court are
always to be accessible to him, and at any time he has a right to
bring forward new documents or witnesses favourable to the
marriage. On assuming his office he must take an oath to fulfil its
duties and he is expected to renew the oath in each case. If the
judge decides in favour of the marriage the defender takes no
further action unless its iippiment appeals to a higher court. Here a
defender undertakes anew the defence of its validity. If the judge of
first inst.ance decides against the v.ilidity of the marriage and no one
else appeals, the dcfenfler of marriage is required by the Bull "Dei
Miseratione" in all cases to appeal to the higher court. If the first two
courts agree upon the nullity of a marriage the defender need not
appeal, unless his conscience tells him that a serioas mistake was
made. If he feels it his duty to appeal a new marriage may not be
contracted till his plea is heard. The decision in matrimonial cases is
never absolutely final ; so that if new, serious reason appears for the
validity of a marriage, it must be judicially investigated. This
legislation was extended and enforced in the United States
byanlnstructionof Propaganda in 18S3, published with the "Acts and
Decrees of the Third Plenary Council of Baltimore". Though the Bull "
Dei Miseratione" does not require it, the practice of the Roman
Congregations extends the intervention of the defender to cases of
true marriages not consummated where the Holy See is requested to
grant a dispensation for a new marriage. The obligation of the
defender to appeal from the decision of first instance, adverse to the
validity of a marriage, has been modified by the Holy See in several
cases, where the invalidity depends upon facts indisputably proven,
through the Congregation of the Holy Office (5 June, 1889) whose
decree was declared (16 Jime, 1894) to extend to the whole Church.
Where the decree "Tametsi" of the Council of Trent was binding,
requiring the presence of the parish priest for the validity, if only a
civil ceremony was u.sed, the bishoj) may tleclare the marriage null
without the participatioii of the defender. In view of the new
matrimonial legislation contained in the decree "Ne Temere" of Pius
X this also holds anywhere if a marriage is attempted only before a
civil authority or non-Catholic minister of religion. Yet if an
ecclesiastical form had been used, and the nullity from clandestinity
was questioned, his presence is required; but if the impediment of
clandestinity clearly appears he need not appeal. This is true also if,
through absence of ecclesiastical dispensation, there is an
impediment of disparity of worship, or of consanguinity, or of affinity
from lawful intercourse, or of spiritual relationship, or of certain
previous legitimate marriage still existing. In these cases the
ordinary may, with the participation of the defender, declare the
marriage null, and the defender is not required to appeal. This,
however, was declared by the Holy Office (^27 May, 1901) to be
imderstood only of cases in which certainly and clearly the
impediment is proven; otherwi.se the defender must proceed to the
higher court. The defender is exhorted to exercise his office
gratuitously, but he may be compensated from fees imposed by the
court or from other diocesan resources. Benedict XIV, Bull "Dei
Miseratione" (3 Nov., 1741), in Bullar. Magn., XVI, 48 sq.;
Collectanea S. Cong, dc Prop. Fide, no.?. 1572, 1573, 1575;
Gaspakri, De Matrimonio (Paris, 1904), ch. viii.; Ladrentius, Inst. Jur.
Keel. (Freiburg, 190.3), V, no. 159; Smith, Element's of Eccl. Law
(New York, 1886), II; Taunton. The Law of the Church (London,
1906); Bassibey, Le Defe-nseur du lien matr. in Revue des Sciences
EceUs. (MayJune, 1899); BouDiNHON, Le Mariage Religieux (Paris,
1900). R. L. BURTSELL. Defensor Ecclesiae. See Advocatus
Eccle.si.e. Definition, Theological. — The Vatican Council (Sess. iv,
cap. iv) solemnly taught the doctrine of papal infallibility in the
following terms: "The Roman Pontiff, when he speaks ex cathedr/i.
that is to .say, when in the exercise of his office of pastor and
teacher of all Christians he. in virtue of his supreme .\postolic
authority, defines that a doctrine on faith or morals is to be held by
the whole Church, by the assistance of God promised to him in the
person of Blessed Peter, has that infallibility with which it was the
will of Our Divine Redeemer that His Church should be furnished in
defining a doctrine on faith or morals. " From this teaching we obtain
an authoritative notion of the meaning of definition in its theological,
as distinct from its philosophical, or canonical, .sen.se. It is an
irrevocable decision, by which the supreme teaching
 DEFINITOR 676 DEFINITOR authority in the Church decides
a question appertaining to faith or morals, and which binds the
whole Church. From this explanation it will be seen that four
conditions are required for a theological definition. (1) // must be a
decision by the supreme teaching authority in the Church. — There
are two organs of supreme doctrinal authority, viz.: the pope,
speaking in his official capacity of pastor and teacher of all
Christians, and the bishops of the Catholic Church dispersed
throughout the world or assembled in a general council. The pope,
as successor of St. Peter, has definitive authority, in the exercise of
which he speaks neither as a private individual, nor as a mere
theologian, nor as Bishop of the Diocese of Rome, nor as
Metropolitan of the Roman Province, nor as Primate of Italy, nor as
Patriarch of the Western Church, nor as head of any Roman
Congregation, but as supreme pastor of the whole Church. The
bishops of the Catholic Church assembled with the pope in a general
coimcil have the same doctrinal authority with which the pope is
endowed; and so have the bishops dispersed throughout the
Catholic world when, in conjunction with the pope, they teach a
doctrine of faith or morals to be irrevocably held by all Christians.
These two supreme teaching authorities are the organs of active
infallibility from which alone a theological definition can proceed. (2)
The decision must concern a doctrine of faith or morals. — Faith
means the speculative doctrines of revelation; morals, the practical
doctrines of revelation. Faith is what we have to believe, morals
what we have to do, in order to obtain eternal life. Both faith and
morals are parts of the deposit which Christ left for the guidance of
His Church ; so far as the obligation of assent is concerned, there is
no difference between them; the distinction is made for the sake of
convenience rather than for the sake of any substantial difference
between them so far as they are the objects of active infallibility.
Doctrines of faith or morals which are formally revealed are called
the direct object of infallibility, while doctrines which are only
virtually revealed, or are only intimately connected with revelation,
such as dogmatic or moral facts, are called the indirect object of
infallibility. The Church has authority to issue definitions in connexion
with both the direct and the indirect objects of active infallibility. It is
not, however, de fide that the Church has infallible authority over the
indirect doctrines of faith and morals, though it cannot be denied
without theological censure. (3) The decision must bind the
Universal Church. — Decrees which bind only a part of the Church
are not definitions ; but only those which command the assent of all
the faithful. It is not, however, absolutely necessary that the decree
should be directly sent or addressed to the whole Church ; it is quite
sufficient if it is made clear that the supreme teaching authority
means to bind the Universal Church. Thus, St. Leo addressed his
famous dogmatic definition to Flavian, yet it was rightly considered
as binding the Universal Church; and Pope Innocent sent his decree
to the African Church alone, yet St. Augustine exclaimed: Causa
finita est, utinam aliquando finiatur error! (Serra. ii, de Verb. Ap., c.
vii). (4) The decision must be irrevocable or, as it is called, definitive.
— Arguments contained in conciliar definitions are proposed by the
supreme teaching authority in the Church, they concern faith and
morals, and they bind the Universal Church; yet they are not
definitions, because they lack this fourth condition — they are not
definitively proposed for the assent of the whole Church. Two things
are implied by the statement that a decree, to be a definition, must
be final and irrevocable. The decree must be the last word of
supreme teaching authority ; there must be no possibility of re-
opening the question in a spirit of doubt; the decree must settle the
matter for ever. The decree must also, and in consequence of its
final nature, bind the whole Church to an irrevocable internal assent.
This assent is at least an assent of ecclesiastical faith ; and in
doctrines which are formally revealed it is also an assent of Divine
faith. When the definition commands an irrevocable assent of Divine
faith as well as of ecclesiastical faith, the defined dogma is said to be
de fide in the technical sense of this phrase. It is well to note that
the definitive nature of a decree does not prevent the defined
doctrine from being examined anew and defined again by the pope
or a general council ; what it excludes is a re-opening of the
question in a spirit of doubt about the truth of the doctrine which
has been already definitively settled. It has been sometimes said
that it is impossible to know whether or not a theological definition
has been issued; but very few words are needed to show that the
assertion is without foundation. At times, doubt will remain about
the definitive nature of a decree, but as a rule no possibility of doubt
is consistent with the terminology of a definitive decree. Thus in the
doctrinal teaching of a general council, anathema attached to
condemned errors is a certain sign of an infallible definition. Words
also like those in which Pius IX .solemnly defined the doctrine of the
Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin give irrefutable proof of
the definitive nature of the decree: " By the authority of Our Lord
Jesus Christ and of the Blessed Apostles Peterand Paul, and by Our
own authority, We declare, pronounce and define the doctrine ... to
be revealed by God and as such to be firmly and immutably held by
all the faithful." No set form of words is necessary; any form which
clearly indicates that the four requisite conditions are present
suffices to show that the decree is a definition in the strict sense. It
should be noted that not everything contained in a definition is
infallibly defined. Thus, arguments from Scripture, tradition, or
theological reason, do not come under the exercise of definitive
authority. Incidental statements, called obiter dicta, are also
examples of non-definitive utterances. Only the doctrine itself, to
which those arguments lead and which these obiter dicta illustrate,
is to be considered as infallibly defined. (See Infallibility; Censures,
Theological; Dogmatic Facts ; Be.\tification and Canonization ;
Faith.) Hunter, Outlines of Dogmatic Theology (New York, 1896), I;
WiLHELM AND ScANNELL, A Manual of Catholic Theology (New York,
1898), I; Denzinger, Enchiridion (Freiburg, 1899). J. M. Harty.
Definitor (in Canon Law), an official in secular deaneries and in
certain religious orders. Among regulars, a definitor is appointed as
a counsellor of the provincial or general superior with certain
determinate powers. (See Definitors in Religious Orders.) Dioceses
are usually divided into deaneries, and these deaneries are again
sub-divided into districts which are sometimes called definitiones.
Over each district is placed an official styled definitor, who oversees
the administration of ecclesiastical property and also gives aid to the
dean in the more important duties of his office. Such definitors are
elected by the rural chapters with the bishop's approval, or in some
cases are directly appointed by the ordinary. Anciently, their principal
duty was to care for and divide the revenues of a prebend between
the heirs of the deceased and the new occupant, and likewise to
determine what proportion of income belonged to outgoing and
incoming beneficiaries of a church. The definitor acts as the
representative of the dean when the latter is absent or incapacitated
by illness or irregularity. It is his duty to announce to the bishop,
likewise, the death of the dean and conduct preparations for the
election of a successor. It is to be observed that definitors are in no
sense necessary officials of a diocese, and that the duties here
assigned to them are •in
 DEFINITORS 677 DEGRADATION Koriietimes fulfilled by
others. In some decanal or rural chapters the title given to the
definitor is chaml«rlain or treasurer. I.AUHENTius, Instituliancs Jur.
Ecd. (Freiburg, 1903). Corr>it> Juris Canonici, c. 4, X, I, 24 (c. xiii,
Cone, Ticin.. an. 850). William II. W. F,\nning. Definitors (in Religious
Orders), generally sppaking, the governing council of an order.
Bergier ■ li scribes them as those chosen to represent the order III
t;eneral or provincial chapters, but this is not altoyrther correct, for
the usage varies in different riiers. With the Dominicans all who are
sent to rrprp.sent the provinces in ageneral chapter are definiI'Ts ;
amongst the Cluniac monks there existed a simiI If regulation
(though normally in the Benedictine I inlcr definitors have no
place"). On the other hand, III the Franciscan Order, definitors are
elected by the Liriicral and provincial chapters to assist the general
or provincial superiors in the government of the order mill a similar
rule exists amongst the Carmelites and I 111' Hermits of St.
Augustine. But in this case it ^MMild seera that the definitors form a
sort of execuI I vo committee of the chapter, since they are subject
to I III' legislative enactments of the chapter. Definitors, -: rii'tly so
called, have a decisive vote in congregation ''lually with the general
or provincial superior; in ill is they differ from mere consultors such
as exist in s"iiif' orders and in the Society of Jesus. Nor may the
^I'lioral or provincial superior act in matters of greater iiiiiTnent
without taking the vote of the definitors. A 'li'fiiiitor, however, has the
right to vote only when I'T'sent in congregation. When called to give
his iipiiiion in congregation he is bound in conscience to si lak
candidly according to his own judgment, even if Im' knows his
opinion to be contrary to that of the nlluT definitors, and if he fails to
do so in matters of LiiMvity, he is held to sin gravely. Yet when the
vote is taken, he is bound to sign the declaration of the iiiiijority,
though he has the right to insist upon a iinniirity report. In some
orders, e. g. the Capuchin, till' junior definitor gives his opinion first,
that he III !v not be influenced by the seniors; but in other I'l'l'TS
the senior speaks first. Again, in some orders till- local superiors are
appointed by the definitors; in I'lliers they are elected by the local
community. riiiis, amongst the Franciscans, the provincial superior is
selected by the provincial chapter, subject to I "iifirmation by the
minister general and his definitors, whereas the superiors of houses
are appointed ' f-tly by the provincial definitors: whilst amongst
Dominicans all local superiors are elected by the I
communitv;;iuGiER. Diclionnaire de thfologie (Toulouse. 1819), II; "
rus, Praltcliones Juris Rcgularis (Toumai, 1890). Father Cuthbert.
Deformity. See Irregularity. Deger, Ern.st, historical painter, b. in
Bockenem, Hanover, 1.") April, 1809; d. in Diisseldorf, 27 Jan.,
1S8.5. Little is known concerning his early life. In 1828 he went to
the Berlin Academy of Fine Arts to begin the study of art under
Professor Wach, and was there so impressed by pictures of the
Diisseldorf School that lie placed himself under Schadow, the
director of the Diisseldorf Academy. Deger, says Dr. Banz, "lived in
religion, had a profound conviction of thr nobility of his art, and
painted what he felt, believed and hoped," lie was only twenty-one
when his "Pieta" brought him fame, and thenceforth he devoted
himself to religious painting. In 1837 he went to Italy with Ittenbach
and the Miiller brothers to study the frescoes by the old masters in
Florence and Rome. Overbeck, leader of (he German pre-Raphaelites
and head of the "Xazarene School", gave advice and encouragement
to the.»e young zealots, and Deger especially gained much from
contact with this master. Deger was intrusted with the most
important frescoes in the church of St. ApoUinaris (Remagen), and,
fully equipped after his four years' study, he returned from Rome in
1S43 and began the work. In eight years he finished a noble seriee
of paintings, representing the events in the life of Christ; these
ApoUinaris frescoes, the most remarkable protluctions of the "
Nazarites", mark the zenith of the German school of religious
painting, called by Cardinal Wiseman "the restorer of Christian taste
throughout all Europe." In 1851 Frederick William IV, King of Prussia,
commissioned Deger to paint twelve scenes in the chapel of the
castle of Stolzenfcls (Coblenz), and for this Deger chose .subjects
illustrating the redemption of mankind. When this monumental work
was finished, Deger settled permanently in Diisseldorf, comnienced
again to paint in oil, and spent the rest of his life on easel pictures,
chiefly Madonnas. Of these the most beautiful are the idyllic
"Madonna 'mid the Green" and the inspiring "Regina Coeli". He
frequently visited Munich where he painted a "Virgin and Child" and
an "Ascension" for the Maximilianeuin of that city. In 18.57 and 1859
two of his notable canvases, both religious subjects, were hung in
the Paris Salon. Deger was made professor in the Munich Academy
of Fine Arts, a member of the Berlin Academy of Fine Arts, and, in
1869, professor in the Diisseldorf Academy of Fine Arts. His style
was vigorous, direct, and simple; his handling careful and precise;
his drawing and power of characterization masterful; and his colour
rich and harmonious. Deger exerted a powerful influence in ridding
Gennan art of its baroque element and in stimulating its votaries to
poetry, loftiness, and profound conviction. Two of his notable works
are "Adam and Eve", in the Raczynski Gallery, Berlin, and the "Virgin
and Child", in St. Andrew's Chapel, Diisseldorf. Atkinson, School of
Modem. Art in Germany (London); Banz, ErvM Deger, the Religious
Painterin Benziger's Magazine (New York. Sept,, 1907); von
Konigswinter, Diisscldorfcr Kiinstlor (Leipzig, 1854); Wiegman, Die
Kunslakademie zu Diisseldorf (Dusseldorf, 1856). Leigh Hunt.
Degradation (Lat. degradatio), a canonical penalty by which an
ecclesiastic is entirely and perpetually deprived of all office, benefice,
dignity, and power conferred on him by ordination; and by a special
ceremony is reduced to the state of a layman, losing the privileges
of the clerical state and being given over to the secular arm.
Degradation, however, cannot deprive an ecclesiastic of the
character conferred in ordination, nor does it dispense him from the
law of celibacy and the recitation of the Breviary. Degradation is
twofold: verbal, i. e. the mere sentence of degradation ; and real or
actual, i. c. the execution of that sentence. They are not two
di.stinct penalties, but parts of the same cantmical punishment.
Degradation is a perpetual pimishment,and the clergyman so
punished has never any right to release from it. It differs from
deposition in so far as it dejirives, and always totally, of all power of
orders and juri.sdiction and also of the privileges of the ecclesiastical
slate, thus in all things subjecting the delinquent to civil authority.
While a bishop, even before his con.secration, can inflict deposition
or pronounce a .sentence of verbal degradation and can reinstate
those so punished, it is only a consecrated bishop who can inflict
actual degradation, and only the Holy See which can reinstate
ecclesiastics .actually degr.aded. Solemn degradation owes its origin
to the military practice of thus expelling soldiers from the army; the
Clnirch a
 DEGREES 678 DEICOLUS position, and degraded
ecclesiastics were still privileged and remained exclusively subject to
ecclesiastical jurisdiction. The laity, however, complained that
churchmen, even when degraded, secured in this way impunity for
their crimes. Hence Innocent III (c. viii, Decrim. falsi, X, v, 20) made
it a permanent rule that clerical offenders, after degradation, should
be handed over to the secular power, to be punished according to
the law of the land. Degradation cannot be inflicted except for
crimes clearly designated in the law, or for any other enormous
crime when deposition and excommunication have been applied in
vain, and the culprit has proved incorrigible. According to the Council
of Trent (Sess. XIII, c. iv, De ref.) a bishop, when inflicting
degradation on a priest, must have with him six mitred abbots as
associate judges, and three such prelates for the degradation of a
deacon or subdeacon. If abbots cannot be had, a like number of
church dignitaries of mature age, and skilled in canon law, may take
their place. All these must give their vote, which is decisive, and
must be imanimous for the imposition of so grave a penalty. The
ceremony of actual degradation consists chiefly in bringing before
the ecclesiastical superior the culprit vested in the robes
corresponding to his order; in gradually divesting him of his sacred
vestments, beginning with the last he received at his ordination;
finally, in surrendering him to the lay judge (who must always be
present) with a plea for lenient treatment and avoidance of
bloodshed. The words pronounced by the ecclesiastical superior
during the ceremony, also other rubrical details, are laid down by
Boniface VIII (c. Degradatio, ii, de pcenis, in VI) and by the Roman
Pontifical (pt. Ill, c. vii). Degradation is now rarely, if ever, inflicted ;
dismissal, with perpetual deprivation, takes its place. For
bibliography see Deposition. S. Luzio. Degrees, Ac.vdemic. See Arts;
University. Deharbe, Joseph, theologian, catechist, b. at Strasburg,
Alsace, 11 April, ISOO; d. at Maria-Laach, 8 November, 1871. He
entered the Society of Jesus in 1817 and after teaching for eleven
years at the Jesuit College at Brieg, Switzerland, he became in 1840
a missionary and catechist in Cothen. With Father Roh, S. J., he
established at Lucerne in 1845 the Academy of St. Charles
Borromeo. When in 1847 a persecution broke out against the Jesuits
in Switzerland, Deharbe barely escaped with his life. After that he
was chiefly engaged in giving missions in Germany. As a catechist in
Cothen he felt very keenly the lack of a good catechism and was
encouraged by his superior, Father Devis, to compose a serviceable
textbook, but always hesitated, feeling himself incompetent. His
superior, knowing Deharbe's spirit of obedience, simply commanded
him to undertake the task. As a model he took the Mainz catechism
of 184.3 and made use also of other good textbooks, notably of
Bossuet's catechism. He completed his first catechism, called "
Katholischer KatechLsmus oder Lehrbegriff ", in 1847. In 1848 it
appeared anonymouslj' at Ratisbon and immediately won universal
approval. Bishop Blum of Limburg introduced it officially into his
diocese in the same year; the following year the Bishops of Trier and
Hildcsheim did likewise for their sees. In 1850 the Bavarian bishops
resolved to introduce a common catechism for the whole kingdom,
and accepted Deharbe's catechism, which wast lien introduced in
185.3. Other Cerman dioceses adopted it as follows: Cologne, 18,54;
Mainz and I'adcrborn, 1855; Fulda, 1858; Ermland, 1861; Culm,
18G.3; Gne.sen-Po.scn, 1868. At the same time it spread outside of
Germany, in Switzerland, Austrin-IIungary, and the United States. It
was translated in 1851 into Magyar, then into Bohemian, Italian, anil
French; into 8wQdish ^nd Marathi, 1801; into Polish and Lithuanian,
1862; into English, 1863; into Slovenian, 1868; into Danish, 1869;
and later repeatedly into Spanish and Portuguese. It was
reintroduced into Bavaria in 1908; and it is still in use in most
German dioceses, in Denmark and Sweden, in Brazil, Chile, East
India, and in many schools of the United States. In a revised form,
Austria adopted it in 1897. Deharbe himself prepared and published
at Ratisbon four extracts of his first work, entitled: (1) "Katholischer
Kateehismus" (1847); (2) "Heiner katholischer Katechismus" (1847);
(.3) "Anfangsgriinde der katholischen Lehre filr die kleinen Schiller"
(1847); (4) "Kleiner katholischer Katechismus" (1849-50). According
to Father Linden, S. J., Deharbe's catechism possesses theological
correctness, brevity of sentences, preciseness of expression,
clearness, and good order; according to the same authority its
defects consist in redundance of memory-matter, abstractness of
expression, incomjjlete sentences. It is to Deharbe's credit that in his
catechism he preser\'ed catechetical tradition, but abandoned the
Canisian division, arranging the text-matter under chapters on Faith,
Commandments, and Means of Grace. Deharbe's catechisms have
been frequently edited and revised. His other worlvs, all pubhshed at
Ratisbon, are: "Die vollkommene Liebe Gottes " ( 1 855) ; "
Erklarung des katholischen Katechismus ' ' (4 vols. , 1857-64, fifth
ed., 1880 — ); " Kiirzeres Handbuch zum Religionsunterrichte"
(1865-68, sixth ed.. Linden ed., 1898). Spirago-Messmer, Method of
christian Doctrine (Cincinnati, 1901): Linden, Der mittlere
Deharbesche Katechismus (Ratisbon, 1900); Thalhofer, Entwickiuno
des katholischen Katechismus in Deulschland (Freiburg. 1S991;
Rolfus and PfisTER, Realencukloptidie des Er^iehi/no'! und
I'nterrichtswesens (Mainz. 1874), passim; Krieg, Knlirh.lik (Freiburg,
1907); Hf.rder. Konversationslexikon, s. v.; Baier, Methodik
(Wiirzburg, 1897). Francis L. Kerze. De Hondt. See Peter Canisius,
Blessed. Deicolus (Dichuil), Saint, elder brother of St. Gall, b. in
Leinster, Ireland, c. 5.30; d. at Lure, France, 18 January, 625. Having
studied at Bangor he was selected as one of the twelve disciples to
accompany St. Columbanus in his missionary enterprise. After a
short stay in England he journeyed to Gaul, in 576, and laboured
with St. Columbanus in Austrasia and Burgundy. At Luxeuil he was
imwearied in his ministrations, and yet was always serene and even
joyous. When St. Columbanus was expelled by Thierry, in 610, St.
Deicolus, then eighty years of age, determined to follow his master,
but was forced, after a short time, to give up the journey, and
settled in a deserted place called Lutre, or Lure (French Jura), in the
Diocese of Besancon, to which he had been directed by a fwineherd.
Till his death, he was thenceforth the apostle of this district, where
he was given a little church and a tract of land by BertheUle, widow
of Weifar, the lord of Lure. Soon a noble abbey was erected for his
many disciples, and the Rule of St. Columbanus was adopted.
Numerous miracles are recorded of St. Deicolus, including the
suspension of his cloak on a sunbeam and viie taming of wild beasts.
Clothaire II, King of Burgundy, recognized the virtues of the saint
and considerably enriched the Abbey of Lure, also granting St.
Deicolus the manor, woods, fisheries, etc. of the town which had
grown around the monastery. Feeling his end approaching, St.
Deicolus gave over the govenunent of his abbey to Columbanus, one
of his young monks, and spent his remaining
daysinprayerandmcditation. Hisfeast is celebrated on 18 January. So
ri'vcred was his memory that his name (Dichuil), uniler the .slightly
disguised form of Deel and Deela, is still borne by most of the
children of the Lure district. His Acts were writ ten by a monk of his
own monastery in the tenth century. CoLGAN, Acta Sanctorum
Jlibcmiw (Louvain, 1645); Mabi^ ivON, Annat. Benedict; O'Hanlon,
Lives of the Irish Saints, I
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