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Sales Management

This 11th edition of Sales Management continues the tradition of blending the most
recent sales management research with the real-life “best practices” of leading sales
organizations and sales professionals.
Refecting today’s emphasis on analytics and customer experience (CX), this edition
focuses on the importance of employing different data-based selling strategies for dif-
ferent customer groups, as well as integrating corporate, business, marketing, and sales-
level strategies and plans. Sales Management includes coverage of the current trends and
issues in sales management, along with real-world examples from the contemporary
business world that are used throughout the text to illuminate chapter discussions.
The new 11th edition includes:

• Emphasis on data-driven decision making, ethics, the use of artifcial intelligence,

the customer experience, leadership, sales enablement technology, and new commu-
nication technologies;
• Updated end-of-chapter cases with application questions and role plays, along with
skill-building experiential exercises with discovery investigations and focused role
plays, which place students in the role of sales manager;
• Updated ethical dilemmas for students to practice ethical decision making;
• Revised ‘Sales Management in Action’ boxes;
• Multiple vignettes embedded in each chapter featuring sales management profession-
als and well-known companies discussing key topics from that chapter.

This text is core reading for postgraduate, MBA, and executive education students
studying sales management. An updated online instructor’s manual with solutions to
cases and exercises, a revised test bank, and updated PowerPoints is available to adopters.

Thomas N. Ingram is a Department Chair Emeritus and Professor of Marketing

Emeritus at Colorado State University, USA.
Raymond W. LaForge is the Brown-Forman Professor of Marketing Emeritus at
University of Louisville, USA.
Ramon A. Avila is the George and Frances Ball Distinguished Professor of Marketing
Emeritus and the founding director of the Center for Professional Selling at Ball State
University, USA.
Charles H. Schwepker, Jr. is the Randall and Kelly Harbert Distinguished Marketing
Professor at University of Central Missouri, USA.
Michael R. Williams is the American Floral Services Chair in Marketing and Professor
of Marketing at Oklahoma City University, USA, and Professor of Marketing Emeritus
at Illinois State University, USA.
Sales Management
Analysis and Decision Making

11TH EDITION

Thomas N. Ingram
Raymond W. LaForge
Ramon A. Avila
Charles H. Schwepker, Jr.
Michael R. Williams
Designed cover image: ipopba

Eleventh edition published 2024

by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158

and by Routledge
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2024 Thomas N. Ingram, Raymond W. LaForge, Ramon A. Avila, Charles H. Schwepker Jr.,
and Michael R. Williams

The right of Thomas N. Ingram, Raymond W. LaForge, Ramon A. Avila, Charles H. Schwepker
Jr., and Michael R. Williams to be identifed as authors of this work has been asserted in
accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form
or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including
photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the publishers.

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks,

and are used only for identifcation and explanation without intent to infringe.

Every effort has been made to contact copyright-holders. Please advise the publisher of any errors
or omissions, and these will be corrected in subsequent editions.

First edition published by Routledge 2003

Tenth edition published by Routledge 2019

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Ingram, Thomas N., author.
Title: Sales management : analysis and decision making / Thomas N. Ingram,
Raymond W. LaForge, Ramon A. Avila, Charles H. Schwepker Jr., Michael R. Williams.
Description: Eleventh edition. | Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge, Taylor & Francis
Group, 2024. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifers: LCCN 2023025546 (print) | LCCN 2023025547 (ebook) | ISBN 9781032426341
(hbk) | ISBN 9781032426358 (pbk) | ISBN 9781003363583 (ebk)
Subjects: LCSH: Sales management.
Classifcation: LCC HF5438.4 .I54 2024 (print) | LCC HF5438.4 (ebook) |
DDC 658.8/1—dc23/eng/20230906
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ISBN: 978-1-032-42634-1 (hbk)

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Access the Support Material: www.routledge.com/9781032426358

 B r ie f C o n t e n t s

Preface xv
About the Authors xxi

Chapter 1. Changing World of Sales Management 1

Part 1. Describing the Personal Selling Function 13

Chapter 2. Overview of Personal Selling 15

Part 2. Defning the Strategic Role of the Sales Function 37

Chapter 3. Organizational Strategies and the Sales
Function 39
Chapter 4. Sales Organization Structure, Salesforce
Deployment, and Forecasting 71
Appendix 4. Developing Forecasts 109

Part 3. Developing the Salesforce 123

Chapter 5. Acquiring Sales Talent: Recruitment and
Selection 125
Chapter 6. Continual Development of the Salesforce:
Sales Training 161

Part 4. Directing the Salesforce 193

Chapter 7. Sales Leadership, Management, and
Supervision 195
Chapter 8. Motivation and Reward System
Management 221

Part 5. Determining Salesforce Effectiveness and

Performance 249
Chapter 9. Evaluating the Effectiveness of the
Organization 251
Chapter 10. Evaluating the Performance of
Salespeople 279
Glossary 313
Notes 323
Index 341

v
 C o n t e n t s

Preface xv
About the Authors xxi

Chapter 1. Changing World of Sales Management 1

Challenges in the Sales Organization
Environment 1
Sales Management Responses 2
Create Customer Value 3
Increase Sales Productivity 4
Improve Sales Leadership 4
Best Sales Organizations 6
Effective Sales Managers 7
Sales Management Process 7
Describing the Personal Selling Function 7
Defning the Strategic Role of the Sales
Function 8
Developing the Salesforce 9
Directing the Salesforce 9
Determining Salesforce Effectiveness and
Performance 10
Chapter Format 10
Concluding Statement 11
Sales Executive Panel 11

Part 1. Describing the Personal Selling Function 13

Chapter 2. Overview of Personal Selling 15
Hard Work Leads to Sales Success 15
The Role of Personal Selling in Marketing 16
The Signifcance of Personal Selling 16
Types of Sales Jobs 17
Key Roles of Salespeople 17
Trust-Based Relationship Selling Process 19
Selling Foundations: Knowledge, Skills, and
Trust-Building 19
Selling Strategy 22
Personal Selling Approaches 23

vii
viii Contents

Themes in Sales Professionalism 27

Complexity 27
Collaboration 27
Accountability 28
Sales Career Insights 28
Summary 30
Making Sales Management Decisions 34
Case 2.1: Food Services, Inc. 34
Case 2.2: Integrated Technology Specialists, Inc. 35

Part 2. Defning the Strategic Role of the Sales Function 37

Chapter 3. Organizational Strategies and the
Sales Function 39
Integrating Multilevel and Multiproduct
Strategies at Red Bull 39
Organizational Strategy Levels 40
Corporate Strategy and the Sales Function 41
Corporate Mission 41
Defnition of Strategic Business Units 42
Objectives for Strategic Business Units 42
Corporate Strategy Summary 44
Business Strategy and the Sales Function 44
Business Strategy Types 44
Business Strategy Summary 46
Marketing Strategy and the Sales Function 46
Advantages and Disadvantages of
Personal Selling 46
Target Market Situations and
Personal Selling 48
Marketing Mix Elements and
Personal Selling 49
Integrated Marketing Communication 50
Marketing Strategy Summary 51
Sales Strategy Framework 51
Organizational Buyer Behavior 51
Buying Situation 53
Buying Center 53
Buying Process 54
Buying Needs 55
Sales Strategy 55
Account Targeting Strategy 56
Customer Experience and Relationship Strategy 56
Selling Strategy 58
Sales Channel Strategy 58
The Internet 59
Distributors 59
Contents ix

Independent Representatives 60
Team Selling 61
Telemarketing 63
Trade Shows 64
Channel Confict 64
Summary 65
Making Sales Management Decisions 68
Case 3.1: My Home Superstores 68
Case 3.2: Global Tracker Technologies 69

Chapter 4. Sales Organization Structure, Salesforce

Deployment, and Forecasting 71
Improved Territory Design at New Balance 71
Sales Organization Concepts 72
Specialization 72
Centralization 74
Span of Control versus Management
Levels 74
Line versus Staff Positions 74
Selling Situation Contingencies 76
Sales Organization Structures 78
Geographic Sales Organization 78
Product Sales Organization 79
Market Sales Organization 80
Functional Sales Organization 81
Strategic Account Organization 81
Identifying Strategic Accounts 82
Organizing for Strategic Account Coverage 82
Comparing Sales Organization Structures 84
Salesforce Deployment 85
Allocation of Selling Effort 86
Salesforce Size 90
Designing Territories 94
Procedure for Designing Territories 96
Using Technology 99
“People” Considerations 99
Summary 101
Making Sales Management Decisions 105
Case 4.1: Containers Inc. 105
Case 4.2: Websites Unlimited 106

Appendix 4. Developing Forecasts 109

Forecasting by Sales Managers 109
Types of Forecasts 109
Uses of Forecasts 111
Top-Down and Bottom-Up
Forecasting Approaches 112
x Contents

Forecasting with Regression Analysis 117

Using Different Forecasting Approaches
and Methods 118

Part 3. Developing the Salesforce 123

Chapter 5. Acquiring Sales Talent: Recruitment
and Selection 125
Filling a Talent Gap at Moneris 125
Importance of Recruitment and Selection 126
Introduction to Salesforce Socialization 127
Recruitment and Selection Process 128
Planning for Recruitment and Selection 128
Recruitment: Locating Prospective
Candidates 133
Selection: Evaluation and Hiring 140
Legal and Ethical Considerations in
Recruitment and Selection 150
Key Legislation 150
Guidelines for Sales Managers 150
Ethical Issues 151
Summary 153
Making Sales Management Decisions 157
Case 5.1: Searching for Sales Talent 157
Case 5.2: Stuck in a Time Warp? 158

Chapter 6. Continual Development of the Salesforce: 161

Sales Training
Improving Performance Through Sales Training
at Paychex, Medical Solutions and Visa 161
Role of Sales Training in Salesforce
Socialization 162
Sales Training as a Crucial Investment 163
Managing the Sales Training Process 164
Assess Training Needs 164
Sales Technology 172
Set Training Objectives 172
Evaluate Training Alternatives 173
Design the Sales Training Program 180
Perform Sales Training 181
Conduct Follow-Up and Evaluation 182
Ethical and Legal Issues 184
Summary 186
Making Sales Management Decisions 190
Case 6.1: Sales Training at Natural Feeling
Soap 190
Case 6.2: A Sales Call on Fixall Hardware:
A Harbinger for Sales Training? 191
Contents xi

Part 4. Directing the Salesforce 193

Chapter 7. Sales Leadership, Management, and
Supervision 195
Sales Leadership: Navigating Turbulent Times 195
Situational Sales Leadership Perspectives 197
Sales Leadership Styles 198
Sales Leadership Relationships 199
Power and Sales Leadership 200
Sales Leadership Infuence Strategies 202
Sales Leadership Communications 204
Important Sales Leadership Functions 205
Coaching Salespeople 205
Conducting Sales Meetings 209
Promoting Ethical Behavior 210
Summary 213
Making Sales Management Decisions 217
Case 7.1: What Happened to Oliver? 217
Case 7.2: Seventh Level Technologies, Inc. 217

Chapter 8. Motivation and Reward System Management 221

Cash Incentives May Get Attention, but
Salespeople Eventually Stop Listening 221
Motivation and Reward Systems 223
Optimal Salesforce Reward System 224
Types of Salesforce Rewards 224
Financial Compensation 225
Straight Salary 225
Straight Commission 226
Performance Bonuses 228
Combination Plans (Salary Plus Incentive) 229
Determining Appropriate Financial
Compensation Levels 230
Nonfnancial Compensation 230
Opportunity for Promotion 231
Sense of Accomplishment 231
Opportunity for Personal Growth 231
Recognition 232
Sales Expenses 233
Additional Issues in Managing Salesforce
Reward Systems 236
Sales Contests 236
Team Compensation 238
Global Considerations 239
Changing the Reward System 239
Guidelines for Motivating and Rewarding
Salespeople 241
xii Contents

Recruitment and Selection 241

Incorporation of Individual Needs 241
Information and Skills 241
Job Design 242
Building Self-Esteem 242
Proactive Approach 242
Summary 242
Making Sales Management Decisions 246
Case 8.1: Kenco Supply 246
Case 8.2: Purity Products 247

Part 5. Determining Salesforce Effectiveness and Performance 249

Chapter 9. Evaluating the Effectiveness of the
Organization 251
The Backbone of High Performing Sales
Organizations: Acquiring and Utilizing
the Right Data 251
Sales Organization Audit 253
Sales Organization Effectiveness Evaluations 256
Sales Analysis 256
Cost Analysis 262
Proftability Analysis 265
Productivity Analysis 268
Improving Sales Organization Effectiveness 269
Benchmarking 269
Six Sigma 270
Ethical Issues 271
Concluding Comments 272
Summary 272
Making Sales Management Decisions 276
Case 9.1: National Distributing 276
Case 9.2: GSW Technology Group 277

Chapter 10. Evaluating the Performance of Salespeople 279

Sales Metrics are a Must, but Moving the
Needle on Performance Requires Management
of Salespeople and their Activities 279
Purposes of Salesperson Performance
Evaluations 281
Salesperson Performance Evaluation
Approaches 281
Key Issues in Evaluating and Controlling
Salesperson Performance 284
Criteria for Performance Evaluation 286
Performance Evaluation Methods 293
Performance Evaluation Bias 300
Contents xiii

Evaluating Team Performance 300

Using Performance Information 303
Salesperson Job Satisfaction 305
Measuring Salesperson Job Satisfaction 305
Using Job Satisfaction Information 306
Summary 307
Making Sales Management Decisions 311
Case 10.1: Western Windows and Doors 311
Case 10.2: XFinity Molding 312

Glossary 313
Notes 323
Index 341
 P r e fa c e

Our objective in writing the 11th edition of Sales Management: Analysis and Decision
Making was to continue to present comprehensive and rigorous coverage of contempo-
rary sales management in a readable, interesting, and challenging manner. Findings
from recent sales management research are blended with examples of current sales man-
agement practice into an effective pedagogical format. Topics are covered from the
perspective of a sales management decision maker. This decision-making perspective is
accomplished through a chapter format that typically consists of discussing basic con-
cepts, identifying critical decision areas, and presenting analytical approaches for im-
proved sales management decision making. Company examples from the contemporary
business world are used throughout the text to supplement chapter discussion.

STRENGTHS OF THIS EDITION

The 11th edition of Sales Management: Analysis and Decision Making continues what has
been effective in previous editions, but contains changes that improve the content and
pedagogy in the book. The authors teach sales management courses, are involved in sales
management research, and interact with sales managers and professors on a regular basis.
These activities ensure that the text covers the appropriate sales management topics and
employs the most effective pedagogy. The key strengths of the 11th edition include:
• The 10 chapters and paperback, hardback, and ebook formats from the previous
edition have been maintained. This makes it easy for professors to cover the text in a
semester or quarter, and still have suffcient time to use active learning exercises
throughout the course. Students can purchase the 11th edition for much less than
the cost of a typical hardcover sales management book.
• New Opening Vignettes generate student interest in the chapter content by provid-
ing recent examples of leading sales organizations employing the chapter material.
• “Sales Management in Action” boxes include new sales executives or updated per-
sonal comments that reinforce important sales management concepts in each
chapter.
• Revised “Ethical Dilemma” boxes provide students the opportunity to address impor-
tant ethical issues facing sales managers with many set up as role-play exercises.
• Revised chapter cases with related role plays put students in the role of a sales
manager in a specifc sales organization situation. The cases require students to
analyze the situation, decide on the appropriate action, and then implement their
decisions through role-play scenarios.
• New and revised pedagogy is available in the “Developing Sales Management
Knowledge” and “Building Sales Management Skills” activities at the end of each
chapter.
• All chapters have been updated to incorporate the latest fndings from sales manage-
ment research and the best practices from leading sales organizations. Topics receiving
new or expanded coverage include: sales cycle and opportunity forecasting; social net-
working, digital and artifcial intelligence in recruitment and selection; ethics in
xv
xvi Preface

selection; use of buyer personas, virtual reality and artifcial intelligence in sales train-
ing; leadership skills, infuence tactics and coaching.

LEVEL AND ORGANIZATION

This text was written for the undergraduate student enrolled in a one-semester or one-
quarter sales management class. However, it is suffciently rigorous to be used at the MBA
level.
A sales management model is used to present coverage in a logical sequence. The text
is organized into fve parts to correspond with the fve stages in the sales management
model.
Part One, “Describing the Personal Selling Function,” is designed to provide stu-
dents with an understanding of personal selling prior to addressing specifc sales man-
agement areas. We devote one chapter at the beginning of the text to this topic.
Part Two, “Defning the Strategic Role of the Sales Function,” consists of two chap-
ters. One discusses important relationships between personal selling and organizational
strategies at the corporate, business, marketing, and sales levels. This chapter focuses on
how strategic decisions at different organizational levels affect sales management deci-
sions and personal selling practices.
The second chapter in this part investigates alternative sales organization structures
and examines analytical methods for determining salesforce size, territory design, and
the allocation of selling effort.
Part Three, “Developing the Salesforce,” changes the focus from organizational
topics to people topics. The two chapters in this part cover the critical decision areas in
the recruitment and selection of salespeople and in training salespeople once they have
been hired.
Part Four, “Directing the Salesforce,” continues the people orientation by discussing
the leadership, management, and supervisory activities necessary for successful sales man-
agement and examining important areas of salesforce motivation and reward systems.
Part Five, “Determining Salesforce Effectiveness and Performance,” concludes the
sales management process by addressing evaluation and control procedures. Differences
in evaluating the effectiveness of the sales organization and the performance of sales-
people are highlighted and covered in separate chapters.

PEDAGOGY
The following pedagogical format is used for each chapter to facilitate the learning
process.
• Learning Objectives. Specifc learning objectives for the chapter are stated in behav-
ioral terms so that students will know what they should be able to do after the
chapter has been covered.
• Opening Vignettes. All chapters are introduced by an opening vignette that typically
consists of a recent, real-world company example addressing many of the key points
to be discussed in the chapter. These opening vignettes are intended to generate
student interest in the topics to be covered and to illustrate the practicality of the
chapter coverage.
• Key Words. Key words are highlighted in bold type throughout each chapter
and summarized in list form at the end of the chapter to alert students to their
importance.
• Boxed Inserts. Each chapter contains two boxed inserts titled “Sales Management in
Action.” The comments in these boxes are provided by members of our Sales
Executive Panel and were made specifcally for our text.
• Figure Captions. Most fgures in the text include a summarizing caption designed to
make the fgure understandable without reference to the chapter discussion.
Preface xvii

• Chapter Summaries. A chapter summary recaps the key points covered in the chapter
by restating and answering questions presented in the learning objectives at the
beginning of the chapter.
• Developing Sales Management Knowledge. Ten discussion questions are presented at
the end of each chapter to review key concepts covered in the chapter. Some of the
questions require students to summarize what has been covered, while others are
designed to be more thought-provoking and extend beyond chapter coverage.
• Building Sales Management Skills. Application exercises are supplied for each chapter,
requiring students to apply what has been learned in the chapter to a specifc sales
management situation. Several of the application exercises require data analysis.
Many chapters also have an Internet exercise to get students involved with the latest
technology. Role plays are also included in most chapters.
• Making Sales Management Decisions. Each chapter concludes with two short cases.
Most of these cases represent realistic and interesting sales management situations.
Some require data analysis. Most are designed so that students can role-play their
solutions.

CASES
The 18 short cases at the end of the chapters can be used as a basis for class discussion,
short written assignments, or role plays. These are designed to help bring the material in
each chapter to life for students by illustrating how chapter concepts can be applied in
practice.

SUPPLEMENTS
Instructor’s Resources
The Instructor’s Resources (www.routledge.com/9781032426358) deliver all the tra-
ditional instructor support materials in one handy place. Electronic fles are provided
for the complete Instructor’s Manual, Test Bank, and chapter-by-chapter PowerPoint
presentation fles that can be used to enhance in-class lectures.
Instructor’s Manual
The Instructor’s Manual for the 11th edition of Sales Management: Analysis and
Decision Making contains many helpful teaching suggestions and solutions to text
exercises to help instructors successfully integrate all the materials offered with this text
into their class. Each chapter includes the following materials designed to meet the
instructor’s needs.
• Learning objectives
• Chapter outline and summary
• Ideas for student involvement
• Possible answers to review sections in the text, Developing Sales Management
Knowledge, Building Sales Management Skills and the end of chapter cases
• Ideas for how to incorporate the role-play exercises found in the text into the class-
room setting, as well as suggestions for conducting the role plays
(The Instructor’s Manual fles are located at: www.routledge.com/9781032426358)
Test Bank
The revised and updated Test Bank, with over 100 new questions, includes a variety of
multiple choice and true/false questions, which emphasize the important concepts
presented in each chapter. The Test Bank questions vary in levels of diffculty so that
xviii Preface

each instructor can tailor testing to meet their specifc needs. The Test Bank fles are
located at: www.routledge.com/9781032426358.
PowerPoint Presentation Slides
This package brings classroom lectures and discussions to life with the Microsoft
PowerPoint presentation tool. Extremely professor-friendly and organized by chapter,
these chapter-by-chapter presentations outline chapter content, and generally include a
link to a short related video. The eye-appealing and easy-to-read slides are, in this new
edition, tailored specifcally to the Sales Management text from the Ingram author
team. The PowerPoint presentation slides are available at: www.routledge.com/cw/
www.routledge.com/9781032426358.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We are delighted to publish the 11th edition of Sales Management: Analysis and Decision
Making with Routledge. Our hope is that this is one of many editions we work on
together. A great deal of credit for this edition should go to all of the wonderful people
at Routledge. Their expertise, support, and constant encouragement turned an extremely
diffcult task into a very enjoyable one. We are thankful for the expertise and support of
the many publishing professionals who have worked with us on previous editions of this
book. In particular, we appreciate the efforts of Harry Briggs, Rob Zwettler, Mike
Roche, and Becky Ryan. We would also like to thank our senior editor, Sophia Levine,
editorial assistant, Rupert Spurrier, and senior production editor, Cathy Hurren, for
their work on the 11th edition of this book. Without their efforts this edition would not
have seen the light of day. However, we also want to thank the many individuals with
whom we did not have direct contact but who assisted in the development and produc-
tion of this book.
We are also very appreciative of the support provided by our colleagues at Colorado
State University, the University of Louisville, Ball State University, University of
Central Missouri, and Oklahoma City University.
Thomas N. Ingram
Raymond W. LaForge
Ramon A. Avila
Charles H. Schwepker, Jr.
Michael R. Williams
 To Jacque
—Thomas N. Ingram

To Susan, Alexandra, Kelly, and

in memory of my Mom and Dad
—Raymond W. LaForge

To Terry
—Ramon A. Avila

To Laura, Charlie III, Anthony, Lauren, my Mom,

and in memory of my Dad, “Big C”
—Charles H. Schwepker, Jr.

To Marilyn, Aimee and Royce, Kerri, Bart and Gage,

and in memory of my Mom and Dad
—Michael R. Williams
A b o u t t h e A u t h o r s

Thomas N. Ingram (Ph.D., Georgia State University) is the Department Chair

Emeritus and Professor of Marketing Emeritus at Colorado State University. Before
commencing his academic career, Tom worked in sales, product management, and sales
management with ExxonMobil. Professor Ingram has received numerous awards for
contributions to sales research and teaching, including the Lifetime Achievement Award
from the American Marketing Association Selling and Sales Management Special
Interest Group. He has also been honored as the Marketing Educator of the Year by
Sales and Marketing Executives International (SMEI), as a Distinguished Sales Educator
by the University Sales Center Alliance, and as the frst recipient of the Mu Kappa Tau
National Marketing Honor Society Recognition Award for Outstanding Scholarly
Contributions to the Sales Discipline. Tom has served as the Editor of Journal of
Personal Selling & Sales Management, Chair of the SMEI Accreditation Institute, and
as Editor of the Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice. Professor Ingram’s published
work has appeared in Journal of Marketing, Journal of Marketing Research, Journal of
Personal Selling & Sales Management, and Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science,
among others. One of his co-authored articles which appeared in the Journal of
Marketing was recognized by the American Marketing Association Selling and Sales
Management Special Interest Group as one of the “Top Ten Articles of the 20th
Century” in the sales discipline.
Raymond W. LaForge (DBA, University of Tennessee) is the Brown-Forman Professor
of Marketing Emeritus at the University of Louisville. He is the founder of the
Marketing Education Review; has co-authored Marketing: Principles and Perspectives,
5th ed. (2007); Professional Selling: A Trust-Based Approach, 4th ed. (2008); Sell,
7th ed. (2024); The Professional Selling Skills Workbook (1995); Strategic Sales Leadership:
Breakthrough Thinking for Breakthrough Results (2006); and co-edited Emerging Trends
in Sales Thought and Practice. His research is published in many journals, including the
Journal of Marketing, Journal of Marketing Research, Decision Sciences, Journal of the
Academy of Marketing Science, International Journal of Research in Marketing, and
Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management. Buddy has received numerous awards,
including the Outstanding Sales Scholar Award from Mu Kappa Tau, a Special
Recognition Award from the American Marketing Association Sales Interest Group, a
Top Thirteen Faculty Favorite Award from the University of Louisville, the Distinguished
Scholar Award from the Research Symposium on Marketing and Entrepreneurship, the
Distinguished Sales Educator Award from the University Sales Center Alliance, the
Undergraduate Teaching Award from the College of Business, the Beta Alpha Psi
Outstanding College of Business Faculty Award, and the American Marketing Association
Sales Interest Group Lifetime Achievement Award. He has also been inducted into the
Direct Selling Education Foundation Circle of Honor.
Ramon A. Avila (Ph.D., Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University) is the
George and Frances Ball Distinguished Professor of Marketing Emeritus and the found-
ing director of the Center for Professional Selling, and earned his bachelor’s degree and
MBA from Ball State University. He completed his Ph.D. at Virginia Polytechnic

xxi
xxii About the Authors

Institute and State University in 1984. He joined the Ball State faculty in 1984. Before
coming to Ball State, he worked in sales with the Burroughs Corporation. Dr. Avila was
presented with Mu Kappa Tau’s Outstanding Contributor to the Sales Profession in
1999 and is the only the third person to receive this award. Dr. Avila has also received
the University’s Outstanding Faculty award in 2001, the Outstanding Service award in
1998, the University’s Outstanding Junior Faculty award in 1989, the College of
Business’s Professor of the Year, and the Dean’s Teaching award every year it was given
from 1987 to 2002. Dr. Avila has presented numerous papers at professional confer-
ences and has been the program chair and the director for the National Conference in
Sales Management, and has published research in Journal of Marketing Research,
Journal of Euromarketing, Industrial Marketing Management, Journal of Management,
Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management,
and Journal of Marketing Education. He has done consulting with major corporations,
including AT&T, Burroughs, Honeywell, Indiana Gas, Indiana Michigan Power,
Indiana Bell, and Midwest Metals. Dr. Avila served on the editorial review boards of four
business-related journals and served as the associate editor for the Mid-American Journal
of Business.
Charles H. Schwepker, Jr. (Ph.D., University of Memphis) is the Randall and Kelly
Harbert Marketing Professor at the University of Central Missouri. He has experience in
wholesale and retail sales. His primary research interests are in sales management, per-
sonal selling and marketing ethics. Dr. Schwepker’s articles have appeared in the Journal
of the Academy of Marketing Science, Journal of Business Research, Journal of Public Policy
and Marketing, Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management, Journal of Service
Research, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, and Journal
of Business Ethics, among other journals, and various national and regional proceedings.
Edited books in which his articles have appeared include Marketing Communications
Classics (2000), Environmental Marketing (1995), The Oxford Handbook of Sales
Management and Sales Strategy (2011) and the Handbook of Unethical Work Behavior
(2013). He has received several honors for both teaching and advising, including the
Hormel Teaching Excellence award, Byler Distinguished Faculty Award and the Alumni
Foundation Harmon College of Business Administration Distinguished Professor
award. Dr. Schwepker received the James Comer award for best contribution to selling
and sales management theory awarded by the Journal of Personal Selling & Sales
Management and three “Outstanding Paper” awards at the National Conference in Sales
Management, among others. He is on the editorial review boards of the Journal of
Personal Selling & Sales Management, Journal of Marketing Theory & Practice, Journal
of Business & Industrial Marketing, Journal of Relationship Marketing, and Journal of
Selling, served as special issue editor for the Journal of Selling, and has fve times won an
award for outstanding reviewer. Dr. Schwepker is a co-author of Sell, 7th ed. (2024).
Michael R. Williams (Ph.D., Oklahoma State University) is the American Floral
Services Chair in Marketing and Professor of Marketing at Oklahoma City University.
His previous academic associations include Emeritus Professor of Marketing at Illinois
State University, where he was a founding Director of the Professional Sales Institute.
Prior to his academic career, Dr. Williams established a successful 30-plus-year career in
industrial sales, market research, and sales management and continues to consult and
work with a wide range of business organizations. He has co-authored Sell, 7th ed.
(2024); Professional Selling: A Trust-based Approach, 4th ed. (2011); The Professional
Selling Skills Workbook (1995); and a variety of executive monographs and white papers
on sales performance topics. Dr. Williams’ research has been published in national and
international journals including Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management,
International Journal of Purchasing and Materials Management, Journal of Business
and Industrial Marketing, Journal of Business Research, Journal of Marketing Theory &
Practice, Marketing Management Journal, Quality Management Journal, Journal of
Engineering Education, Journal of Selling and Major Account Management, and Journal
of Industrial Technology. His work has also received numerous honors, including AMA’s
Marvin Jolson Award for Best Contribution to Selling and Sales Management, Outstanding
About the Authors xxiii

Article for the Year in Journal of Business and Industrial Marketing, the AACSB’s
Leadership in Innovative Business Education award, the Marketing Science Institute’s
Alden G. Clayton competition, and the Mu Kappa Tau Marketing Society recognition
award for Outstanding Scholarly Contribution to the Sales Discipline. He has also
received numerous university, college, and corporate teaching and research awards
including Old Republic Research Scholar, the presentation of a seminar at Oxford’s
Brasenose College, Who’s Who in American Education, and Who’s Who in America. Dr.
Williams served as Program chair and Conference Director for the National Conference
in Sales Management, special issue co-editor for Journal of Business Research, and contin-
ues to serve in leadership roles as an advisor and board member for sales and sales man-
agement organizations.
Sales Management
Analysis and Decision Making
 Chapter

CHANGING WORLD OF
SALES MANAGEMENT
1
Personal selling is an important component of the marketing strategies for many
firms, especially those operating in business-to-business markets. The 500 largest
U.S. salesforces employ over 24 million salespeople, with the 200 largest manu-
facturing salesforces consisting of over 504,000 salespeople. Each manufactur-
ing salesperson produces an average of about $10.8 million in annual sales and
supports over 21 other jobs in their company.1 These statistics illustrate the large
size and significant impact of personal selling in today’s business world.
Sales Management is concerned with managing a firm’s personal selling func-
tion. Sales managers are involved in both the strategy (planning) and people
(implementation) aspects of personal selling, as well as evaluating and improving
personal selling activities. Research indicates that sales managers can increase
profitable sales growth by 5 percent to 20 percent or more by moving from average
to excellent salesforce effectiveness.2 Sales managers are involved in a variety of
activities and must be able to interact effectively with people in the personal
selling function, with people in other functional areas in their firm, and with
people outside their company, especially customers and other business partners.
Most sales organizations employ sales managers at various levels within the
sales or­ga­ni­za­t ion. These sales managers have different titles and may not have
direct responsibility for specific salespeople, but all perform sales management
activities that affect the salespeople in a sales or­ga­ni­za­t ion. Illustrative titles for
sales managers include chief sales officer, vice president of sales, divisional sales
manager, regional sales manager, sales leader, branch manager, area director, and
field sales manager.
Our objective in this chapter is to introduce the exciting world of sales man-
agement. We begin by identifying challenges in the sales organization environ-
ment and suggesting effective sales management responses to these challenges.
Then, the characteristics of the best sales organizations and most effective sales
managers are discussed. We conclude by presenting a general sales management
model that provides a framework for the book, describing the format of each
chapter, and introducing the members of our Sales Executive Panel. The goal is to
“set the stage” for your journey into the dynamic and exciting world of sales
management.

CHALLENGES IN THE SALES ORGANIZATION

ENVIRONMENT
Sales organizations operate in a complex and turbulent environment. Political,
social, and economic trends in the global business environment and rapid
advances in technology have produced an extremely competitive marketplace.
Many of these changes have had an especially significant impact on organiza-
tional purchasing. The purchasing and supply function has increased in impor-
tance at many firms, because it is viewed as an effective way for firms to lower
costs and increase profits. Therefore, organizational buyers are more demanding,
better prepared, and more skilled. Sales organizations must understand this situ-
ation to be able to generate business with new customers and to keep and expand
business with existing customers.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003363583-1 1
2 Chapter One Changing World of Sales Management

Several signifcant changes in the organizational purchasing process are directly rel-
evant to sales organizations. Organizational buyers have higher expectations in terms of
customized products and services that solve their problems and improve their business
performance. More organizations are using a formalized purchasing process, with more
individuals from different functional areas and management levels involved at different
stages of the process. Many buyers do not want to talk to a salesperson until they have
gathered the relevant information about their purchasing situation and expect sales-
people to provide information and insights they do not have. The net result is a much
longer purchasing process.3
The costs of maintaining salespeople in the feld are escalating, and a longer purchas-
ing process increases selling costs even more. Thus, a critical challenge for sales organi-
zations is to increase sales while decreasing selling costs. Sales organizations must fnd
effective ways to facilitate the emerging buying process of organizational buyers in a
manner that generates proftable sales growth. Achieving this objective typically requires
many sales organizations to make appropriate adjustments to their personal selling
process and in sales management practices.

SALES MANAGEMENT RESPONSES

Sales organizations are responding to these challenges in different ways. Many frms are
implementing a marketing orientation with the sales organization viewed from a more
strategic perspective. Market-oriented frms typically develop customer-centric cultures
and focus efforts more toward customers rather than just products. Market segmenta-
tion and prioritizing customers within target markets becomes increasingly important.
Sales is also viewed more as a core business process rather than a tactical activity. This
strategic perspective considers the sales organization as critical in delivering value to
customers and generating profts for the frm. Salespeople, sales managers, and other
business functions need to change many of their activities to be successful in imple-
menting a more strategic role.4
One emerging approach guiding many frms is to create and implement a sales
enablement perspective. The sales enablement area is in the early stage of its develop-
ment, so there is no universally accepted defnition. However, most discussions of a
comprehensive sales enablement program include several key elements:

• A buyer-focused function driven by a frm’s top-level executives.

• An alignment of the steps in the sales process to deliver value at each stage of the
buying process.
• An integration and coordination of the efforts of executives, sales managers, sales-
people, and personnel from other business functions that directly impact customers
to create value in all interactions with buyers.
• An incorporation of the appropriate training, technology, performance metrics, and
reward programs to guide and support the execution and achievement of sales
enablement and sales organization objectives.

There is substantial evidence that frms creating and executing a sales enablement func-
tion perform better than frms without them. Recent research documents that organi-
zations with sales enablement practices in place for more than two years report a
7-percentage point improvement in win rates and are 48 percent more likely to experi-
ence high buyer engagement in the sales process.5
Sales enablement is beginning to develop as a discipline. The Sales Enablement
Society (www.sesociety.org) was established in 2015 as a volunteer organization of pro-
fessionals from diverse industries, companies, and business functions. Refecting the
increasing interest in sales enablement, the Society has rapidly grown to 11,000 members
in 59 regional chapters in 29 different countries. The organization provides a variety of
networking opportunities for members. The major purpose is to increase the knowledge
base and identify the best practices for a successful sales enablement function. One
ongoing effort is to establish an offcial defnition of sales enablement.
Chapter One Changing World of Sales Management 3

Sales Management Responses FIGURE 1.1

Incr
lue eas
Va eS
er al
m

es
to
ate Cus

Pro
Sales

ductivit
Management
Responses
Cre

y
Improv
e Sales Leadership

Many sales organizations are responding to the challenges facing them by making changes in their sales
operations.

Firms employing a comprehensive sales enablement function are making dramatic

changes in their sales operations and transforming most aspects of sales management.
Others are focusing on improving a few sales management areas to increase sales
organization effectiveness. As indicated in Figure 1.1, these sales management responses
emphasize ways to create customer value, increase sales productivity, and/or improve
sales leadership.

Create Customer Value

Many sales organizations are moving from an emphasis on merely selling products to
solving customer problems and adding value to customer businesses over the long
term. The key is to identify value as defned by the customer and then to create, com-
municate, and deliver this value. For example, RS Medical sells physician-prescribed
home electrotherapy devices. Salespeople typically focused on the key features of
their products when meeting with physicians, because they thought this information
was of most interest to the physicians. However, the physicians had more interest in
information that would help improve their practice as a business. Once RS Medical
salespeople identifed what was really of value to physicians, they began to educate
physicians on how to make their practices more effcient and more proftable by using
RS Medical products. The value provided by this approach led to an increase in
device sales for RS Medical.6
Changes in the business environment often result in changes in how customers
defne value. Salespeople and sales managers must identify the new value defnitions and
deliver the value desired by customers. For example, customers of Minnesota Thermal
Science (MTS), an operating unit of Pelican Products, used to be most interested in the
technology of pharmaceutical packaging. The introduction of strict and costly regula-
tions in the pharmaceutical industry drove many frms to become more interested in
ways to reduce their costs. MTS salespeople responded to this change in value and
began to present a much stronger business case for their packaging solutions, such as
showing customers how their packaging and distribution costs could be reduced by
using MTS packaging.7
The importance of creating customer value is likely to increase in the future. But,
how customers defne value is likely to change as well. The most successful sales organi-
zations will be those that are able to identify how their customers defne value over time
and then communicate and deliver this value to them. Changes in value creation will
typically require changes in many aspects of sales management.
Exploring the Variety of Random
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600 HISTORY. History. From A. n. 1649. to A. D. 1660.

Erects a House of Lords. Fears of assiis','. nation, installed anew, and
recommended to the homage of the nation This ceremony took
place on the 10th of June, in Westminster Hall, with every
circumstance of magnificence and parade ; but, as it was a poor
substitute for the pageantry which the chief actor in it had
anticipated, there was evidently more show than joy in the noisy
display with which it was accompanied.* Among the first steps taken
by Cromwell, after all hopes of°royalty in his own person were
dissipated, was the removal of several officers of rank from the
army. For instance, he deprived Lambert of all his commissions, but
recommended an annuity as a reward for his past services. He
endeavoured at the same time to strengthen his interests by filling
all confidential posts with trusty friends to his government and
family. But no precaution could longer secure to him peace of mind
or even an exemption from the dread of personal violence and of an
untimely death. The most powerful of his ancient friends, the brave
men by whose sides he had fought atNaseby, Dunbar, and
Worcester, were now alienated from him or known only as his most
determined enemies. Spies and prisons could afford him no security
ao-ainst the hand of an assassin; arid ne had reason to suspect that
there were hundreds who would have willingly sacrificed their lives
for the bare hope of being able t'o visit with a suitable and condign
punishment a deceiver, a tyrant, and a usurper. He had indeed
formed a second House of Parliament and induced a few of the
ancient Nobility to condescend so far as to accept a place among his
Lords ; but, instead of finding strength in this expedient, he
encountered ridicule and contempt. His new men were ashamed of
their tides, and refused to degrade themselves by resigning the
more honourable seats to which they had been called in the House
of Commons by the voice of the People ; and his Xob-ility soon
discovered that their order, unsupported by the power and splendour
of a royal court, was a mere excrescence on a popular Constitution,
and would in the end be laughed at and despised. It was therefore a
gross mistake to retain in the schedule of the new Government a
House of Lords under a plebeian Protector. The fears of Cromwell as
to the designs of his enemies upon his life were not without
foundation. The more violent class of republicans at home were at
all timerj ready to co-operate with the Royalists abroad ; and
whether the latter received any direct encouragement from Charles,
or acted solely from motives of personal dislike, there can be no
doubt that schemes were formed on both sides of the Channel, for
putting an end to the Commonwealth by the death of the usurper.
With the •view of preventing any sudden attack upon the palace,
Oliver selected from different regiments of cavalry a hundred and
sixty brave fellows, in whom he could repose the utmost confidence,
and to whom he gave the pay and appointments of officers. He
divided them into eight troops of twenty men each, and directed
that two of these bodies in rotation should always be near his
person. He wore a coat of mail, or steel shirt, as it was called, under
his usual clothing; carried loaded pistols in his pockets; changed his
bed-room two or three times a week ; and, when he rode out,
concealed even from his servants the places to which he was going,
and seldom returned the same road by which he had left home.
"i,1* Br"'/ Chronicfe, l.as ^mn many of the details. ., p. 662. From A.
D. 1649 to A. D. 1660. One of the most formidable of the plots
devised Annals of against him was committed to the management of
Britain. Colonel Sexby, who, in his turn, employed an accomplice
whose name was Syndercombe, a man of violent principles and a
restless temper. This last, by means of a life-guardsman, who
pretended to accept a bribe, procured admittance to the chapel at
Whitehall. There he deposited combustibles and placed a match so
as to secure the conflagration of the palace about midnight, „ *. "
when certain persons inside were ready to destroy the ri0t/
Protector, either by shutting him up amidst the flames, or by the
sword. But the soldier revealed the secret to his master, and the
assassins were seized. Syndercombe was doomed to suffer the
penalty of high treason ; but, in the morning appointed for the
execution, he was found dead in his bed, having either perished by
his own hands or by an order from Government, to avoid the infamy
of a public execution. Sexby himself was soon afterwards
apprehended and lodged in the Tower, where his conduct was so
extremely ambiguous that doubts were entertained as to the
soundness of his intellect ; the reason, perhaps, why he was never
brought to trial nor examined in open court. He also died in prison,
after a confinement of six months, not without suspicion of
violence.* The Historians of 'Jiat troubled period have been
unanimous in connecting with the attempt of Sexby a projected
invasion to be accomplished by the Royalists in Spanish ships, and a
rising of Charles's friends throughout a considerable part of England.
The impatience of the conspirators and the slowness of the Ministry
at Madrid defeated the plan, if any such were formed, and
postponed, at least till another year, the miseries of an unsuccessful
insurrection. The Commous had adjourned several mouths to
Commons allow time for the construction of the new House of
become Peers. On the 20th of January, 16&8, both Chambers u.in-.
met at Westminster, when the Protector formally a e' opened the
business of the Session. He made a speech in the Upper, or, as it
was then more commonly called, the " Other " House, exhorting the
Lords and Gentlemen to unity, and expressing his unbounded
confidence in their zeal and patriotism. But it was not the fate of
Cromwell to receive any support from Parliaments. In virtue of one
of the provisions of the Petition and Advice, which deprived him of
the power of excluding any Member who had been regularly
returned to the Lower House, the representatives, formerly shut out
by the refusal of a certificate, were now permitted to resume their
seats, where they added greatly to the strength of the opposition. A
similar effect was produced by the elevation to the House of Peers of
several of the most active friends of the reigning Government ; and
hence, no sooner did the Ministers proceed to unfold their views of
state affairs, and to demand supplies, than they found that the
prevailing sentiment among the Commons was hostile to the policy
of their master. They asked, for example, who had made the
Members of the other Houie Lords, and who enjoyed the privilege of
restoring the authority of the ancient Peerage. Whenever the latter
body sent a message to them, they refused to give an answer until
they had determined by what name they were to be addressed, and
to what extent they would admit their right to interfere with the
deliberations of a Parliament to which they had not been sent by the
People. * Thuilo v, vol. iv. p. 567. Clarendon, 1'apers, vol. iii. p. 311.
The text on this page is estimated to be only 28.31%
accurate

ANNALS OF BRITAIN.— THE COMMONWEALTH. 601

History. »— v™1"From. A. D. ,1649. to A. D. 1660. Parliament
dissolved. Rumours of plots. The Protector was grieved to the heart
by the obstinacy of the republicans, and more especially by the
contempt with which they treated his batch of Peers. He summoned
both Houses to attend him at the Banquetinghouse, where he again
lectured them on the necessity of unanimity, and pointed out the
dangers with which the Country was threatened from abroad. But all
his pious cares were expended in vain ; and he soon saw the
necessity of having recourse to an expedient of a more decisive
character. Pressed for want of money to pay his army, alarmed by
reports of foreign invasion, and being assured that a faction,
consisting of the extreme Commonwealth's men and of the fanatical
party among the officers, were employed in forwarding a Petition
among the citizens of London, the object of which was to sweep
away both the Protectorate and the House of Peers, he resolved
forthwith to dismiss the Parliament and to take the reins of
Government exclusively into his own hands. One morning,
accordingly, in an early part of the following month, feeling himself
irritated by continued opposition almost to a degree of frenzy, he
leaped into a hackney coach which he saw standing near Whitehall,
called six of his guards who were at hand, and drove instantly to the
doors of the House.* He presented himself among the Lords, who
were not at all prepared for his appearance, in a manner so sudden
and undignified, that Fleetwood, who now joined him, endeavoured
to dissuade him from a step which he would probably repent,
especially as he must thereby take his best friends by surprise. At
these words he laid his hand upon his breast and swore by the living
God that he would do it, and that they should not sit another hour.
Sending to the House of Commons by the Usher of the Black Rod,
he desired the attendance of the Members, many of whom refused
to come. But the others, with the Speaker at their head, obeyed the
requisition ; and, when they were assembled, he addressed them at
some length. His speech was full of complaint and reproach,
accusing their ingratitude and lamenting his own fortune ; and, in
conclusion, he said, " I think it high time that an end be put to your
sitting, and I do dissolve this Parliament, and let God be judge
between me and you."| The position which Cromwell now occupied
was indeed far from being enviable. His enemies beyond seas were
not less active than his political antagonists at home ; and wherever
he turned he saw causes of fear and suspicion. He filled London with
troops ; but his confidence, even in the army, began to totter. His
own regiment was corrupted by the infusion of violent principles,
insomuch that he was obliged to cashier some of the principal
officers. Still the flood of opposition rolled on and increased. Another
plot was formed by the Royalists in the West, who expected King
Charles in the Spring of the year, attended by a powerful fleet and
army. The Marquis of Ormond came over to direct and animate their
zeal ; and sanguine hopes were for a moment entertained that the
star of the Stuarts was once more to attain the ascendant. But all
such hopes were miserably disappointed ; for the intrigues of the
Prince's friends in Holland led only to the discomfiture of his
adherents in Britain, and brought several of them to an untimely
death. Having apprehended some of these objects of his terror,
Cromwell assembled a high court of justice, with instructions to
bring the Annals of leaders to an immediate trial. Sir Henry Slingsby,
a Roman Catholic, and Dr. Hewet, an Episcopal Clergyman, were
condemned by that illegal tribunal to suffer the doom awarded
against traitors. Great interest was made, but in vain, for both the
criminals ; the Protector having determined to intimidate by
examples of severity a class of men whom he thought no
forbearance could gain and no concessions could mollify. His
favourite daughter Elizabeth is said to have importuned him to grant
a pardon to Hewet, whose ministry she attended, and who is
understood to have performed the ceremony of marriage when she
was united to Mr. Claypole. But he continued inexorable, and allowed
the sentence of the law to be executed on both the convicted
Royalists.* The disturbed state of things at home did not alto-
Foreign gether prevent Cromwell from attending to the fortune
affairs. of the war which employed the armies of France and Spain.
It had long been an object with England to Dunkirk obtain a seaport
on the opposite coast, by means of Saineu<. which="" her=""
rulers="" might="" have="" an="" easy="" communication=""
with="" the="" continent="" in="" time="" of="" peace="" and=""
a="" convenient="" port="" for="" debarkation="" event=""
hostilities="" his="" negotiations="" mazarin="" new="" minister=""
france="" he="" covenanted="" dunkirk="" as="" reward=""
alliance="" price="" at="" consented="" to="" sell="" service=""
veteran="" troops.="" it="" has="" been="" said="" that=""
french="" were="" not="" sincere="" their="" professions=""
lockhart="" who="" commanded="" english="" contingent=""
when="" louis="" cardinal="" entered="" town="" had=""
yielded="" arms="" confederates="" they="" congratulated=""
themselves="" upon="" obtaining="" so="" valuable="" fortress=""
on="" such="" terms.="" but="" protector="" instructed=""
general="" should="" any="" hesitation="" appear="" allies=""
fulfil="" contract="" draw="" off="" troops="" threaten="" join=""
spaniards="" would="" no="" reason="" doubt="" willingly=""
sacrifice="" obtain="" even="" neutrality="" england.="" literally=""
complied="" instructions="" received.="" pulled="" out="" watch=""
told="" if="" did="" resign="" within="" space="" one="" hour=""
see="" british="" regiments="" march="" spanish="" camp.=""
situation="" usurper="" was="" becoming="" very="" critical.=""
finances="" exhausted="" army="" unpaid="" means=""
formerly="" replenished="" treasury="" since="" meeting=""
parliament="" declared="" unlawful.="" attempted="" raise=""
loan="" city="" merchants="" asked="" more="" substantial=""
security="" than="" credit="" name="" government="" nothing=""
offer.="" suggested="" mortgage="" estates="" friends="" or=""
debenture="" landed="" property="" royalists="" listened=""
proposals="" far="" commission="" make="" inquiry="" extent=""
could="" be="" procured.="" expedient="" however=""
discovered="" by="" these="" counsellors="" wants=""
exchequer.="" embarrassment="" allowed="" increase=""
continued="" empty="" those="" hitherto="" placed="" utmost=""
reliance="" vigour="" wisdom="" began="" perceive="" there=""
longer="" aid="" devices="" man.="" propriety="" summoning=""
another="" hoped="" find="" ob="" burton="" diary="" vol.=""
ii.="" p.="" thurlow="" vi.="" ludlow.="" whitelock="" state=""
trial="" part.="" hist.="" iii.="" v.="" xii.="" ii=""/>
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602 HISTORY. Death of Cromwell. Sept. 3. A. D. 1658.

History, sequious than the last, when a great domestic calamity
absorbed all his thoughts, and fatally exasperated the disease which
had already begun to waste his vital nowcrs His favourite daughter
Elizabeth, who had herself been touched by the hand of sorrow, was
fast hastening to the grave. She had ever possessed a deep hold on
the affections of her father; but now, when he saw her daily sinking
under the pressure of a mortal illness, he became more painfully
interested in her sufferings and more anxious for her recovery. When
her death was announced to him, he was already confined to bed
under a complication of gout, fever, ana ague. About the middle of
August his complaints became so serious as to alarm his medical
attendants; and, perceiving from their looks and whispers that they
thought him in danger, he desired to be propped up with pillows
until he should execute his private will. Much folly, presumption, and
fanaticism are said to have marked the religious services of those
who ministered at his bedside ; and it is recorded that even his own
mind was unduly exalted by superstitious fancies which his habits of
thinking had led him to encourage. It is not improbable that he
derived some comfort from the Calvinistic tenet which asserts the
perseverance of the Saints, for he cherished the assurance that he
was once in a state of grace.* It was on the 3d of September, his
auspicious day, the anniversary of Dunbar and Worcester, that the
Protector was removed from the certain cares and doubtful glories of
the high station to which he had attained. A violent storm, which
extended its ravages over the greater part of Southern Europe,
either preceded or immediately followed his death ; trees were torn
up by the roots in St. James's Park, and houses were unroofed in the
city ; an incident which gave rise to much childish superstition and
profane drollery. Although the disease of which he died rendered
speedy interment necessary, a waxen figure, with a sceptre, crown,
and globe, was exhibited in state during several weeks ; and the
public funeral was conducted with more than regal expense and
grandeur. On the 23d of November, 1 659, the gorgeous procession
moved from Somerset-house to Westminster, when his coffin was
deposited in the sepulchre of Kings, in (lie Chapel of Henry VH. The
character of this extraordinary man will be drawn with the greatest
ease and certainty from a survey of his actions, both in his private
capacity, before the tide of the Civil War raised him above his
original level, and after he had climbed to supreme command as the
autocrat of the British Kingdoms. To the most careless eye it will
appear obvious that he assisted in re* The following prayer is found
in all the collections of the sayings and doings of this singular person
: " Lord, though I am a wretched and miserable creature, I am in
covenant with thee through grace, and I may, I will, come unto thee
for thy people. Thou hast made me a mean instrument to do them
some good and Thee service ; and many of them have set too high
a value upon me, though others wish and would be glad of my
death. But, Lord, however thou dost dispose of me., continue' to go
on to do good for them. Give them consistency of judgment, onn
heart, and mutual love, and go on to deliver them, and with the
work of reformation, and make the name of Christ gloriout in the
world. Teach those who look too much upon thy instruments to look
more upon thyself. Pardon such as desire to trample upon the dust
of a- poor worm, for they are thy people too ; and pardon the folly
of th.s short prayer for Jesus Christ his sake, and give us a good
night, it it be thy pleasure." Ludlow remarks, that some of the last
words of Cromwell were "rather becoming a mediator than a sinner."
His funeral. Nov. 23. The character of the Protector. From A. 1)1
1649. to A. D. 1660. moving one species of despotism only to
establish another Annals of • much more palpable and oppressive.
Charles was con- Britain, demned by the public voice for his attempt
to govern without the aid of Parliament ; Cromwell dissolved and
insulted every House of Commons with which the necessity of his
affairs compelled him to act. He broke up one at the point of the
bayonet ; called a second of his own authority, and then dismissed it
with every expression of contempt ; selected the Members of a third
so as to render them subservient to his views, and yet found it
indispensable to scatter them by violent means; and he turned out
of doors his last Legislature, Lords, Knights, and Burgesses, under
the influence of ungovernable rage, suspicion, and apprehension. His
talent lay in his courage and resolution, whether as displayed in the
field of battle or in the deliberations of the cabinet; the strongest
measures always pleased him best ; and, when he appeared to>
hesitate, it was not from any want of reliance on his own mind, but
merely to await the lagging determinations of others. He surpassed
the King1 in vigour and unity of purpose as much as the latter was
superior to him in intelligence, learning, and taste. Both were
religious, but according to different systems ; the one laid great
stress on form and decorum, the other aspired to a direct
communion with Heaven, and attempted to fathom the profoundest
depths of metaphysical theology. Cromwell was created by the age
in which he lived, and he conformed himself to its spirit. The son of
James I. lived a century too soon or too late, and fell the victim of
opinions which he could neither admit nor control. As the right of
naming his successor was by the new Richard form of the
Constitution vested in the chief Magistrate h'sa tector was given to
the elevation of his son Richard. This young man, whose disposition
led him to prefer a rural lite to the anxieties of a political station,
heard with manifest reluctance the call of his father's friends to
assume the government, for the duties of which he was perfectly
aware that neither his talents nor his education had in any degree
qualified him. In witnessing1 the first step towards the perpetuity of
a new race of Sovereigns, the English people remained passive. The
Scots, who had been for some time quietly ruled by General Monk,
offered no opposition ; while the Irish, who at that period enjoyed
unusual tranquillity under Henry Cromwell, bestowed a hearty
concurrence on the accession of his brother, whose mild temper was
generally known. Thus there appeared every where the most entire
unanimity, with the exception of the obstinate republicans, that
active and powerful party which had occasioned so much uneasiness
during the last years of Oliver, and had forced him back when he
was preparing to ascend the steps of the throne. The faction now
mentioned included the respectable Opposed names of Desborough,
Fleetwood, Overton, Ludlow, by the reRich, Okey, Alured, and
others, some of whom had been discarded by the late Protector on
account of their unaccommodating principles. Never having given
their consent to the innovations introduced by the Petition and
Advice, they now expressed their determination to bring back
matters to the condition in which they stood at the execution of
Charles, or, as they expressed it, to revive the " good old cause.'* A
Parliament, which had been summoned in the beginning of the year,
confirmed by their votes the actual system of Government, as
exercised by the Legislature and a " single person," and
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ANNALS OF BRITAIN.— THE COMMONWEALTH. 603

History. He resigns The Long Parliament meets again. Power of the
military officers. Monk opposes them and favours the King.
accordingly found themselves at issue with the colleagues of
Fleetwood, who, from their practice of meeting at Wallingford-house,
were distinguished by the name of that mansion. The officers,
strengthened by the conviction that the army at large would espouse
their cause, complained to Richard that the Members of the Lower
House had, by denouncing the proceedings of the Military Council,
exceeded their province as lawgivers, and insisted upon their being
dissolved. Finding that all resistance would prove vain, he yielded to
the dictation of his uncle and brother-in-law, dismissed the
Commons, who hud taken the warmest interest in his prosperity, and
soon afterwards resigned his office, the honours of which he had
never coveted, nor thought worthy of the sacrifice they had already
entailed upon him. Henry Cromwell, also, after a brief delay,
relinquished the Government of Ireland. The dissolution of
Parliament placed the power of the Kingdom once more in the hands
of the army, represented by the Council of Officers. Apprehensive
that the people would not consent to be governed by the sword,
they resolved to call together the remains of the Long Parliament
expelled by Cromwell ; it being presumed that their privilege as
Members could not be annulled by the violence to which they were
on that occasion subjected. The restoration of the Rump excited
considerable alarm, and probably precipitated the plans of the
leading Royalists, who, before the republican party could re-establish
the foundations of their authority, resolved to make an effort for the
recovery of the crown to its legitimate possessor. Various schemes
were in progress, but none took effect, save the enterprise of Sir
George Booth, who succeeded in surprising or reducing the city of
Chester. Sir Richard Willis, in whom Charles confided as an agent,
acted the part of a traitor, and revealed his intensions, and betrayed
those of his own friends to the Parliamentary Chiefs ; and hence the
risings of the Monarchists throughout the more loyal Counties were
almost immediately suppressed. The success of Booth, accordingly,
was soon followed by a complete defeat ; he himself was taken
prisoner, and his little army dispersed or led into captivity. But this
triumph, so far from securing the interests of the republican faction
in Parliament, only prepared the way for their downfal. Lambert,
who had vanquished the insurgent Royalists, thinking the military
entitled to greater influence in the Government than the ambitious
statesmen were willing to concede, procured a Petition, signed by
the principal officers, demanding from the House certain
appointments in the army, from which they were not to be removed
except by the sentence of a court-martial. This proposal brought the
two bodies into collision, which ended in the expulsion of the
Members from their seats, and in the formation of a Committee of
Safety, consisting of twenty persons, who charged themselves with
the administration of affairs. The office of Commander-inchief, with
undiminished authority, was conferred on Fleetwood; the rank of
Major-General of the forces in Great Britain was bestowed upon
Lambert; and all the subalterns who refused to submit to this
arrangement and acknowledge its lawfulness were dismissed from
the service. So violent a usurpation could not fail to excite much fear
and discontent in all classes of the community ; and those even whc
detested the principles of the Rump were greaily moved at the
prospect of a military despotism. But the armies in Scotland and
Ireland had Annals of not shared in the measures which led to the
ascendency B»tainof the Wallingford Council, and the supremacy of
Fleetwood as Captain-General. General Monk, in particular, who still
continued in his command beyond the Tweed, was extremely
dissatisfied with the conduct of his brethren in arms, and, more
especially, with the high promotion of Lambert. The restorer of
Monarchy had already turned a favourable ear to the proposals of
Charles, communicated to him through Sir John Grenville, a faithful
adherent of the King; but, determined to be guided in this
momentous undertaking by the current of events, he directed all his
study to the important object of gaining time, hoping to disarm his
antagonists by delay. The Major-General was sent against him with a
superior force, and had advanced as , far as Newcastle, when Monk,
unwilling to come to blows, drew him into a lengthened negotiation,
which in the end superseded the meditated appeal to arms. In the
mean time the Committee of Safety, admo- Parliament nished by
troubles in the city, and by a mutiny in the re-assemfleet, saw the
necessity of calling Parliament again to- e • gether. Lenthal and his
followers were therefore permitted to assemble, and even to resume
a higher degree of power than they had recently been compelled to
surrender. The Committee of Safety was dissolved, and orders given
to seize the principal members; while, in its place, a Council of State
was appointed, all of whom were sworn to abjure regal government
and the family of Stuart. While these things were passing, Monk was
on his march towards the Capital. At York he had an interview with
Lord Fairfax, now become a Royalist, by whom he was advised to
unfurl the King's standard and proclaim him openly. Declining this
counsel as premature, he proceeded to London at the head of five
thousand men, and on the 3d of February occupied the quarters
assigned him at Whitehall. Still feeling his way with the utmost
caution, he succeeded in obtaining the recall of the excluded
Members, most of whom, he knew, were Royalists; and who, by
resuming their seats, created a decided majority in favour of that
restoration which he was now labouring, though by very indirect and
even suspicious means, to effect. To accomplish this object, the
House voted its own dissolution ; and, after making suitable
arrangements for electing successors in all the Counties and
Boroughs, the Members separated on the 16th of March, 1660,
nineteen years and a half from the period in which they originally
assembled. But this event, however favourable to his views, did
Cautious not yet appear in the eyes of Monk sufficient to justify
conductor any avowal of his intentions. He still maintained a
confidential correspondence with Charles, from whom he did not
conceal his resolution to declare for Monarchy and the House of
Stuart. When the middle of April arrived, the result of the elections
for the new Parliament afforded ample security that the greater part
of the Members would second the wishes of the General. Of the
Presbyterians, who outnumbered both the Republicans and the
Cavaliers, taken separately, many would have preferred the Kirk and
the Covenant to Episcopacy and the Church ; but the majority
dreading, as the greatest of all evils, the dominance of the Sectaries,
manifested great happiness in the prospect of a settled Government
under the ancient forms. The army, it is true, still retained a strong
mixture of the former leaven which had fermented in it since the
days of Hampden, Pym, and the triumph of Naseby. Lambert, who
had escaped from 4 H ?.
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604 HISTORY. Declaration of Breda. History, the Tower, put

himself at the head of a few discontented troops, and invited the
lovers of the Commonwealth to rally round his standard ; but,
finding no support in the city, he retired to Warwickshire, where he
got some considerable accessions to his force from certain regiments
quartered in that County. Ingoldsby, now a determined Royalist,
encountered him near Daventry, dispersed his followers, took him
prisoner with his own hand, and conducted him to London, where he
was again subjected to confinement. On the 25lh of April the
Convention Parliament met, when the Cavaliers, aided by their
adherents, formed a powerful majority. Confident that his plan must
now be crowned with success, Monk, who sat as representative for
Devonshire, admitted into the House a messenger from the King,
who was the bearer of letters to the Lords and Commons, to the
Lord Mayor and Common Council of the city, to the General himself,
and to Montague, who commanded the fleet. A paper, which
accompanied the communication to Parliament, granted a pardon to
all persons, except such as might afterwards be named by the
Legislature, and entreated the several parties to forget their
differences and to live in peace and concord: it declared at the same
time liberty to tender consciences, proceeding on the ground that no
man should be called in question for differences in religious opinion
which did not disturb the repose of the Kingdom ; and promised,
moreover, the Royal assent to such Statutes as should be passed for
the full granting of that indulgence. With reference to estates
purchased or granted during the troubles, the King proposed to
leave the settlement of all such points to the wisdom of Parliament,
which could best provide for the just satisfaction of all the individuals
mainly concerned. Lastly, he engaged to liquidate all the arrears of
the army under General Monk, and retain the officers and men in the
Royal service upon the same footing on which they at that time
stood, as to pay, rank, and allowances.* * Lords' Journal!, vol. xi. 7
— 10. Clarendon, vol. iii. p. 994. The dutuils given by this author are
minute and interesting. The conditions now stated formed the
substance of Annals of the celebrated Declaration of Breda, and
were deemed so satisfactory by both Houses that they immediately
resolved to invite Charles to his native Kingdom, and to restore to
him the crown which had been violently torn from his father. They
had previously voted that, by the ancient and fundamental laws of
the realm, the government was and ought to be administered by
King, Lords, and Commons ; and they therefore ordered that the
The King arms and symbols of the Commonwealth should be
recalled. every where effaced ; the name of the Sovereign be
introduced into the Liturgy of the Church ; and the date of his reign
commence on the 30th of January, 1648. Upon receiving this
intelligence, Charles repaired to the He enters Hague, whence he
embarked on board one of the ships hisCapitaL of the English fleet,
commanded by Admiral Montague, and which had anchored on the
coast for his accommodation. At Dover, where he landed, the
principal Nobility of the neighbouring Counties, General Monk, the
Chiefs of the army, and the leading Statesmen in the Kingdom were
in readiness to receive him. Joy beamed on every countenance ; his
journey to London resembled a triumphal procession ; the roads
were crowded with persons eager to obtain a view of the Royal party
and testify their loyalty ; and, when he reached the Capital, all the
magnificence of a great city was displayed to welcome a Monarch
whom his own sufferings and the history of his family had rendered
an object of unusual interest. It is not wonderful that amidst so
much congratulation he should have expressed some surprise that "
his good people had not sent for him sooner.*'* * Clarendon, vol. iii.
p. 1021. The King set sail on the 24th of May, landed on the 26th,
and passed the night at Canterbury, On Monday, the 28th, he went
to Rochester ; and on the following day, the anniversary of his birth,
he entered London. "The fond imaginations of men," says Hume,
"interpreted as a happy omen the concurrence of two such joyful
periods," vol. vii. p. 330.
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HISTORY. CHAPTER CIX. ANNALS OF GERMANY, FROM THE

PUBLICATION OF THE FORM OF CONCORD, IN 1580, UNTIL THE
COMMENCEMENT OF THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR, 1618. History. A. D.
1618. Immorality of the Courts of Germany, Diminished influence
and dependent condition of the Ecclesiastics. Declining authority of
the Estates, THE progress of the Reformation was not accompanied
by corresponding improvements in the morals of the Courts and
Sovereigns of Germany. The double marriage of Philip of Hesse had
previously cast a stain upon the character of that great Prince, and
the succeeding generation of rulers sank into grosser habits of
profligacy. The head of the Empire, withdrawing himself from the
urgent calls of business, squandered his days and his gold in the idle
pursuits of alchemy. Others were devoted to less innocent follies.
The ascendency and power which Maurice and Augustus had
acquired for Saxony were gradually diminishing, while Christian, the
unworthy successor of those great Princes, was lost in brutal
intoxication. Nor did the heavy financial burdens of Brandenburg
prevent Joachim from sinking large sums in architectural fancies,
and in pursuits of gallantry. These are a few instances from a
multitude which might be quoted.* With the Reformation, also, the
machinery of Government had undergone a total change. Political
differences and jealousies, as has been previously seen, had become
blended with the interests of religion ; and the latter had suffered
deeply from the unnatural association. Disunion, at once the bane
and reproach of Protestantism in Germany, had reduced its Ministers
into dependents upon the arbitrary will of the respective Sovereigns.
The faith of Principalities, in several instances, had undergone
contradictory changes, according to the caprice of the rulers ; and
when the show of a spiritual opposition to Romanism ceased to be
necessary from the increasing strength of the Reformation, this loss
to the Ecclesiastics of a source of political weight and consequence
was accompanied by further degradation. A right of presentation to
Benefices had been constantly exercised by the feudal superior, but
the declining influence of the Nobility opened the way to abuses in
the exercise of this privilege, as an occasional means of securing the
favour of the Sovereign. Moreover, the selfish rapacity of the Princes
in appropriating Ecclesiastical property, enabled them, by means of
their Consistories, to regulate at pleasure the education, salaries,
and appointments of the Clergy of their respective States. The
influence of the Princes, through which they had set at nought the
religious and civil privileges of their subjects, had for some time
been increasing. Events Menzel, 505. 605 had empowered the head
of the State to set aside the Anf»als of Estates, which were invested,
in their original spirit and "ermanyconstitution, with an authority
equally definite with that of the Sovereign. The power of the Nobility
(the growth, like that of the Clergy and of the Cities, of former
times) had suffered considerably from the hostile combinations of
the burghers and peasantry, aided by the support of the Princes. The
time had now arrived when the treacherous nature of this alliance
was to be manifested. The remaining Estates found that the
withdrawal of the bulwark, hitherto interposed by the Nobility
against the aggressions of the Sovereign, left them defenceless. The
feudal militia of the Middle Ages had gradually fallen into disuse, and
a bar to its revival was found in the reduced circumstances of the
Nobility, which led them to prefer a pecuniary composition to
personal service. Thus the establishment ofintro,juc_ permanent
bodies of hired troops was gradually intro- tion of duced, and the
widely-spreading troubles of the time standing soon equalled the
supply to the demand.* armies. Provided with the materials of force
and war, and Adminisenriched by the spoils of the Reformation, the
Princes tration of of Germany had little to fear either from the power
or Governthe disapprobation of their Estates, thus separately re-
ment* duced to insignificance. Next to the Sovereign ranked the
Chancellor, usually a civilian, but not necessarily of noble birth ; and
when from indolence or imbecility the Prince was unequal to the
cares of State, the direction of affairs passed entirely into the hands
of this functionary, aided by his counsellors. With the decline of the
authority of the Estates, the aggressions of the Sovereign increased.
All the branches of production and commerce were fettered by
restrictions and regulations. Additional taxes were required for the
maintenance of the standing army, and the sale of privileges, titles,
and similar distinctions, was erected into a source of profit, which
was in some measure required to meet the increased expenditure of
the Courts.f The solitary habits and idle studies of the Emperor
Rudolph have been before adverted to. Rudolph II. (at his acces- II.
sion twenty-four years of age) had spent much of his H«s
acceayouth at the Court of Spain. His Romanist predilections "' had
given considerable uneasiness to his father during his lifetime, and
the justice of those suspicions seemed to be confirmed by his
attempts to curtail the religious * Stenzel, i. 529—531. f Ibid. i. 358
—361. Menzel, 568, 569. sion. A. P. 1576.
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606 HISTORY. History. autism. Diet at A. I). 1582. Dutch.

Trade and many. liberty which had been conceded to the Protestants
of Austria. Persons of the rank of burgesses were henceforward to
be debarred from the celebration of their religious worship, which
was in future to be confined to those of noble and knightly degree.
Protestant educa-r tion was to be suspended, and Romanist worship
enjoined in the cities of the hereditary Estates, which, in the absence
of Rudolph at Prague, were at that time governed by his brother
Ernest. Further innovations equally unfavourable were introduced.
But the Protestants, on the other side, were guilty of many acts of
indiscreet and indecorous violence, which called for vigorous
interference on the part of the Government.* A Diet was held at
Augsburg in 1582, for the purAugsburg. p0se Of deciding on the
policy proper to be pursued with regard to the frontiers on the side
of Holland, now violated by the levies and incursions of the factions
contending in that quarter. Time was wasted in discussions,
irreconcilable demands were put forward in turn by either party, nor
were they convinced of the folly of their conduct, until the arrival of
intelligence of the Blockadeof blockade of the Rhine by the
Hollanders, a measure which completed the ruin of the declining
trade of Germany. f The palmy days of German manufactures and
corncommerce merce were now gone by, although their decay was
of Ger- recent. Forty years previously, the riches and resources of
Nuremburg had called forth the admiration of Venetians. The
situation of this city made it a convenient entrep6t for the traffic
carried on by means of the Rhine and Danube. The products of the
most remote Countries of Europe were seen in its markets, its smiths
and hardware artificers were highly esteemed even iu Italy, and
pocket watches (then a rarity) of Nuremburg manufacture bore a
high price in England. It was not the custom of the citizens of
Nuremburg to squander in unthrifty magnificence of attire, nor in
idle pageantry, the fruits of their successful industry, (a prudence
uncommon in that age of prodigal splendour,) but their coffers were
liberally opened tor all public purposes.^ Augsburg. With
Nuremburg, Augsburg shared in the profits drawn from the
intercourse carried on through their medium between Italy and the
Netherlands. That city was the residence of the wealthy Fuggers, the
greatest capitalists and speculators of their age. When the discovery
of the South-West passage began to act injuriously upon the old and
beaten line of commercial intercourse with India, the Fuggers and
the Welsers (another great commercial house of Augsburg) opened
an establishment in Antwerp, for trading to the East, and joined with
some merchants of Florence and Genoa in the outfit of three vessels
to Calcutta. Augsburg was remarkable for the splendour-loving
tastes of its merchants, which were probably increased by the
connection of the Fuggers with the Emperor.§ The utmost activity
prevailed throughout the mining districts of Bohemia and Saxony
about the middle of this century, as their records satisfactorily show.
Lindau, Vienna, and Frankfurt, at the periods of their respective
markets and fairs, were thronged with foreigners, and crowded with
merchandise. Numbers of artisans in constant employ, and an
amount of exports which excites astonishment, are given by the
statistical accounts of the * Pfister, iv. 351, 352. Coxe, c. 40. f Pfister,
iv. 360, 361. I Kid. iv. 361. Ranke, Hal. Pol. Zeit. i. 259. j Ibid. 362.
Ibid. 260—261. Nuremburg. Mines. Fairs, time, not merely to cities
which, like Magdeburg, bear some external tokens of their former
greatness, but to towns, at the present day obscure and
insignificant.* It would seem difficult to reconcile the glowing picture
given by German writers with the palpable decay of the industry and
manufactures of Germany, at the period now under consideration.
The years of internal tranquillity, which should have been devoted to
purposes of consolidation, and the removal of latent causes of
difference, were unfortunately wasted. Union became impracticable
and hopeless, as religious differences stiffened into permanent
separation, — and with those wasted years had passed away
national prosperity. We have seen the first use made by the
Hollanders of their freedom : England abolished the privileges which
were formerly enjoyed by German traders, established trading
societies in the ports of Germany, and seized her vessels on their
voynge to Spain. Sweden and Denmark injured her commerce in the
Baltic by piracies and exactions. Disunion at home, while it dried the
fountains of prosperity, laid Germany open to insults abroad. Nor
were the Hanseatic cities exempted from the general decline. This
confederacy, deriving its appellation from an old Teutonic word
signifying an alliance for mutual defence, had held its first meeting
at Lubeck, in 1260; on which occasion, although an interval of little
more than twenty years had elapsed since its institution, a
considerable number of members were present. The cities which
joined the League are said at one period to have amounted to
eighty-five. They were divided into four sections, of which Lubeck,
Cologne, Brunswick, and Dantzic were the Capitals ; a distinction
bestowed upon the two first-mentioned places on account of their
advantageous situation on the direct and shortest commercial route
from the West to the ports of the Baltic, and in the centre of the
busy districts of the Rhine, circumstances which had already
contributed to increase their wealth and to raise their importance.
The position of Brunswick rendered it an eligible centre for the
produce of Saxony and Brandenburg. Dantzic, at that lime a place of
very considerable consequence, had in the year 1454 shaken off the
yoke of the Teutonic Knights, and been recognised by Poland as
independent. Its position near the mouth of the Vistula conferred
upon it a monopoly of much of the trade in corn from Poland, but its
commercial eminence did not arise from this source alone. Its port
was crowded with the ships of England, Scandinavia, Flanders, and
Portugal, to the number not unfrequently of four hundred sail, laden
with cargoes for the consumption of Poland and Lithuania. The
exports consisted of hemp, wax, and the ordinary Baltic produce. * "
It was a period," observes Ranke, " of general activity, of thirst for
novelty, and of mechanical invention, which taught the elements to
bend to its wishes ; with which co-operated the strong intellectual
tendency which characterised the times. The united effect of these
causes had, according to the description of Miinster, covered tlie
surface of the land with beauty and comfort. Miinsto also has shown
the extent of the intercourse between the towns and the country
caused by the transport of agricultural produce to the former ; as
instances of which may be adduced the great corn staples of
Schweinfurt and Uberlingen ; the number of cities, towns, and
villages, (amounting altogether to two hundred,) the inhabitants of
which resorted to the market at Worms ; the export of the grain of
Alsace into all the surrounding Countries, and even to the frontiers
of Italy; that of chestnuts to the North by (tie carriers of Thiiringia,
or by water to England , and that of the wine of Weissenburg, which
found a sale in Brabant and the Netherlands." Annals of Germany.
History of the Hanseatic League, Meaning of the term. Meeting at
Lubeck. A. D. 1260. Fourfold division of its memburs. Lubeck.
Cologne. Brunswick, Dantzic.
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