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 Geoffrey Carnall

Gandhi’s Interpreter
Gandhi’s Foreword by Philippa Gregory

Interpreter
Gandhi’s
A Life of Horace Alexander

Interpreter
Geoffrey Carnall
Foreword by Philippa Gregory

Horace Alexander was an English Quaker who played a significant part in

A Life of Horace Alexander

A Life of Horace Alexander

relations between Indian nationalist leaders and the British Government
in the years before the transfer of power in 1947. He came to know Gandhi
well, and was trusted by him as an intermediary. At the same time he
enjoyed the confidence of the British Conservative ministers R. A. Butler
and Leo Amery, as well as, on the Labour side, Sir Stafford Cripps and Lord
Pethick Lawrence. He avoided publicity so successfully that his role has
almost entirely escaped the attention of historians of the period. He taught
international relations at Woodbrooke, the Quaker college in Birmingham,
where many students came from Europe, including, after 1933, refugees
from Nazi Germany. Such contacts formed the basis for involvement with
efforts to prevent the outbreak of the Second World War.
This beautifully written biography relates the development of
Alexander’s commitment to a humane and just international order from
its origins in Quaker pacifism and the optimistic liberal ideology prevailing
Geoffrey Carnall
in early twentieth-century Cambridge, to its attempted realisation in the
League of Nations. As Geoffrey Carnall demonstrates, Alexander saw
Gandhi’s ideas as a fulfilment of this vision, and sought to interpret them in
terms comprehensible to people in the West.
Geoffrey Carnall is Honorary Fellow in The School of Literatures,
Languages and Cultures at the University of Edinburgh.

ISBN: 978 0 7486 4045 4

Edinburgh University Press
22 George Square, Edinburgh, EH8 9LF
Edinburgh

www.euppublishing.com

Jacket image: © Time & Life Pictures/Getty Images

Jacket design: Barrie Tullett
 Frontispiece Horace Alexander, 1927

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M2167 - CARNALL PRELIMS.indd ii 26/3/10 13:01:30
 GANDHI’S INTERPRETER

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M2167 - CARNALL PRELIMS.indd iv 26/3/10 13:01:30
 GANDHI’S INTERPRETER
A Life of Horace Alexander

by
Geoffrey Carnall

Foreword by Philippa Gregory

EDINBURGH UNIVERSITY PRESS

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 © Geoffrey Carnall, 2010

Edinburgh University Press Ltd

22 George Square, Edinburgh

www.euppublishing.com

Typeset in Sabon and Gill Sans

by Servis Filmsetting Ltd, Stockport, Cheshire, and
printed and bound in Great Britain by
CPI Antony Rowe, Chippenham and Eastbourne

A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN 978 0 7486 4045 4 (hardback)

The right of Geoffrey Carnall

to be identified as author of this work
has been asserted in accordance with
the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

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 CONTENTS

Dedication ix
Foreword x
Preface xiii
Acknowledgements xv
Illustrations xix
Archive sources xx
Abbreviations xxi

1 The making of an internationalist 1

Early years 1
Cambridge before 1914 10
The First World War 23

2 The humanising of an intellectual 32

Olive Graham 32
Getting married 51

3 The discovery of Gandhi 61

International studies 61
Opium 70

4 Quaker interventions 81
Tagore at Yearly Meeting, and some consequences 81
The Round Table Conference and the India Conciliation Group 96

5 The 1930s 106

Fritz Berber and the Nazi revolution 106
R. A. Butler and India 117

6 The Second World War 126

War comes again 126
Two years of frustration 138

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 CONTENTS

7 To India with the Friends’ Ambulance Unit 151

8 Campaigning in Britain and the USA 172

Six months in Britain 172
USA 1945 183

9 Indian independence and its aftermath 190

India again 190
Partition 204
After Gandhi 217
Last years in India 227

10 India and the quest for a sustainable world order 235

After India 235
Contentious issues 246
Action for peace 252
Working for the peaceable kingdom 257

Appendix: Fritz Berber in the Second World War 263

Notes 267
Bibliography 293
Index 301

viii

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 DEDICATION

This book is dedicated to Woodbrooke Quaker Study Centre, Birmingham,

still committed to making the world a more just and peaceful place.

‘I have come here as a matter of pilgrimage, because it is this Settlement

[Woodbrooke] it was that spared and sent Mr Horace Alexander to us at a
time when we were in need of a friend.’
M. K. Gandhi, 18 October, 1931

‘What then is the Spirit of Woodbrooke? – it is the spirit which forces men and
women to realize their mutual responsibility in life; it teaches them to think of
others, and not to take thought alone for their own comfort, pleasure or sal-
vation. This Spirit I hold must grow to pervade all classes of the community,
irrespective of rank or station, class or race. It is a spirit that will raise men by
its unselfishness; will broaden their views, so that where now they see but creed
and dogma they will see Truth. It will indeed teach that we, the children of
humanity, being brothers and sisters, must serve one another in the love of all
mankind, to the benefit of all life and the advancement and ultimate perfection
of those who are yet to come.
‘Surely the Spirit of Woodbrooke teaches us patience in trial, resignation in
affliction, humbleness in success, and virtue in whatever position in life it has
pleased God to place us. Above all, the Spirit of Woodbrooke is the Spirit of
True Fellowship.’
Jomo Kenyatta, Easter 1932

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 FOREWORD

I first met Geoffrey Carnall, who was to be my supervisor for the four years of
study for my PhD, in his small office at Edinburgh University in 1980. I was
an energetic Marxist-feminist student, a former journalist, with cropped hair
in staunchly corduroy dungarees, and he was a quiet thoughtful man with
studious horn rimmed glasses and an endearing habit of saying ‘aha’ in reply
to most comments, which – as I learned – gave him time to pause for thought.
Of all the things I learned from him, that pausing for thought was perhaps
the most valuable. Not that I have ever achieved it in my own life! I am by
temperament impulsive; but his passions: for scholarship, for peace, for social
justice, run deep and slow. The ‘aha’ was more than the acknowledgement of
someone truly listening: it was also a chance to think about the reply.
He taught me so many other things too. A rigorous and fierce regard for the
detail of writing history: from punctuation (this is the man who taught me the
use of the semi-colon which has enriched my writing and clarified my thinking)
to the correct form of a footnote. My first version of my painfully wrought
thesis was rewritten word for word after his insistence on accuracy in the text.
For a mild-mannered man committed to peace he has a fierce adherence to
precise thinking and precise expression. How I wish that had satisfied him!
When I arrived with much heartache at the penultimate draft, he commanded
a total retype of everything: for there were too many typing errors. He was a
hard task-master, and he taught me a standard of work which sits before me
always, even now, nearly thirty years on.
His demands were high but his teaching was gentle. Silent students were
encouraged to sit and think, if they could not scrape up one word to say. I grew
accustomed to his quiet and formal tutorials. For the first two years he called
me Miss Gregory and I – knowing he was a committed Quaker and would not
welcome any honorific title – merely called him, inelegantly: ‘You’. As the years
went on any my studies continued we developed an understanding. With his
wife Elisabeth, he attended my wedding, and they were among the first visitors
when I had my baby, Geoffrey merely observing that the arrival of Victoria
might delay the current chapter of the thesis. Years later, when Victoria was
grown and attended Edinburgh University herself, she stayed with them for her

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 FOREWORD

first term. I could not have written my first historical novel without reading the
eighteenth century novels that I undertook under his supervision. But equally,
I could not bear to start my first fictional biography, based on a real person,
without writing to him to demand that he lift the embargo he had unwittingly
placed on my imagination.
It was a casual aside in a seminar on John Stuart Mill (which owing to
the vagaries of my old typewriter I always wrote as John Stuart Nill, which
Geoffrey delightedly took as a coded revelation of my true opinion of the phi-
losopher). Geoffrey remarked that he could not tolerate novels that deployed
real historical characters, his imaginary instance was: ‘What do you think of
giving the suffrage to women and would you pass the marmalade Mr Mill?’
With my new proposed novel, The Other Boleyn Girl, shaping itself in my
mind, very much based on a real character: Mary Boleyn – I had to write to
Geoffrey and ask him if it was ‘all right’ to go ahead. Of course, he had no
recollection, either of that seminar, or of the aside, but he took a mischievous
delight that his casual remark was haunting me. He gave me exorcism from the
remark and read my subsequent books with, I think, some pleasure.
Early on in our relationship I discovered his wry and self-deprecating
humour, his love of word-play, his intense sense of the ridiculous, and his joy
at the smaller follies of the world. But some follies he could not condone. I
was amazed to learn that he had been arrested for demonstrating against the
glamorising of war at the world-famous Edinburgh Military Tattoo. In his trial
his defence was embellished with a reference to Aristophanes’ comedy The
Peace, which he delivered to the court in the style of Aristophanes, to the con-
siderable entertainment of those present. He was triumphantly acquitted, the
court accepting that it was perfectly proper to make such a protest. I learned
from this incident of the grit that exists, beneath his quietly spoken pacifism.
The subject of Horace Alexander is thus particularly appropriate for such
an author and this biography has been a labour of love for ten years, and is
Geoffrey’s tribute to his mentor, with whom he travelled in India in 1949–50.
Britain continued military conscription for some years after the Second World
War, and Geoffrey registered as a conscientious objector. The tribunal allowed
him to work in India and Pakistan with the Friends’ Service Unit from early
October 1948 until late July 1950.
Horace Alexander was the senior Friend in the subcontinent, based in
Delhi, and was very much part of efforts made to prevent the outbreak of
war in February 1950, when there was a massive exodus of Hindus from East
Bengal (Pakistan) and Muslims from West Bengal (India). Geoffrey himself
took part in fact-finding missions crucial to reducing the tension created by
inflammatory rumours.
As a young man, Geoffrey observed Alexander’s quiet detachment as he
worked as a mediator and fact-finder at a time of great political tension, with

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 FOREWORD

India and Pakistan on the brink of war. He learned that Alexander had been
one of the few people trusted by the independence movement in India, and
played a significant role in the peaceful transfer of power from a suspicious
imperial power to an even more suspicious emerging independent state.
That Geoffrey has dedicated so many years to this biography, which he
described cheerfully to me as a work about a relatively unknown pacifist by a
relatively unknown academic, alerted me that this book was a story of genuine
significance, telling the story of an ordinary man who, inspired by the great
idea of peace, was able to play an extraordinary part in one of the major events
of the twentieth century. In a private email to me, in his most engaging and
idiosyncratic style Geoffrey wrote:
I have lately been intrigued by the thought that my first book, ‘Robert
Southey and his Age: the Development of a Conservative Mind’, nar-
rates the sad story of someone who went Wrong – while my last book
narrates the inspiring story of someone who went Right. Who says that
age makes one melancholy! (Robert Burton, actually, but the question is
rhetorical.)
I am left only to hope that Burton is wrong and that age never makes Geoffrey
melancholy, and also that this is not his last book.

Philippa Gregory
Philippa Gregory is alummna of the year 2009, Edinburgh University. Her first
novel Wideacre was published in 1987, her most recent novel is The White
Queen.

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 PREFACE

While Horace Alexander’s activities took place in a world different in so many

respects from that of the early twenty-first century, they have a clear bearing
on current issues. His characteristic technique of listening attentively to par-
ticipants in a conflict, and thus discerning ways of resolving it, deserves much
more examination than in practice it has received. One reason for this, apart
from the huge investment in military methods which makes other methods
seem of marginal relevance in the real world, is that such an approach depends
so much on the personality and previous record of each individual media-
tor. Alexander was immensely strengthened in his role by his familiarity with
Gandhi and Gandhi’s combination of intractability and friendliness, mixed
with a certain deviousness which some (like Alexander’s father-in-law John
William Graham) believed put his integrity in question. Richard Symonds
told me that British officials found Alexander ‘slippery’. They had, he said, a
better opinion of his co-worker Agatha Harrison, who was ‘straight’, though
misguided. This, too, was an effect of personality. No one who knew her could
ever forget the irresistible assurance with which she accepted the integrity of
those she encountered, and their ability to resolve the conflicts in which they
were engaged.
Alexander himself had a curiously detached, almost judicial manner, which
suggested a personality that was never flustered or thrown off-balance. His
Cambridge friend Nick Bagenal regarded him as the embodiment of ‘pure
reason’. This was an acquired manner, for his impatience with people close
to him like his fellow Quakers could be explosive. But when professionally
engaged, as it were, and he had to deal with political partisans ranting away
about their evil adversaries, he would sit sadly with downcast eyes, until some-
thing less confrontational was said, when he pounced (it is the only appropriate
word) and insisted on developing its implications. It was his ability to identify
potential areas of agreement that made him an accomplished interpreter, in the
literal sense of translator of an unfamiliar language, where Gandhi’s intentions
were concerned, both to the British Government and to his fellow Quakers.
I saw a good deal of Alexander in India in the latter half of 1949 and early
1950, and his personality left a strong impression which I have tried to convey

xiii

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 PREFACE

in my account of his life. It is an impression that makes it impossible for me

to dismiss out of hand initiatives that on the face of it seem naive or over-
ambitious. In particular, his hope that the former Woodbrooke fellow Fritz
Berber might have some ability to affect the foreign policy of Nazi Germany
was clearly mistaken, and yet this and other contacts with the German foreign
ministry might usefully have been much more fully exploited by the British
Government at the time. And when, after 1947, he found himself championing
Jawaharlal Nehru’s policy of non-alignment, he could feel that his approach
to conflict resolution had at last become something to which the world had to
pay some attention.
Alexander himself has up till now attracted almost no attention, and I know
of only two specific assessments of his role in relations between Britain and
India, that of Hugh Tinker in ‘The India Conciiation Group: Dilemmas of a
Mediator’ (1976), and Suhash Chakravarty in The Raj Syndrome (1989). Dr
Chakravarty sees him and Agatha Harrison as examples of an ‘imperial sen-
sibility’, unable to reconcile themselves to the prospect of a completely inde-
pendent India.1 This assessment would have come to them as something of a
surprise, but it is not essentially different from Dr Tinker’s judgement that C.
F. Andrews, Agatha Harrison and Horace Alexander provided an acceptable
face of imperialism.2 Congress leaders could always feel that they had friends
in Britain, and this eroded their radicalism.
Did this mean acquiescence in an unjust social order? Maybe it did, but one
should also remember the extreme injustice inseparable from violent conflict.
Enterprises like the second Iraq war have done something to discredit what has
long been a prevailing militarist orthodoxy: it is now commonplace to say that
‘there is no purely military solution’. In exploring what follows from this reali-
sation, the experience of people like Horace Alexander will come to be more
fully appreciated. His work required him to operate inconspicuously, behind
the scenes. He should now spend a little time centre-stage.

xiv

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Many people have helped me in the making of this biography, but to three
friends I am particularly indebted. The first is the late Richard Symonds,
Alexander’s deputy in the Friends Ambulance Unit in Calcutta in 1942–3, who
later worked with him in the terrible hostilities that followed the partition of
the Indian subcontinent in 1947. Throughout the writing of the book he was
a constant source of encouragement and information. He read the entire text,
but I am disappointed that he did not live to see it published.
That it has been published at all is due to Philippa Gregory, who, appreciat-
ing that a biography of an unknown Quaker by an unknown author is not a
recipe for commercial success, agreed to sponsor the book for publication by
the Edinburgh University Press. I am grateful for her good opinion of the book,
and rather stunned by her generosity. She will have her reward in heaven if not
elsewhere.
Finally, I owe a great deal to Cecilia Sibinga, Horace Alexander’s stepdaugh-
ter. She has been ready to help me at every turn, and I am touched by her confi-
dence in my portrayal of a much-loved stepfather, even when the portrayal was
not altogether flattering. She gave me the run of the large collection of books
and papers still in her care, and I realise that the materials she has looked after
so faithfully could provide the basis for two or three more books on Horace’s
life and times.
Members of Horace’s wider family have helped me in several ways. Lucy
Brown was preparing an edition of the letters of Horace and Olive before
her untimely death, and her memories of Olive Graham Alexander gave
me a greater sense of her personality than I could possibly have gained
from the printed records alone. Jenny and John Graham had vivid memo-
ries of Alexander in his later years in Pennsylvania. I am grateful to Roger
Sturge and other family members for helping me financially to travel to
Pennsylvania to spend time in the archives of the American Friends Service
Committee, and to meet people who had known Horace. I had particularly
useful conversations with Margaret Hope Bacon, Tessa Cadbury and Mary
Hoxie Jones.
I learnt much about Horace’s time as leader of the Friends’ Ambulance Unit

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

in Calcutta in 1942–3 from Pamela Bankart, Leslie Cross and Sujata Davies,
usefully supplemented by some acute observations in a letter from Clement
Alexandre. Duncan Wood gave invaluable assistance in writing the narrative
of Horace’s excursion to China in the spring of 1943, and another member
of the FAU’s China Convoy, Parry Jones, sent me a splendidly entertaining
account of Horace’s journey through western China with a lorry-load of
medical supplies. To Gray Peile, also a member of the China Convoy, I am
indebted for a description of the extraordinary substitutes for petrol that these
lorries necessarily had to use.
Hallam and Margot Tennyson knew Horace in his time in India immediately
after the war, and I greatly enjoyed Hallam’s account of Horace’s visits to the
FAU village project at Pifa, when he was received like royalty. Margot was a
refugee from Nazi Germany, and had affectionate memories of Woodbrooke,
where Horace oversaw her studies. Brenda Bailey had had the same experi-
ence, and described how she had told him that she wanted to resign her mem-
bership of the Society of Friends. ‘Well, that’s all right’, he said. ‘Write me an
essay on why you want to.’ She wrote the essay and decided she didn’t want
to resign after all.
Several people around Woodbrooke had interesting memories, particularly
of Olive. Winifred Hyde remembered Horace’s tenderness in his care of her;
Monica Sturge recalled stimulating tutorials with her, providing materials for
intense discussion afterwards. Joan Barlow recalled how her husband Ralph
and Horace used to take boys who had been in trouble with the law on bird-
watching expeditions. Much else was told me about Horace the bird-watcher,
but Duncan Wood’s ornithological biography, Birds and Binoculars, allows
me to neglect this important side of his life. I should mention, though, that
it was bird-watching that drew him to his young neighbours in Swanage,
Trev Haysom and Ilay Cooper. Trev lent me his collection of letters from
Alexander – a correspondence which continued almost to the end of his
life.
S. K. De helped me at an early stage of my work on this book, and gave
me invaluable guidance on the people whom it would be useful to meet.
Marjorie Sykes, too, was exceptionally well informed about who might give
me an insight into Horace’s way of working. Roger Carter shared with me a
sympathetic appreciation of Fritz Berber’s difficult predicament. Other helpful
interviews were with Alison Bush, Cecil Evans, John Linton and Sir Geoffrey
Wilson. Raj Kothari told me about his father’s determination to see that a
worthwhile film about Gandhi was made, and kindly lent me his unpublished
book about the evolution of Richard Attenborough’s production.
David Gray and Chris Lawson were on the staff of Woodbrooke in 1992
when they encouraged me to undertake this biography, and I have appreciated
their continuing interest. This is the place to express my gratitude to the Joseph

xvi

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Rowntree Charitable Trust for giving me a grant for travel at the outset of my
work, and a second grant to pay for residence for five weeks in Woodbrooke
to get the writing finished.
Several people have read parts of the text, and I have learnt a good deal
from their observations: I should particularly mention Sharon MacDonald and
Edward Milligan. Professor Judith Brown gave me valuable advice about the
structure of the book.
For me it has always been a pleasure to work in the libraries and archives
containing the publications and documents related to Horace. My greatest
debt is to the library in Friends House in London, and to Josef Keith, whose
knowledge of the manuscript collections there has been invaluable. I have
been a reader in the National Library of Scotland for over fifty years, and can
testify that the courtesy and efficiency of its staff are exemplary. I am grate-
ful too to the staff of the Edinburgh University Library, the British Library in
London (including the India Office Library), the National Archives in Kew,
and in Cambridge the libraries of King’s College, Trinity College and Churchill
College. Across the Atlantic I was given generous assistance in the archives
of the American Friends Service Committee (AFSC) in Philadelphia, and the
Peace Collection in Swarthmore College.
I must thank the following institutions for their kind permission to quote
from copyright material: Friends House Library in London, the Woodbrooke
Library in Birmingham, and the AFSC archive in Philadelphia; the National
Archives and the India Office Library; the Provost and Scholars of King’s
College, Cambridge, the Master and Fellows of Trinity College, Cambridge,
and the Bootham School archive in York. I am also grateful to Ann Spokes
Symonds for permission to quote from the published and unpublished writ-
ings of Richard Symonds; similar permission has been given by Annette
Wallis for the use of the writings of her father, Corder Catchpool. Peter Hogg
was happy to allow me to make extensive use of the letters of his mother,
Dorothy Hogg. Sir Crispin Agnew of Lochnaw permitted me to quote from
the letters of his father, Sir Fulque Agnew, which have been published by
Edinburgh University’s Centre for South Asian Studies (2001). I am also grate-
ful to the present Earl of Halifax for permission to quote from a letter of his
grandfather’s.
A quotation from Bernard Shaw’s Fabian Essays is included by kind per-
mission of the Society of Authors on behalf of the Bernard Shaw Estate. Two
quotations from the work of G. Lowes Dickinson are included by kind permis-
sion of the Provost and Scholars of King’s College, Cambridge 2010. Material
from J. Maynard Keynes’s Essays in Biography, 1972, Macmillan Press Ltd
is reproduced with permission of the Royal Economic Society and Palgrave
Macmillan. Judy Kirby has allowed me to quote freely from The Friend.
I should add a special word of thanks to Stuart Morton for his efforts to

xvii

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

trace a particularly elusive copyright holder. Unsuccessful efforts have been

made to trace a copyright holder for the letters of Agatha Harrison, but
any breach of copyright is unintentional and could be corrected in a future
edition.
Finally I must thank the staff of the Edinburgh University Press for seeing
this book through the press in a friendly and considerate way.
It is customary on these occasions to thank one’s spouse and family, and
I am certainly glad to testify to the devoted interest my Elisabeth has always
shown in the book as it was being written, and the support she has always
given me. But more than that, over many years we have been colleagues in the
task of helping Edinburgh’s Peace and Justice Centre to continue its precarious
existence. It is a commitment of which Horace Alexander would have warmly
approved.

Geoffrey Carnall
Edinburgh, September 2009

xviii

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 ILLUSTRATIONS

Frontispiece Horace Alexander, 1927 i

Figure 1 Olive Graham Alexander, c.1925 33
Figure 2 Agatha Harrison 119
Figure 3 Horace Alexander with Rajkumari Amrit Kaur, Gandhi,
Agatha Harrison and Pyarelal Nayyar, 1946 192
Figure 4 Caricatures of Horace Alexander and Agatha Harrison
by William Ewart Carnall, c.1951 230
Figure 5 President Rajendra Prasad greeting Rebecca and Horace
Alexander, 1960 240
Figure 6 Horace Alexander receiving the Padma Bhushan Medal,
1984 245

xix

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 ARCHIVE SOURCES

American Friends Service Committee, Philadelphia Archives

Bootham Archive, Bootham School, York
Churchill College, Cambridge: Philip Noel-Baker collection
Cotteridge (Birmingham) Preparative Meeting minutes
LSF (Friends House, London) MSS: FSC/IN; FSC/R/SP; Temp. MSS 42; 577;
971
India Office Library MSS: L/P&J: Irwin, Viceregal correspondence; MSS L/
PO/6
King’s College, Cambridge, Modern Archive (KCMA): Oscar Browning MSS
National Archives, Kew: Cab. 65.11; Foreign Office papers, 371, 800
Sibinga, Cecilia: Private collection, to be transferred to the Library of the
Society of Friends, London
Sturge, Roger and Hilda: Private collection
Trinity College, Cambridge: R. A. Butler papers
Woodbrooke Quaker Study Centre, Birmingham: HGA MSS; Logbooks

xx

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 ABBREVIATIONS

AFSC American Friends’ Service Committee

FAU Friends’ Ambulance Unit
FSC Friends’ Service Council
FSU Friends’ Service Unit
HGA Horace Gundry Alexander
KCMA King’s College Modern Archive Cambridge
LSF Library of the Society of Friends, London

xxi

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M2167 - CARNALL PRELIMS.indd xxii 26/3/10 13:01:31
 1

THE MAKING OF AN INTERNATIONALIST

Early years
The Society of Friends – the Quakers – originated in the great upsurge of
radical religious and political movements that subverted the established order
in England in the middle of the seventeenth century. It affirmed the intrinsic
equality of all human beings: no distinction between men and women, no need
for any kind of clerical elite. Everyone could pay attention to the promptings
of the spirit, though the potential anarchy that this might have fostered was
tempered by the strong sense of community that found expression in its meet-
ings for worship. This sense of community has enabled it to adapt to new
conditions and survive into the twenty-first century.
One of its most characteristic features has been its peace testimony, utterly
denying ‘all outward wars and strife and fightings with outward weapons,
for any end or under any pretence whatsoever’.1 In a world where fighting
with outward weapons is taken for granted, this conviction has prompted
the Friends to find alternatives, and since the latter part of the nineteenth
century to do so in an energetic and ingenious way. No one illustrates this
preoccupation better than Horace Alexander. I worked with him, admired him
immensely, and held him in great affection. Hence this book.
He was born in Croydon, a few miles south of London, on 18 April 1889.
He was the youngest of four brothers. When drafting some autobiographical
notes almost ninety years later, he remarked that the same month of 1889 also

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 GANDHI’S INTERPRETER

saw the birth of Arnold Toynbee, Stafford Cripps, Charles Chaplin and Adolf
Hitler. The historian, the politician, the film actor and the dictator could all
be described, in their various ways, as energetic, enterprising and original;
and although Alexander denied any belief in astrology, he evidently felt some
satisfaction in this odd link with such tireless achievers. Certainly he showed
a strikingly tenacious determination to work in a practical way for a more
humane and peaceful world.
He came of Quaker stock on both sides of his family, and found inspiration
in the example of his paternal great-grandfather William Alexander. In the late
eighteenth century he had been a foreman in Chatham naval dockyard, but
became convinced of the truth of Quaker principles, and resigned. He took
up school-teaching, and had at least one famous pupil, the chemist and phi-
lanthropist William Allen: ‘a man’, says Alexander feelingly, ‘who influenced
Governments and Emperors’. Strictly speaking he influenced one emperor
only, the Russian Czar Alexander I, but as he may have thus had a hand in
drafting the first practical blueprint for general agreed disarmament – part of
the original plan for the Holy Alliance after the Napoleonic Wars – the exag-
geration is pardonable. Horace Alexander’s major role-model, though, was
quite clearly his own father, Joseph Gundry Alexander, who died in 1918. In
1921 he published a biography of his father which can be seen in retrospect
to foreshadow several aspects of his own career. It is no uncritical exercise in
filial piety. While the loving labour of going through his father’s letters and
papers had evidently given him a fresh sense of his achievement, the author is
in many ways remarkably detached. He evokes his father’s strong evangelical
faith: ‘the life and words of Christ were to him real, life-giving and invincible.’
But, he goes on,
most men have not this faith today. . . . Orthodox religion is discarded
because it has lost touch with life; but we are still at a loss for a new way
of salvation. We are in need of some deep faith that will remain unshaken
by life’s calamities. It may not be quite the same faith that my father had;
it will not express itself in the same words, but if it is expressed in uncon-
querable effort towards human welfare the spirit is always the same.2
Nearly thirty years later he was to body forth this faith in helping to start the
Fellowship of Friends of Truth.
Joseph Gundry Alexander was a barrister with a special interest in interna-
tional law, which led him (in 1872) to go to Paris to study the subject at the
Sorbonne. He combined study with evangelistic mission work which involved
much collaboration with non-Quakers. ‘In later life’, his son remarks with
evident approval, ‘he found among his fellow-workers in good causes men
with little or no profession of religion at all.’3
These good causes included support for the annual peace congresses that

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 THE MAKING OF AN INTERNATIONALIST

met in various major cities in the years before the First World War, and the
strengthening of international law against slavery. But his great concern was
the ending of the opium trade, so profitable to the finances of the Government
of India and so deplorable in its effects in China. This was a campaign that
enjoyed wide support in evangelical circles in the latter part of the nineteenth
century, and in its antagonism to British rule in the subcontinent it anticipated
the anti-imperialist rhetoric of a later era. The campaign’s monthly magazine,
The Friend of China, was harsh in its judgements. British rule was upheld by
bayonets.
If you want to watch the maximum of arbitrary power and the minimum
of popular interference with affairs of state, you must go to India. If you
desire to study the temper of a people who are taxed at the pleasure of
foreign masters without any voice either as to the raising or disposal of
the funds, you can do so in India.4
Alexander was tireless in harrying supporters of the status quo, and when the
Government accepted the need for a full inquiry into the issue, and set up the
Royal Commission Opium (1893–5), he followed it around India, encouraging
and criticising – his attentions probably as welcome to the Commission, John
Palmer Gavit suggested, ‘as a wet and waggy dog’.5 After an often frustrat-
ing struggle, a measure of success was finally achieved in 1906 with the great
Liberal victory in the British elections, when 250 of the new MPs were pledged
to support abolition. In the wake of this triumph, J. G. Alexander revisited
China and other countries in southern Asia to underline how strongly British
public opinion supported the proposed new measures. In Kuala Lumpur he
was greeted with an address of welcome printed in gold on silk. It lamented the
dreadful calamity of opium –
When shall we have an end of it?
Fortunately we have now a true-hearted virtuous person
to save us
In the person of Mr. Alexander, who is a pioneer in the
gallant work.
He comes with all speed from the head office of the
Society,
Despite all difficulties he uses all efforts to
suppress the opium trade.6
His efforts in this campaign brought him friendship with a number of Chinese,
some of whom visited him in England. One of these was Dr Wu Lien Teh,
whose special concern was the eradication of bubonic plague in Manchuria. In
March 1918 he wrote a warmly appreciative obituary of J. G. Alexander in the
Peking Daily News, part of which is quoted in Horace Alexander’s biography

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 GANDHI’S INTERPRETER

of his Father. He praised him for keeping the opium issue alive in Britain, in
spite of discouragements, so that when the political opportunity eventually
came there was an educated public opinion ready to apply the necessary pres-
sure. He had the gift of infinite patience, tenacious, uncompromising, sustained
by ‘faith in the complete invincibility of his cause’.7
The presence of such Chinese visitors, along with many more French col-
leagues in philanthropic work, helped to reinforce a sense of cooperation in
good causes that transcended national boundaries. J. G. Alexander spoke
French fluently, so that his sons early became used to the idea that cultural bar-
riers did not have to be barriers at all. Horace says in his own autobiographi-
cal notes that his father was palpably a world citizen long before the idea of
world citizenship became current. But although in this respect the Alexander
household was accustomed to wide horizons, the four sons were brought up
in what was in many ways a rather restricted environment. There was little
appreciation of the arts, and of course the theatre was morally unacceptable.
Only Gilbert, the eldest brother, made friends outside the family circle. The
other three found bird life more congenial.
He was introduced to the discipline of Quaker silent worship at the mid-
week morning meeting in Croydon, some time in 1893. He sat quietly as he had
been instructed, until he heard outside in the road the pattering of many feet.
He could not help remarking on this occurrence: ‘Sheep; and I think . . . ’ – at
which point his mother said ‘Hush!’ and his observation remained incomplete.
The ‘hush’ was probably spoken very gently. Josephine Alexander’s letters
show her to have been a kindly and considerate woman, deeply religious, but
not inclined to burden her family with needless scruples. When she died, in
1940, one of the letters of condolence came from Christine Deacon of West
Hartlepool. She said that her own mother had been greatly comforted by the
knowledge that Josephine did not think it wrong to knit on Sundays.
Mother always had trouble with her conscience about doing it until she
knew that someone else of her own generation, and a good woman and a
Friend, also found knitting a help in the ‘employment of those hours on
the first day of the week not occupied in Meetings for Worship’.
Most of what is known about Horace’s childhood relates to birdwatching.
The beginnings of his ornithological passion are vividly described in Seventy
Years of Birdwatching. It was inspired by his uncle, Herbert Crosfield, who
was a devoted birdwatcher in spite of having to work long hours in his London
office, and devoting his Sundays to strictly religious activity. On Horace’s
eighth birthday, by which time the family had moved from Croydon out to
Tunbridge Wells on the Kent–Sussex border, he was given The Naturalist’s
Diary: A Day Book of Meteorology, Phenology and Rural Biology, compiled
by a local meteorologist, Charles Roberts.

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 THE MAKING OF AN INTERNATIONALIST

One page was devoted to each day. The left half of the page was divided
into sections covering Weather, Plants flowering, Birds nesting, singing
or migrating, Insects appearing and so forth. The second half of each
page was left blank for the owner-recorder of the book to enter his own
observations.

As it happened, a few weeks earlier, on 25 March 1897, his uncle Herbert had
nearly missed his train to work in order to tell young Horace that there was a
chiffchaff singing in the garden.

For the next hour or so I wandered round the front garden, listening
in high rapture to that Chiffchaff, watching the slender brown warbler
flitting from tree to tree. Once at least it came very close to me in a low
bush. Still in memory I can see it dashing out after insects, its tail gently
wagging, the song coming fitfully as it flitted hither and thither.8

That early chiffchaff became the first entry in the Naturalist’s Diary. By the
time of his birthday he had also seen his first swallow for the year, and on the
18th itself a nightingale obliged by singing in a copse near his home. ‘I was well
away with regular recording.’
Expeditions with Uncle Herbert on his occasional free Saturdays were the
chief recreation of the younger Alexander boys. The more sociable Gilbert,
says Horace, was ‘driven almost to distraction’ by his brothers’ obsession.
Certainly the surviving natural history diaries occasionally suggest a tactless
cockiness that might well have been hard to endure. Thus, on the train that
was taking father and sons to the Paris Exhibition of 1900 (there was much
mission work to be done on such occasions) a fellow-traveller had stated that
there were no small birds left in France, and that you could travel for hours
without seeing any birds at all. The eleven-year-old Horace proceeded to list
birds seen between Tunbridge Wells and Newhaven, and between Dieppe and
Paris. What he saw, the diary records, ‘proves that the gentleman must have
been reading his newspaper instead of looking out of the window.’9
These diaries are preserved at Bootham, the Quaker boarding school in
York where the three younger brothers were sent. Horace went there in 1903,
having previously spent two years at a newly-established preparatory school
near Malvern, the Downs School at Colwall. This was conducted by a Quaker
couple, Herbert and Ethel Jones, and in these early days there were only four
or five pupils. In 1980 Alexander wrote to the school about his experiences
there, and his testimony suggests that his ornithological knowledge was genu-
inely valued. One late evening in the early summer of 1902, Herbert Jones
came to the dormitory, saw that Horace was still awake, and told him to come
downstairs. He obeyed, wondering what awful crime he had committed. He
found Jones at the door, listening intently to a far-away buzzing sound. ‘“Is

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 GANDHI’S INTERPRETER

that a nightjar?” . . . ”Yes, I believe it is,” said I, though I am sure that at the
age of thirteen I had never heard a nightjar before, and slunk back to bed.’
Evidently young Horace found Jones rather formidable, but Ethel Jones was
more approachable and warmly encouraging. One day she was reading an
enthusiastic account of the dawn chorus, and unwisely said that if one of the
boys ever woke early she and they could go out and listen to it.
Three or four days later, I knocked on their door about 5 o’clock, and Mr
Jones came to see if one of us had been taken ill. ‘No,’ said I, ‘we want to
go out and hear the dawn chorus.’ The incredulous Mrs Jones nobly got
up and took us out. We were much too late for the dawn chorus, but we
had a rapturous time walking through the dew-soaked grass.10
The boys’ offer to try again another day an hour earlier was declined, but
Alexander’s keenness was acknowledged in a prize he was awarded: a book by
R. A. Proctor, Half-Hours with the Telescope, published in 1902, the year that
it was presented. He was commended for his ‘Public Spirit’, as shown in his
work for the school’s Natural History and Magazine Clubs.
Prep-school life seems to have been pleasant enough, but Bootham was a
good deal more stressful. He says he was not particularly happy there, offering
as an explanation that he was no sportsman. The explanation carries convic-
tion when one reads an essay contributed by F. E. Pollard to the Bootham
Centenary book. Games, he remarks, are ‘vital elements in the spiritual life of
a school’.11 What Horace thought of that spiritual life comes out clearly in an
oddly bitter remark he made many years later about his paperback book, India
since Cripps. The Government people may think he knows more about condi-
tions in India than is good for him – or them. ‘But they need not worry. I too
have been through the British educational system. It is contrary to my nature
to be indiscreet, except of course in our Quaker way.’12 He evidently found the
public-school ethos oppressive, and this view was not substantially changed,
as we shall see, when he experienced such schools as a teacher. One compen-
sation, admittedly, was that it helped him to cope with British officialdom.
He knew their world from the inside. And fortunately for him at Bootham he
genuinely liked cricket, sufficiently at least to qualify as scorer for the school
team. On his first visit to India he amused himself with speculations about the
popularity of cricket in the sub-continent, suggesting that it embodied a kind
of mystical discipline congenial to the Indian mind.13
He made some good friends at school, notably Philip Baker (later Philip
Noel-Baker) and George Clark (the historian), but, as he noted in a letter to
Rachel Sturge some years later, these two were very close friends with each
other, and in his last few terms he felt he saw little of them, and was stranded
among people he didn’t really know. He was not a ‘reeve’ (the Bootham word
for a prefect), ‘and any authority or respect that I had in the school seemed to

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 THE MAKING OF AN INTERNATIONALIST

disappear’. Unlike his brothers he wasn’t even awarded the Natural History
Exhibition, though he knew that he was a much better naturalist than some
who had held it in the past. Baker and Clark got leaving scholarships, but he
left with nothing. ‘Life seemed a solitary, miserable thing, and I retired into my
shell, and became proud, aloof, jealous and bitter against fate.’14
He related one curious incident from this period in a letter to Olive Graham
(Rachel’s sister and his future wife). Members of the school debating society
were required to deliver a one-minute impromptu speech on a given topic,
and, says Horace, ‘the villainous committee’ told him to talk about whisky. He
assumed that the intention was to mock his morose and puritanical disposi-
tion, and he was furious. Fury made him cool, ‘and I expatiated without any
difficulty, and in a voice of scorn, on the great virtues of whisky as a drowner
of sorrows, and a soother of grief’. He sat down with a sense of triumph,
relishing the silent amazement with which his tour de force was received (15
October 1917).
Evidence directly from his schooldays suggests that things were not always
as stressful as this. He took obvious pleasure in his solitary birdwatching, and
was for a time President of the school’s Natural History Club. He appreciated
visiting lecturers like Oliver Pike who pioneered the photography of birds: a
talk by this ornithologist was illustrated by numerous coloured slides, some
of which, Horace remarks temperately, showed their colours ‘quite well’ (15
February 1905). A diary entry for 4 February 1905 acquires interest from
Horace’s later concern with cooperative and gregarious behaviour in birds. A
coconut was hung up somewhere in the school to feed garden birds. A robin
was feeding there, and was approached by a great tit.
Knowing that both were pugnacious birds I wondered very much what
would happen. The Great Tit flew onto the string suspending the cocoa-
nut, and then flew down. The Robin did not attempt to drive it away,
but departed at once, though whether because it had finished, or was
afraid of the Great Tit I do not know, but should think probably the
latter.15
Horace contributed occasionally to the periodical produced by the school’s
Essay Society, The Observer. He championed Sir Edwin Landseer against
Ruskin’s strictures, on the ground that he evidently knew more about animals
and showed his knowledge in his painting. There is also a characteristic dis-
cussion of parliamentary reform. Good government, he insists, is not a matter
of imposing the will of the majority. In Queen Elizabeth’s time, the country
was divided into large confessional groups – moderate Protestant, Puritan and
Catholic. If one could suppose any one of these groups to have won a parlia-
mentary majority, it would have trampled its opponents underfoot. But this
would not have been an expression of the general will.

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Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
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translated by M. Hutton, Loeb Classical Library. New York, Macmillan;
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: 237-255. Berkeley, 1929. Thomas, William Roscoe, Life Among the
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 INDEX Aberdeen, 136. Abolitionists, 210. Acadia, 308, 309.
"Acadie" (Nova Scotia), 308. Achasans, invasions into Greece, 26;
Nordics in West as, 30; Osco-Umbrians, kin to, 39. Africa, Negro
slaves in, 9; Christianity in, 14; (Ethiopia) early races in, 19, 20.
Alabama, settlement in, 183, 184; heart of Cotton Kingdom, 184;
Scotch and English blood in, 184; 1930 census native population,
242. Alans, the, 44, 45, 46. Alaska, 90. Albanians, 36. Albany (N. Y.),
102, no, 168; Ulster Scots in, 108; increase in Negroes in, 237.
Albemarle, 138. Alberta, 314, 318. Alemanni, the, 42, 51, 52.
Alemannish dialect, 79, 166. Alexander the Great, 23. Alien Act of
1798, 268. Aliens, public sentiment in America, 1; attitude toward,
268; restrictions of, 269; opposition to restrictions of, 269; literacy
test for, 269; Quota Act of 1921, 270, 271; National Origins Act, 272,
274, 278. Alleghanies, Ulster Scots west of, 123; "poor whites" in,
135. Allentown (Pa.), 121. Alpine race, characteristics of, 29, 30;
origin of, 29; similarity to Mongols, 29; extent of domain, 31;
Turanians, 31, 32; Armenians, 32; increase in Central Europe, 33; in
United States, 153Alpine Slavs, 15. Alsace, 50, 116. Amazonian
Basin, 335. America, Catholics in, 4; Jews in, 4, 224-227; South
Germans in, 8; relative diminution of Anglo-Saxon blood in, 10;
whites and blacks in, 12, 13; origin of American Indians in, 19;
Norman element in, 55; Ulster Scots in, 60; sentiment for France in,
71; naval war with France in 1798, 71; motive of early settlers in,
65; migration from Leinster to, 76; "Scotch Irish" of, 92; emigration
from Ireland to, 93; Huguenot migration to, 96; North German
Nordics in, 143; opportunities for British race in, 156; migration
toward Pacific Coast, 158; emigration of Scottish farmers to, 159;
emigration of Southern England farmers to, 159; emigration of Irish
to, 159; emigration of Germans to, 161, 162; South Irish Catholics
in, 218; freedom of speech and press in, 219; waste in, 221; ratio of
criminals in, 224; alien invasion in, 223-234; migration following the
Revolution, 256; migration with panic of 1819, 256; migration at
time of land speculation by Andrew Jackson, 256; minority of women
among recent immigration groups in, 275 ; solutions of Negro
elimination in, 285 ff. See also under United States. American
colonies, Nordics in, 77. American Indians, Mongols and Alpines
ancestors of, 30; Mongolian blood in, 37American Protective
Association, 313. American Revolution, the influence of
Massachusetts during, 99; loss of population during, 100; increase in
migration following, 10 1; New York State after, 108; migration after,
109; troops from New York and Massachusetts, in; Calvinistic, 121.
Amerinds, 26, 27. Amish, 79. Andalusia, 188, 333. Andover, 94.
Angles, the, 59. Anglicans, Quakers become, 121. Angora, 41.
Annapolis, 127. Apache Indians, 291. Apennines, the, 41, 51.
Appalachian valleys, 74, 78; lawlessness in, 67. Apulia, 39. Arabia,
22, 27; the Mediterraneans of, 24. Arabs, in Spain, 46, 49; race
mixture among, 49; period of expansion, 49; ruined by Negro
women, 49 Aral Sea, 34. Argentina, 338; racial composition of, 339.
340. Argonauts, the, 216. Argyllshire, 159. Arians, 46. Arius, 46.
Arizona, 152, 213, 214; Mexicans in, 162, 262; separated from New
Mexico, 262; Mormons in, 262; Texans in, 263; Indians in, 289. 379
 380 INDEX Arkansas, 243; settlement in, i8g, igo; growth
of. 190; British stock in, 190. Arkansas River, 189. Armenians, 32.
Armorican language, 58. Aryan language, Centum group, 24-25;
Satem group, 24-25. Ashkanazim Jews, 225. Asia, Christianity in, 14;
Mongoloid tribes of northeastern, 19; expansion of civilization in
southeastern, 23. Asia Minor, Nordic Gauls in, 41; Turks in, 50.
Asiatics, 356. Assyria, 22. Assyrians, cruelty of, 156. "Asylum for the
Oppressed," 268. Atlas Mountains, 45. Attila, 44, 51. Aurora (N. Y.),
no. Austin, Moses, 209. Australia, 20, 303, 353, 354; Negroids in,
28; racial tangle in, 28. Australoids, the, 20, ax, 28; compared to
Alpines, 30. Austria, 116. Austrian Empire, languages in old, 5.
Aztecs, the, 324. Babylonia, 22. Bactria, 23. Bahamas, the, 345.
Baltic Sea, 35, 56. Baltimore (Md.), growth of, 129; cosmopolitan
population in, 239. Baltimore, Lord, 125, 126, 128. Barbadoes, 85,
86, 345. Basques, 340. Bath (N. Y.), no. Baton Rouge (La.), 187,
245. Bavaria, Alpines in, 36. Bay of Chaleurs, 296. Beaker Makers,
57. Belcher, Thomas,_io5. Belfast, 95. Belgae, the, 41, 42, 43, 58.
Belgium, languages in, 5; the Flemings of, 52. Beothics, the, 307.
Berbers, the, 24; in Atlas Mountains (North Africa), 39. Berkeley,
Governor (Virginia), 126, 132, 135Berkshire, 84. Bermuda, 85, 345.
Bethlehem (Pa.), Moravians in, 117. Bigot, 46. Binghamton (N. Y.),
109. Black Hawk Purchase, 198. Black Hawk War, 198. Black Hills,
gold in, 254. Blacks, the, 12, 20; advance in America, 13 Blue Ridge,
the, 137, 138. Bogota, 334. Bohemia, Czechish in, 5; rise of
nationalism in, 14; Mongolian characters in, 37. Bolivia, population
of, 341. "Bonnie Prince Charlie," 140. Boone, Daniel, 123, 145.
Boone, Daniel Morgan, 200. "Boone's Lick," 191. Boston (Mass.), 71,
82, 101, 105; Huguenots in, 97. Braddock, General, 137. Bradford
(postmaster), 83. Brandenburg, 181. Branford (N. J.), 113.
Brattleboro (Vt), 89. Brazil, Portuguese in, 335; European immigrants
in, 336; size of, 337. Bristol, 307. Britain, Celts in, 41; invaded by
Saxons, 59; invaded by Angles and Jutes, 59; Norman conquest in
1066, 60, 61. British Columbia, 297, 354; Asiatic problem in, 315,
316. British Commonwealth, 303. British Empire, abolition of slavery
in, 11. British Honduras, 331. British Islands, mixture of Nordics and
Mediterraneans in, 33. British Isles, racial composition of, 57. British
West Indies, 345. Brittany, Armorican language in, 58. Bronze Age,
57; Alpines in, 31. Brooklyn (N. Y.), 105. Brythons, the, 41, 42, 43,
58. Buckingham, 84. Buffalo (N. Y.), 177; increase in Negroes in,
237. Burgundians, the, 42, 46, 50. Burlington (Iowa), 197. Burlington
(N. J.), 112. Burma, Sanscrit in, 25; English rule in, 355Burnett Act,
270. Bushmen, the, 20. Byrd, Colonel, 136. Byzantine Empire, 54.
Cabot, John, 307. Caesar, Julius, 221; campaigns in Gaul, 41.
Caithness, 55. "Cajans," 6. Calabria, 39. Calhoun, John C, 168.
California, 152, 173; Mexicans in, 162; Indians and Spaniards in,
214; annexed to United States, 215; Spanish blood in, 215; increase
in Americans in, 215, 216; gold in, 215, 263; Chinese in, 216;
contrasted with other United
 INDEX 381 States frontiers, 217; foreigners in, 263-267;
migration to, 263, 264; Nordic element in, 264; decline of Chinese
in, 265; vote against Chinese immigration, 265; racial problems in,
265, 266; Indians in, 289. California gold rush, 199. Camoens, 48.
Campbelltown, 139. Canada, French language in, 5; migration of
Loyalists to, 100, no; annexed to the Union, in; divisions of, 296,
297; Maritime Provinces, 296, 300; Quebec, 297-301; Upper
Canada, 297, 302; inducements to immigrants, 302; population in
1840, 304; Irish Catholics in, 304; population in 187 1, 305; British
and French in, 305; Mounted Police in, 305; Indians in, 306;
migration from United States to, 316319; British immigration in, 317;
"foreign stock" in, 317, 318; Jews in, 317; few Negroes in, 318;
Nordic element in, 318; strength of Roman Catholic Church in, 318;
1921 census, 319. Canandaigua (N. Y.), 109, no. Canary Islands,
188. Cape Cod Bay, 82. Cape Fear River, 139. Cape May, 112.
Caribbean Sea, 12, 155, 348. Caribs, 331. Carlisle (Pa.), 122.
Carpathians, the, 31. Carroll, Jesuit John, 151. Carter, Colonel John,
137. Caspian Sea, 34. Caucasus, the, 44; beauty of women in, So.
Cayuga, no. Celtiberians, 40. Celtic Nordics, 36; conquest of Spain
by, 40; in British Isles, 40. Celtic-speaking tribes, 42. Celtic tribes, in
Gaul and Britain, 40, 41; "Q" and "P," 57, 58. Central America, 294,
330 ff., 348. Central Asia, 17, 44. Central Pacific Railway, 265.
Cervantes, 48. Chaldea, 22. Chalons, 44; Battle of, 52. Champlain,
300, 301. Charlemagne, 31; the Franks under, 54; conquest of
Saxons, 54. Charles I, 126, 135. Charleston (S. C), 41, 42; Ulster
Scots enter colonies through, 77, 78. Charlestown (Mass.), 82.
Chesapeake Bay, 73. Chester, 114. Cheyenne (Wyo.), 259. Chicago
(111.), 196, 229. Chickasaw Indians, 291. Chile, white races in, 340.
China, rise of nationalism in, 14; Mongols of, 19. Chinese, the, 353;
in California, 265. Choctaws, 291. Christian Syrians, 339. Christianity,
Unitarian form of, 46; orthodox, 46. Christy, Howard Chandler, 3. Cid
Campeador, 48. Cimbri, 42. Cincinnati (Ohio), 161, 164, 248.
Circassians, the, 50. Cisalpine Gaul, 41, 51. City of Brotherly Love
(Philadelphia), 114. Civil War, 2, 3, 12, 138, 158, 169-176, 193, 199,
200, 207, 212, 214, 220, 223, 229, 241, 254, 262, 267, 349; Irish in,
161; influence of "Solid South" after, 282. Civilization, development
of, 22 ff. Clark, General George Rogers. 163, 167, 168, 171. Clay,
Henry, 87, 211. Cleveland (Ohio), 165. Coast cities, inhabitants richer
than frontiersmen, 75. Colbert, 299. Coligny, 141, 192. Coligny,
Admiral, 96. Collinson, Peter, 117. Colombia, population of, 333.
Colonial times, racial population in, 2; religion in, 4; intermarriage
during, 8. Colonies, original racial complexion of, 75 ; Ulster Scots in,
78. Color, 26, 27. Colorado, 173, 203; Daniel Boone's grandson in,
123; Southeastern, 213; gold in, 258; Nordics in, 259; Mexican
population in, 292. Columbia River, 260. Columbus, Christopher, 48,
56, 208. Commonwealth, Puritans under the, 66. Corns tock Lode,
261. Confederate Army, 260. Congregationalists, hostile to
Presbyterians, 94. Conkling, Senator Roscoe (quoted), 288.
Connecticut, 94, 108; early settlement of, 72, 86, 87; growth of, 10
1; Western Reserve of, 164, 165; foreign-born in, 218; 1930 census
native population, 236. Connecticut River, 90; migration to, 72.
Connecticut Rivei Valley, 82; "forts" of Dutch in, 104. Constitution of
the United States, 155. Constitution of 1835, *77Continental
Congress, religion of, 69.
 382 INDEX Continentals, the, 139. Convention of 1787, 7,
155. Cornwall, 58. Corsica, Vandals in, 45. Costa Rica, population of,
332, 333; Nordic infusion in, 333. Creek Indians, 183. Creeks, the,
246. Crefeld, 116. Creoles, French spoken by, 6. Crete, 22. Crimea,
the, 44. Cromwell, Oliver, 93, 125; and Irish Rebellion, 133. Crown
Point, 108. Crusades, the, 53. Cuba, 211; population of, 343.
Cumberland Gap, 145, 146 Cumberland Presbyterian Church, 122.
Cymric, 58. Dacia, 44. Dacian Plains, 39. Dakota, 197; rush into,
253. Dante, 48. Danube, the, 44. Da Vinci, Leonardo, 48. Davis,
John (quoted), 187, 188. Dayton (Ohio), 164. Declaration of
Independence, 101; religion of signers, 69. Dedham, 81. de
Lapouge, Count, 33, 49. Delaware, 73, 125; 1930 census native
population, 239. Delaware River, in; English settlers along, 73;
French Huguenots along, 73; surrounding land colonized by
Quakers, 112. Democracy, 356. Denmark, 22, S9i 345de Saussure,
141. Detroit (Mich.), 176, 229. Devonshire, 307. Dippers, 115.
District of Columbia, residents of, 239; Negroes in, 239, 240.
Dorchester (Mass.), 82, 87, 144. Dorchester Society, 144.
Drummond, James, the Earl of Perth, 113Dubuque, John, 197. Duke
of Liegnitz, 53. Duke of York, 125. Dundas (Ontario), 312. Dunkards,
79. Dutch East India Company, 102. Dutch settlement, 102 ff. East
Anglia, Puritan emigration from, 84. East Jersey, 112; stronghold of
Scotch Presbyterians in, 113. Ecuador, Indian tribes in, 343. Edict of
Nantes, 127, 139; revocation of, 96. Egypt, 22, 25; rise of
nationalism in, 14; Libyans in, 39, Elbe, the, 31, 54. Electoral
College, 282. Elizabeth (N. J.), 77. Elizabethtown (N. J.), 113.
Elizabethtown Association, the, 113. Emigration Society Land
Company,^ 12. Emmet, Robert, 159. Emmet, Thomas A., 159.
Empire Settlement Act, 317. England, Norman element in, 55;
Norsemen in, 59; Puritan emigration from, 82; Palatines in, 107;
population at time of Revolution, 154. English Quakers, 77. English
Whigs, 70. Episcopalians, strength of, 69. Ericson, Leif, 56. Erie
Canal, 105, 106, no, 168, 172, 177. Erse language, 57. Eskimos, 307.
Ethiopia (Africa), 27; early races in, 19, 20; true Negroes in, 28.
Euphrates, Valley of the, 22. Eurasia, 18, 19; development of
civilization in southwestern, 22; racial groupings in, 27; Negroids in,
27; Negritos in, 28. Europe, intermingling of peoples in, 21; racial
mixtures in, 36; saved from Mongols, 53; Nordics in, at time of
discovery of America, 61; monopoly of land ownership in, 65.
Evangeline (Longfellow), 186. Fairfield (Conn.), 87. Fall Line, the, 73.
Falmouth, 101. Fayetteville, 139. Federal Children's Bureau, 275.
Federal Government, 163. Federal Supreme Court, 277. Filipinos,
224, 294. Finland, Ural-Altaic language in, 24. Finlanders, 111.
Firbolgs, the, 62. Flemings, in New York, 76. , Florida, 152; Spanish
in, 117; South Carolinians in, 142; settlement in, 192-194; ceded by
Spain to England, 193; second Nordic invasion of, 193; slow
development of, 193; small population in, 193, 194; Negroes in, 193;
1930 census native population, 241. Forbes, General, 138. Foreign
missions, 355. Fort Orange (N. Y.), '102. Fort Schuyler (N. Y.), no.
Fort Snelling, 196.
 INDEX 383 Fort Stanwix (N. Y.)F no. Founders of the
Republic, 237. France, races in, 4, 5; unity of national feeling in, 4;
Alpines in, 15; decrease of Nordics in, 33, 49; Alpines in, 42; as a
Nordic land, 42; eldest son of the church, 46, 47; (southern) Gothic
names in, 48; variety of names in, 49. Franklin, Benjamin 84, 124;
(quoted), 1 1 8-1 20. Franks, the, 42, 46; in Gaul and western
Germany, 52; had support of Roman Church, 52; in Belgium, 52; in
northern France, 53; conquer Franconia, 54; seize northern Italy,
under Charlemagne, 54. Frederick County (Md.), 129. Free State
Catholics, 273. Freehold (N. J.), 77, 112. French, the Nordics and
Alpines among the, 36; in Quebec province, 301; emigration from
Quebec to New England, 301. French Canadians, 355; influence of
Roman Catholic Church on, 311. French Huguenots, in New England,
73 ; in New York, 76; in South Carolina, 80; in North Carolina, 139.
Friesland, 116. Frontier, the, character of, 68; history of, 156, 157;
effect of Indians on, 157Gadsden Purchase, 210. Gaelic, spoken in
Scotland, 58; spoken in Nova Scotia, 309. Galatia, 41, 45; Gothic
blood in, 47. Galatians, 41, 42. Galena, 196. Galicia, Mongolian
characters in, 37. Gallegos, the, 333. Garvey, the Negro, 287. Gaul,
221; Celts in, 41; remnant of Visigoths in, 46. Gauls, the, 42.
Gelderland, 103. Gendron, 141. Geneva (N. Y.), no. Genoa, 48, 231.
"Genoese," 231, 264. Genseric, 45. "Gentiles," the, 261. Georgia,
racial complexion in, 80; Palatines in, 116, 117; settlement of 143,
144; benefited after Revolution, 145; 1930 census native population
in, 241; idle farming in, 243. Georgians, the, 50, 145. Gepidae, the,
44. German Jews, 226. Germans, among Roman Catholics in the
colonies, 70; forced to the West, 73; in Pennsylvania, 73; in the
colonies, 79. Germantown (Pa.), founded by Mennonites, 115.
Germany, quota of immigrants from, 2; races in, 4; Nordics in
eastern, 14; Revolution of 1848, 161, 181; immigrants in America,
161, 162; peak of emigration in, 228, 229. Gettysburg (Pa.), 122.
Ghetto population, 227. Glenelg, 312. Glengarry (Ontario), 108, 312.
Gloucestershire, 84. Gobi desert, 23. Goidelic, the, conquer the
Neolithic Mediterraneans in Ireland, 62. Goidels, 40, 57. Gold,
discovered in California, 215; caused increase in California
population, 216. Gothia Septimania, 46. Goths, the, 43, 250; in
South Russia, 44. "Great American Desert," 155. Great Britain,
emigration from New England to, 86; "White Man's Burden" in, 352,
354. Great Lakes, the, 163. Great Salt Lake, 204. Great Wall of
China, 34. Greece, 22; invasions of Achasans into, 26; Nordic
conquest of, 39. Green Mountain Boys, 90. Greenwich (Conn.), 104,
105. Guadalquivir, the, 46. Guarani Indians, 341. Guatemala,
population of, 330, 332. Guiana (British), 334; (Dutch), 334;
(French), 334, 335. Guilford (N. J.), 113. Gulf of California, 210, 211.
Gulf of Mexico, 12, 287. Gulf of Saint Lawrence, 296. Gulf States,
extermination of Indians in, 291. Habitants, the, origin of, 298;
physical type of, 299; effect of decline in birthrate on, 302. Haiti,
287; loss of white control in, 11, 12; barbarism in, 12; Negro
Republic, 345Hamatic language, 24. Hamburg, 116. Hampshire, 84,
159. Hamptons, the, 105. Hansen, Professor, 152. Hartford (Conn.),
87. Hawaii, 349; Japanese element in, 295; possible source of
undesirable immigration, 295. Hawaiians, 294. Henry, Patrick, 136.
 384 INDEX Henry VII, 3°7Highlands, the, mixture of races
in, 61. Hindus, the, 27, 353; Aryan speech among, 27. Hittites, 32,
39. Holland, 103, 116; Palatines in, 107. Holland (Mich.), 178.
Holstein, 59. Holston settlement, the, 148. Homo sapiens, 20.
Honduras, population of, 331. Hottentots, the, 20. Hudson, Henry,
102. Hudson (N. Y.), 109. Hudson River, New Englanders and
Germans along, 73; Dutch settlements along, 102. Hudson River
valley, no; Dutch in, 102, 103, 105; growth of towns in, 109.
Hudson's Bay Colony, 314. Huger, 141. Huguenot French, during the
Revolution, 7. Huguenots, migration to America, 96, 97Humboldt,
322. Hungary, 50; Ural-Altaic language in, 24. Huns, 31, 44. Hunter,
Governor (N. Y.), 106. Hussites, 79. Iberian Peninsula, 333. Iberians,
40, 61. Iberville (French explorer), 291. Idaho, first settlement in,
205; part of Washington territory, 205; growth during Civil War, 260;
Nordic strength in, 260. Illinois, 149, 164, 175; settlement of, 170-
176; boom in, 171; Erie Canal access to, 172; lead mines in, 172;
dominated by Ulster Scots, 173; population at beginning of Civil War,
173; represented in Westward migration, 173; Germans in, 17s; Irish
in, 175, 176; English in, 176; Mormons in, 176; Scandinavians in,
176; Mexican population in, 293; native population in, 249; Negroes
in, 249. Illinois Central Railway, 174, 176. Immigration Commission
(1907), 269. Incas, 341. India, rise of nationalism in, 14; Sanscrit in,
25; Aryans in, 25; passing of Nordics in, 26; Pre-Dravidians of, 27;
English rule in, 355. Indian War of 1855-1856, 207. Indiana, 164;
Southerners in, 167; Ulster Scots and Quakers in, 167;
"Underground Railroad" in, 167; settlement of, 167-170; Nordic
influence in, 169, 170; population in, 169, 170; influence of Germans
in, 181; native population in, 248, 249. Indianapolis (Ind.), 169, 170.
Indians, American, 22, 66; origin of, 19; culture of, 19; cruelty of,
156; effect on the frontier, 157; 1930 population in United States,
289; distribution in United States, 289; on Pacific Coast, 290; on
Atlantic Coast, 291; lived as hunters, 291, 292; intermarriage with
Whites, 292. Indus, Valley of the, 25. Inquisition, the, 227.
Inverness, 108, 312. Inverness-shire, 159. Invincible Armada, 208.
Iowa, 175, 195, 197; delay in settlement, 198; Southerners in, 198;
foreign immigrants in, 198; entered Union as a State, 200; Nordic
and Anglo-Saxon, 200; native population in, 252; agricultural, 252.
Iranian, division of Aryan languages, 25; distribution in Asia, 26.
Ireland, quota of immigrants from, 2; Erse in, 5, 6, 57, 58; potato
famine in, 7; rise of nationalism in, 14; attacked by Norse and
Danes, 55; Norsemen in, 59; Neolithic Mediterraneans in, 62; the
Goidelics in, 62; Norse and Danes in, 62; English language in, 63;
religion in, 63; the Reformation in, 63; Protestants in, 92, 93;
emigration to North America from, 159, 160. Irish Free State, 273.
Irish Rebellion in 1652, 133. Iroquois Five Nations, 300, 301.
Iroquois Indians, 73, 291. Isle of Man, 58. Italians, immigration in
United States, 231; high birth-rate of, 276. Italy, races in, 4;
invasions of OscoUmbrians in, 26, 39; Ostrogoths in, 44; northern,
116; emigration from, 231. Jackson, Andrew, 70, 256. Jamaica, 345;
results of abolition of slavery in, n. James I, 63, 92, 93. James II,
127. James River, 130. Jamestown (Va.), settlement of, 130, 297;
Negroes in, 131. Japan, Christianity in, 14; "gentlemen's agreement"
with United States, 266. Japanese, in California, 266. Jefferson,
Thomas, 70, 208, 237, 245. Jews, 46. Johnson, Honorable Albert, 1
n.; 270. Johnson, Sir John, 108, 312. Johnson, Sir William, 108.
 INDEX 385 Johnston, Gabriel, 140. Johnston, Sir Harry H.,
6. Jordanes, 43. Judaism, 225. Jutes, the, 59. Jutland, 59. Kansas,
173; slavery in, 12; Daniel Boone's son in, 123; Kansas-Nebraska
settlement, 200; battleground for slavery and free-soil elements,
201; few New England settlers in, 202; increase in emigration from
Free States, 202; of British complexion, 202, 203; native population
in, 255; settlement of, 256; Mexican population in, 292. Kas sites,
39. Kearney, Dennis, 265. Kent, 84, 159. Kentaro, Baron Keneko, 9.
Kentucky, 72, 157; Boone in, 123; settlement of, 145, 146; growth
of, 146; English atmosphere in, 147; admitted as a State, 147;
Alpines in, 153; 1930 census native population, 242. Kenya Colony,
353. Khozars (Alpine), 225. King Philip's War, 88. Kingston (Ontario),
no. Kintail, 312. Kirkhill, 312. Klondike gold rush, 130, 305. "Know
Nothings," 218; principle of, 219. Knoydart, 312. Korea, 31. Krim,
Gotisch, 44. Kurds, the, 50. Labadists, the, 116. Labrador, 308.
Lafayette, 12, 71. Lake Champlain, 90, 109, 300. Lake Erie, no; first
steamboat on, 177. Lake George, 108. Lake Ontario, no. Lancaster
(Pa.), 79, 121, 124. Land Act (1818), 189. Languages, in West
Indies, 23, 24; Hamitic, 24; spoken by Alpines, 24; Aryan, 24 ff.;
Erse, 57. See also under various languages. Lanier, 141. La Plata,
337. Latin America, 320, 321, 333, 334, 342, 346; Amerinds in, 26;
Indians in, 321, 322; Whites in, 322, 323. Laud, Archbishop, 85.
Laurens, 141. Law, John, 187. League of Nations, 294. Lebanon
(Pa.), 121. Lebanon, the, 339. Lee, Richard, 135. Lehigh Valley,
Germans in, 120-12 1. Leicester, 84. Leinster, 7, 63. Leinster
Protestants, 93. Le Serrurier, 141. Liberty Loans, 3. Libyans, in
Egypt, 39. Liegnitz, Battle of, 53. Lincolnshire, 83. Literacy test, for
aliens, vetoed by President Wilson, 269; passed over veto, 270.
Lithuania, 236. Lithuanian language, 25. Liverpool, 204. Lochiel,
312. Lombards, 46, 50, 250; in Italy, 51; overthrown by Franks, 51.
London, Puritan emigration from, 84; Imperial government in, 353.
Londonderry, 94. Lone Star Republic, 211. Long Island, 103, 105, no.
Lord Baltimore, 80. Los Angeles (Calif.), Mexicans in, 328. Los
Angeles County, Mexicans in, 328. Louis XIV, 79, 106. Louisiana,
152; French language in, 6; settlement in, 186-189; French in, 186;
Acadian refugees in, 186; Nova Scotians in, 186, 187; cosmopolitan
population in, 243, 244; religious groups in, 244; illiteracy test, 244,
245Louisiana Purchase of 1803, 149, 152, 185, 187, 188, 189, 191,
195, 208. Lower California, 210. Loyalists, 65, 68, 108, 146, 158;
Episcopalians as, 69; expulsion in the North, 69; in Boston, 71; leave
colonies for Canada, England, and English West Indies, 71; flee from
colonies, 100; migration from New York State after the Revolution,
no; in New York State during the Revolution, no; Scotch Highlanders
as, 139; United Empire, 311. Lynn (Mass.), 82. Magna Graecia, 232.
Maine, 101; scattered settlements on coast of, 87; 1930 census
native population, 235. Malay Peninsula, Negroids in, 28. Malays,
the, 30, 294; in the Philippines, 31; in Japan, 31. Man, ancestry of,
17. Manhattan, Negroes in, 237. Manhattan Island, 102, in.
Manitoba, 19s; Riel Rebellion in, 306; settlement of, 313, 314;
Russians in, 318.
 386 INDEX Mann, Elizabeth, 137. Manx, 58. Marcellus (N.
Y.), no. Marietta (Ohio), established by New England Company, 164.
Maritime Provinces, 3og, 315; Nordic element in, 296; population in,
300. Maryland, 73, 127, 146; settlement of, 80; religious groups in,
127, 128; Negroes in, 128; Acadians in, 128; population at time of
Revolution, 129; thoroughly Anglo-Saxon at time of first census,
129; Alpines in, 153; 1930 census native population, 239; attitude
toward aliens, 268. Mason and Dixon line, 172. Massachusetts, first
inhabitants of, 81; expansion in, 84; naming of cities in, 84, 85;
population pushed westward, 88; as parent of all New England, 89;
settlement west of Connecticut River in, 89, 90; influence during
Revolution, 99; loss of population in, 100; growth in interior of, 101;
Revolutionary troops from, in; cosmopolitan population in 1930, 236;
attitude toward aliens, 268. Massachusetts Bay, early permanent
settlements around, 72; Governor Winthrop's fleet in, 82.
Massachusetts Bay Colony, antecedents of, 82; social status of
English founders of, 83, 84. Mather, Cotton, 94. Maverick, Rev.
John^8s. Mayas, 341. Maynard, Lord, 85. Medford (Mass.), 82.
Mediterraneans, the, 24, 57, 59; characteristics of, 29; range of, 29;
in southern Italy, 39; Celtic-speaking, 40; on British Isles, 57.
Melanesia, Negroids in, 28; racial tangle in, 28. Mendoza, 322.
Mennonites, 79; in Germantown, 115. Mesopotamia, 22, 25, 39.
Mexican Indians, 327, 349. Mexican revolution, in 1810, 326; in
1910, 326, 327. Mexican War, 165, 208, 213; California annexed to
United States as result of, 215Mexicans, in California, 216; in
Southwestern States, 292; lack of intelligence, 327, 328; in United
States, 327-330. Mexico, 323, 348; Nordics in, 209; Spaniards in,
324, 325; Indian blood in, 326. Mexico City, 325, 328; Humboldt in,
322. Michaelangelo, 48. Michigan, 164; French atmosphere in, 177;
State Constitution, 177; population in 1836, 177; Dutchmen in, 178;
native population in, 250; Canadians in, 250; Indians in, 289;
Mexican population in, 293. Micmacs, the, 307. Middle Atlantic
States, powerful section of America, 237. Middlefield (Mass.), varied
population in, 109. Milan, 51. Milford (N. J.), 113. Milledgeville (Ala.),
183. Milwaukee (Wis.), 161, 250, 251; Germans in, 251. Minnesota,
313; settlement in, 195; treaties with Indians, 195; first official
census in, 195; Scandinavians in, 196; Germans in, 196; Anglo-
Saxon in character, 197; Scandinavians in, 251; Indians in, 289;
native population in, 238. Miocene, 17. Mississippi, heart of Cotton
Kingdom, 184; settlement in, 184-189; Negroes in, 185; 1930
census native population, 243. Mississippi Bubble, 187. Mississippi
River, 73; territories west of, 195-207. Mississippi Valley, 149;
Norway and Sweden immigration to, 229; settlement of, 256.
Missouri, 87, 172, 175; Boone in, 123; settlement in, 190-192, 201;
Kentuckians in, 191; Nordic American stock in, 201; native
population in, 252; Negroes in, 252. Mitanni, 39. Mobile (Ala.), 183.
Mohammedan Arabs, 45. Mohammedanism, and the Negro, 49.
Mohawk River, 107, 108; Loyalists and Scotch along the, 76. Mohawk
Valley, 109, no. Mohawks, the, 299. Mohenjo-Daro, 25. Mongolia,
23. Mongoloid race, physical characteristics of, 37; as distinguished
from Alpine race, 37. Mongoloid tribes, 19. Mongoloids, the, 28, 64,
294. Mongols, the, 21, 53; similarity to Alpines, 29; traits in, 30;
ancestors of American Indians, 30; Asiatic, 31; confront the Nordics,
356. Monongahela country, 165. Monroe, James, 136. Montana, 254;
few settlers in, 205; mining industry and growth of, 260;
 INDEX 387 admitted to statehood, a6i; foreign stock in,
261; Indians in, 289. Montcalm, overthrown at Quebec, 99.
Montgomery (Ala.), 183. Moors, 49. Moravia, 79; Mongolian
characters in, 37Moravian Brothers, in North Carolina, 80. Moravians,
in Georgia, 117, 144. Mormon Church, 204. Mormon Utah
settlement, converts from England, 204. Mormonism, 67. Mormons,
176; in Nebraska, 203; in Utah, 203. Morocco, 231. Moscovia, 54.
Mulattoes, 131, 283; in Virgin Islands, 11; migration northward, 237;
intelligence of, 284. Myjerka, 103. "Myth of the Melting Pot," 1.
Naples (N. Y.), no, 231. Napoleonic Wars, 302, 312. Nashville
(Tenn.), 147. Natchez (Ala.), 183. Natchez (La.), 188. National
Origins Act, 272, 274, 278. National Origins provision, 2. National
Origins Quota, 323. Navajo Indians, 291. Naval war in 1798, 71.
Neapolitan, the, 264. Nebraska, 173; settlement in, 203; Mormons
in, 203; transients in, 203; permanent settlers in, 203, 204; attracted
pioneers after Civil War, 254; Bohemians in, 254; Nordic influence in,
255. Negrillos (or Pigmies), 20. Negritos, 31; in Eurasia, 28. Negro
slavery, 134, 144. Negroes, the, 21; in Virgin Islands, n; and
Mohammedanism, 49; among Roman Catholics in the colonies, 70;
increase in New York State, 237; manual labor in South by, 281; in
United States according to census, 282; in the North, 282; treatment
by Southerners, 282, 283; in the North, 283; tendency toward
Communism, 283; advantages of "white blood," 284; in Central
American countries, 330 ff. Negroids, in Eurasia, 27; in Melanesia,
28; in Tasmania, 28. Neolithic Mediterraneans, in Ireland, 62;
conquered by the Goidelic, 62. Nevada, 254; discovery of silver in,
205, 261; growth of, 261; admitted as a State, 262; decrease in
population, 262. Nevis, 85. New Amsterdam (Manhattan Island),
102. New Bern, 139. New Brunswick, Scottish population in, 309;
French-Canadians in, 310. New Brunswick (N. J.), 113. New Castle
County (Del.), 116; Scotch settlements in, 122. New England, Pilgrim
and Puritan migration to, 65; early religions in, 67; Episcopalians as
Loyalists in, 69; at war with France and Canadian Indians, 71; early
settlements in, 72; natural increase in population of Whites in, 86;
emigration to Great Britain and West Indies from, 86; Nordic
character in, 90, 91; Indian population of, 97, 98; smallpox in, 98;
golden age of, 99; vigor of Nordics in, 155; French-Canadians in,
218; increase of Anglo-Saxon stock in, 219, 220; decline in white
stock birth rate in, 220. New England Company, 164. New England
Emigrant Aid Company, 201. New Hampshire, 72, 94; settlements in,
88, 89; growth of, 101; 1930 census native population, 235. New
Iberia, 188. New Jersey, 72; settlement of, 77; small Dutch element
in, 77; English in, 77, 111-114; East Jersey, 112; West Jersey, 112;
population at time of Revolution, 114; Alpines in, 153; foreign-born
in, 218; 1930 census native population, 238. New London (Conn.),
87. New Mexico, 152; Spanish language in, 6; native and Mexican
Indians in, 213; population in, 213, 214; Mexicans in, 263; Indians
in, 289. New Netherland, Dutch settlement of, 102. New Orleans
(La.), 168, 171, 186. New Providence, 345. New Rochelle (N. Y.), 76,
106. New York City, 112; inferiority of, at time of Revolution, 105;
beginning of commercial greatness of, 105, 106; arrival of French
Huguenots in, 106; Puerto Ricans in, 344. New York State, 72, 229;
small Dutch population in, 73; French Huguenots iQ» 73i 76;
foreigners in, 75; Flemings in, 76; as unimportant colony, 105, 108;
New England colonization of, 105; Palatines in, 107; invasion of New
Englanders after the Revolution, 108; Ulster Scots in, 108; Loyalist
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