HYDRAULICS

ENGR. DANIELLE RUTHIE I. GALIT

Fluid Flow Measurement
LECTURE - 07
Fluid Flow Measurement
This lecture deals with measurement of flow using different flow measuring device including
venturi meter, nozzle, pitot tube, orifice, and weirs.
Flow Measuring Devices

1. Venturi Meter
2. Orifice Meter
3. Nozzle meter or flow nozzle
4. Rotameter
5. Elbow meter or pipe bend meter
Venturi Meter
 Venturi Meter

A device which is used to measure the rate of flow or discharge in a pipe.

It works on the principle of measurement of pressure drop in the direction of flow that
facilitates in the determination of discharge.
Parts of Venturi Meter

1. Converging cone with included

angle 21° - 1° and length nearly
(D-d), where D is diameter at
inlet and d is the diameter at
the throat.
2. Throat of diameter, d, which
may vary from 1/3 to ¾ of
diameter at inlet D. In general,
d = D/2 is adopted.
3. The diverging cone of a larger
length as compared with the
convergent cone and with
included angle of about 6° (to
minimize frictional losses)
Venturi Meter

Consider sections (1) and (2) which are at the base of the inlet section and at the throat respectively.
Neglecting frictional losses, we write the energy equation between these sections,

𝑣12 𝑃1 𝑣22 𝑃2
2𝑔
+𝛾 + 𝑧1 = 2𝑔
+ 𝛾
+ 𝑧2

Where: v1 and v2 are mean velocities at sections 1 and 2 respectively

P1 and P2 are the pressures at sections 1 and 2 respectively
z1 and z2 are the elevation head of sections 1 and 2 with respect to the datum
Venturi Meter

In the horizontal position (Z1 = Z2), the above equation will be

reduced to:

𝑣12 𝑃1 𝑣22
+ = + 𝑃2 or
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾
𝑣12 𝑣22 𝑃2 𝑃1
− = −
2𝑔 2𝑔 𝛾 𝛾

where the left side represents the increase in kinetic energy

per unit weight from section (1) to (2), while the right side
gives the corresponding decrease in the potential (or
pressure) per unit weight.
Venturi Meter

With the use of the continuity equation between the two sections, we have
𝑄1 = 𝑄2
𝐴1𝑣1= 𝐴2𝑣2
𝐴2
𝑣1 = 𝑣2 or n𝑣2
𝐴1
For the velocity of the throat,

2𝑔 𝑃1
𝑣2 = − 𝑃2
1−𝑛2 𝛾 𝛾
in which the pressure head differences inside the parenthesis is calculated through the
differential manometer.
Venturi Meter

In the case the Venturi meter is not positioned horizontally or 𝒛𝟏 ≠ 𝒛𝟐, then the difference in
elevation heads, 𝒛𝟏 − 𝒛𝟐, must be included in the parenthesis, together with the pressure head
difference in the equation,
𝑣12 𝑃1 𝑣2 2 𝑃2
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾
Venturi Meter

With the use of the continuity equation between the two sections, we have

𝐴1𝑣1= 𝐴2𝑣2
𝐴2
𝑣1 = 𝑣2 or n𝑣2
𝐴1
By simplifying, the velocity 𝑣2 at the throat is:

2𝑔 𝑃1 𝑃2
𝑣2 = − + 𝑧1 − 𝑧2
1−𝑛2 γ γ
Venturi Meter

Accordingly, the discharge computed using velocity is called the theoretical flow or theoretical
discharge.

𝑄𝑡 = 𝐴2𝑣2
which must be corrected by the multiplication of a correction factor, C, known as the meter
coefficient or the discharge coefficient.
The actual discharge is now written as

𝑄𝑎 = 𝐶𝑄𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝐴2𝑣2
Venturi Meter

Accordingly, the discharge computed using velocity is called the theoretical flow or theoretical
discharge.

𝑄𝑡 = 𝐴2𝑣2
which must be corrected by the multiplication of a correction factor, C, known as the meter
coefficient or the discharge coefficient.
The actual discharge is now written as

𝑄𝑎 = 𝐶𝑄𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝐴2𝑣2
Sample Problem

A horizontal 150 mm diameter pipe gradually reduces its section to 50 mm diameter,

subsequently enlarging into 150 mm section. The pressure in the 150-mm pipe at a
point just before entering the reducing section is 140 kPa and in the 50 mm section
at the end of the reducer, the pressure is 70 kPa. If 600 mm of head is lost between
the points where the pressures are known, compute the rate of flow of water
through the pipe.
Sample Problem
Sample Problem

A 150mm diameter horizontal Venturi meter is installed in a 450-mm diameter water

main. The deflection of mercury in the differential manometer connected from the
inlet to the throat is 375mm (a) Determine the discharge neglecting head lost. (b)
Compute the discharge if the head lost from the inlet to the throat is 300mm of
water, and (c) what is the meter coefficient?
Sample Problem
Sample Problem
Sample Problem

A vertical Venturi meter, 150 mm in diameter is connected to a 300-mm

diameterpipe. The vertical distance from the inlet to the throat being 750-mm. If the
deflection of the mercury in the differential manometer connected from the inlet to
the throat 360-mm, determine the flow of water through the meter if the meter
coefficient is 0.68. Determine also the head lost from the inlet to the throat.
Sample Problem
Sample Problem
Pitot Tube
Pitot Tube

A tube with a circular cross section bent in the shape of an

L with both ends open.
This is a simple tube used to measure the velocity at a point
or to measure the velocity of liquid in an open flow.
If the tube is placed in a moving stream in such a way that
the horizontal diverging part points against the direction of
motion, the liquid enters the opening point at (2) and fills
until the vertical part is filled up to the height ℎ2.
As long as steady flow condition is maintained, the
contained volume will remain constant and static
equilibrium is established within the tube.
Pitot Tube

The pitot tube works with the principle of reducing the velocity at a point to zero called
stagnation point and the pressure rise is used to determine the velocity. This pressure rise is
called the stagnation pressure.
𝑣12
+ 𝑃1 = 𝑃2
2𝑔 𝛾 𝛾
𝑃1 𝑃2
In which = ℎ1 and = ℎ2. Considering ℎ2 − ℎ1 = ℎ, the above equation is reduced to
𝛾 𝛾

𝑣12
=ℎ
2𝑔
Pitot Tube

The velocity at the upstream point is

𝑣1= 2𝑔𝐻
 Sample Problem

A pilot tube being used to determine the velocity of flow of water in a closed
conduit indicates a difference between water levels in the Pilot tube and in the
piezometer of 60 mm. What is the velocity of flow?
Nozzle
 Nozzle

A converging tube connected to the end of the pipe or hose and is used in engineering practice
for the creation of jets and streams and for a variety of purposes as well as for metering.
It is a device designed to control the direction or characteristics of a fluid flow (especially to
increase velocity) as it exits (or enters) an enclosed chamber or pipe.
Nozzle

It is in the shape of a frustum of a cone similar to that of the converging tube of the Venturi
meter.
Since, a nozzle resembles the inlet section of a Venturi meter, the flow condition may also be
interpreted with the use of the Energy Theorem of Bernoulli’s between the nozzle’s base and the
tip
The jet discharges from the tip of the nozzle, being unconfined, will have a pressure equal to
that of the surrounding medium (e.g. if the is exposed to the atmosphere, P = 0)
Theoretically, under this assumption, the issuing jet will have a uniform section.
The effect of gravity will cause an expansion of the jet when the motion is upward, or a
contraction of the jet when motion is downward.
Nozzle

For a horizontal nozzle, considering no frictional losses, the energy equation between the two
section is
𝑣12 𝑃1 𝑣22
+ =
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
where 𝑃2 is taken as atmospheric.
Nozzle

The mean velocity 𝑣1 may be expressed in terms of 𝑣2 with the use of the continuity equation
The velocity 𝑣2 which will result from equation is theoretical velocity of the jet and is corrected
by a correction factor called the coefficient of velocity, cv, or the actual velocity is

𝑣𝑎= 𝑐𝑣𝑣𝑡
where 𝑣𝑡= 𝑣2

𝑣12
𝑣𝑡 = 𝑣 2 = 2𝑔 + 𝑃1 or 2𝑔𝐻
2𝑔 𝛾
Nozzle

The equation for actual velocity,

𝑣𝑎= 𝑐𝑣 2𝑔𝐻
Head loss in a Nozzle
If frictional losses are eliminated, the total energy per unit weight at the base of the nozzle, will
be exactly the same as the total energy per unit weight in the issuing jet
𝑣12 𝑣22
+ 𝑃1 =
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
Nozzle

Initial Head – Actual Head = Head loss

𝑣12 𝑣𝑎2
𝐻𝑛 = + 𝑃1 − 2𝑔 or
2𝑔 𝛾
2
𝐻𝑛 = 𝐻 − 𝑣2𝑔
𝑎
or

1 𝑣𝑎2
𝐻𝑛 = 𝑐𝑣2
−1
2𝑔
 Sample Problem

A 10cm by 4cm nozzle is trained vertically upward. At a point 30cm below the tip,
the pressure is maintained at 145 KPa. If the available power in the jet is 2.6 KW, find
(a) the height through which the jet will rise, neglecting air friction (b) the value of cv
and (c ) the diameter of the jet 6m above the tip of the nozzle.
Sample Problem
Sample Problem
Sample Problem
Orifice
Orifice

The term orifice is used to denote an opening with a

closed perimeter, made in a wall or partition.
The primary purpose of an orifice is the metering or
control of fluid flow.
Orifice
An orifice can be:
a. Rounded – which enables the mass of the outgoing jet of fluid to conform
very closely to the shape and size of the opening.
b. Shard-edged – it is so thin that the outgoing mass simply touches a line
before it contracts due to inability of the individual particles to abruptly
change in direction
According to geometrical shapes, an orifice can be:
a. Square
b. Rectangular
c. Circular

Due to the simplicity in the design and construction, the sharp edged circular
orifice has been adapted.
 Orifice

Short tube
 A special type of orifice is one in which the sides are extended.
 An example is a pipe of two or three diameters long and whose characteristics
and hydraulic properties are similar to that of an orifice cut in a thick wall.
The Three Orifice Coefficients

Three Orifice Coefficients:

1. Coefficient of Velocity
2. Coefficient of Contraction
3. Coefficient of Discharge
The Three Orifice Coefficients
Coefficient of Velocity
It has been shown experimentally that the actual mean velocity of the jet from a sharp-edged orifice is a little less
than the theoretical velocity.
To correct for the head losses initially neglected, a correction factor known as the coefficient of velocity and
defined as
𝑣𝑎
𝑐𝑣 = 𝑣𝑡
To get the actual velocity,

𝑣𝑎 = 𝑐𝑣𝑣𝑡 or 𝑣𝑎 = 𝑐𝑣 2𝑔𝐻

The coefficient of velocity Cv is not often used by the practicing engineer, but if needed arises, a conservative value of 0.98
may be assumed for water.
The Three Orifice Coefficients

Coefficient of Contraction
Note that the individual particles of the mass
approaching the orifice follow a converging paths
Due to the inertia of the particles lying close to the
inner wall, they cannot make abrupt changes in their
direction as they reach the opening.
This cause them to follow curvilinear paths affecting a
contraction of the jet up to a section, say m-n, at
which point the stream paths are assumed to be
parallel, and the pressure having a value equal to that
of the surrounding medium.
The Three Orifice Coefficients
The section where the contraction of the jet ceases is called the vena contracta and its distance
from the inner wall of the orifice is approximately ½ of the diameter of the orifice 𝐷𝑜.

◦ The dimensionless ratio of the area of the vena contracta (diameter d) to the area of the orifice is
known as the coefficient of contraction, Cc
𝑎
𝐶𝑐 =
𝐴𝑜
where
a – cross-sectional area of the vena contracta
𝐴𝑜 − cross sectional area of the orifice
The Three Orifice Coefficients

Cc is not frequently used by the engineer. An average value of 0.62 may be assumed for general purposes.

A slight rounding off the upstream edge will eliminate the contraction of the outgoing jet and under this
condition Cc becomes unity while Cv may slightly change from its sharp-edged average value of 0.98.
The Three Orifice Coefficients
Coefficient of Discharge
The ideal or theoretical is the product of the area of the orifice and the theoretical velocity.
𝑄𝑡 = 𝐴 𝑜 𝑣 𝑡 or 𝑄𝑡 = 𝐴𝑜 2𝑔𝐻
On the other hand, the real or actual flow is obtained at the issuing jet (vena contracta) and
represented as the product of the area of the contracted section and the actual velocity.
𝑄𝑎 = 𝑎𝑣𝑎 𝑜𝑟 𝑄𝑎 = 𝐶𝑐𝐴𝑜 𝐶𝑣 2𝑔𝐻
The Three Orifice Coefficients
The coefficient of discharge is given as,
𝑎𝑣 𝑎
𝑐 = 𝑄𝑎 𝑜𝑟 𝑐=
𝑄𝑡 𝐴𝑜𝑣𝑡
𝑎 𝑣
But, 𝐶𝑐 =
𝐴𝑜
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶𝑣 = 𝑎
𝑣𝑡

Therefore,
𝐶 = 𝐶𝑐𝐶𝑣
Head Loss of an Orifice
To determine the loss of energy per unit weight of the fluid mass passing any orifice
1 𝑣𝑎2
𝐻𝑜 = 𝑐𝑣2
−1
2𝑔
or

𝐻𝑜 = 1 − 𝑐𝑣2 ℎ
Circular Orifice
Diameter in mm
Head (m)
6.25 12.5 18.75 25 50 100
0.24 0.647 0.627 0.616 0.609 0.603 0.601
0.43 0.635 0.619 0.610 0.605 0.601 0.600
0.61 0.629 0.615 0.607 0.603 0.600 0.599
1.22 0.621 0.609 0.603 0.600 0.598 0.597
1.83 0.617 0.607 0.601 0.599 0.597 0.596
2.44 0.614 0.605 0.600 0.598 0.596 0.595
3.05 0.613 0.604 0.600 0.597 0.596 0.595
3.66 0.612 0.603 0.599 0.597 0.595 0.595
4.27 0.611 0.603 0.598 0.596 0.595 0.594
4.88 0.610 0.602 0.598 0.596 0.595 0.594
6.10 0.609 0.602 0.598 0.596 0.595 0.594
7.62 0.608 0.601 0.597 0.596 0.594 0.594
9.15 0.607 0.600 0.597 0.595 0.594 0.594
12.20 0.606 0.600 0.596 0.595 0.594 0.593
Discharge Coefficients for Vertical Sharp-Edged
15.24 0.605 0.599 0.596 0.595 0.594 0.593
Circular Orifice Discharging into Air at 15.6 °C(60°F)
18.30 0.605 0.599 0.596 0.594 0.593 0.593
 Orifice

ORIFICE WITH CONSTANT HEAD

1. Flow under atmospheric pressure
2. Submerged Orifice
3. Headloss in the orifice

ORIFICE WITH FALLING HEAD

1. Time to remove the water in the tank
 Orifice
ORIFICE WITH CONSTANT HEAD
1. Flow under atmospheric pressure
Orifice

ORIFICE WITH CONSTANT HEAD

1. Submerged Orifice
 Orifice

ORIFICE WITH CONSTANT HEAD

1. Headloss in the orifice
 Orifice

ORIFICE WITH FALLING HEAD

1. Time to remove the
water in the tank
 Sample Problem

A 75 mm dia orifice discharges 0.023 m3/s of liquid under head of 2.90 m. The
diameter of the jet at the vena contracta is found by callipering to be 66.25 mm.
a. Calculate the coefficient of discharge
b. Calculate the coefficient of contraction
c. Calculate the coefficient of velocity
 Sample Problem

Two closed compartments A and B are connected by an orifice having a diameter

of 140 mm at the vertical common side. At compartment A, it contains water at a
depth of 3 m above the orifice and a pressure on top of it equal to 50 kPa. On the
other compartment, it contains water at a depth of 2 m above the orifice and a
pressure of 15 kPa on top of the water surface. If C=0.86 and Cv=0.92, Compute the
ff:
a. Compute the discharge through the orifice in L/s
b. the headloss in the meters
c. the power loss in watts
 Sample Problem

A small orifice 0.0003 m3 in area is in the vertical side of a rectangular tank. The
horizontal sectional area of the tank is 0.40 m2. At a given instant the head on the
orifice is 1.2 m and 312 sec later it is 0.6 m.
a. Compute the value of the coefficient of discharge C.
b. Using a coefficient of discharge of 0.60, how long will it take to lower the water
surface from 1.2 m to 0.80 m
 Sample Problem

A tank circular in cross-section is 10 m high. It takes 8.40 minutes to empty it through

a hole at the bottom when the tank if full of water at the start.
a. How long will it take for the water level to drop the upper by 3 m?
b. How long will it take for the water level to drop from 10m to 4m?
c. Determine the diameter of the hole given that C = 0.60 and the diameter of the
tank is 2.4 m
 Sample Problem

Compartments A and B is communicating by an orifice having an area of 0.3m2

with c=0.6. The horizontal cross section of A is 10m2 and that of B is 40m2.
a. Discahrge from A to B
b. Find the time in which the water surface in two tanks will reach the same elevation
Weirs
 Weirs

The weirs is an overflow structure which are built across an open channel normal to the direction of
flow and widely used for the purpose of flow metering band control.

Classification of weirs according to their shapes:

1. Suppressed and contracted rectangular weirs
2. Triangular or V-notch weirs
3. Trapezoidal weirs
4. Circular
5. Parabolic
Weirs

Classification of weirs according to the form of crest:

1. Sharp-crested has thin upstream edge so fashioned that the passing mass of liquid simply
touches a line
Weirs

Classification of weirs according to the form of crest:

2. Broad crested may either be rounded or square upstream corner so that the liquid passing
over the crest comes in contact with a surface
Weirs

The flow over a weir may be

1. Free – when the liquid surface downstream is sufficiently below the crest
2. Submerged – if the surface downstream is above the crest but below the upstream liquid
surface
 Weirs

 Definition of Terms
• Nappe – the overflowing stream in a weir
• Crest of weir – the edge or top surface of a weir with which the flowing liquid comes in contact
• Contracted Weir – weirs having sides sharp-edged, so that the nappe is contracted in width or having
end contractions, either one end or two ends
• Suppressed Weir or full-width weir – weirs having its length L being equal to the width of the
channel so that the nappe suffers no end contractions
• Drop-down curve – the downward curvature of the liquid surface before the weir
• Head, H – the distance between the liquid surface and the crest of the weir measured before the
drop –down curve
Standard Weir (Suppressed Rectangular)

It is common practice to combine

𝟐
𝑪 𝟐𝒈
𝟑
into a single coefficient 𝐶𝑤 the weir factor. The general formula for a discharge through the
rectangular weir becomes:
 Standard Weir (Suppressed Rectangular)
If the ratio H/P is sufficiently small, the velocity of approach becomes very small and the term
𝟑
𝒉𝒗 𝟐 may be neglected. The discharge formula becomes

In situations, where the discharge is required

Standard Weir (Suppressed Rectangular)
Remarks:
1. If the ratio H/P is sufficiently small and the velocity head of approach is negligible, that is
𝑽𝑨𝟐
≈𝟎
𝟐𝒈
Reduces
𝑸𝒂 = 𝑪𝑳𝑯𝟑/𝟐
Standard Weir (Suppressed Rectangular)
2. Francis suggested a correction factor C’ = 0.622. When this is applied to the equation, it
becomes:

This equations are known as Francis formula.

Standard Weir (Suppressed Rectangular)
Specifications of a Standard Weir (suppressed rectangular weir)
1. Weir plate is vertical and upstream face is smooth
2. The crest is horizontal and normal to the direction of flow. It must be sharp so that the liquid
in passing over the crest will spring free from the edge.
3. The pressure of the upper and the lower nappes is atmospheric.
4. The approach channel is uniform in section and the free surface is free from waves
5. The sides of the channel are vertical and smooth, and shall extend a short distance
downstream of the weir crest.
Standard Weir (Suppressed Rectangular)
Standard Weir Factor Formula
1. Francis Formula
Based upon experiments on a rectangular weirs from 1.07 m to 5.18 m long under heads from
180 mm to 490 m.
𝑯 𝟐
𝒄𝒘 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟒 𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟐𝟔 (SI units)
ⅆ

For H/P < 0.4, the following value of Cw may be used

𝑆𝐼 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡, 𝑐𝑤 = 1.84
𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑠ℎ 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡, 𝑐𝑤 = 3.33
Standard Weir (Suppressed Rectangular)
Standard Weir Factor Formula
2. Rehbock and Chow Formula

𝐻
𝑆𝐼 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡, 𝑐𝑤 = 1.8 + 0.22
𝑃

𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑠ℎ 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡, 𝑐𝑤 = 3.27 + 0.4 𝐻

𝑃
Standard Weir (Suppressed Rectangular)
Standard Weir Factor Formula
3. Bazin Formula
For rectangular weirs of length from 0.5 m to 2 m under heads from 50 mm to 600 mm
𝟐
𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟏𝟔𝟏 𝑯
𝒄𝒘 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟓𝟏𝟖 𝟑. 𝟐𝟒𝟖 + 𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟓𝟓
𝑯 ⅆ
Standard Weir (Contracted Rectangular)
When the end of the weir opening have upstream vertical edges, the effect is to reduce the
amount of flow from that which would occur over a standard weir under the same head and
with the same length.
The effective length of L of a contracted weir
𝑳 ′ = 𝑳 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝑵𝑯
Where L – measure of length of the weir
N – number of end contractions (1 or 2)
H – measured head
Triangular or V-notch weir
Triangular or V-notch weir
Trapezoidal Sharp Crested Weir
Cipolletti Weir

Cipolletti weir are trapezoidal weirs with slope of 1

horizontal to 4 verticals
Suttro Weir or Proportional Flow Weir

𝟏
𝑸= 𝑪𝝅𝑲 𝟐𝒈𝑯
𝟐
𝑲 = 𝟐𝒙 𝒚
Unsteady Flow Weir (Variable Head)

If the flow is through a suppressed rectangular weir:

𝟐𝑨𝒔 𝟏 𝟏
𝒕= −
𝑪𝒘𝑳 𝑯𝟐 𝑯𝟏
Where Cw – weir factor
L – Crest length
As – constant water surface area of reservoir or tank
H1 – initial head
H2 – final head
 Sample Problem

During a test on a 2.4m suppressed weir 900 mm high, the head was maintained constant
at 300 mm. In 38 seconds, 28 800 liters of water were collected. What is the weir factor?
 Sample Problem

A suppressed weir 7.5 m long is to discharge 10.125 m3/s of water onto an open channel.
The weir factor is 1.88. To what height P may the weir be built, if the water behind the weir
must not exceed 1.80 m deep?
 Sample Problem

Find the width of the channel at the back of a suppressed weir using the following data:
H=28.50 cm, d=2.485 m, and Q=0.84 m3/s. Consider the velocity of approach and use
Francis formula.
 Sample Problem

The discharge over a trapezoidal weir is 1.315 m3 /s. The crest’s length is 2 m and the sides
are inclined at 75°57’50” with the horizontal. Find the head over the weir.
 Sample Problem

A spillway controls a reservoir 4.60 hectares in area. The permanent crest is at elevation
75 m. Water can be drawn from elevation 76.50 m to 75.50 m in 42 minutes. Find the
length of the spillway. Use Francis formula.
Thank you!
END OF LECTURE - 07