Topic 5: E-Learning Framework

Upon completion of this Topic, you should be able to:

1. Define what is e-Learning

2. Explain the benefits of e-learning
3. Evaluate the components of the e-learning framework
4. Justify the use of learning outcomes
5. Explain what is meaningful learning
6. Discuss the six levels of Bloom’s taxonomy

Topic Outline:

5.0 Preamble
5.1 What is e-learning?
5.2 Why e-learning?
5.3 Continuum of approaches in e-learning
5.4 E-learning pedagogical framework
5.5 Learning outcomes
5.6 Learning outcomes – Jonassen and others
5.7 Learning outcomes – Bloom
5.8 Conclusion

Summary
Key Terms
Reference

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 5.0 Preamble

This Topic introduces the concept of e-learning and how it has been variously defined and
its benefits. Focus is on an E-Learning Framework and the different components that
interact to produce the desired learning outcomes. Emphasis is on how e-learning can be
implemented at all levels of education; from preschool to university.

5.1 What is E-Learning?

The emergence of web technologies and tools has seen a resurgence in the adoption of e -
learning in education and training. Besides web technologies, the vast amount of
resources available on the web (for which much is free) has prompted several educational
institutions to aggregate and re-package them for use as learning materials in various
disciplines and areas of study. Despite these advancements, technology is not being used
innovatively in education though it may sit quite comfortably within current te aching and
learning. It may partly be due to the lack of conclusive evidence on the effectiveness of
these tools and technologies in enhancing teaching and learning. At the very best, e -
learning tends to be confined to a small circle of individuals, which is representative of
the situation in Malaysia.

The word has been written in many different ways: e-Learning, eLearning, ELearning, E-
Learning. Besides that, other terms have been used interchangeably with e-learning and
they include:

• online learning
• online education
• technology-based learning/ training
• web-based learning /training
• computer-based training (generally thought of as learning from a CD-ROM)

To add to the confusion there are also many definitions on what it means and the
following are some examples:

• E-Learning is instruction delivered on a computer by way of CD -ROM, internet or

intranet with the following features: includes content relevant to the learning
objective, uses instructional methods such as examples and practice to help
learning, uses media elements such as words and pictures to deliver the content
and methods, builds a new knowledge and skills linked to individual learning goals
or to improved organisational performance. [R.C. Clark and R.E.Mayer, 2003]

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 • E-Learning is the use of internet technologies to deliver a broad array of solutions
that enhance knowledge and performance. It is networked, delivered to the end-
user via a computer using standard internet technology and focuses on the
broadest view of learning [Marc Rosenburg, 2001]

• The convergence of the Internet and learning, or Internet-enabled learning. The

use of network technologies to create, foster, deliver, and facilitate learning,
anytime and anywhere [CISCO Systems, 2007].

• E-Learning covers a wide set of applications and processes, such as web -based
learning, computer-based learning, virtual classrooms, and digital collaboration. It
includes the delivery of content via internet, intranet/extranet (LAN/WAN), audio -
and videotape, satellite broadcast, interactive TV, and CD -ROM [ASTD Learning
Circuits, 2004].

• E-Learning is the confluence of three social and technical developments: distance

learning, computer-conveyed education, and internet technologies. E-Learning
does not change how humans learn, but is does change how we teach them
[Horton, 2000].]

Nick can Dam (2004) argue that e-Learning is no longer a new phenomenon, but has not
ceased to be a hot topic. Many educational institutions and industry are discovering what
works and what doesn't work in the brave new world of e-learning. E-Learning is a broad
term used to describe learning done at a computer. The use of network technologies has
enabled developers to create, foster, deliver, and facilitate learning, anytime and
anywhere. It has made learning accessible to more people and to keep ahead of the rapidly
changing global economy.

E-learning allows one to learn anywhere and usually at any time, as long as you have a
properly configured computer. E-learning can be CD-ROM based, network-based,
intranet-based or internet-based. It can include text, video, audio, animation and virtual
environments. It can be a very rich learning experience that can take place in primary
school, secondary school, colleges, universities and training organisations.

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 5.2 Why E-Learning?

Why e-Learning? E-learning has certain benefits compared to traditional classroom

teaching. The most obvious being flexibility with learners not having to leave their place
of work or having to travel long distances. The other benefits are as follows:

• Self-Paced – Good e-Learning courses are self-instructional in that they allow the
learners to learn at his or her own pace accommodating the different learning
styles of learners through a variety of activities. It allows learners to skip what they
already know and understand and focus on parts that they need to learn. For
example, at Khan Academy there are hundreds of video clips teaching key concepts
in algebra, calculus, physics, chemistry and biology which learners can study at
their own pace. [http://www.khan.academy]

• Consistency – E-Learning provides a consistent message and eliminates problems

associated with different instructors teaching different things on the same subject
which can be critical for some disciplines.

• Easy to Update Content – E-Learning permit content developers to update

content using resources from the web. Content developers an package and
repackage essential information for learners to access by simply uploading to a
server.

• Provision of Content – With most learning materials made available to learners,

instructors can then concentrate on high-level activities.

• Increased Understanding – E-Learning may lead to a stronger grasp of the

subject because content is organised based on principles and elements that are
combined to reinforce the message, such as video, audio, quizzes, interaction,
feedback and so forth. There is also the ability to revisit or replay sections of the
lesson that might not have been clear the first time around. Try that in a crowded
auditorium!

• Increased Participation – It is possible that learners who would not normally talk
in class may be encouraged to participate in online discussion because of the
anonymity. Records of discussion allow for later reference through the use of
threaded discussion on online forums.

• Encourages Independent Learning – e-Leaning encourage learners to take

responsibility for their learning and succeeding builds self-knowledge and self-
confidence. It also encourages students to browse information through hyperlinks
to sites on the worldwide Web and there by find information relevant to their
personal situations. It allows students to select learning materials, or to be directed
to content that meets their level of knowledge, interest and what they need to
know to perform more effectively.

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 LEARNING ACTIVITY
a) Based on the several definitions of e-learning, identify the
k words that are common in these definitions.
b) To what extent do you agree on the benefits of e-learning?
c) Is this true of your educational institution?

5.3 Continuum of Approaches in E-Learning

Implementation of e-learning can be seen as a continuum, depending on the approach

adopted by the educational or training organisation. See Figure 4.1 which shows the two
ends of the continuum; i.e. conventional face-to-face teaching & learning and fully online
teaching & learning. For convenience, the phrase “conventional teaching” is used to
denote teaching is conducted solely face-to-face whether it be in the classroom, tutorial
room, laboratory or workshop at the primary, secondary or tertiary level of education.
The extent to which e-learning is adopted together with conventional teaching may vary
with the institution and pedagogical strategy adopted.

Convention Online
al Teaching Distance
Learning

Fac Online
e-to- Interac
Fac tion
e

Degree of Blending

Figure 5.1 Conventional and Online Teaching Continuum

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In the Conventional Teaching approach, all content is provided by the teacher in face-
to-face sessions with learners. He or she interacts with students in the class, answering
questions, demonstrating and solving problems. This is common in schools, colleges and
universities. The instructor-centred approach has also been described as ‘instructivist’
in which the instructor is in charge and learners are passive recipients of information.

On the other hand of the continuum, is what is termed as Online Distance Learning,
where the learner has access to all learning materials (notes, powerpoint slides, e-books,
video & audio clips) from the web. There is no face-to-face interaction and the learner is
left all alone and independently goes through the content. However, the learner interacts
with the tutor and other students through the online forum and chat room or ev en
through video and audio conferencing.

In between these extremes, are several variations of e-learning and this has termed as the
blended approach. It depends on the design of the e-learning approach adopted. For
example, an institution may adopt a “blended approach” which combines both face-to-
face teaching and e-learning. The blend can vary from 70% face-to-face and 30% e-
learning where learners are encouraged to spend time discussing key concepts and
principles online or doing a group project online using a wiki or chatting live with an
online tutor. Computer-mediate communication in the form of discussion forum, chat
room, audio and video conferencing are available in which learners interact with the
instructor and other learners. There is still face-to-face interaction but the contact time
has been reduced. The role of the instructor fades to that of a facilitator. The
facilitator/instructor meets learners at specific intervals (such as once every 4 weeks over
a 14-week semester). All learning materials are made available on the web which learners
can download. Learners are given freedom to purse topics which they want to and
schedule their own time between face-to-face sessions.

Some e-Learning courses deliberately shift between the instructor -centred to learner-
centred approach during the progress of the course. The course may start with the
instructor firmly in charge, setting the pace, giving assignments, presenting information
and grading results. As the course progresses, the instructor’s role fades, with the
instructor’s responsibilities being taken up by learners discussing among themselves. By
the end of the course, learners are prepared to apply their learning alone.

Research has shown that most people enjoy and learn better through social interaction,
and that there is a basic truth in the statement that learning is a social. As technical and
infrastructural issues associated with the Internet and computing become less of a
constraint it may be possibly for learning to migrate more toward co llaborative learning.

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 LEARNING ACTIVITY
a) Compare the differences between conventional and online
teaching
B0 b) What is blended learning? Do you think more schools
would be adopting blended learning? Why not?

5.4 E-Learning Pedagogical Framework

Some people think that e-learning is transplanting the classroom model to a virtual space.
It is not!. It is a teaching-learning environment that requires a change in mindset among
educators where teachers and learners cannot “see” one another, at least not in the
physical sense or at least reduced face-to-face contact. The “body-less realm” of
interaction has huge implications for traditional ways of teaching and communicating.
Laurillard (2006) argues that e-learning has the potential to be “disruptive” because it
calls upon educators to shift their thinking and attitudes from current practice. It has the
potential to support and promote a transformative view of learning. It is not another fad
or another “swing of the pendulum”, but more a way to achieve the educational ideas of a
post-industrial or knowledge society. Hence, there is an urgent need for all levels of
education (primary, secondary, tertiary) to take advantage of these emerging tools and
technologies while keeping in mind how humans learn to propose innovative pedagogical
strategies.

The e-learning pedagogical framework proposed is based on a cognitive -constructivist

theory of learning facilitated by web tools and technologies. It provides a comprehensive
framework guiding the design and development of e-learning or online courses that
engage learners in meaningful learning. The framework consists of the following 3 key
components (see Figure 5.1):

• Technology Design
• Content Design
• Learning Design

The framework emphasises the transformative interaction between technology design,

content design and learning design.

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a) Technology Design
Technology design specifically refers to the technological tools adopted that will
facilitate meaningful learning. Examples of these tools is the Learning Management
System (LMS), social media tools, online testing tools and so forth. For example,
Moodle which is an open source learning management system has been adopted
in many school, colleges, universities and training institutions in Malaysia and all
over the world. Together with Moodle are a wide range of tools to support
meaningful learning such as tools to manage resources (documents, lessons,
glossary), tools to support communication (forums, chat, blog, wiki), tools to
enable group work (wiki, database, forums, glossary), tools to support assessment
(quizzes, assignments, Turnitin integration, gradebook) and tools to manage
administration (groups, calendar, usage reports, gradebook, questionnaire s [This
component of the E-Learning Framework is explained in more detail in Topic
6- Technology Design]

VIRTUAL
LEARNING
PLATFORM

LEARNING
ACTIVITIES

Technology
Design
Interaction
LEARNING
Design
OUTCOMES

Content
Design

E-CONTENT PRINCIPLES

Figure 5.2: An E-Learning Pedagogical Framework

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 Content design refers to the development and aggregation of content that will
promote the desired learning outcomes. This includes profiling the learn er,
stipulation of the aims, objectives & learning outcomes of the course, principles
guiding selection of content and sequencing of content, guidelines on writing style,
user-friendliness and physical layout presentation [This component of the E-
Learning Framework is explained in more detail in Topic 7 Content Design]

c) Interaction Design
Learning design is the deliberate choices about what, when, where and how to
teach. It is the task of getting learners to interact with the content supported by
appropriate tools and technologies. It may be summarised as the design of
activities that will spur:

• Learner-Content interaction
• Learner-Learner interaction; and
• Learner-Teacher interaction

Learning design is facilitated though “Learning Activities” which are the tasks and
exercises that assist students in making meaning from the contents of a subject or
course. Learning activities which may include small group discussion, project
work, debates, role playing, simulations, games and so forth are designed to
ensure that the learner grasps the knowledge easily, retains the knowledge
successfully, and is capable of transferring the knowledge through application in
a real world situation (Teo & Williams, 2006). [This component of the E-Learning
Framework is explained in more detail in Topic 8 Learning Design]

d) Learning Outcomes
Whatever one does in the classroom, the key question that will be asked by
teachers; is whether learning will be enhanced or improved. The framework
predicts that the interface between technology, content and learning design will
result in enhanced learning (Jonassen, Howland, Mara & Crismond, 2007;
Laurillard, 2003). Teachers will not be persuaded to use technology unless they
can be convinced that their students will understand better, are able to remember,
are able to apply concepts, are able to solve problems, are able to create and so
forth. [This component of the E-Learning Framework is explained in more
detail in this chapter]

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 LEARNING ACTIVITY
a) What is the difference between technology & content
design?
B0 b) Do you agree that teachers will only be convinced to use
technology if it can be shown that they enhance learning?

5.5 Learning Outcomes

A) WHAT ARE LEARNING OUTCOMES?

If you ask teachers what they expect from their students. The following are some likely
responses:
• I want kids to tell me all about what they have learned.
• Most important is that they can learn and grasp the information.
• They can pass exams with flying colours.
• The leave my classroom as knowledgeable individuals.
• I want my students to be independent learners.
• I expect my students to use punctuation correctly and have good grammar.

Learning outcomes are statements of what a learner can be expected to know,

understand and/or demonstrate after completion of a subject, course or module. In
other words, it describes the knowledge, skills, value, attitudes and abilities that
will be developed after students had completed a subject or course. Learning
outcomes are stipulated not only at the subject, course or module level; but also at the
level of individual lessons. For example, at the end of a 40 minute lesson, students should
be able to differentiate between living things & non-living things in a primary science
class. Here, a learning outcome has been translated from the Programme level to the level
of a single lesson.

Learning outcomes are specific, doable, measurable, assessable and student-centered

statements as to what a student will be able to do at the end of a period of study. Note
the key words in the statement:
• Specific
• Doable
• Understandable
• Measureable

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 Curriculum
Lesson Subject Learning
Learning Outcomes
Learning
Outcomes Outcomes
e.g. Primary
School
Curriculum
e.g. Difference between
living & non-living
things

e.g. Science

[source: adaptation of Academic info. Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris.

http://akademik.upsi.edu.my]

Figure 5.2 Translation of learning outcomes from the programme level

to the lesson level

The creation of learning outcomes is not a precise science and they require con siderable
thought to write. It is easy to get them wrong and create a learning strait jacket. Dror,
Schmidt & O’Connor (2011) argue that technology can be a very powerful tool in achieving
these learning outcomes, but only if it is used correctly.

B) WHY STATE LEARNING OUTCOMES?

It is not what you teach (content design) or what technology

(technology design) you use that counts; the focus must be on what
the students learn (learning outcomes). What knowledge and skills
the learners acquire, what they will remember in the long term and
apply to their practice.
- Dror, Schmidt & O’Connor, 2011

The above statement is the crux of the E-Learning Framework and is the concern of most
teachers. Teachers will be motivated to incorporate technology in their classroom if they
enhance and contribute to learning; i.e. ..”the focus must be on what the students
learn...what they will remember in the long term and apply to their practice”. The

91
stipulation of learning outcomes tends to make your teaching more “student-centred”; a
shift from the content of a subject (what you teach) and towards what students will be
able to do on successful completion of your lesson, topic or subject.

Learning outcomes can:

• help to guide students in their learning in that they explain what is expected of
them, in turn helping them to succeed in their studies.
• help teachers to focus on exactly what they want students to achieve in terms of
both knowledge and skills.
• provide a useful guide to inform the community what students should be able to
do. Example; what knowledge and skills does a student who has completed UPSR
possess; what knowledge and skills does a student who has completed PMR
possess and so forth [Not so much the number of ‘As’ obtained!].

B) CHECKLIST ON LEARNING OUTCOMES

Table 4.1 is a checklist that you can use to evaluate whether your learning outcomes meet
the criteria of a good learning outcome.

YES NO
Does the outcome support the program objectives?
Does the outcome describe what the program intends
for students to know (cognitive), think (affective, attitudinal), or
do (behavioural, performance)?
Is the outcome important/worthwhile
Is the outcome detailed and specific?
Is the outcome Measurable/identifiable?
Is the outcome a result of learning?
Do you have or can you create an activity to enable students to
learn the desired outcome?
Can the outcome be used to make decisions on how to improve
the programme?

Table 5.1 Checklist to evaluate learning outcomes

[source: Lora Scagliola, URI Student Affairs, 6/24/2007 Drawn in part from: Keeling &
Assiciates, Inc. (2003, January). Developing Learning Outcomes That Work. Atlanta, GA]

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 LEARNING ACTIVITY
a) What are learning outcomes? Do you agree that learning
outcomes are beneficial?
B0 b) List the characteristics of good learning outcomes
c) Do you agree that teachers are too busy trying to complete
the syllabus rather then focusing on what learners can do?

5.6 Learning Outcomes Achieved with Technology - Jonassen

David Jonassen, Distinguished Professor of

Education at the School of Information Science
and Learning Technologies, University of
Missouri-Columbia suggests that technology can
be a powerful tool to facilitate meaningful
learning. He laments over the fact that American
schools have become ‘testing factories’ where
students from kindergarten till secondary schools
are too preoccupied in taking tests. He is most
concerned that students will find it difficult to
complete in the real world if only know how to
take tests..with no attempt to understand the knowledge being tested (Jonassen,
Howland, Marra & Crismond, 2008).

The tests assess skills and knowledge that are detached from their
everyday experience, so they have little meaning. The testing process
is individual, so students are enjoined from cooperating with others.
The tests represent only a single form of knowledge representation, so
students are not able to develop conceptual understanding, which
requires representing what you know in multiple ways. Simply stated,
learning to take tests does not result in meaningful learning (Jonassen,
Howland, Marra & Crismond, 2008, p.2).

In their book. Meaningful Learning with Technology (2008), Jonassen, Howland, Marra
& Crismond argue that technology can provide students with opportunities to engage
in meaningful learning. What is meaningful learning? MEANINGFUL LEARNING takes
place when the activities or the teaching techniques students engage in are

93
intentional or goal directed, allow for active learning, lead to the construction of
knowledge, tasks are authentic, and learners work collaboratively (see Figure
5.32).

Intentional

Colloborative Active

Authentic Constructive

Figure 5.3 Types of Learning Outcomes and Meaningful Learning

[source: Jonassen et. al. Meaningful learning with technology, p. 3, 2008]

INTENTIONAL
Learning is goal-directed, i.e. everything that we do is intended to fulfil some goal.
Students learn to achieve a goal and technology can be used to enable learners to
understand better and learning meaningfully.

ACTIVE
Meaningful learning requires learners to be actively engaged in a meaningful task in
which they manipulate objects and the environment they are working in and
observing the results of their manipulations.

CONSTRUCTIVE
Besides being active, the learner should be involved in the construction of meaning on
what they have learning. Learners should reflect on their experiences by integrating
their new experiences with their prior knowledge. Essential that learners articulate
what the lessons thy have learned from the learning activity. The active and constructive
parts of the meaning making process are symbiotic. They both rely on the other for
meaning making to occur.

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AUTHENTIC
Most learning in school and higher education tends to involve the memorisation of concepts
and principles that are then applied to ‘canned’ problems, meaning that they are far removed
from their natural context. Meaningful learning has to be is embedded in real-life and
authentic situations to allow learners to practice using the concepts and principles learned.

COLLABORATIVE
Humans build knowledge in groups or as a community. In the real world, humans work
with others to help solve problems and perform tasks. Then why do educators insist that
learners work independently so much of the time? Schools generally function based on the
belief that learning is an independent process, so learners seldom have the opportunity to
"do anything that counts" in collaborative teams despite their natural inclinations. When
students collaborate. without permission, educators may even accuse them of cheating.

LEARNING ACTIVITY
a) What is meaningful learning?
B0 b) What did Jonassen et.al mean by ‘learning should take
place in authentic situations?
c) Do you agree that collaborative learning is important
today? Why?

Based on the concept of meaningful learning, Jonassen et. al (2008) suggests the
following roles for technologies in supporting meaningful learning:

• Using technology to access information from the vast resources available on

the web; for comparing perspectives, beliefs and worldviews. e.g. the different
opinions on how young children should be taught to read
• Using technology to provide authentic situations such as simulations, case
studies, real-world problems and so forth
• Using technology to support knowledge construction such as making available
opportunities for students to contribute towards the construction of ideas and
knowledge
• Using technology as a social medium to support collaborative learning which
allows for discussion, arguments and building consensus among students
• Using technology as an intellectual partner to support learning by reflection
by allowing students to reflect on what they have learned and how they come
to know it
• Using technology to allow students to articulate (to show) and repr esent what
they know.

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 5.7 Learning Outcomes Achieved with Technology - Bloom

When one is discussing about ‘learning outcomes’, the works of Benjamin Bloom and
associates in 1956 cannot be ignored. It is perhaps the most widely used taxon omy
guiding the design and development of learning outcomes. It has stood the test of time
and is used at all levels of education; from primary to tertiary education; even though
several other taxonomies have been introduced since the 50s. Bloom proposed a
taxonomy of cognitive learning outcomes consisting of SIX levels (see Figure 5.4).
There are six levels in Bloom’s classification with the lowest level termed
“remembering” which is followed by five increasingly difficult levels of mental
abilities: understanding, applying, analysing, evaluating and creating.

• REMEMBERING:
Obviously, when we teach a particular lesson, we want students to be able to
‘remember’ what has been taught. What is “remember”? It is the ability to list,
define, name, state, recall, match, identify, tell, label, underline, locate, select, and
so forth. For example, you could a learning in which you want students to be
able to list the factors leading to the downfall of the Melaka Sultanate; or define
photosynthesis, state the formula for calculating specific density, and label the
parts of the human eye.

• UNDERSTANDING:
Another phrase that is often used by teachers is, “I want students to
understand”. What do you mean by “understand”? Oftentimes, we equate
‘understanding’ with being able to recall or identify. According to Bloom, it is
much more than ‘remembering’, because it involves a higher mental ability.
When a student understands something, he or she is able to explain, distinguish,
infer, interpret, convert, generalise, defend, estimate, extend, paraphrase, retell
in using own words, predict, rewrite, summarise, translate and so forth. For
example, to ‘infer’ is to go beyond the given information; to ‘paraphrase’ is to
translate words and phrases into one’s own words and so forth. For example,
students should be able to explain in their own words the meaning of a poem;
be able to interpret a graph.

• APPLYING:
You often hear that students are unable to apply the concept learned to the
real world! The ability to ‘apply’ is a significant learning outcome in many
different subjects. It requires the learner to apply a concept, principle, or rule
learned in the classroom to into novel or new situations in the real world. How
do you identify a student is able to ‘apply’? According to Bloom, a student is
able to apply when he or she is able to compute, demonstrate, discover,
manipulate, modify, give an example, operate, predict, prepare, produce, relate,
show, solve, use and so forth. For example, students should be able to use the
formula for projectile motion to calculate the maximum distance a long jumper
can jump; be able to apply statistics to evaluate the reliability of a written test,
be able to predict the consequences of continued government subsidies.

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 Figure 5.4 Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning Outcomes
[source: B. Bloom & others. Taxonomy of cognitive outcomes, 1956]

• ANALYSING:
The ability to analyse is a powerful thinking skill that should be inculcated at
all levels of education. What is ‘analysing’? Generally, analysing requires the
student to identify component parts and describe their relationship; break
down material or concepts into its component parts, distinguishes between
facts and inferences and so forth. According to Bloom, the student who is able
to analyse is able to break down, compare, contrast, deconstruct, dissect,
differentiate, discriminate, distinguish, illustrate, infer, outline, relate, select,
separate and so forth. For example, students should be able to troubleshoot a
piece of equipment by using logical deduction; should be able to recognise
logical fallacies in reasoning; should be able to gather information from a
company and determine needs for training.

• EVALUATING:
Evaluating is often associated with critical thinking. In other words, students
who are able to evaluate are good critical thinkers. What is evaluation or
critical thinking? Generally, evaluating is making judgment about events,
materials and methods; and making judgment about the value of ideas or
materials. In other words, it involves judging whether a statement or idea is
good or bad and being able to defend one’s position. According to Bloom, the

97
 student who is able to evaluate is able to appraise, compare, conclude, contrast,
criticise, defend, rank, give an opinion, discriminate, explain, interpret, value,
justify, relate, summarise, support and so forth. For example, students are able
to evaluate and decide on the most effective solution to a problem, justify the
choice of a new procedure or course of action.

Figure 5.5 Knowledge creation requires one to

acquire first

• CREATING:
Creating is often associated with ‘creative thinking’ should be developed at all
levels of education. Generally, ‘creating’ require the learner to build a structure
or pattern from diverse elements, put parts together to form a whole with
emphasis on creating new meaning, structure, object or procedure. It has been
suggested that before one can create something new or novel, one must
acquire knowledge and then to critically evaluate the knowledge, i.e.
knowledge deepening (see Figure 5.5). According to Bloom, the student who is
able to create is one who can categorise, combine, compile, compose, create,
devise, design, explain, generate, modify, organise, plan, rearrange, reconstruct,
relate, reorganise, find an unusual way, formulate, revise, rewrite, summarise,
tell, write and so forth. For example, students are able to write a creative short
story, design a method to perform a specific task, integrate ideas from several
sources to solve a problem, revise and process to improve the outcome.

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EXAMPLE OF LEARNING OUTCOMES FOR SPECIFIC SUBJECTS

EXAMPLE OF THE CONTENTS OF A

SUBJECT:

Facts Numbers Formulae

Concepts Principles Generalisations History, Science,
Economics, Mathematics,
Graphs Tables Maps Geography, Commerce,
Diagrams Pictures Equipment Biology, Physics, Civics,
Artefacts Procedures Sound Art, Music and so forth
Movement Drawings Animation
Theories Laws Methods

Figure 4.5 Learning Outcomes

Desired by Learning a Subject

WHAT LEARNERS ARE ABLE

TO DO WITH THE CONTENTS
OF A SUBJECT

• Compare • Analyse • Predict

• Explain • Apply • Reflect
• Evaluate • Draw • Feel
• Solve • Interpret

Every subject, whether it be history, science, geography, economics, or mathematics

has is unique repertoire of facts, concepts, principles, generalisations, theories, laws,
procedures, methods, etc. that is you want learners to acquire. The learning outcomes
that you write for a lesson, topic or subject seeks to state what learners will be able to
do with these facts, concepts, principles, generalisations, theories, laws, procedures,
methods, etc (see Figure 4.5).

For example, what do you want students to do with the ‘concepts’ of a subject. Do you
want them to ‘explain’ the concept or ‘apply’ the concept. Take another examp le. You
introduced students to a ‘formula’. What do you want them to do with it? Do you want

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your students to simply ‘state’ the formula or do you want your students to ‘solve’ a
problem using the formula.

“THE HELPFUL HUNDRED”

Heinich, Molenda, Russell, and Smaldino (2001) suggested 100 verbs that may be used
in the development of learning outcomes which are observable and measurable. This
is not to say that these 100 verbs are the only ones but they definitely are a great
reference for educators. Table 4.2 below displays the verbs that would be appropriate
to use when you are writing learning outcomes at each level of Bloom’s taxonomy.

add compute drill label predict state

alphabetise conduct estimate locate prepare subtract
analyse construct evaluate make present suggest
apply contrast explain manipulate produce swing
arrange convert extrapolate match pronounce tabulate
assemble correct fit measure read throw
attend cut generate modify reconstruct time
bisect deduce graph multiply reduce translate
build defend grasp name remove type
cave define grind operate revise underline
categorise demonstrate hit order select verbalise
choose derive hold organise sketch verify
classify describe identify outline ski weave
color design illustrate pack solve weigh
compare designate indicate paint sort write
complete diagram install plot specify
compose distinguish kick position square

Table 5.2 “The Helpful Hundred”

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 LEARNING ACTIVITY
a) What is the difference between evaluate & create?
b) To what extent schools provide opportunity for
students to analyse and evaluate concepts & principles?
c) Are sufficient opportunities provided for students to be
creative in the classroom?

5.8 Conclusion

In this Topic an E-Learning Framework was proposed involving the interaction of

three components – technology design, content design and learning design leading to
realisation of several desired learning outcomes. In others words, what knowledge
students would acquire and what skills they would be able demonstrate. Jonassen,
Howland, Marra & Crismond (2008) proposed FIVE types of learning outcomes while
and Benjamin Bloom & associates way back in 1956 proposed SIX types of learning
outcomes. Interestingly, Andrew Churches (2006) proposed a “Bloom’s Digital
Taxonomy” which emphasised Collaboration as a separate element because
collaboration is not a 21 st century skills but is a 21 st century essential. Collaboration
using technological tools is adopted throughout the six levels to facilitate higher order
thinking and learning. Collaboration is facilitated by tools such as e-mail, chat rooms,
video-conferencing, audio-conferencing, blogging, twittering and others.

If we combine and accordingly adapt the two proposals, we get a more comprehensive
list of the desired learning outcomes of the E-Learning Framework which are listed as
follows:

NINE LOs

1. Remembering / Intentional
2. Understanding
3. Analysing
4. Applying
5. Evaluating / Critical thinking
6. Creating / Construction / Creative thinking
7. Collaborating / Cooperating
8. Authentic / Real-world situations
9. Active

In the Topics that follow, we will discuss how technology, content and learning is
designed or integrated to achieve the NINE LEARNING OUTCOMES.

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 LEARNING ACTIVITY
a) Do you agree that that Bloom’s taxonomy is a hierarchy
of cognitive abilities, which means one level should follow
before another?
b) How useful is the ‘helpful hundred’ for learning outcomes
in you subject area?

KEY TERMS

E-Learning Collaborative

Blended learning Learning outcomes

Online learning Meaningful learning
Instructivist Authentic

Self-paced Analysis
Consistency Evaluation
Constructive Active

SUMMARY

• The emergence of web technologies and tools has seen a resurgence in the
adoption of e-learning in education and training.

• E-learning has been used interchangeably with online learning, technology-

based learning/ training, web-based learning /training and computer-based
training.

• E-Learning is the use of internet technologies to deliver a broad array of

solutions that enhance knowledge and performance.

• E-learning has certain benefits compared to traditional classroom teaching and

the most obvious being flexibility with learners not having to leave their place
of work or having to travel long distances.

• Good e-Learning courses are self-instructional in that they allow the learners
to learn at his or her own pace accommodating the different learning styles of
learners through a variety of activities.

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 • Learning is goal-directed, i.e. everything that we do is intended to fulfil some
goal.

• Besides being active, the learner should be involved in the construction of

meaning on what they have learning.

• Creating is often associated with ‘creative thinking’ should be developed at all

levels of education.

• Evaluating is often associated with critical thinking.

• The ‘helpful hundred’ suggested 100 verbs that may be used in the
development of learning outcomes which are observable and measurable.

• Humans build knowledge in groups or as a community and in the real world,

humans work with others to help solve problems and perform tasks.

REFERENCES

• Adam, S., 2004, Using Learning Outcomes, Report for United Kingdom Bologna
Seminar 1-2 July 2004, Heriot-Watt University (Edinburgh Conference Centre)
Edinburgh. Scotland.

• Dror, I, Schmidt, P. & O’Connor, L. (2011). A cognitive perspective on technology

enhanced learning in medical training: Great opportunities, pitfalls and challenges,
Medical Teacher. 33: 291–296

• Churches, A. (2009). Blooms Digital Taxonomy. New Zealand.

http://edorigami.wikispaces.com/21st+Century+Learners

• Jonassen, D., Howland, J., Marra, R. and Crismond, D. (2008). Meaningful learning
with technology. New Jersey: Pearson.

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