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 Series on Bioengineering a nd Biomedica l E ngineering – Vol. 9

D Y N A M I C S o f the
VASCULAR SYSTEM
Interaction with the Heart
Second Edition

9807_9789814723749_TP.indd 1 6/8/18 10:23 AM

 SERIES ON BIOENGINEERING AND BIOMEDICAL
ENGINEERING

Series Editor: John K-J Li (Department of Biomedical Engineering,

Rutgers University, USA)

The aims of the book series are to present a publishing forum for established
researchers, educators and professionals in the field of bioengineering and
biomedical engineering to promote in-depth documentation of new scientific
findings, technological advances, and to provide effective teaching tools of the
fundamental aspects of the field. Single or multiple authored or edited books,
research monographs, textbooks, lab manuals and specialized conference pro-
ceedings are welcome. Topics of interest include biosensors, biomedical devices
and instrumentation, physiological modeling and signal processing, medical
imaging, drug delivery systems, clinical monitoring, tissue engineering, sys-
tems biology and bioinformatics, biomechanics and biomaterials, rehabilitation
and prostheses, nano and micro applications to biomedicine, biomedical optics,
biofluid mechanics, artificial organs and assist devices.

Published

Vol. 9: Dynamics of the Vascular System: Interaction with the Heart

(Second Edition)
by John K-J Li (Rutgers University, USA)

Vol. 8: Neuroprosthetics: Theory and Practice (Second Edition)

edited by Kenneth Horch (University of Utah, USA) and
Daryl Kipke (University of Utah, USA)

Vol. 7: Further Understanding of the Human Machine: The Road to

Bioengineering
edited by Max E Valentinuzzi (National Scientific and Technical
Research Council (CONICET), Argentina)

Vol. 6: Cardiac Fibrillation-Defibrillation: Clinical and Engineering Aspects

by Max E Valentinuzzi (University of Buenos Aires, Argentina &
University of Tucumán, Argentina)

Vol. 5: Biomedical Engineering Principles of the Bionic Man

by George K Hung (Department of Biomedical Engineering,
Rutgers University, USA)

For the complete list of volumes in this series, please visit

www.worldscientific.com/series/sbbe

Alex - 9807 - Dynamics of the Vascular System.indd 1 30-07-18 12:30:20 PM

 Series on Bioengineering and Biomedical Engineering – Vol. 9

DYNAMICS of the
VASCULAR SYSTEM
Interaction with the Heart
Second Edition

John K-J Li
Rutgers University, USA

World Scientific
NEW JERSEY • LONDON • SINGAPORE • BEIJING • SHANGHAI • HONG KONG • TAIPEI • CHENNAI • TOKYO

9807_9789814723749_TP.indd 2 6/8/18 10:23 AM

 Published by
World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.
5 Toh Tuck Link, Singapore 596224
USA office: 27 Warren Street, Suite 401-402, Hackensack, NJ 07601
UK office: 57 Shelton Street, Covent Garden, London WC2H 9HE

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Li, John K-J., 1950– author.
Title: Dynamics of the vascular system : interaction With the heart / by John K-J Li.
Other titles: Series on bioengineering and biomedical engineering ; v. 9.
Description: 2nd edition. | New Jersey : World Scientific, 2018. | Series: Series on bioengineering
and biomedical engineering ; volume 9 | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018010403 | ISBN 9789814723749 (hc : alk. paper)
Subjects: | MESH: Cardiovascular Physiological Phenomena | Models, Cardiovascular
Classification: LCC QP105 | NLM WG 102 | DDC 612.1--dc23
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9in x 6in b3250 Dynamics of the Vascular System: Interaction with the Heart (2nd Edn) b3250-FM

Preface to the First Edition

This book is the first volume of the Bioengineering and Biomedical

Engineering Book Series. As the Series Editor, and to set a good
example, I have taken the task of writing yet another book on the
cardiovascular system.
The contents of this book extends from Arterial System Dynamics,
my first book published some fifteen years ago, to distinctly different
regimes of the microcirculation and the venous system, as well as the
assisted circulation.
The vascular system is indeed so vast, that a binocular vision is often
needed to unravel the mystery of the many concurrent interactions
occurring at different sites of the vascular tree. This becomes more
challenging with the imposition of studying its dynamic phenomena. The
Dynamics of the Vascular System is written employing mathematical
techniques to formulate the physical principles involved in the structural
and functional correlates of the underlying physiology. The intriguing
control and geometric perspectives are also included wherever possible.
The book also serves as a companion text to The Arterial Circulation:
Physical Principles and Clinical Applications.
Selected topics and references are provided, so that I and the readers
are not overwhelmed by the otherwise exhaustive presentations of the
many observed phenomena and the subsequent diverse interpretations of
their origins and mechanisms.
I hope professionals and students in the field of bioengineering and
biomedical engineering, biomathematics, biophysics, cardiovascular

v
9in x 6in b3250 Dynamics of the Vascular System: Interaction with the Heart (2nd Edn) b3250-FM

vi Preface to the First Edition

physiology and medicine will find this book a relevant source of

reference. Much of the work is the culmination of my three decades of
learning, experimenting and investigation. I am aware that there are
other works of notable items and newer advances which I have not yet
included in this book. I will continue to learn more of them. Finally, I
like to thank those who have contributed to the completion of this book.

John Kong-Jiann Li
New Jersey, USA
9in x 6in b3250 Dynamics of the Vascular System: Interaction with the Heart (2nd Edn) b3250-FM

Preface to the Second Edition

This book was originally published in 2004 as the first volume of the
Bioengineering and Biomedical Engineering Book Series. A decade has
quickly passed, together with the many advances in the sciences,
medicine and technology. I decided to take up the task to update some of
the materials for this second edition, while preserving the fundamental
concepts of the original text.
The contents of this second edition include explicitly a chapter on the
Interaction of the Heart and the Arterial System. This topic was
supported by the National Science Foundation that I began working on
right after completing my doctorate at the University of Pennsylvania
four decades ago with the late Professor Abraham Noordergraaf. This
chapter includes basic cardiac muscle mechanics, the contractile function
of the heart and its dependence on the operating relations with the
vascular system under normal and heart failure conditions, with emphasis
on their dynamic interaction. Examples of mechanical cardiac assist
devices and drug treatment are also included.
This second edition continues to emphasize on quantitative treatment
of the vascular system by analyzing the structural and functional
correlates of the underlying physiology. This may purposefully overlook
some of the clinical aspects in terms of diagnosis and treatment efficacies
of certain cardiovascular diseases. Similar to the first edition, rather than
being exhaustive, only selected topics and references are provided. In
this regard, worthwhile publications from some investigators may not
have been included.

vii
9in x 6in b3250 Dynamics of the Vascular System: Interaction with the Heart (2nd Edn) b3250-FM

viii Preface to the Second Edition

I hope many of the cardiovascular scientists, researchers and

clinicians, as well as students will continue to find this book a useful
reference. I like to thank those who have contributed to the completion
of this book.

John Kong-Jiann Li
New Jersey, USA
9in x 6in b3250 Dynamics of the Vascular System: Interaction with the Heart (2nd Edn) b3250-FM

About the Author

John K-J. Li obtained his Ph.D. in Bioengineering

from the University of Pennsylvania and has been a
Distinguished Professor of Biomedical Engineering
at Rutgers University since 1998. He has been an
elected Fellow of the American Institute for
Medical and Biological Engineering, the American
Colleges of Cardiology, the American College of
Angiology, and the Academy of Medicine of New
Jersey. He is also the Founding Editor-in-chief of
Springer’s Cardiovascular Engineering and Bioengineering and
Biomedical Engineering Book Series of World Scientific and Imperial
College Press, and is on the editorial boards of numerous journals. His
research has been founded by the NIH, NSF, AHA, and industry grants,
with interest in cardiac and vascular mechanics, modeling, medical
devices, controlled drug delivery, hypertension and heart failure,
neuroengineering, scaling in biology, and comparative physiology. He
has authored several books and published numerous articles and is a
frequently invited speaker at national and international conferences and
universities. He enjoys teaching and has been the adviser to more than 90
Ph.D. and M.S. students and 175 senior design students, and received
teaching excellence awards. He is also a holder of several US patents
and a recipient of the IEEE Millennium Medal.

ix
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9in x 6in b3250 Dynamics of the Vascular System: Interaction with the Heart (2nd Edn) b3250-TOC

Contents

Preface to the First Edition....................................................................... v

Preface to the Second Edition .................................................................vii
About the Author ...................................................................................... ix

Chapter 1. Historical Background and Book Contents ............................ 1

1.1 Discoveries of the Circulation .................................................... 1
1.2 Importance of the Vascular System ............................................ 7
1.3 Newer Concepts .......................................................................... 8
1.4 Book Contents ............................................................................ 9

Chapter 2. Vascular Biology, Structure and Function ........................... 15

2.1 Anatomical Organization of the Vasculature ............................ 15
2.1.1 The Closed-loop Circulatory System............................. 15
2.1.2 The Heart ....................................................................... 15
2.1.3 The Arteries ................................................................... 18
2.1.4 The Veins ....................................................................... 19
2.1.5 The Microvasculature .................................................... 20
2.2 Geometric and Mechanical Properties of Blood Vessels .......... 21
2.2.1 Geometric Nonuniformity of Blood Vessels ................. 21
2.2.2 Elastic Nonuniformity of the Blood Vessels ................. 24
2.2.3 Vascular Stiffness and Elastic Properties ...................... 25
2.3 Functional Properties of Blood ................................................. 31
2.3.1 Blood Plasma and Blood Gas ........................................ 31
2.3.2 Oxygen Saturation Curves and Hemoglobin ................. 32
2.3.3 Red Blood Cells, Hematocrit and Blood Volume.......... 35

xi
9in x 6in b3250 Dynamics of the Vascular System: Interaction with the Heart (2nd Edn) b3250-TOC

xii Contents

2.4 Control Aspects of the Vascular System .................................. 37

2.4.1 Control of the Central Cardiovascular System .............. 38
2.4.2 Functions of the Baroreceptors ...................................... 39
2.4.3 Arterial Chemoreceptors ................................................ 40

Chapter 3. Physical Concepts and Basic Fluid Mechanics .................... 43

3.1 Basic Mechanics and Dimensional Analysis ............................ 43
3.1.1 Mass, Length and Time System and the Pi-theorem
of Buckingham .............................................................. 43
3.1.2 Dimensional Matrix ....................................................... 45
3.1.3 Biological Scaling and Dynamics Similitude in
Vascular Biology ........................................................... 46
3.1.4 Elastic and Viscoelastic Properties of Blood
Vessels ........................................................................... 49
3.2 Frequency Domain and Fourier Analysis ................................. 56
3.2.1 Blood Pressure as a Periodic Function .......................... 56
3.2.2 Trigonometric Fourier Series ......................................... 57
3.2.3 Complex Form of Fourier Series ................................... 59
3.2.4 Other Aspects of Frequency Domain Analysis.............. 62
3.2.4.1 Dirichlet Conditions ........................................ 62
3.2.4.2 Line Spectrum and Nyquist Criterion.............. 63
3.2.4.3 Correlation, Coherence and Power
Spectrum .......................................................... 64
3.3 Fluid Mechanics and Rheology ................................................ 65
3.3.1 Steady Flow, the Poiseuille Equation and Flow
Velocity Profile.............................................................. 65
3.3.2 Bernoulli’s Equation and Narrowing Vessel Lumen
or Stenosis...................................................................... 70
3.3.3 Orifice Flow and Torricelli’s Equation.......................... 71
3.3.4 Valvular Cross-section and the Gorlin Equation ........... 72
3.3.5 Flow and Flow Acceleration .......................................... 72
3.3.6 Newtonian Fluid, No-Slip, Boundary Conditions
and Entry Length ........................................................... 75
3.3.6.1 Newtonian Fluid .............................................. 75
3.3.6.2 No-Slip Boundary Conditions ......................... 76
3.3.6.3 Laminar and Turbulent Flow ........................... 77
3.3.6.4 Entry Length .................................................... 78
9in x 6in b3250 Dynamics of the Vascular System: Interaction with the Heart (2nd Edn) b3250-TOC

Contents xiii

Chapter 4. Hemodynamics of Arteries ................................................... 79

4.1 Blood Pressure and Flow Relations .......................................... 79
4.1.1 Pulsatile Pressure and Flow Waveforms
in Arteries ...................................................................... 79
4.1.2 Pressure-flow Relations in the Aorta ............................. 82
4.2 Vascular Impedance to Blood Flow.......................................... 84
4.2.1 The Impedance Concept and Formulation ..................... 84
4.2.2 Input Impedance and Characteristic Impedance ............ 86
4.3 Pulse Wave Propagation Phenomena........................................ 90
4.3.1 The Pulse Wave Propagation Constant.......................... 90
4.3.2 Pulse Wave Velocity and the Foot-to-Foot
Velocity ......................................................................... 91
4.3.3 Apparent Propagation Constant and Transfer
Function ......................................................................... 94
4.3.4 Determination of the Propagation Constant
and Frequency Dependent Pulse Wave Velocity ........... 98
4.4 Pulse Wave Reflection Phenomena ........................................ 102
4.4.1 Influence of Wave Reflections on Pressure
and Flow Waveforms................................................... 102
4.4.2 The Reflection Coefficients ......................................... 108
4.4.3 The Augmentation Index ............................................. 111
4.4.4 Wave Reflection Sites and Multiple Reflections ......... 112
4.5 Modeling Aspects of the Arterial Circulation ......................... 114
4.5.1 Mathematical Formulations of Pulse Wave
Propagation .................................................................. 114
4.5.2 Linear Theories of Oscillatory Blood Flow in
Arteries ........................................................................ 118
4.5.3 The Lumped Model of the Arterial System and the
Windkessel Model ....................................................... 124
4.5.4 Nonlinear Aspects and Pressure-Dependent
Arterial Compliance..................................................... 130

Chapter 5. Vascular Branching ............................................................ 137

5.1 Branching Geometry ............................................................... 137
5.1.1 Complexity of Vascular Branching ............................. 137
5.1.2 Nonuniform Branching and 3-D Branching
Structures ..................................................................... 139
5.1.3 Space-Filling Properties and Modeling ....................... 141
9in x 6in b3250 Dynamics of the Vascular System: Interaction with the Heart (2nd Edn) b3250-TOC

xiv Contents

5.2 Fluid Mechanics of Vascular Branching................................. 144

5.2.1 Branching Geometry and Fluid Dynamic
Considerations ............................................................. 144
5.2.2 Fluid Mechanics Associated with Atherosclerosis
and Stenosis ................................................................. 149
5.3 Pulse Transmission Characteristics at Vascular
Branching ................................................................................ 151
5.3.1 Impedance Matching and Wave Reflections ............... 151
5.3.2 Area Ratio Concept...................................................... 154
5.3.3 Minimum Local Reflections at Vascular Branching
Junctions ...................................................................... 158
5.4 Optimization Aspects Applicable to Vascular Branching ...... 161
5.4.1 Optimizing Vessel Radius and the Cube Law ............. 161
5.4.2 Optimizing Branching Radii and Angles ..................... 164

Chapter 6. The Venous System ............................................................ 167

6.1 The Reservoir Properties and Venous Return ......................... 167
6.1.1 Venous Compliance and Reservoir Characteristics ..... 167
6.1.2 Structural Properties of Veins ...................................... 168
6.1.3 Venous Return ............................................................. 169
6.2 Pressure and Flow Waveforms in Veins ................................. 170
6.2.1 The Normal Pressure and Flow Waveforms
in Veins ....................................................................... 170
6.2.2 Respiration Effects on Venous Pressure and Flow
Waveforms................................................................... 172
6.2.3 Abnormal Venous Pressure and Flow Waveforms ...... 173
6.3 Modeling and Collapsible Vessel Properties .......................... 173
6.3.1 Steady Flow in Collapsible Tubes ............................... 173
6.3.2 Flow Limitation and Model Experiments .................... 175
6.3.3 Pulse Wave Transmission Characteristics in Veins ..... 180

Chapter 7. The Microcirculation .......................................................... 183

7.1 Structure of the Microcirculation ............................................ 183
7.1.1 Functional Organization of the Microvasculature ....... 183
7.1.2 The Capillary Circulation ............................................ 188
7.2 Pressure-Flow Relation and Microcirculatory Mechanics ...... 191
7.2.1 Flow-Related Mechanical Characteristics of the
Microcirculation .......................................................... 191
9in x 6in b3250 Dynamics of the Vascular System: Interaction with the Heart (2nd Edn) b3250-TOC

Contents xv

7.2.2 Some Pressure-Related Mechanical Characteristics

of the Microcirculation ................................................ 193
7.3 Pulse Transmission and Modeling Aspects ............................ 196
7.3.1 Pressure and Flow Waveforms in Arterioles
and Capillaries ............................................................. 196
7.3.2 Pulse Transmission Characteristics in the
Microcirculation .......................................................... 198
7.3.3 Modeling Aspects of the Microcirculation .................. 201

Chapter 8. Hemodynamic Measurements: Invasive and

Noninvasive Monitoring ................................................... 205
8.1 Catheterization for Blood Pressure Measurement .................. 205
8.1.1 Fluid-filled Blood Pressure Measurement
Systems ........................................................................ 205
8.1.2 Experimental Evaluation of the Frequency
Response of Catheter-Pressure Transducer
Systems ........................................................................ 208
8.2 Noninvasive Blood Pressure Measurements ........................... 213
8.2.1 Auscultation Measurement of Blood Pressure............. 213
8.2.2 Blood Pressure Measurement with the Oscillometric
Method ......................................................................... 215
8.2.3 Noninvasive Blood Pressure Monitoring with
Tonometer .................................................................... 217
8.2.4 The Photoplethysmograph (PPG) ................................ 219
8.3 Blood Flow Measurement ....................................................... 219
8.3.1 Electromagnetic Flowmeter ......................................... 219
8.3.2 Ultrasound and Doppler Flow Velocity
Measurement ............................................................... 221
8.3.3 Cardiac Output Measurement with Indicator
Dilution Methods and Thermodilution ........................ 224
8.4 Measurement of Vascular Dimensions ................................... 227

Chapter 9. Interaction of the Heart and the Arterial System ................ 229
9.1 Ventricular Outflow and the Aorta ......................................... 229
9.1.1 Ventricular Ejection ..................................................... 229
9in x 6in b3250 Dynamics of the Vascular System: Interaction with the Heart (2nd Edn) b3250-TOC

xvi Contents

9.2 Cardiac Muscle Mechanics and the Force-Velocity-Length

Relation ................................................................................... 232
9.2.1 Structure of Myocardial Fibers and the Sliding
Filament Theory .......................................................... 232
9.2.2 Hill Model of Muscle Contraction ............................... 234
9.3 The Pressure-Volume Curve and Contractility
of the Heart ............................................................................. 235
9.3.1 Variables Defining the Pressure-Volume Loop ........... 235
9.3.2 Frank-Starling Mechanism and Ejection Fraction ....... 237
9.3.3 Cardiac Contractility and Indices of Cardiac
Performance ................................................................. 239
9.4 Heart and the Arterial System Interaction .............................. 241
9.4.1 The Concept of Ventricular and Arterial
Elastances .................................................................... 241
9.4.2 Dynamic Heart-Arterial System Interaction ................ 246
9.4.3 Left Ventricle-Arterial System Interaction
in Heart Failure ............................................................ 248
9.5 Heart-Arterial System Interaction in the Assisted
Circulation .............................................................................. 250
9.5.1 Mechanical Assist Devices and the Intra-Aortic
Balloon Pump .............................................................. 250
9.5.2 Optimization of Intra-Aortic Balloon Pumping:
Physiological Considerations....................................... 254
9.5.3 Optimization of Intra-Aortic Balloon Pumping:
Modeling Aspects ........................................................ 258
9.5.4 Optimization of Intra-Aortic Balloon Pumping:
Control Aspects ........................................................... 259

Bibliography ......................................................................................... 261

Index...................................................................................................... 273
9in x 6in b3250 Dynamics of the Vascular System: Interaction with the Heart (2nd Edn) b3250-ch01

Chapter 1

Historical Background and Book Contents

1.1 Discoveries of the Circulation

That “blood moves in closed circle” was apparently known in the Far
East, several millennia ago, about 2,650 B.C., as recorded in the book by
the Yellow Emperor of China written in the Canon of Medicine (Nei
Ching). Ancient Chinese practitioners customarily felt palpable wrist
artery (radial artery) pulsations as a means of diagnosing the cardiac state
of their patients. In this approach, the practitioners were able to obtain
both the strength of the pulsation to infer the vigor of contraction of the
heart, and the interval duration of the pulses, hence heart rate. This
seemingly indicates that the importance of the rate-pressure product, now
a popular clinical index of myocardial oxygen consumption, might even
have been considered pertinent at that time. The supply and demand of
oxygenation, as well as its proper utilization in terms of energy balance,
or ying-yang, is center to achieving body harmony. Thus, this suggestion
of an intrinsic transfer of the energy (Chi) generated by the heart to the
peripheral arteries may have been known since antiquity, although the
theoretical foundation was not established until much later.
In the West, the observation that man must inspire air to sustain life
led ancient scientists and philosophers to toy with the idea that arteries
contained air rather than blood. This was the notion originally attributed
to Erasistratus in the third century B.C., following the teaching of
Aristotle. Aristotle and later Herophilus performed numerous anatomical
studies and the latter discovered the connecting arteries to the contracting
heart. That arteries themselves contract and relax thus was known in
Aristotle’s time. Arterial properties in terms of elastic stiffness,
distensibility and compliance, as we know now, were not fully described.
Galen’s (130-200) description of the ebb and flow of blood in arteries,

1
9in x 6in b3250 Dynamics of the Vascular System: Interaction with the Heart (2nd Edn) b3250-ch01

2 Dynamics of the Vascular System (2nd Edition)

though lasted for centuries, was grossly inaccurate. Additionally, in the

Galenic view, blood was passed from the right side of the heart to the left
side through pores, which was later shown to be incorrect as they do not
exist within the inter-ventricular septum, as demonstrated by Columbus
(1516-1559), a Belgian anatomist. Otherwise, this would be known as
the septal defect. Columbus, during his many dissections, confirmed that
venous blood of the right ventricle passed into the left ventricle through
the lungs. This was concluded a few years earlier by Servetus (1511-
1553), a Spanish theologian and physician. Thus, the open-circuit
interpretation of the circulation by Galen cannot accurately describe the
“circulation of blood”.
In his many teachings, though some aspects were later known to be
erroneous, Galen was nevertheless the first to recognize that the walls of
arteries are thicker than those of the veins, and that arteries were
connected to veins. It was the Persian physician Ibn al-Nafis (1210-
1288) who claimed that venous blood of the right ventricle is carried by
the artery-like vein into the lungs, where it mixes with the air and then
into the left ventricle through vein-like artery.
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) in his “Dialogue of the Two Sciences”,
which appeared in 1637, suggested the circulation of blood in a closed
system. Centuries later today, the idea of the circulation of blood was
credited to William Harvey (1578-1657), a contemporary of Galileo, in
his now famous “De Motu Cordis and De Circulatione Sanguinis” (1628)
presented to King Charles of England. He described in his “Anatomical
Exercises” that “blood does continually passes through the heart” and
that “blood flow continually out the arteries and into the veins”. Harvey’s
work indicated the pulsatile nature of blood as a consequence of
intermittent inflow, during roughly one-third of the heart cycle, now
known as systole, in combination with essentially steady outflow through
the periphery during the remaining cardiac period, the diastole.
Harvey’s work was completed before Malphighi who worked with the
aid of a compound microscope. He reported in 1661 the discovery of the
capillaries linking the arterial circulation to the venous circulation, while
he was working with the microscopic anatomy of the pulmonary
parenchyma in the frog, an uni-ventricular amphibian. Dutch anatomist
Van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) confirmed the capillaries in different
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Historical Background and Book Contents 3

organs of several animal species and established the concept of the

capillary bed. Bypassing the capillaries are the arterio-venous
anastomoses, which are now known to perform the function of
controlling blood flow.
German anatomist Henle discovered the smooth muscle cells in small
arteries in 1841. Thus, this provided the first evidence that smooth
muscle contributes to arterial contraction. But it is not until almost a
century later in 1937 that Zweifach showed that active contractility of the
micro-vessels is confined to those vessels with smooth muscle cells.
In the investigation of the microcirculation, credit was given to Hall,
an English physiologist, first to differentiate the capillaries from
arterioles. The fact that capillaries transfer water and water-soluble
substances from the blood stream to the surrounding tissues, were shown
by Starling (1866-1927) and is now known as the Starling’s hypothesis
governing fluid exchange. The measurement of capillary blood pressure
by cannulation was first performed in 1930, by Landis, in the nail
microvascular bed (Mayrovitz, 1998). The ultra-structure of the
microcirculation has now been established from electron microscope
studies.
French physiologist Claude Bernard in 1852 showed that stimulation of
sympathetic nerves induces vasoconstriction and the concept of
controlling blood flow by vasomotor nerves. Neural control of the
circulation is recognized as an important aspect in the regulation of
vascular function.
Fascinated by anatomic structure of the vascular tree, as an art,
Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) made many detailed drawings of the
constituent parts of the circulatory system. He apparently already knew
that both the contraction and resting periods are necessary for the heart to
function with a normal rhythm. His anatomic drawings of the heart and
the perfusing arteries are, to a large extent, amazingly accurate. This
includes drawings of the heart and the great vessels, together with the
main, anterior descending and circumflex coronary arteries and their
major branches. Several drawings of the heart valves, demonstrating
how well the leaflets are arranged when the valves are closed, as well as
the detailed anatomic drawing of the neck arteries in man with
its branching morphology were also shown (Li, 2000). In these, both the
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4 Dynamics of the Vascular System (2nd Edition)

Fig. 1.1.1: Anatomic drawings by Vesalius. The extensiveness of the vascular tree is well
appreciated.
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Historical Background and Book Contents 5

length and angle of branching arteries are incredibly accurate. Vesalius

(1514-1564), an anatomist, later provided a detailed drawing of the entire
human vascular tree (Fig. 1.1.1).
Italian physician Caesalpinus apparently identified the pulmonary
circulation and its associated two types of blood vessels: vena cava and
pulmonary vein and pulmonary artery and aorta. Hooke (1635-1703; of
Hooke’s law of elasticity), an assistant of the English chemist Boyle
(1627-1692; of Boyle’s law of gases), recognized that respiration was
necessary. But it was the English physiologist Lower (1631-1691) who
continued the investigation to show the importance of ventilation-
perfusion, i.e. exchange of gases between the lungs and blood. Gas
transport in blood was reported by Magnus in 1837. He demonstrated
that there was greater oxygen content in arterial blood and greater carbon
dioxide content in the venous blood. Other formed elements, such as
hemoglobin (Hb) were discovered by Funke in 1851 and has been shown
as an important oxygen transporter. Neural effect was shown by Haldane
(1860-1936), that carbon dioxide is a normal physiologic stimulus for the
respiratory centers. The Haldane effect is now well appreciated in
respiratory function and in oxygen therapy applications.
Lack of instrumentation, the measurements of the magnitudes of
blood pressure and flow took considerably longer than the interpretation
of the circulatory function. Hales in 1733 had incidentally already
registered the magnitude of the blood pressure level about which blood
oscillates. His initial measurement of blood pressure with a glass tube in
a horse has been well illustrated in many publications. Thus, the
magnitude of the mean arterial pressure and the amplitude of oscillation,
or pulse pressure, were already known at that time. This forms the basis
of modern day oscillometric measurement of blood pressure. Hales’
measurements however, did not induce recognition of the great
importance of blood pressure magnitude for many decades. We now
know that significantly increased magnitudes of mean blood pressure and
pulse pressure, the difference between systolic pressure and diastolic
pressure, are major contributors to hypertension and many forms of
cardiovascular diseases.
The shape of the pressure pulse became known only in the 19th
century when Ludwig came up with the kymograph which inscribed
blood pressure waveforms. His instrument provided information within
a single beat which was a truly a technological advance at the time. Its
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6 Dynamics of the Vascular System (2nd Edition)

accuracy was not comparable to present day instrument, although not an

issue at the time. Blood pressure recording with the sphygmographs by
Marey and his contemporary Mahomed has led to the clinical assessment
of arterial diseases, such as hypertension. Incidentally, Chaveau and
Marey (1863) also recorded cardiac chamber pressures. Both, shortly
later, measured blood flow with an instrument they developed, now
known as the bristle flowmeter.
Modern understanding of pressure-flow relationships came with the
inventions of fluid-filled catheter-manometer system and the
electromagnetic flowmeter. The simultaneous measurements of blood
pressure and flow have led to considerable advancement of
hemodynamics, or the studies of blood flow. The catheter was introduced
in man by Forssmann in 1929, and later advanced for catheterization of
the right heart for pressure measurement by Cournand and Range in 1941
(Li et al., 1976). Cournand and Forssmann (together with Richards)
shared the Nobel prize for medicine in 1956 for the invention leading to
the advancement of modern day catheterization for visualization of blood
pressure waveforms in various anatomical sites throughout the
circulation. The electromagnetic flowmeter was introduced by Kolin in
1936. But ultrasonic transit-time and Doppler flow velocity probes have
taken center stage in modern research and routine clinical measurements,
mostly for their noninvasive monitoring capabilities.
In an attempt to understand the function of the arterial system as a
whole, Hales (1733) concluded that in order for the arteries to accept the
large amount of blood ejected, or the stroke volume, the arteries must
behave like a temporary storage reservoir. Since the size of the aorta is
considerably smaller than that of the ventricle, the receiving aorta must
be elastic in order to perform the function as a reservoir. This
interpretation of the reservoir function of arteries became known later as
the Windkessel theory which was vigorously pursued a century later by a
German physician Frank towards the end of the 19th century. The
emphasis on the storage properties of the arteries modeled by Frank as a
single elastic tube implied that all pressure fluctuations in the arterial tree
should occur synchronously. In other words, the blood pressure pulse
should propagate with infinite velocity. The peripheral vessels, on the
other hand, are assumed rigid as stiff tubes. This gives rise to the lumped
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Historical Background and Book Contents 7

compliance-resistance model of the arterial circulation. This Windkessel

model lacks the description of the propagation characteristics of the
pressure pulse, but has remained the most popular model describing the
arterial system and interpreting its physiological properties even until
this day.
Blood pressure pulse propagation with finite wave velocity in a blood
vessel was considered over two centuries ago by Euler in 1775. He
attempted to develop a formula for its calculation. The well-known
physicist Young in 1816, and also the Weber brothers in 1866,
apparently solved for the propagation velocity in an elastic tube
(Noordergraaf, 1969). Incorporating the elastic properties and geometry
of the blood vessel, Moens (1878) and Korteweg (1878) separately
developed what is now known as the Moens-Korteweg formula for the
pulse wave velocity, or PWV:

Eh
c0  (1.1.1)
2r

where E is, appropriately at the time, defined as the Young’s modulus of

elasticity of the blood vessel, h and r are the wall thickness and inner
radius of the uniform cylindrical vessel, respectively, and  is the density
of blood. Pulse propagation velocity is seen to be related to the
mechanical and geometrical properties of the blood vessel.

1.2 Importance of the Vascular System

In terms of the dynamics of the vascular system, the function of the heart
is to provide energy and perfuse organ vascular beds. For the heart to
accomplish this efficiently, the vascular system plays a central role as the
distributing conduits. As such, both the distributing arteries and the
peripheral vascular beds present the load to the pumping heart.
Peripheral resistance has been popularly viewed in the clinical setting as
the principal vascular load to the heart. This applies mainly to steady
flow conditions. This description is naturally inadequate, because of the
pulsatile nature of blood flow which remains throughout the
microcirculation. Pulsatility implies that there is an oscillatory or
pulsatile contribution to the vascular load to the heart. The significance
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8 Dynamics of the Vascular System (2nd Edition)

of pulsations has been a popularly debated topic in the clinical settings

where perfusion to organs is considered pertinent.
The vascular system provides a seamless illustration of an efficient
transport system. This can be seen from the function of, for instances, the
coronary circulation in perfusing the heart, the renal circulation in
perfusing the kidneys, the cerebral circulation in perfusing the brain and
the pulmonary circulation in perfusing the lungs. By virtue of the
distributing arterial trees, oxygen, humoral agents, and nutrients be
transported to the vital parts of the body, and at the same time, removal
of biological waste materials is also accomplished.

1.3 Newer Concepts

Modern development of the theory related to blood flow in the vascular

system has included multi-faceted aspects, such as, fluid mechanics,
fluid-vessel interface, vascular tissue engineering, pulse wave trans-
mission and mathematical modeling.
The mathematical formulations of blood flow through visoelastic
arteries have been well established and documented in many texts (e.g.
Noordergraaf, 1978, 2011; Li, 1987, 2000, 2004; Nichols and O’Rourke,
1998). These texts also provided experimental measurement methods and
quantitative approaches to the assessments of the state of the arterial
circulation. There are also several texts in describing the microcirculation
and associated biomechanical behavior in greater detail (e.g. Lee and
Skalak, 1989; Fung, 1997).
In the application to clinical situations, the interpretation of the
morphology of blood pressure and flow waveforms in relation to
underlying diseased conditions has attracted the most attention. The
introduction of new groups of drugs beyond vasodilators, beta adrenergic
blockers, calcium channel blockers and angiotensin-converting enzyme
inhibitors that includes local targeted vascular drug delivery, as well as
the introduction of gene therapy and regenerative medicine, to improve
vascular perfusion and in the treatment of diseases, has become more
avant garde.
Not only the arteries, the microcirculatory vessels are no longer
viewed merely as resistance vessels, but are compliant with viscoelastic
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Historical Background and Book Contents 9

properties that vary with frequency. The classical elastic description of

blood vessels has been modified to include viscosities of the blood and
the vessel wall. The viscosities give rise to energy dissipation. Thus, the
energy utilization and dissipation in relation to blood flow is now
considered pertinent. Regarding Chi, or energy, the amount of the work
that the heart has to generate during each beat has generated considerable
attention. This included the steady energy dissipation through peripheral
resistance vessels in different parts of the body, as well as energy
required to overcome pulsations which persist even in the
microcirculation.
Clinical applications of modern development of dynamics of the
vascular system have initiated both invasive and noninvasive
technological development and improvement in the accuracy of assessing
the vascular structure and function. These include laser-Doppler
velocimeter, multi-sensor pressure-velocity catheter, phase contrast
magnetic resonance imaging (PC-MRI) and intravascular ultrasonic
system (IVUS). There are also advancements in the development of
interventional devices, such as local drug delivery catheter, laser- or
balloon-angioplasty catheter, vascular stents and grafts. Many of these
have been used for the assessment and treatment of vascular
hypertrophy, stenosis and aneurysm, hypertension and atherosclerosis.

1.4 Book Contents

This book deals primarily with the dynamic behavior of the components
of the vascular system and methods and techniques for their quantitative
measurements. The book is written applying fundamental physical
principles in conjunction with physiological measurements to the
analysis of the structural and functional aspects of the vascular tree that
includes the arterial circulation, the venous circulation, and the
microcirculation, inclusive of arterioles, capillaries and venules. In
addition, the constituent components, such as collagen, elastin, smooth
muscle, and endothelial and red blood cells as well as transport
phenomena are also discussed. An additional chapter on the interaction
of the heart and the arterial system is also included in this second edition.
Quantitative approaches are emphasized in the overall treatment.
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10 Dynamics of the Vascular System (2nd Edition)

In Chapter 2, modern concepts of vascular biology are illustrated.

This begins with the anatomical organization of the vascular tree. Major
branches of the aorta and some arteries at similar anatomic sites in some
mammalian species, such as human, dog and rats, are described. These
latter are common mammalian species where experimental
measurements and data are most frequently collected. Geometric
nonuniformities in terms of tapering and branching of the vessels are
quantified. The fractal nature of the vascular tree can be well
appreciated from some of the illustrations. The distributing channels and
networking environment are illustrated.
Examination of structural properties allows us to differentiate the
mechanical and functional characteristics of various vessels. This
includes the nonuniformities in elasticity reflected in the content and
organization of the walls of the various blood vessels. Constituent
structural components of the arterial and venous wall are examined in
rheological terms. In particular, the physical properties of elastin,
collagen, and smooth muscle. The relative contents of the wall materials
differentiate arteries from veins, arterioles and capillaries.
Oxygen is perhaps the most important component to be transported in the
blood. The formed elements of blood are dealt with, that includes
hemoglobin, red blood cells and plasma. Functional properties of blood
are therefore included in this chapter. Some aspects of the circulating
catacholamines and hormones, as well as neural control of the vascular
system are equally important.
Chapter 3 deals with some fundamental concepts for analysis of the
vascular system. The differences in their mechanical properties in large
and small arteries and veins are examined. Their collective contributions
to the overall function are analyzed. The arterial wall does not merely
behave as an elastic vessel, therefore viscoelastic behavior becomes
important. In this context, the viscous and elastic behavior of the
composite, i.e. the arterial wall, is discussed. This includes the
characteristics of a viscoelastic material, i.e. creep phenomenon, stress
relaxation, and hysteresis. These aspects are also applied to veins, except
the differences in distending pressures and collapsibility come into play.
Fundamental principles of fluid mechanics that includes classical laws
and governing equations are provided. This includes Poiseuille’s
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Historical Background and Book Contents 11

equation, Bernouilli’s equation and the determining laminar and

turbulent behavior in terms of Reynolds number. This is examined in
terms of the rheology of blood flow to the containing vessel properties.
Engineering methods of basic analysis in the time domain, the Fourier
analysis in the frequency domain are also included with examples that
apply to the vascular system.
Chapter 4 deals with the hemodynamics of large arteries. Aorta is the
largest artery whose distensibility and compliance facilitates ventricular
ejection in systole. The pulsatile wave transmission characteristics of
blood pressure and flow and simplified mathematical description, and
fundamentals of modeling are included. The description classic of the
windkessel model of the arterial system is first introduced. The
windkessel is the mostly used lumped model and its analysis is
elaborated in terms of total arterial system compliance and peripheral
resistance. Extension of this model to more sophisticated later models
include those that vary from a linear rigid tube model to a freely moving
or constrained thin- or thick-walled, viscoelastic tube model. Some of
these utilize Navier-Stokes equations describing fluid motion, Navier
equations describing wall movement, and the equation of continuity
describing the incompressibility of the blood. Experimental deviations
from linear models are compared to nonlinear theories, so as to identify
the regimes of nonlinearities.
Distributed model provide more precise descriptions of the pressure
and flow behavior under varied conditions. However, they are generally
complex and time-consuming in identify individual parameters, and less
useful in daily clinical settings. Reduced models that are useful for
practical and clinical applications are discussed. A recently introduced
model to analyze the arterial wall behavior subject to varying pressure
amplitudes in terms of pressure-dependent compliance is elaborated.
This helps to explain the cyclical stress placed on the arterial wall and
how the arterial wall adjust to rapidly changing pressure amplitudes.
Once models of the arterial system have been developed, it is
necessary to verify the validity and limitations of these models. Such
verifications depend often critically on the specific design of the
experiments for measuring relevant hemodynamic parameters. For all
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12 Dynamics of the Vascular System (2nd Edition)

practical purposes, these are pressure, flow, velocity, and vessel

dimensions.
Pulsatile pressure and flow and their transmission characteristics are
also the centerpoints of this chapter. Here, the peculiarities and features
associated with pressure and flow waveforms measured in their
respective anatomical sites are explained. How the vascular beds present
as load to impede blood flow is quantitatively described in terms of the
vascular impedance concept. Impedance, unlike resistance, which
remains constant, is complex with its magnitude changes with frequency.
Its usefulness is in its ability to include alterations in compliance,
resistance and inertance. This provides a useful description of the
changing arterial tree and individual vascular bed behavior. The manner
by which pressure and flow pulses propagate and reflect can also be
quantified.
Chapter 5 addresses the vascular branching aspects of the circulation,
whether of arterial, venous or capillary, except the latter two are dealt in
more detail in subsequent chapters. Branching geometry is examined in
terms of morphological measurements. The basic fluid mechanic aspects
of vascular branching in terms of pressure and flow transmission, shear
stresses are explained, best with illustrations and mathematical
formulations.
How efficient the pressure and flow pulses transmit depends on the
propagation and reflection characteristics through different arteries and
vascular branching junctions. Pulse wave velocity, a popularly used
index to describe the vascular stiffness, is dependent on the geometric
and elastic properties of the local arterial wall. Its measurement is
therefore, elaborated.
With differing vascular impedances, wave reflections arise, because
of the mismatching in impedances. The large peripheral resistances in
the arterioles are the principal sites contributing to reflections. Increased
wave reflection increases blood pressure amplitude and thus decreases
flow. This reduces the pulse transmission efficiency for the propagating
pulse. Pulse transmission through vascular branching junctions is
dictated by the local blood vessel properties. For forward traveling wave,
it is practically impedance-matched, resulting in optimal transmission.
For the backward traveling wave towards the heart, it is greatly
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Historical Background and Book Contents 13

attenuated at the vascular branching. Thus, the design of the arterial tree
is to facilitate pulse transmission to vascular beds. How this is optimized
is explained.
Chapter 6 deals with the less studied aspects of the venous circulation,
because of its low pressure and collapsibility and less life-threatening
behavior. Blood volume is the highest at rest in the venous circulation,
giving rise to its reservoir-like properties. The functional aspects of
collapsibility and venous valves are also discussed, in terms of pressure-
flow relations and the waterfall hypothesis. Modeling aspect is given in
terms of mathematical descriptions and hydrodynamic set-ups.
Chapter 7 deals with the microcirculation. The greatest drop in mean
blood pressure is found in the arterioles, hence justifying the vascular
waterfall interpretation. How the contributions of the microcirculation to
total peripheral resistance in its control of cardiac output are explained.
The capillary circulation, for its vast networking and exchange
environment is of utmost importance in terms of meeting the metabolic
demand of the supplying tissues. The aspects of diffusion and cellular
transports are of critical importance.
Thus, the design of the arterial tree is to facilitate pulse transmission
to vascular beds. These latter are discussed in detail for their importance
in both basic and clinical situations. Pulse pressure and flow remain
pulsatile even in the microcirculation, albeit to a much more reduced
amplitudes. The pulsatility facilitates capillary exchanges.
Chapter 8 deals with aspects of experimental methods, instrument-
ation and devices that are widely used for hemodynamic measurements.
Clinically useful methods and instruments for invasive and noninvasive
determination of blood pressure flow, and vessel dimensions are first
described. This begins with the commonly used noninvasive methods,
such as auscultatory method, the sphygmomanometer cuff method and
tonometry. Invasive blood pressure measurement system such as
catheter-pressure transducer combination is also evaluated in terms of its
frequency response.
Blood flow measurement with both electromagnetic flowmeter and
Doppler ultrasonic method are described, as well as the technique of
thermodilution measurement of cardiac output. The combination of
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14 Dynamics of the Vascular System (2nd Edition)

Doppler echocardiography and intravascular imaging devices now afford

simultaneous flow velocity and lumen diameter measurements.
The final chapter, Chapter 9, on the interaction of the arterial system
with the heart is a new addition to this second edition. Realizing that the
arterial system is only perfused thorough its coupling with the heart, the
aspect of the strength and timing of the cardiac contraction and its
ejection are crucial in overall vascular function. The manner how
ventricle and aorta interact will be explained, as well as the initial
impulse aspect of ventricular ejection. Thus, the dynamics of the vascular
system is only logically valid when the dynamics of the heart is included.
While not making an attempt to address the entire regime of cardiac
function, attempts are made to include the structural mechanical
properties and the mechanisms of coupling of the heart to the arterial
system, with particular emphasis on the left ventricle and the systemic
arterial system. The current debate on the clinical observations of heart
failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF) and differentiating from
those with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF) are analyzed in terms of
measurable hemodynamic parameters.
The aspect of cardiac assist device to aid the failing heart is well
appreciated with the introduction of the intra-aortic balloon pump
(IABP). IABP was selected because of the necessary consideration of
the interaction of the left ventricle and the arterial system. Our
experience with this in-series cardiac assist device is illustrated in terms
of hemodynamic function. The dynamics of the assisted circulation is
examined in terms of different modes of mechanical assistance.
The overall function of the dynamics of the vascular system depends
not only on the anatomical structure of the individual vessels, but also on
their multi-faceted functional interaction with neighboring and distant
vessels, and, of course, with the heart. This will become apparent to the
readers from the contents of this book.
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Chapter 2

Vascular Biology, Structure and Function

2.1 Anatomical Organization of the Vasculature

2.1.1 The Closed-loop Circulatory System

The heart, the arterial systems, the venous systems and the micro-
circulatory systems, coupled with neuro-humoral influences form the
entire circulation. Each is an important functional complement that the
circulatory system cannot be effectively described by its individual parts
alone. By virtue of the distributing vascular trees, oxygen, humoral
agents, and nutrients are transported to the vital parts of the body and the
waste products are removed. The heart provides the necessary energy.
In terms of the general structure components, Fig. 2.1.1 suffices to
provide an overview of the connectivity of the circulation.

2.1.2 The Heart

The heart in mammalian species has four chambers, the left ventricle
(LV), the right ventricle (RV), left and right atria (LA and RA). The left
ventricle pumps blood into the aorta through the aortic valve, perfuse the
systemic arterial system and the right ventricle pumps blood into the
main pulmonary trunk, perfuse the pulmonary arterial tree.
The shape of the left ventricle is in-between conical and semi-
ellipsoidal with its narrow end forming the apex of the heart. These
shapes, as well as cylinder and sphere, have been used in ventricular
modeling and in image processing. The left ventricular wall is about
three times as thick as the right ventricle, thus is able to develop a much
higher pressure. The thick interventricular septum, separating the left and

15
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16 Dynamics of the Vascular System (2nd Edition)

right ventricles, is more closely associated with the pumping action of

the left ventricle. The ventricle also contracts much more in the short-
axis (septum to LV free wall) or circumferential direction than the long-
axis or base-to-apex direction. The ventricles are made up of muscular
fibers. This so-called “myocardium” can be further divided transmurally
into the inner endocardium and the outer epicardium.

PULMONARY
CAPILLARIES

PULM.
ARTERIES

RA LA
VENA
CAVAE PULMONARY
VEINS
LV
RV AORTA

SYSTEMIC
CAPILLARIES

Fig. 2.1.1: Diagram illustrating the overall circulation. The four cardiac chambers (LV =
left ventricle, LA = left atrium, RV = right ventricle, RA = right atrium) and systemic and
pulmonary circulations are shown. Arrows indicate directions of blood flow.
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Vascular Biology, Structure and Function 17

There are four heart valves involved in the filling and pumping action
of the heart. The mitral valve, with just two leaflets, situates between the
left atrium and the left ventricle. It controls the flow between these two
chambers, but is a one-way valve. The tricuspid valve, as the name
implies, has three cusps. These are the posterior, the septal, and the
anterior. The cusps have similar geometric shapes. The right ventricle
and the low-pressure pulmonary arterial system on the other hand, are
separated by the pulmonary valve. The aortic valve separates the left
ventricle from the ascending aorta leading to the high pressure systemic
arterial system. These valves have three leaflets and are of similar shape.

Fig. 2.1.2: Blood pressure and blood volume distribution of the systemic circulation.
Notice the largest pressure drop occurs in the arterioles and the largest amount of blood
volume reside in the veins which serve as reservoir. From Rushmer (1972).
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18 Dynamics of the Vascular System (2nd Edition)

Fig. 2.1.3: Sketch of the mammalian arterial tree. Anatomic structures reveal branching
characteristics of the arterial system.

2.1.3 The Arteries

Anatomical descriptions of the human and other mammalian vascular
trees can be found in many textbooks. For the purpose of illustrating the
blood perfusion and pressure pulse transmission path, the major branches
of a typical mammalian arterial tree are shown in Fig. 2.1.3.
There are considerable similarities among the corresponding
anatomical sites of the mammalian arterial circulation (Li, 1996). The
root of the aorta begins immediately at the aortic valve. The outlet of the
valve sits the ascending aorta having the largest diameter. The first
branching off the aorta are the left and right main coronary arteries. The
aortic arch junction is formed by the ascending aorta, the brachiocephalic
artery, the left subclavian artery, and the descending thoracic aorta.
There are numerous branches come off the descending aorta at right
angles, renal arteries which perfuse the kidneys are such examples. The
distal end of the descending aorta is the abdominal aorta which forms the
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Vascular Biology, Structure and Function 19

aorto-iliac junction with left and right iliac arteries and its continuation.
In the human, it is a bifurcation. The femoral artery, a well-known
peripheral artery, because of its accessibility, continues from the iliac
artery. These are the arteries perfusing the upper thighs with the tibial
arteries peruse the lower legs and leading to the ankle arteries. The aorta
has, comparatively speaking, the greatest geometric taper, with its
diameter decreasing with increasing distance away from the ventricle.
The common carotid arteries are the longest, relatively uniform vessels,
with the least geometrical tapering. The brachial arteries perfuse the
upper arms leading to distal radial arteries. It is worth noting here that in
humans, both brachial and radial arteries are the most common sites for
noninvasive blood pressure monitoring, with radial in particular as
wearable sensor site.

2.1.4 The Veins

Arteries deliver blood from the ventricles to vascular beds, while veins
return it to the atria. Veins, unlike arteries are generally thin-walled and
have low distending pressures. They are collapsible even under normal
conditions of blood pressure pulsation.
The inferior vena cava is the main trunk vein. The superior vena cava
feeds into the right atrium and the main pulmonary vein leads into the
left atrium with oxygen enriched blood.
Veins have a greater total number than arteries and thus the venous
system has a much larger cross-sectional area. This results in a much
larger volume available for blood storage. Indeed, veins are known as
low pressure storage reservoirs of blood. Under normal physiological
conditions, the venous system contains about 75% of the total blood
volume in the systemic circulation with the systemic arterial system
constitutes some 15%. For this reason, veins are often referred to as
capacitance vessels. Venous return is an important determinant of cardiac
output. The pulmonary circulation contains about one quarter the blood
volume of the systemic circulation.
Veins have much thinner walls and less elastin than arteries. Because
of this, veins are stiffer than arteries. However, the low operating
9in x 6in b3250 Dynamics of the Vascular System: Interaction with the Heart (2nd Edn) b3250-ch02

20 Dynamics of the Vascular System (2nd Edition)

pressure and collapsibility allows veins to increase their volume by

several times under a small increase of distending pressure.
There are bicuspid valves in veins. These valves permit unidirectional
flow, thus preventing retrograde blood flow to tissues due to high
hydrostatic pressures. These valves are notably present in the muscular
lower limbs.

2.1.5 The Microvasculature

As stated previously, the function of the cardiovascular system is to
provide a homeostatic environment for the cells of the organism. The
exchange of the essential nutrients and gaseous materials occurs in the
microcirculation at the level of the capillaries. These microvessels are of
extreme importance for the maintenance of a balanced constant cellular
environment. Capillaries and venules are known as exchange vessels
where the interchange between the contents in these walls and the
interstitial space occur across their walls.
The microcirculation can be described in terms of a network such as
that shown in Fig. 7.1.1. It consists of an arteriole and its major branches,
the metarterioles. The metarterioles lead to the true capillaries via a
precapillary sphincter. The capillaries gather to form small venules,
which in turn become the collecting venules. There can be vessels going
directly from the metarterioles to the venules without supplying capillary
beds. These vessels form arteriovenous (A-V) shunts and are called
arteriovenous capillaries. The capillary and venule have very thin walls.
The capillary, as mentioned before, lacks smooth muscle and only has a
layer of endothelium. The smooth muscle and elastic tissue are present
in greater amounts in vessels having vasoactive capabilities, such as
arterioles. This is also the site of greatest drop in mean blood pressure.
For this reason, arterioles are the principal contributors to peripheral
vascular resistance that can effectively alter cardiac output.
The structural components of the microcirculation are classified
into resistance, exchange, shunt, and capacitance vessels. The resistance
vessels, comprising the arterioles, metarterioles, and precapillary
9in x 6in b3250 Dynamics of the Vascular System: Interaction with the Heart (2nd Edn) b3250-ch02

Vascular Biology, Structure and Function 21

sphincters, serve primarily to decrease the arterial pressure to the levels

of the capillaries to facilitate effective exchange.

2.2 Geometric and Mechanical Properties of Blood Vessels

2.2.1 Geometric Nonuniformity of Blood Vessels

The arterial system is a tapered branching system. Changes in lumen
size are often associated with branching and appropriate tapering. In the
normal arterial system, the branched daughter vessels are always
narrower than the mother vessel, but with slightly larger total cross-
sectional areas. This means that the branching area ratio, or the ratio of
the total cross-sectional area of the daughter vessels to that of the mother
vessel, is slightly greater than one. This has significance in terms of
pulsatile energy transmission.
Arterial diameters and lumen areas of the vascular tree can be
determined from different imaging modalities, such as angiography, CT
scan, ultrasound imaging or magnetic resonance imaging or from
implanted sonomicrometers. Arteries in man and in dog retract some 25
to 40 percent when removed. It is therefore necessary that in-vivo
lengths are restored and corresponding pressures are given for
mechanical measurements. Under normal conditions, higher distending
pressure leads to greater lumen diameter. Arterial vessel dimensions
have been provided for the dog (McDonald, 1974) and man (Westerhof
et al., 1969). The latter were used for constructing the analog model of
the human systemic arterial tree.
There are several branching junctions before the pulse reaches the
vascular beds. In relation to this, the number of generations of blood
vessels is of important consideration in terms of blood flow. These can
be found in Green (1950) and lberall (1967). Fractal studies of vascular
tree structures utilize much of this information.
Experimental data give typical values of internal diameters in a 20 kg
dog: ascending aorta, 15 mm; abdominal aorta, 8 mm; femoral artery, 3
mm; small artery, 0.1 mm. These values reveal an appreciable
“geometric taper” in the aorta from the root to the aorto-iliac junction
(Li, 1987). Together with branching, it contributes to the “geometric
9in x 6in b3250 Dynamics of the Vascular System: Interaction with the Heart (2nd Edn) b3250-ch02

22 Dynamics of the Vascular System (2nd Edition)

nonuniformity, observed throughout the arterial system. Corresponding

data for the humans can be extrapolated with the use of allometry (Li,
1996; Li et al., 2015).
The term “geometrical taper” is appropriate when applied to a single
continuous conduit, such as the aorta. The area change of the aortic cross
section is close to an exponential form and can be expressed as:

A( z )  A(0)e  kz / r (2.2.1)

where:
z = distance in the longitudinal axial direction along the vessel
r = vessel lumen radius in cm
k = taper factor, dimensionless
A(0) = the cross-sectional area at the entrance of the vessel in cm2
A(z) = the cross-sectional at distance z along the vessel in cm2

The vessel area is calculated, assuming a circular cross-section,

A  r 2 (2.2.2)

The taper factor k, can be readily obtained as

r A( o )
k ln (2.2.3)
z A( z )

Taper factor, k, for the aorta has been reported to be in the range of
0.0314-0.0367 for 20-30 Kg dogs (Li, 2000). Geometric taper factor can
change substantially during varied vasoactive conditions and in disease
conditions, such as atherosclerosis, stenosis or aneurysm. When
vasoactive drugs are administered which have differential effects on
large and small arteries, changes in taper factors from normal can be
quite pronounced.
Alternative formula to calculate taper factor per unit length, or ko, is
expressed as follows:
A( z )  A( 0) e k o z (2.2.4)
9in x 6in b3250 Dynamics of the Vascular System: Interaction with the Heart (2nd Edn) b3250-ch02

Vascular Biology, Structure and Function 23

Fig. 2.2.1: Schematic diagram illustrating a blood vessel with geometric taper. The vessel
diameter narrows with increasing distance (z) away from the origin. Geometric taper, an
exponential function of distance, is normally calculated from the change in cross-
sectional areas (A) as shown.

The reported values of ko obtained for the abdominal aorta, the iliac,
femoral and carotid arteries are shown in Table 2.2.1. These are
measured in vivo at a mean arterial pressure of about 90 mmHg. The
average body weights of dogs used are about 20 kg. It is obvious from
these data that the taper factor is smaller for smaller vessels. Carotid
arteries have the least taper. They are thus the best approximation to a
geometrically uniform cylindrical vessel.
Area ratios calculated for vascular branching junctions were about
1.08 at the aortic arch, and 1.05 at the aorto-iliac junction (Li et al.,
1984). These values are slightly larger than 1.0. The hemodynamic
consequences of these are discussed in Chapter 5.

Table 2.2.1: Measured external diameters and calculated taper factors in different
arteries. Lower taper factor indicates more uniform longitudinal geometry.

d (cm) ko (cm-1)
Abdominal aorta 0.777 0.027±0.007
Iliac artery 0.413 0.021±0.005
Femoral artery 0.342 0.018±0.007
Carotid artery 0.378 0.008±0.004
9in x 6in b3250 Dynamics of the Vascular System: Interaction with the Heart (2nd Edn) b3250-ch02

24 Dynamics of the Vascular System (2nd Edition)

2.2.2 Elastic Nonuniformity of the Blood Vessels

In the broadest sense, the arterial wall (Fig. 2.2.2) consists of elastin,
collagen, and smooth muscle embedded in a mucopolysaccharide ground
substance. A cross section reveals the tunica intima, which is the
innermost layer consisting of a thin layer (0.5-1 m) of endothelial cells,
connective tissue, and basement membrane. The next layer is the thick
tunica media, separated from the intima by a prominent layer of elastic
tissue, the internal lamina. The media contains elastin, smooth muscle,
and collagen.

Fig. 2.2.2: Sketch of the cross sections of the artery reveal three distinctive layers: the
innermost tunica intima, the thick tunica media, and the outermost adventitia.

The difference in their composition divides arteries into elastic and

muscular vessels. The relative content of these in different vessels is
shown in Fig. 2.2.3. All vessels, including the capillary, have
endothelium. The capillary does not have smooth muscle content and
has only a single layer of endothelial cells. The outermost layer is the
adventitia which is made up mostly of stiff collagenous fibers.
Elastic laminae are concentrically distributed and attached by smooth
muscle cells and connective tissue. Longitudinally, we find that the
number of elastic laminae decreases with increasing distance from the
aorta, but the amount of smooth muscle increases and the relative wall
9in x 6in b3250 Dynamics of the Vascular System: Interaction with the Heart (2nd Edn) b3250-ch02

Vascular Biology, Structure and Function 25

thickness increases. Thus, the wall thickness-to-radius ratio, or h/r is

increased. The net stiffness is also increased, accounting for the increase
in pulse wave velocity towards the periphery, as seen from the Moens-
Korteweg formula. The mechanical behavior of peripheral vessels is
largely influenced by the behavior of the smooth muscle, particularly by
its degree of activation.

Aorta Artery Sphincter Venule Vein Vena Cava

Arteriole
Capillary

Diameter 25 mm. 4 mm. 30µ 35µ 8µ 20µ 5 mm. 30 mm.

Wall 2 mm. 1 mm. 20µ 30µ 1µ 2µ .5 mm. 1.5 mm.
Endothelium
Elastic
Muscle
Fibrous

Fig. 2.2.3: Relative contents of endothelium, elastic and fibrous tissues, and smooth
muscle in different vessels. Large arteries have more elastic and fibrous tissues whole
smaller arteries have more smooth muscle in the tunica media. From Rushmer (1972).

2.2.3 Vascular Stiffness and Elastic Properties

Vascular stiffness is traditionally expressed in terms of Young’s modulus
of elasticity, which gives a simple description of the elasticity of the
arterial wall. Young’s modulus of elasticity (E) is defined by the ratio of
tensile stress (t) to tensile strain (t). When the relationship between
stress and strain is a linear one, then the material is said to be Hookian, or
simply, it obeys Hooke’s law of elasticity. This normally applies to a
purely elastic material. It is only valid for application to a cylindrical
blood vessel when the radial and longitudinal deformations are small
compared to the respective lumen diameter or length of the arterial
segment.
For the following analysis of the physical aspect of an artery, we shall
consider a segment of the artery represented by a uniform isotropic
cylinder with radius r, wall thickness h, and segment length 1. Isotropy
implies the uniform physical properties of the content of the arterial wall.
9in x 6in b3250 Dynamics of the Vascular System: Interaction with the Heart (2nd Edn) b3250-ch02

26 Dynamics of the Vascular System (2nd Edition)

The arterial wall is actually anisotropic, consisting of various

components discussed above, and the assumption of isotropy can not be
exactly true. For instance, in vascular hypertrophy and in hypertension,
selective thickening in tunica media is often observed. This can be
accompanied by an increase in collagen and a decrease in elastin, and/or
a change in the level of smooth muscle activation. These observed
changes are not uniform throughout the arterial wall, i.e. anisotropic.
Nevertheless, the isotropic assumption allows simpler quantitative
descriptions of the mechanical behavior of the arterial wall properties
and eases mathematical computation. The following formulae provide
basic physical definitions.
Young’s modulus of elasticity in terms of tensile stress and tensile
strain is:
t
E (2.2.5)
t

Stress has the dimension of pressure, or force (F) per unit area (A),

F
t  P (2.2.6)
A

where P is pressure, in mmHg or dynes/cm2. Thus, stress has the

dimension of mmHg or dynes/cm2 in cm-g-sec or CGS units. The
conversion of mmHg to dynes/cm2 follows the formula that expresses the
hydrostatic pressure above atmospheric pressure:

P=hg (2.2.7)

where h is the height in terms of the mercury column,  is the density of

mercury, or 13.6 g/cm3, and g is the gravitational acceleration. Hence
100 mmHg, or 10 cm Hg, is equivalent to

P = 100 mmHg = 10 x 13.6 x 980 = 133,280 dynes/cm2 or about 1.33 105

dynes/cm2. (2.2.8)

Of course, the choice in using N/m2 or pascal is also common.

9in x 6in b3250 Dynamics of the Vascular System: Interaction with the Heart (2nd Edn) b3250-ch02

Vascular Biology, Structure and Function 27

Strain in the longitudinal direction, or along the length of the blood

vessel is expressed as the ratio of extension per unit length, or the ratio of
the amount stretched longitudinally to the length of the original vessel
segment,
l
t  (2.2.9)
l
Strain in the radial direction, or perpendicular to the vessel segment
length, is the fraction of distention of the vessel lumen radius or
diameter. It is given by:
r
r  (2.2.10)
r

Fig. 2.2.4: Ultrasonic dimension gages recorded diameter of the aorta, together with
aortic blood pressure. Calculation of radial strain can be obtained from the fractional
change in diameter, D/D. This allows subsequent computation of pressure-strain elastic
modulus, Ep=P/(D/D), where P is the pulse pressure.

As an example, the radial strain calculated from an ultrasonic dimension

gage recording of the aortic diameter shown in Fig. 2.2.4 is

1.93
r   0.1 (2.2.11)
19.3
9in x 6in b3250 Dynamics of the Vascular System: Interaction with the Heart (2nd Edn) b3250-ch02

28 Dynamics of the Vascular System (2nd Edition)

In this case, the fractional change in diameter, or D/D, represents the

radial strain.
Since pulsatile pressure and diameter tracings are rather similar (but
with a distinct phase shift, i.e. pressure leads diameter or vice versa),
many have utilized imaging modalities, such as ultrasound or magnetic
resonance imaging of arterial lumen diameter changes to infer pressure
changes. This has been done clinically for the noninvasive estimation of
pulse wave velocity (PWV) – a pertinent index of vascular stiffness
(Chapter 4).
For a blood vessel considered to be purely elastic, Hooke’s law
applies. To find the tension (T) exerted on the vessel wall due to
intraluminal blood pressure distention, Laplace’s law is useful.
Laplace’s law describes the tension exerted on a curved membrane with
a radius of curvature. In the case of blood vessel, there are two radii of
curvature, one that is infinite in the longitudinal direction along the blood
vessel axis and the other is in the radial direction. Thus, Laplace’s law
for an artery can be written as:

T  pr (2.2.12)

This assumes the vessel has a thin wall or that the ratio of vessel wall
thickness (h) to vessel lumen radius (r) is small, or h/r  1/10. Here p is
the intramural-extramural pressure difference, or the transmural pressure.
When the vessel wall thickness is taken into account, the Lame equation
becomes relevant:

pr
t  (2.2.13)
h

This relation is particularly importance in the analysis of aneurysm

where increased lumen radius is accompanied by a decreased wall
thickness, such that a further increase in distending pressure can cause
rupture. In hypertension however, tension can be normalized by
increasing the arterial wall thickness, chronically leading to observed
vascular hypertrophy.
Other documents randomly have
different content
344), and probably represents the five days' work which constituted
the corve'e (Wilcken, u. s. p. 338). In two papyri in the Louvre of the
36th year of Amasis (535 B.C.) this corve'e is mentioned as p nbe n
hte ' the compulsory nbe ' (Corpus Papyrorum, Louvre, no. 14, pi.
xv, 11. 14, 15, and no. 15, pi. xvi, 1. 7), a tax on land the payment
of which has to be specifically provided for in agreements relating to
the transfer of land. Even at that early date it would seem that the
corve'e could be commuted for a money payment. It was certainly
so in Ptolemaic and Roman times, when the tax in money form was
known in Greek as XW/^TIKOV (Wilcken, u.s. p. 338), and in
demotic it is the tax we have here, in D 37, as nbe. That these are
the same is evident from the amount of the tax, which for the
The text on this page is estimated to be only 25.07%
accurate

28 II. DEMOTIC TEXTS was the peculiar sum of 6 dr. 4

obols annually (Wilcken, «. s. p. 334, Pap. Brit. Mus. ii, p. 107, iii, p.
55, Pap. Tebtunis, ii, p. 188), thus distinguishing this tax from all
others. In our ostracon (037) the payment, it is true, is only 5 dr. 4
obols, but in D 52 and in D 69 the payments, though paid by
instalments, in each case amount together to 6 dr. 4 obols.
Conclusive evidence, however, is furnished by Mr. Milne's Dendera
ostraca, since out of twenty-nine «fc-ostraca (unpublished) twenty-
four are for precisely 6 dr. 4 obols and three of the remainder are for
exactly half the amount. 4 This reading of the demotic word is
uncertain. Dr. Griffith in his Cat. Rylands Demotic Papyri, iii, p. 400,
suggests qt (?) with doubt ; but as this may lead to confusion with
the silver kite, I have preferred to use the Greek o/?oAos in a
bracket, seeing that there is no doubt as to the meaning. OSTR. D
52 (PL I). TAX RECEIPT. 1. a.'n Py-k s Hns-tef-nht a p shn 2. n n bt-2
pr ss 26 4 n >bt-3 pr ss 3 hr p ht cpe.t sttr i.t a qt'i.t a sttr i.t wth (?)
bt-4 sm ss 3 hr p nbe qt i| (o/J.) 4! a qt | (o/3.) 5.t 9. a qt i| (o/3.)
4!
The text on this page is estimated to be only 23.80%
accurate

TAX RECEIPT 29 Item, on day 35, for the silver (of the)
poll(-tax) i stater = i kite = i stater refined (?) (silver) again. Item,
Pharmuthi day 19, for the silver of the poll(-tax) i stater = i kite = i
stater refined (?) (silver) again. Item, Pachons day 26, for the
apomoira i kite = \ kite = I kite again. Item, the bath(-tax) i kite = J
kite = i kite again. Item, Mesore day 3, for the dyke-tax ij kite 4|
obols = J kite 5 obols 2 = i£ kite 4^ obols again. Item, day 24, for
the dyke-tax i kite 5^ obols = \ kite 1% obols3 = i kite 5^ obols
again/ 1 A.D. 38. 2 Strictly 5j obols, but the scribes often neglect
small fractions in these equivalences. 3 Strictly 2| obols. OSTR. D 4
(PL VIII). RECEIPT FOR ARREARS OF TAXES. 1. Ws-h s Hry 2. Ns-
Mn s Pa-by 3. n nt z n Pa-Zme 4. s Pa-Wn wn . . . . Pr-co 5. i a | a i
The text on this page is estimated to be only 25.11%
accurate

3o //. DEMOTIC TEXTS I can only suggest — but with great

diffidence— that it may be a writing of pr, corn, with a ' prosthetic
alif to represent the initial vowel of e&p* (e&pe, e&pi), pi. e&pHire.
3 * Treasury ' is not, perhaps, the most appropriate word, but it is
the customary translation bt-3 pr ss 18 hn p wbt(?) 6. sh hsp 35 5bt-
3 pr ss 18 ' Weser-he, son of Erieus, (and) Zminis, son of Pa-by, say
to Psenapathes, son of Zminis : there is .... of the King (artaba ?) i =
J = i again, which thou hast paid to the treasury of the King in the
City (Thebes), in year 35, Phamenoth day 18, among the . . . ,1.
Written year 35, Phamenoth day 18.' 1 This ostracon is of exactly
the same date and in the same handwriting as D 4, see notes there.
The givers of the receipt are the same, but the individual to whom
the document is given is different and also the subject of the
receipt* What wbt (or wb* ?) is, I cannot guess.
The text on this page is estimated to be only 24.66%
accurate

TAX RECEIPT 31 OSTR. D 28 (PL II). TAX(?) RECEIPT. 1 .

a.5n Pa-Mnt s P-msh a p r 2. Pr-co (.w.s. n t (?) nsytykwn n hsp 2,t
3. hr Zme yt (?) | & a yt (?) i £ a yt(?) | & bt-. .] >h ss 2 i *
Pamonthes, son of Pempsais, has paid to the royal thesaurus for the
..... -1 of year i for J£me barley (?) (artaba) J ^ := barley (?) \ •£$
= barley (?) § -fa again by the measure of the oiphi.2 Written in
year 3 of Domitian, who is august3 [month- . . of] verdure,4 day 21.'
1 This should be the name of a tax or other reason for payment The
reading of the demotic word (which is obviously a Greek word
transliterated) is certain except for the second letter s. Demotic ns is
the customary transliteration of £ and the word which naturally
suggests itself is tyriKov. There is some obscurity attaching to this
tax which rarely occurs under this name (see note in Pap. Tebt. ii, p.
335), the usual word being ^vrrjpd, but both taxes were paid in
money, whereas here the payment is made in corn of some kind ;
for though there is some doubt about the symbol for ' barley ', the
reference to the measure of the oiphi and the payment into the Oya-
avpos /?a originally ' protect ', seems in Ptolemaic times to have
come to mean simply * sacred ' when applied to divine beings. In
the bilingual inscriptions it is used as the equivalent of iepos
(Brugsch, Wtb. 1061). The formula nt hw is found on the cartouche
of Domitian and many other Roman emperors, and presumably
represents o-e/fooros (Augustus). On Greek ostraca Domitian is
usually qualified as 6 Kvptos or Kcucrap 6 4 i.e. a month between
Thoth and Choiak inclusive. OSTR. D 19 (PL II). RECEIPT FOR RENT.
1. a.5n P-me s Hr-Mnt hn p shn 2. a.'r-f n t qnb.t (?) n p tme n p wh
(?) 5s 3. n p wh (?) 5Mn P-^he n hsp 22 m (?) sh wy mbh
The text on this page is estimated to be only 25.59%
accurate

32 //. DEMOTIC TEXTS 4. 'Mn-R'-nsw^ntr-w rtb sw 50 a sw

25 a sw 50 cn 5. n p qws n hmt n h.t-ntr N e-w swt 6. st §p 5p sh
Ns Z-hr 7. sh hsp 22 5bt-i pr ss 24 8. s~P-hl-Hns hr-f (?) < Pmois,
son of Harmonthes, has paid under (?) the (contract of) lease which
he made with the council (?) of the village of " The old Estate (?)"2
on the estate (?) of Amon3 (called) Pois,4 in year aa,5 by deed of
cession6 before Amonrasonther,7 50 artabas of wheat = 25 (artabas
of) wheat = 50 (artabas of) wheat again by the bronze xofo-
measure 8 of the temple of Thebes, they being delivered.9 They are
received by reckoning (?).10 Written by Ns . . . ., (son of) Teos.
Written in year 22, Tybi day 24, by ...... son of Pkhelkhons, on his
account (?).' 1 Sethe, A. Z. xlix. 15. His arguments for this reading
seem to me convincing. 2 The reading and meaning of wh are
doubtful. The word occurs frequently in place-names. Spiegelberg
reads it hr ( face ', ' aspect ', and gives references (Rec. trav. xxxi,
pp. 98 and 104, n. xxix) to its use with the words 'North' and ' South
'. But this meaning does not satisfy other contexts, and the sign may
equally well be read wh, possibly with a meaning akin to oviog '
dwell, dwellingplace ', though as it is here applied to a landed
property containing a village, it must have a wider significance than
a mere house or group of houses. This village is named also in D 24
and D 100. 3 This property of the great Temple of Amon at Thebes
is mentioned on other documents, viz. Pap. dem. Berlin 3116, col. 6,
1. 21, and Ostr. Louvre 9086 (Revillout, Melanges, p. 80), and
another unnumbered (ibid. p. 191, p wfi(?) *hy)> and Pap. dem.
Brussels 5 (Spiegelberg, Demot. Pap. Mus. Roy. du Cinquantenaire,
pp. 20 and 24, note 21 tp *hy only). 4 Pois is the Greek form of the
demotic p *hy given by the Pap. Casati 14/5 (Bibl. nat. no. 5, only in
the genitive TTWCWS). It means 'the stables', no doubt large
erections for the great herds of cattle belonging to the Temple. Cf.
Spiegelberg. Pap. Reinach, p. 196. In Peyron, Pap. gr. Taurin, ii, p.
45, we have TTOCVTTWIS, perhaps p wh (hr ?) n p *hy. Cf.
Phtlologus, Ixiii, p. 530. 5 Judging by the writing I think the date is
probably late Ptolemaic, but as several kings reigned twenty-two
years and over, it is not possible to be more precise. 6 See Griffith,
Cat. Rylands Demot. Pap. iii, p. 255. 7 i. e. confirmed by oath in the
great Temple of Amon at Karnak. 8 Cf. Griffith, u. s. p. 397 ; also
Spiegelberg, Pap. Reinach, 39, 4/1 4 (he reads hnwsl), Ostr. Louvre
9083, 9066 (Revillout, Melanges,^. 92, no). M. Revillout was the first
to read the word as kos (= qws}. As to the ' bronze ' measure, see
Pap. Hibeh, i, p. 229.
The text on this page is estimated to be only 24.43%
accurate

RECEIPT FOR RENT 33 9 ' They ', i. e. ( the wheat ' ; suit
probably implies actual delivery at the cost of the tenant, cf.
Spiegelberg, u.s. p. 183. 10 The exact significance of this frequently
recurring sentence is not clear. The full phrase is st sp n >/ and
seems to mean that the amount has been received after being
counted or measured. OSTR. D 45 (PL V). RECEIPT FOR RENT. 1. >n
Hrklts 2. s 'Rystypws 3. hr p sm pe-f (?) km n t mrwt 4. 'py nt sh wy
mbh 5Mn-Rc-nsw-ntr-w 5. p ntr (o hnc pe-f 5rp a wc km 6. 5rp 2 hr
pe-f km 7. n p 5br (?) rt 5rp f 8. a >rp 2| st 3p n (?) 5p g. sh . . . . s
Hf-Hns hsp 15 a hsp 12 10. >bt-i ^h (?) ss 25 sh Hr . . . -Hns 1 1.
sh Wn-nfr s Hr sh Z-hr Hf-Hns ' Herakleitos,1 son of Aristippus, has
paid for the rent 2 of his garden in the corn-land 3 of Ophi,4 which
was conveyed5 before Amonrasonther the great god, together with
his wine(-tax ?) for a garden 2 (keramia of) wine 6 for his garden
(and) for the .... (of) the produce half a (keramion of) wine, making
a J (keramia of) wine. They are received by reckoning (?). Written
by .... son of Khapokhonsis, year 15 = year* i a,7 Thoth (?) day 35.
Written by Horus, (son of) ... -khons. Written by Onnophris, son of
Horus. Written by Teos, son of Khapokhonsis. 1 Or Heraklides. 2 Cf.
Spiegelberg, Pap. Reinach^ pp. 181-2, 240. If further proof were
required that sm = fK6piov, it is given by a bilingual in this
collection, G. 131, where the two words correspond. 8 Cf. Griffith,
Cat. Rylands Pap. in, p. 266, n. 15. 4 i. e. the modern Karnak.
The text on this page is estimated to be only 25.13%
accurate

34 //. DEMOTIC TEXTS 5 Usually sh wy means a deed

conveying all the property in the land possessed by the owner. Here
it seems to be a lease. 6 For this use of >rp as a measure of wine,
cf. Rosetta, 1. 18. 7 This double date applies to the regnal years of
Cleopatra III and Alexander I — IO2 B. C. OSTR. D 216 (PL V).
RECEIPT FOR RENT. 1. Thwt-stm s 2. By- of the Greek tax-collectors'
receipts (Wilcken, Griech. Ostr. i, p. 6 1 sq.). OSTR. D 49 (PL XI).
NOTICE OF PAYMENT OF RENT. y 1. Ssnq s Pa-^Mn p nt z n P-hb 2.
s P-sr-Mnt te-y mh p hwe Hr-nht 3. n t t.t I n p yh tkm a.5r-k t (?)
wp.t hr zz 4. p rrP n t msh n hsp 10 hr T-sr.t-^Mn-htp (?) 5. ta Ns-
Mn e-y st ty . . . . a hn 6. hsp 9 sh Ssnq s Pa-'Mn n hsp 9 >bt-3 sm
ss 19 * Sheshonk, son of Pamounis, saith to Phibis, son of
Psenmonthes, I am paying the surplus of Ho-nekht1 for the quarter
share of the land
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NOTICE OF PAYMENT OF RENT 35 (under) oil-crop, of

which thou doest the work,2 on the canal3 of the Crocodile for year
10 on behalf of Senamenothis (?), the daughter of Zminis. I will
discharge (?) 4 this .... until year 9. Signed Sheshonk, son of
Pamounis, in year gf Epiphi day 19.' 1 The name of a farm — more
clearly written in D 107 (pi. XI). Perhaps it should be read wh-nht,
cf. D 1 9, note 2 above. The farm was probably worked in common
by Sheshonk and Phibis under a farming agreement such as we have
in Griffith, Cat. Rylands Pap. nos. xxvi, xxxiv (and see reffs. there,
pp. 155-6). 2 i. e. in the full phrase / wp.t wyf (eienovoei) ' tillage '.
It means here the work on the crop, not ' work on the canal ', the hr
zz refers to the locality of the farm. 8 The word m*, the old word for
a canal (Griffith, u. s. p. 170, n. 3, and p. 299, n. 7), is only known
to me in published demotic documents in the compound me-wr =
/xotpis (Griffith, u. s. and p. 423 ; Spiegelberg, A. Z. xliii. 84) and
once alone (Spiegelberg, Demot. Pap.Mus. Roy. du Cinquantenaire,
no. 4, 1. 3). It seems to have survived chiefly in place-names. In this
collection, besides the present instance, we have in D 35 / m? t zl* '
the canal of the Scorpion', D 147^ m* u Hr-p-K(f) 'the canal of
Horus-the-bull '. From the context it seems usually, however, to
denote a tract of land named after the canal bounding it (?). ' The
crocodile ' has the feminine article and must refer to a crocodile-
goddess, cf. D 22, note 4. 4 lit. ' avert '. The meaning of this phrase
is probably ' I will be responsible for the payment of rent till the end
of year 9, if you do the work on the land*. 5 Phibis, son of
Psenmonthes, occurs on a number of these ostraca, including D 6
below, and as he is doubtless the same person in both, it is likely
that this is the ninth year of Augustus. OSTR. D 107 (PL XI).
RECEIPT FOR RENT. 1. [a.Jn P-hb s P-sr-Mnt 2. hn p hwe Hr-nht 3. p
yh tkm a 5r-f h-zz 4. t msh hr hsp ic.t tkm 5. 1 2 hr t t5.t e p yh rn-f
6. e-f sp 5p sh Nht-Mnt 7. s Hf-Hns n hsp lo.t 5bt-i §m ss 25 ' Phibis,
son of Psenmonthes, has paid from among the surplus of Ho-nekht 1
the land (under) oil crop which he worked2 on the Crocodile3 on
account of year 10, oil (artabas) 12 for the Jth share of the land
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36 II. DEMOTIC TEXTS named. It is received by reckoning

(?). Signed Nekhthmonthes, son of Khapokhonsis, in year 10,
Pachons 25.' 1 Cf. D 49, note i. 2 V-^here is evidently equivalent to
>r t wp.t in D 49. 3 = the place known as the ' Canal of the
Crocodile ' in D 49. This ostracon is much abbreviated and would be
unintelligible without D 49. Note the writing h-zz for hr-zz. OSTR. D
55 (PL IX). RECEIPT FOR A TAX(?). 1. E-f-cnh s Wm-p-mw (?) 2. p
nt z n Py-k s E-f-c[nh] 3. wn sttr 2.t p ms sp n [5p ?] 4. hn pe-k t'y
(?) n hsp 16 . . . ' Apynkhis, son of Wem-pmou (P),1 saith to Pikos,
son of Apynkhis : there are 2 staters (and) the interest received by
reckoning (?) for thy tax(?)2 of year 16 . . . .' 1 The name is
incomplete owing to the left-hand corner of the ostracon having
been broken away; but it can hardly be anything else. The tip of the
determinative of mw ' death ' remains. The name, which is new to
me, means ' Death has consumed ' and is parallel to Sy-p-mw (O-
ICTT/AOVS) * Death is sated ' (cf. Griffith, Cat. Rylands Pap. iii, p.
131, n. 7). The name P-sr-p-mw * the child of death ' occurs on an
ostracon (D 81) in this collection.. 2 This seems to be the same word
as in Brugsch, A. Z. xxix. 67-8, and Spiegelberg, Rec. trav. xxxi. 102
; cf. Id., Pap. Reinach^ pp. 181-2. It is written very like sm 'rent',
but the determinative is different. Here I think it is the silver
determinative. OSTR. D 56 (PL IX). RECEIPT FOR MONEY. 1 . Pa-Mnt
s Pa-p-zyt sme a 2. Pa-Zme s Py-k wn krkr 5 3. erme p . . . . sp n >p
hr P-'swr 4. s P-sr-'Np 5. sh n hsp 29 >bt-i pr ss 14
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RECEIPT FOR MONEY 37 ' Pamonthes, son of Papzoit,1

sends greeting to Pasemis, son of Pikos. There are 5 talents and the
. . . . 2 received by reckoning (?) for Pesuris, son of Psenenupis.
Written in year 39, Tybi day 14.' 1 lit. * he of the olive tree ', a name
I have not met elsewhere. 2 This word begins with w ; the gender
prevents it being wz.t ' interest ', It may be the same as the obscure
word in 1. 5 of D 61 (wbtl]. OSTR. D 22 (PI. II).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT OF WHEAT-LOAN (?). 1. hsp 18 >bt-i sm ss 12
2. Pa-Mnt s P-sr-'Mn-'py p nt z 3. n P-si°Mn s My-hs wn nte-k 4. rtb
n sw 22^ a c-y nte-y 5. t sp-w a p qws n Mn-k-Rc (?) 6. s (?) Pa-Mnt
p srtyqws erme 7. ne-w hwe-w hr (?) wn n yh a-te-k n-y 8. hn p
gsrrP n t 9. msh.t n hsp 18 10. n htr 't mn * Year 18, Pachons day
12, Pamonthes, son of Psenamenophis, saith to Psenamounis, son of
Miusis, there are (belonging) to thee 1 22^ artabas of wheat in my
charge and I will cause them to be received at the \ovsmeasure of
Menkere(?),2 son(?) of Pamonthes, the strategus, together with
their interest (?) 3 according to (?) (the) list of fields which thou
gavest me in the " canal-land (?) of the Crocodile"4 in the year 18
compulsorily without delay.' 1 i.e. 'I owe thee', cf. Spiegelberg, Pap.
Reinach, p. 199. 2 For corn-measures known by the names of
individuals cf. Cat. Greek. Pap. Brit. Mus. ii, p. 257. The reading of
the name Menkere (only the final syllable is doubtful) I owe to Dr. F.
LI. Griffith. Nothing else is known of this strategus unless, as Dr.
Griffith suggests, he be the same as Menkere, the father of Hamsauf
(?), whose tomb-papyrus (' Book of the Dead ') we have in the
Rhind papyrus (ed. H. Brugsch, 1865). Menkere is there called
governor (hieratic wr, demotic *o * great one ') of Hermonthis, but
his father's name is not given, only that of his mother. His son was
born in the thirteenth year of Ptolemy Neos Dionysos,
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38 //. DEMOTIC TEXTS 69-8 B. c. ; and if the eighteenth

year of the ostracon be taken to refer to the same king (64-3 B. c.),
I should not be inclined to contradict it on palaeographical grounds,
though it could perhaps be earlier. 3 The meaning of hw is uncertain.
The word itself is very general, ' excess, addition/ It might mean
cost of carriage, or in connexion with the measurement (cf.
Spiegelberg, Pap. Reinach, 1/13, p. 176), but is more likely interest
on the loan (Spiegelberg, Pap. Strassb. no. 44/5, Pap. Berlin, no.
3103/7, Rec. trav. xxxi, p. 92, and Griffith, Cat. Rylands Pap. no. xxi,
1. n). 4 The word gsm? is obscure. It has the determinative of water,
and being written out alphabetically it suggests a foreign word. It
possibly might stand for xdo-fjia, though the transliteration of x ^7 8
^s unusual. But it may also be a demotic writing for a hieroglyphic
*-j— ( ^ ' side of a canal ' (for m* — J^, see D 49, note 3 above),
and be equivalent to Tre/otxw/xa ' land bounded by a dyke or canal
', Pap. Tebt. i, p. 80. The ' canal-land (?) of the Crocodile (fern.) ' is a
place-name, the crocodile being no doubt a local goddess ; with t-
msh.t, cf. Lake Timsah. See also D 175, note i, p. 54 infra. OSTR. D.
24 (PL II). ACKNOWLEDGEMENT OF RECEIPT OF WHEAT. 1 . Twt s
Se-ny p mr pr-st.t (?) 2. n pr 5Mn n s 2-n sme a n rt-w n 3. t sme.t
wn rtb n sw 35 a sw 1 7! a sw 35 cn 4. e-te s n-y Ns-Mn s P-a.te-
'Mn-nsw-tw Z-hr s Mnhs 5. n shn-w n p wh (?) >s n hsp 30 hn pe
>p 6. n s 2-n st sp n 'p 7. Sh hsp 30 ^bt-2 sm ss 2 'Totoes, son of
Shenai,1 the chief baker2 oi the Temple of Amon, of the second 3
phyle, greets the bailiffs of the stock-farm (?).4 There are5 35
artabas of wheat = 17! (artabas of) wheat = 35 (artabas of) wheat
again, which Zminis, son of Petamestous, and Teos, son of Menhes,6
the collectors 7 of " The Old Estate (?) ",8 gave to me for year 30 in
my account of the second phyle. They are received by reckoning (?).
Written in year 30, Payni day 2.' 1 The literal meaning of the name
as written is ' These have departed ', but what the mythological
reference is, I do not know. Perhaps the Greek transcription is o-
evat^s (Cat. Greek Pap. Brit. Mus. iii, p. 164 — a woman's name
there). 2 The same title is found in Pap. Dem. Berlin, 3116, col. 2, 1.
18, with the
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT OF RECEIPT OF WHEAT 39 Greek

equivalent dpTo/c[o7ros] in Pap. Casati, vi, 1. i, and in Petrie,
Denderah, pi. XXVI. A 28, 29, lit. 'overseer of the fire-chamber ', i. e.
kitchen or bakery. The reading of this last may perhaps be e-st.t (?),
cf. Spiegelberg, Cat. Cairo Dem. Pap. no. 30801. 1 The numeral is
written with the old form of the ordinal numbers, cf. Griffith, Cat.
Rylands Pap. p. 417. In what sense Totoes belonged to the second
phyle is not clear, probably not as Chief Baker (cf. Otto, Priester u.
Tempel im Hellenistischen Aegypten, i. 283), but he may have been
priest as well, though it does not seem probable in so large an
institution as the Temple of Amon at Thebes. * This word occurs
again on two other ostraca in this collection (D 78, D 157) and Ostr.
Louvre 9083 (Revillout, Melanges, p. 92). Perhaps it is only a variant
of the word smyme.t which is found on an ostracon at Cairo (A. Z.
xxix. 70), and which Brugsch translates Gehoft ' farm-buildings ',
deriving it doubtless from which is found on the Pianchi stela with
the meaning ' stables ' n or ' stud-farm', cf. Brugsch, Wtb. 1390,
Suppl. 1186. 5 i. e. 'I have in my charge ', * I account for '. The
rent-collectors of the village which was on the estate of the Temple
(p. 32 supra) would ordinarily hand over the rents, which were paid
in kind, to the Temple-bailiffs ; but in this instance they handed
these 35 artabas direct to the Chief Baker for his use, and hence he
addresses this ostracon to the bailiffs. 6 These two officials are
named also on D 100 and the former of them on D 103 also. On D
100 the name Menhes is clearly written in its more familiar form
Menkhes. 7 Cf. Spiegelberg (A. Z. xlii. 57), who takes the shn to
have been 'finance officials ', perhaps taxation officials,
corresponding to the Xoycvrat who were the ordinary tax-collectors
of Ptolemaic times (Grenfell and Hunt, Fayum Towns, p. 323). Here
they are clearly collectors of rents or other dues belonging to the
Temple. 8 Cf. p. 32 supra, D 19 and notes 2, 3 ibid. OSTR. D 51 (PL
II). ACKNOWLEDGEMENT OF RECEIPT OF WHEAT. •%/ 1. Ssnq s Hr
2. s Ssnq n nt z n P-sr-Mnt (?) 3. s P-sr-'MrPpy wn rtb sw if n p qws
4. n 29 e-te-k s n-n hr P-a.te-'Mn (?) p mr sn Mnt 5. p hm-ntr 2-n hn
n sw a.te-f n-n n p hc Mnt 6. hsp 9 st sp n 'p sh n hsp 9 ^bt-i sm ss
26 4 Sheshonk son of Hor (?), [and X.] son of Sheshonk, say unto
Psenmonthes son of Psenamenophis : there are J ij artabas of wheat
by the
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4o //. DEMOTIC TEXTS 29-Xo£s measure 2 which thou hast

given to us on behalf of Petamounis (?), the chief priest3 of Montu
(and) second prophet, among the wheat which he gave us for the
festival of Montu 4 of the 9th year. They are received by reckoning
(?). Written in year 9, Pachons day 21.' 1 i. e. ' we have '. 2 The
artaba varied in size locally and hence was frequently defined. What
was the meaning of this particular measure, which occurs frequently,
is obscure. It is discussed in Griffith, Cat. Rylands Pap. iii, p. 397,
and references given there. 8 The mr-sn is represented in the
Canopus and Rosetta decrees by dpx^pevs, and etymologically by
the word Aeo-ows. He was administrator as well as chief priest of
the temple and was elected annually (Arch. f. Papyrusforschung, ii,
p. 122 ; cf. Griffith, u. s. p. 65, note 3). 4 There is, as far as I know,
no record of the date of the annual feast of Montu at Thebes. From
this it would appear that it was possibly in Pachons. OSTR. D 100
(PI. II). ACKNOWLEDGEMENT OF RECEIPT OF WHEAT. i. Se-ny s
Hns-p-hrt p gwt n pr Mnt nb 2 s tp p nt z n Ns-Mn s P-a.te-^Mn-
nsw-tw 3. Z-hr s Mnh n shn-w n p wh (?) 5s wn rtb 4. n sw 10 a sw
5 a sw 10 cn e.te-tn n-y hr 5. p fy pr Mnt nb . . . . s tp 6. st sp 5p 7.
sh n hsp 30 5bM sm ss 21 'Shenai, son of Khespokhrates, the gwt1
of the temple of Montu, lord of .... 2 (of) the first phyle saith to
Zminis, son of Petamestous, (and) Teos, son of Menkhes,3 the
collectors of " The Old Estate " : there are 10 artabas of wheat = 5
(artabas of) wheat = 10 (artabas of) wheat again, which you have
given me on account of the bread-rations4 (of) the temple of Montu,
lord of .... (for) the first phyle. They are received by reckoning (?).
Written year 30, Pachons day 21.' 1 Cf. Spiegelberg in A. Z. xxxvii.
36. The meaning is uncertain ; from similar hieroglyphic titles
Spiegelberg thought it might mean a workman, but in demotic
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT OF RECEIPT OF WHEAT 41 at any

rate the title is always associated with a temple or a god. In his later
Cat. Demotic Papyri at Cairo (no. 3 1 080) Spiegelberg translates it '
to-Priester ', and as its holder is described as belonging to a phyle (D
103 below), he was probably a priest. 2 Montu is usually ' lord of
Wese (Karnak) ' or ' of Hermonthis ', or rarely ' of Totun ' (Cat. Dem.
Papyri Cairo, u. s.), but I cannot read any of these in the present
signs. 3 See D 24 and notes 6 and 7, p. 39, supra. For the 'Old
Estate', cf. D 19, note 2 (p. 32). 4 Cf. D 31, note 6, infra, p. 52.
OSTR. D 103 (PL II). ACKNOWLEDGEMENT OF RECEIPT OF WHEAT.
1. Se-ny s Hns-p-hrt p gwt n pr 2. Mnt s . . . . p nt z n Ns-Mn s P-
a.te-^Mn-nsw-tw 3. [p] shn n (?) t (?) my.t rs n hsp 30 wn rtb n sw
5^ ~ 4. [a sw] 2| | -— a rtb n sw 5! ~ cn e.te-k [n-y] 5. [hr p] fy n
pr Mnt nb . . . 6. sh hsp 30 5bt-4 pr (?)... ' Shenai, son of
Khespokhrates,1 the gwt of the temple of Montu, (of the) .... phyle 2
saith to Zminis, son of Petamestous,3 the collector of the Southern
Island 4 for year 30 : there are 5^ T^ artabas of wheat [= wheat
(artabas)] 2f J^ = 5iT^ artabas of wheat again, which thou hast
given [to me on account of the] bread-rations (?) 5 of the temple of
Montu, lord of .... Written in year 30, Pharmuthi (?)....' 1 Cf. D ioo,
supra, p. 40. 2 In D ioo Shenai is said to belong to the first phyle.
Here the reading looks like ' fifth phyle ', but the number is faint,
and I do not venture to insert it. It would be unprecedented to find a
man belonging to two phylae in succession (cf. Otto, Priester u.
Tempel, i. 31) except in the circumstances arising out of the
formation of the fifth phyle (Canopus decree), and the date does not
allow of that explanation here; but see P.SJB.A. xxxi. 219, where a
priest appears to belong to two phylae at once. A few months only
separate this ostracon and D ioo. 3 Cf. D 24. 4 Not referred to
elsewhere, I believe. 5 Cf. D 31, note 6, p. 52 infra. G
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42 //. DEMOTIC TEXTS OSTR. D 135 (PL V). ORDER TO

DELIVER WHEAT. 1. a.nw a p gy n t rtb n sw 2 2. Py-k s My a h p
tbhe nte-y 3. t.t-f (?) n-t.t-k SoOrjvai TTLKCDTL ras Svo apra/3(as) '
See a to the giving 2 of two artabas of wheat (to) Pikos, son of
Moui, according to the petition which I have received (?) from thee.
(Greek) 3 To be given to Pikos, the two artabas/ 1 The old form of
imperative retained in the Coptic 3 Vm^ actio dandi : so far only the
Bohairic form -xm^ seems to have occurred (Peyron). 3 Mr. Milne
has kindly read the Greek. There is room for the two missing letters
at the end, and possibly a trace of them exists. OSTR. D 12 (PL III).
LAND MEASUREMENT. 1 . hsp 1 1 .t ">bt-4 'h ss 20 n hy-w n P-twl
2. n P-si°Np s Py-k erme (?) pe-f 're nt hn 3. p yh cS-">hy mh-i n rs
* Year 1 1, Khoiak day 20, the measurements of Ptollis for (?)
Psenenupis,
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LAND MEASUREMENT 43 son of Pikos, and (?) his

companion, which are in the first field of Asychis on the South.1 =
total (?)2M (arura)3 its adjacent (?) 4 (piece) i ^4 = total (?)«
(arura) East (?)... i-TT §1 = total (?) £f (arura) its adjacent (?)
(piece) tl H = total (?) A (arura).' 1 This system of recording land
measurements has been explained by Kenyon in his Cat. Greek Pap.
Brit. Mus. ii, p. 129. The dimensions of the sides of each plot are
written round a line representing the plot. The unit of measurement
is the h.t= 100 cubits linear*, or should be, strictly speaking, as the
scribe employs the fractions of the arura here and in all the
instances I have met with, the arura having a set of symbols for its
fractions distinct from those for ordinary fractions, which should
properly be used for those of the h.t. Since the arura was i oo xi oo
cubits, or a square h.t, it comes to the same thing for practical
purposes, though it is logically indefensible, if he says \ (ar.) x-| (ar.)
= J arura, when he means -| (h.t) x \ (h.f) = J arura. It is only a
substitution of the symbols he is working with. The area is obtained
by multiplying together the means of the two opposite numbers.
When the two opposite sides of a plot have the same length, the
figure is written out once and a dot placed on the other side of the
line. Other examples of land measurement may be found in Cat.
Greek Pap. u. s. and Pap. Tebt. no. 87 (Greek), in Brugsch,
Thesaurus, iii-567 (hieroglyphic), Hall, Greek and Coptic Ostraca, p.
128 (Coptic), and in demotic, in this collection are several examples.
2 A symbol having a strong likeness to the fraction f (ar.) followed by
a dot comes in each case between the preposition a (' amounting to
') and the result. It must stand for ' total ' or * superficies '. 3 None
of the fractions are carried beyond the nearest -^. Strictly the first
result should be T%, i.e. TJg more than is set down. The second
result is overstated by TJ^, the third by T|^, and the fourth is
understated by -£$. On other ostraca the measurements are carried
down to ^ arura. 4 This is speculative : I cannot read it. * This h.t,
the linear measurement, must not be confused with the mh ty or
square cubit, a unit of surface. This ht is a different word altogether.
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44 //. DEMOTIC TEXTS 5 Against each of the first three

measurements some notes are recorded in the margin; but as I do
not feel at all sure of their reading, I give them under reserve here.
To the first: sp . . . . mh 5o(?) n ht 'remainder .... 50 square cubits',
and below it a st \ J ....'= -| arura', which I take to mean that 50
square cubits have for some reason or other been omitted from the
measurement and also f ar. of land unfit to be included owing to it
being desert, saltmarsh, &c., indicated by the word I cannot read. To
the second : sp a mh 80 (?) ' remainder So (?) cubits ' and . . . . st \
^ ' . . . . arura ^ '. To the third : sp . . . . mh 80 (?) ' remainder ....
80 (?) cubits '. OSTR. D 23 (PI. IV). ALLOTMENT (?) OF LAND. 1.
a.rh-w a P-sr-Mnt s P-hb st 3 a st i| a st 3 cn 2. sh uje which is
found followed by e in the same sense, e.g. Z. 419, qcooTit ^^p -
xenKcogT irrregen^ n^pcouje eneTejULTTOTroTWig CCWTJUL ' for
he knows that the fire of Gehenna will be meted out to those who
have refused to hearken'. The derivation of pu>uje is unknown and
may come from this special use of rh. (The
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ALLOTMENT OF LAND 45 other verb pcoiye 'to see to V

consider', js associated withr$ by Brugsch, Wtb. p.868, and by
Griffith, Cat. Ry lands Pap. iii. 367, but this word, whether it have the
same origin or not, has become differentiated in meaning.) Dr.
Griffith has kindly referred me to what is perhaps a similar use of the
word rh in earlier times, Beni-Hasan, i, p. 59, where Chnemhotep
relates how the king 'came .... and caused one city to know its
boundary with another city, establishing their landmarks as heaven,
reckoning their waters (r$ mw-sn) according to that which was' in
the writings ', &c., i. e. allotting their rights in the water for irrigation
purposes. Probably the sense is approximately the same here, and
these ostraca may refer to rectifications of boundaries of land
disturbed by the inundation. The amount of land is sometimes so
small as to exclude the idea that they can be allotments of kleroi or
of farms to royal georgoi. This ostracon is one of a considerable
group. Revillout has published four examples from the Louvre, nos.
8007, 9070, 9083, and 9152 (Melanges, pp. 108, 97, 92, 99), but I
cannot agree with many of his readings. There are sixteen examples
in this collection, and five others, unpublished, are known to me.
They usually state that so much land has been adjudged (?) to X.
This formula is expanded in Louvre 9083, 9152 to 'there has been
adjudged (?) to the (land-) measurements' (a n hy) of X, &c., and in
D 41 here we have 'there has been adjudged (?) for the
compensation of the measurements (n p >s n hy-w) of the year 23
of Caesar to X '. In Louvre 9070 we read ' There have been
adjudged (?) to X for the tillage (wp.t ivy
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46 II. DEMOTIC TEXTS OSTR. D i (PL IV). ALLOTMENT (?)

OF LAND. 1. a.rh-w 'Pwlnys s Th5m 2. rtb sw 10 (?) -J- Zme q st 3 a
st i| a st 3 cn 3. sh S-ws(r) s bt-2 pr 4. sh Hr-s-'S s Hns-te-f-nht a q
st 3 5. a st i| a st 3 cn n hsp 35 6. sh P-sr-Hr s P-sr-Hns a q st 3 a st
if a st 3 Mn->py s Hr-Thwt st 3 8. a st if st 3 cn a h p nt hry 'There
have been adjudged (?) (to) Apollonius, the son of Teham l 2 (in)
Jeme high-land 3 aruras = ij aruras = 3 aruras again. Written by
Senwosre, son of Ankh-Hapi, year 35 Mechir. (2nd hand) Written by
Harsiesis, son of Khons-tef-nekht, for high-land 3 aruras = i| ar. = 3
ar. again in the year 35. (3rd hand) Written by Psenuris, son of
Psenkhonsis, for high-land 3 aruras = i-| ar. = 3 ar. again. (4th hand)
Written by Psenamenophis, son of Harthotes, 3 aruras = i-|ar. ( = )
3 ar. again according to the above.' 1 The final letter of this name
may perhaps be n instead of m ; if so, it could represent ®eW. 2
The words rtb sw 10 (?) J, ' ioj (?) artabas of wheat ', look as though
they had been inserted later, probably after the ostracon was signed.
It may represent a rent reserved on the land allotted, but if so, it is a
very high one. Cf. D 44, note 2, p. 49 infra. 3 Cf. Spiegelberg, Pap.
Elephantine, p. 15, note ii. OSTR. D 25 (PI. IV). ALLOTMENT (?) OF
LAND. 1. arh-w a P-hr s Ns-ne-w-hmn-'w Zme 2. q st i|-J-£ a st \\-h-
h a st if * f6- sh S-ws(r) s
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