Paragraph writing Semester 1 booklet

Prof. Ilyass Bouzghaia

Groups: 3 & 4
2022 / 2023

Course description
Objectives

This course aims to enhance the students’ skills of writing. During the sessions of the
semester, students will be introduced to the structure of a paragraph and the writing
process, including sentence structure, paragraphing, unity and cohesion, punctuation, and
mechanics. Students will eventually learn and practice how to compose well-written
paragraphs.

Course content

1. Introduction: Diagnosing challenges and setting goals

2. Academic writing
3. The Writing Process
4. Pre-writing strategies
5. Paragraph structure (1 & 2)
6. Types of sentences (sentence level skills)
7. Punctuation and capitalization
8. Sentence problems
9. Unity and coherence
10. Types of paragraphs
11. Review, Practice and Mock exam

Course methodology and assessment

This course will be taught in the form of an interactive lecture-discussion sessions in

which students’ participation is essential. The course will rely on regular times allocated
for practice to assess the students’ acquired competencies. In addition to the handouts
given, students are strongly encouraged to take notes while in class.
The course will be assessed taking into consideration the students’ participation in class,
regular quizzes, home assignments, and the final term examination.
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 Academic writing

Features of Academic writing

 It has few personal pronouns, such  It uses references and quotes to

as ‘I’, ‘we’ or ‘they’. show this.
 It is highly structured & has a very  It features no jargon or slang
formal style. words. It has no colloquialisms. e.g.
 It is impersonal and non emotional The kids in school nowadays. go
-usually fact based. nuts , Wanna – want to.
 Its grammar makes greater use of  No grammatical contractions e.g.
the passive tense. ‘can’t, won’t, doesn’t etc
 It is often research based and not Demonstrates high levels of critical
opinion based writing. thinking and critical analysis.

Example of a paragraph not respecting academic writing

Example of a paragraph respecting academic writing

It is imperative that students at university gain adequate study skills as well as effective
study habits. There are several ways that this can be achieved. Some useful techniques that
should be acquired are mind-mapping and effective note- taking methods. Furthermore,
building effective communication skills are an essential element to university life which
are also transferred later in life into the working environment. Therefore, it can be stated
that learning, building and maintaining a range of study skills will enhance students’
learning, participation rates and success whilst undertaking tertiary education.

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 Common mistakes university students make
Native speakers =
• Poor overall structure
• Poor a cademic style – too casual
• Informal use of vocabulary
• Writing in the 1 st person ‘I’

Non-native speakers ( the above… plus ) =

• Subject verb agreement – They has a lecture.
• Use of articles (a, an, the)
• Preposition errors (in, for, at)
• Countable /uncountable
• Verb tense
• punctuation

Essential elements of academic writing

 Good level of accurate grammar, spelling and punctuation
Unlike speaking, writing usually requires a good command of grammar, spelling and
punctuation. Like anything, to improve your level in this you need to practice! Also, you
need to
• Read what you want to write.
• Write often in the style required.
• Use grammar books to self-teach.
• Get friends/peers to check/ tutor

 Passive voice
In academic writing, passive voice is used to describe a process, the results of study, or
similar material which is objective in nature. But active voice is used to describe actions.

 Increased nominalisation
Nominalisation is the process of turning verbs (and adjectives) into their respective noun
forms. This makes the ideas more abstract and sound more formal/academic

Which is the nominalised version?

• A) Researchers examined evidence relating to modern building design which
showed that...
• B) An examination of evidence relating to modern building design showed that…

 Develop a cautious style

To be cautious in your style you need to avoid generalizations & biased statements
Examples of generalizations & biased statements:
• People living in hotter climates are happier than people in colder ones.
• Small sized businesses are not as profitable as larger ones.

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 • Poor education leads to crime.

Developing a cautious style is necessary in many areas of academic writing

Examples of using a cautious style:
• People living in hotter climates tend to be happier than ones living in colder countries.
• Studies suggest that smaller companies may not be as profitable as larger ones.
• Poor levels of education may be a resulting factor in higher crime rates in some instances.

 Effective Vocabulary

In academic writing the vocabulary used is not like the vocabulary you can hear in the
streets or in informal situations.
Informal Formal/ Academic
kids children
University is great an excellent place for…
There are many Numerous / several / a number of
Students get knowledge Acquire / gain / attain / obtain
Ask a question Enquire about

Check Verify

Help Assist

The Writing Process

Writing is not a last minute work. It is a process that requires following some steps to be
complete.

 The first step in the writing process is the pre-writing.

In this stage, one needs to go through three steps:
1. Choose a topic. Before you write, your teacher gives you a specific assignment or some
ideas of what to write about. If not, choose your topic yourself. STEP
2. Gather ideas. When you have a topic, think about what you will write about that topic.
3. Organise. Decide which of the ideas you want to use and where you want to use them.
Choose which idea to talk about first, which to talk about next, and which to talk about
last.

 The second step in the writing process is drafting.

Write your paragraph from start to finish. Use your notes about your ideas and
organisation. Bear in mind that drafts are for the writer not for the corrector, this is why
drafts are not perfect. Drafting can take more time because the last version will be based on
it.

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 The third step in the writing process is editing.

Editing means reviewing the structure and content of your paragraph. Read what you have
written in the draft silently to yourself or aloud, perhaps to a friend. Look for places where you
can add more information, and check to see if you have any unnecessary information. Getting a
reader’s opinion about your work is a good way to know if your writing is clear and effective.
Learning to give opinions about other people's writing helps you to improve your own.

 The forth step in the writing process is Rewriting.

Use your ideas from step five to rewrite your text, making improvements to the structure and
content. You might need to explain something more clearly, or add more details. You may even
need to change your organization so that your text is more logical. Together, this step and the
previous one can be called editing.

 The fifth step in the writing process is proofreading.

Read your text again. This time, check your spelling and grammar and think about the words
you have chosen to use. Make final corrections and check that you have corrected all the errors
you discovered and make any other changes you want to make. Now your text is finished.

Pre-Writing strategies
Pre-writing is the first step in the previous section about the writing process. Pre-writing
strategies will help you gather the ideas about a certain topic and organize them before you
start writing. There are three pre-writing strategies: freewriting, brainstorming, and listing &
outlining.

o FREEWRITING (What & Why)

• Freewriting is writing continuously, letting thoughts unselfconsciously flow, without regard to

spelling, grammar, style etc. It gives you confidence in your ability to explore a topic. It also
helps you develop your own unique writing voice.

• How to freewrite? Write a few words at the top of the page to get you started (the general
topic). Next, begin writing whatever comes into your head when you think about this topic
without any “internal critic”. After that, read back over it and look for (Underline or circle) ideas
or points that you might include in your final writing.

o BRAINSTORMING (What & Why)

• Brainstorming is about writing down whatever comes to mind without stopping in the
form of a list of words and phrases, not a string of sentences. This will help you see the
main ideas that capture your interest. This will also help you summarize the main
concepts.

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 • How to brainstorm? Find Word Associations. Get more information, inspiration, and
actionable tips. Use Prompts to think of your next brilliant idea. Visualize the final
organization of your writing based on the scattered ideas.

o LISTING & OUTLINING (What & Why)

• Listing & outlining is a tool in the writing process to list and organize your ideas,
visualize your paper's potential structure, and to further flesh out and develop points. It
allows you to understand how to connect information to support the thesis statement.

• How to list and outline? Begin making a list of everything you think related to the
topic using keywords or phrases (bullet-list format). Once you have made your list, go
back and organize it into logical units. Finally, just arrange the ideas in the body
paragraph into a logical order.

Paragraph structure (1)

What is paragraph?
 A paragraph is a group of related sentences that discuss one (and usually only one) main
idea.
 A paragraph can be as short as one sentence or as long as ten sentences.
 A paragraph may stand by itself. A paragraph may also be one part of a longer piece of
writing such as an essay or a book.
 The number of sentences is unimportant; however, the paragraph should be long enough to
develop the main idea clearly.

The Three Parts of a Paragraph: All paragraphs have a topic sentence and supporting
sentences, and some paragraphs also have a concluding sentence.

1. The topic sentence

states the main idea of the paragraph. It not only names the topic of the paragraph, but it also
limits the topic to one specific area that can be discussed completely in the space of a single
paragraph.
The part of the topic sentence that announces the specific area to be discussed is called the
controlling idea.
Notice how the topic sentence of the following model states both the topic and the controlling
idea:
Gold (the topic), a precious metal, is prized for two important characteristics (the
controlling idea).

2. Supporting sentences

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Supporting sentences develop the topic sentence. That is, they explain or prove the topic
sentence by giving more information about it. Following are some of the supporting sentences
that explain the topic sentence about gold:
• First of all, gold has a lustrous beauty that is resistant to corrosion.
• For example, a Macedonian coin remains as untarnished today as the day it was made 25
centuries ago.
• Another important characteristic of gold is its usefulness to industry and science.
• The most recent use of gold is in astronauts' suits.

3. The concluding sentence

The concluding sentence signals the end of the paragraph and leaves the reader with
important points to remember:
In conclusion, gold is treasured not only for its beauty but also for its utility.
Concluding sentences are customary for stand-alone paragraphs. However, paragraphs that
are parts of a longer piece of writing usually do not need concluding sentences.

Paragraph structure (2)

1. The topic sentence

Link the following elements to formulate a complete topic sentence

 A topic sentence contains both a topic and a controlling idea. It names the topic and then
limits the topic to a specific area to be discussed in the space of a single paragraph.

 A topic sentence is the most general statement in the paragraph because it gives only the
main idea. It does not give any specific details

2. Supporting sentences

Supporting sentences explain or prove the topic sentence. One of the biggest problems in
student writing is that student writers often fail to support their ideas adequately. They need
to use specific details to be thorough and convincing.

Types of supporting sentences: Explain / Describe / Give reasons / Give facts / Give examples
/ Define

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 Supporting sentences Types

▪ The family moved from the village to the capital for economic reasons. Explain

▪ She lived in a lovely three-story castle surrounded by a forest. Describe

▪ Lukas finally quit his job because of the stressful working conditions. Give reasons

▪ More than ten percent of the university’s student population is international. Give facts

▪ Oranges and grapefruits grow in California. Give examples

▪ Many tourists visit Bangkok, which is the capital and largest city in Thailand. Define

Supporting sentences answer a question that can be implied from the topic sentence.
Consider this example.

Topic sentence Question

Gold, a precious metal, is prized for two
→ What are the two characteristics gold is
important characteristics prized for?

Supporting sentences should always stick (be related) to the main idea of the topic
sentence. Consider this example

Strict Parents
Fortunately, my parents were very strict with me when I was a child. I think that they
were protective because I was an only child. However, at that time, it felt like I was in prison.
(1) I had to come straight home after school and immediately do my homework. (2) After I
finished my homework, I was allowed to watch only one hour of television. While my friends
were playing video games or watching cartoons, I was usually doing chores around the house
to help my mother. (3) This included doing some of the laundry and ironing, mowing the lawn,
and helping to prepare dinner. (4) My father was an architect, and my mother was a housewife.
Looking back, I am not sorry that my parents were strict with me because I think it was the
best way to bring up a child.
 Sentence (4) is the Unrelated sentence because the writer’s parents’ occupations are
not related to how the writer was treated. There is no relationship between being an
architect and being a strict parent.

3. The concluding sentence

The concluding sentence is the last sentence of the paragraph. It concludes, or wraps up, a
paragraph. It lets the reader know that you have finished talking about the idea introduced by
the topic sentence. A concluding sentence often has one of the following important purposes

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1. It restates the main idea: Perhaps the easiest concluding sentence to write is one that
simply restates the main idea or summarizes the main points of the paragraph. The
following transitional words and phrases are commonly used at the beginning of a
concluding sentence. We also call them end-of-paragraph signals.
Overall, in brief, certainly, clearly,
because of these reasons, surely, in conclusion
2. It offers a suggestion/ gives opinion/ makes a prediction: A concluding statement can
offer a suggestion, give an opinion, or make a prediction. Sometimes a concluding statement does
a combination of these three options.

Types of sentences (sentence level skills)

What is a sentence?
Simply put, a sentence is a group of words that are put together to mean something. It is the
basic unit of language which expresses a complete (not fragmented) thought.

The way words are arranged in a sentence

Unlike many languages (like Arabic), the standard word order in English is: subject + verb +
object (SVO). To determine the proper sequence of words, you need to understand what the
subject, verb and object(s) are.

Sentence structure is the grammatical arrangement of words, phrases and clauses in a

sentence. This is what gives the sentence a meaning.
There are four types of sentence structure: simple, compound, complex and compound

1. Simple Sentences
A simple sentence is a sentence consisting of only one clause, with a single subject and
predicate
Examples:
1. Simple sentences can consist only of one word:
Go!/ Run!/ Stop! are imperative sentences  gives commands.
What?/ Who?… are interrogative sentences  asks questions.
You might insist that a sentence must always contain a subject and a verb. However, in the case
of this kind of sentence, it is automatically assumed that the subject is you or the person the
imperative is being told to.
2. Simple sentences with intransitive verbs:
Change comes/ It rained/ The branch broke/ The baby cried …
3. A simple sentence can be longer than three words:
_ She was as hard-working as her sister.
4. Simple sentences with compound subjects and compound verbs:
_ Sophia and Maria went shopping.
_ Justin sings and dances in the studio room

2. Compound Sentences

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A compound sentence joins two or more independent clauses with a coordinator such as
for, and, or but, or a semi-colon. There are seven coordinating conjunctions in the English which
are used to link the independent clauses: for, and, nor, but, or, yet and so. You can use the acronym
FANBOYS to help you

Examples :
• I really want to go to work, but I am too sick to drive.
• I am counting my calories, yet I really want dessert.
• He ran out of money, so he had to stop playing poker.
• They got there early, and they got really good seats.

3. Complex sentences
A complex sentence uses subordinating conjunctions to join an independent clause with a
dependent clause. A dependent clause either lacks a subject or a verb or has both a subject
and a verb that does not express a complete thought.
A complex sentence always has a subordinator (as, because, since, after, although, when) or
relative pronouns (who, that, which).
Example 1:
a. After eating lunch at The Cheesecake Factory, Tim went to the gym to exercise.
→The independent clause is ‘Tim went to the gym to exercise.” The subordinating clause
before it is dependent on the main, independent clause. If one were to say “after eating lunch
at The Cheesecake Factory,” it would be an incomplete thought.
Example 2:
b. The woman who taught Art History was fired for stealing school supplies.
→The dependent clause in this sentence is “who taught Art History” because if removed, the
rest of the sentence would stand as an independent clause. “Who taught Art History” is an
adjective clause that provides necessary details about the subject, woman.

Examples of subordinate conjunctions and their functions

Conjunction Function Example
After/ before Time sequence She got married after she had graduated.
Although/ even though/ Concession and He came to work although he was sick.
however… contrast
As Time Take notes as you read the article.
As far as Place You will succeed as far as you love the job.
As if Manner She blamed me as if I were guilty.
As long as Conditional time I will help you as long as you don’t disappoint me.

Defining and non-defining clauses:

Defining clauses:
Defining relative clauses introduce essential information to identify people, things or places.
Example:
a. Is that the boy who/that lost his wallet? [Who/that for people]
b. The book which/ that I read is very interesting [which/ that for things]

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c. That’s the university where I studied. [where for places]
d. That’s the lady whose daughter became famous [whose to express possession]
Non-defining relative clauses
Non-defining relative clauses give additional information about people, things or places. It is
usually between commas. We do not use that in non-defining relative clauses but only who (for
people), which (for things), whose (possession), and where (places).
Example:
a. Paul, who started singing at 15, is now very famous.
b. John’s guitar, which he bought in the sixties, is now worth a lot of money.
c. London, where I lived 20 years ago, has now got a different skyline.
d. Jane, whose father is English, can speak English very well.

4. Compound complex sentences

A compound-complex sentence has two or more independent clauses and one or more
dependent clauses. That is, it contains at least two independent clauses (like a compound
sentence) and at least one dependent clause (like a complex sentence).
Examples:
_ Erin loves her brother, and he loves her too because she pays his bills.
_ The dog ran off when I chased him, but I didn't care.
_ Though my mother says it doesn't matter, I am tall, and she is short.

Note that the dependent clause can be at the beginning, middle, or end of a compound-complex
sentence. No matter where it is placed, the punctuation follows the rules for both compound
sentences and complex sentences. That means that you need to put a comma before the
coordinating conjunction and, if applicable, another comma after the dependent clause when it
occurs at the beginning of the sentence.

 Why should we use compound complex sentences?

Writing compound-complex sentences allows you a great deal of flexibility to explain how, why
or when something happened. It is important to understand which parts of the sentence are
independent clauses and which are dependent clauses so that you can punctuate it correctly
and avoid writing a run-on sentence (We shall deal with it later). Once you master this, you can
freely add them to your writing to express more complicated ideas with clarity.

Punctuation and capitalization

Punctuation

Notice how punctuation changes the meaning of the same sentence

A woman without her man is nothing Let’s eat grandmather.
A woman, without her man, is nothing. Let’s eat, grandmother.
A woman: without her, man is nothing.

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 Using correct punctuation is important because it conveys meaning just as words do. They make the
meaning clear in written texts.

Punctuation shows the reader: 1) where one chunk of meaning ends and another begins
2) where to pause or change tone when reading aloud.

Notice how punctuation changes the tone of speaking.

"He's a different sort of person. Not like the others at all."
"He's a... a different sort of person. I think that's what I'd call him."
"He's a different sort of person? Is that the word you'd use?"

End of a sentence punctuation

(.) Full stop shows the end of a statement.
(?) question mark shows the end of a question.
(!) exclamation mark shows: raised voice, strong feelings, an exclamation.

The comma (,)

The use of comma can be divided into four categories: introducers, coordinators, inserters,
and tags.

Introducers comma: an introducer comma follows any element that comes in front of the first
independent clause in a sentence.
Words: Therefore, I plan to quit smoking.
Nervously, I threw away my cigarettes.
Phrases: As a result, I feel terrible right now.
After 16 years of smoking, it is not easy to quit.
Having smoked for 16 years, I find it difficult to quit.
Dependent Clauses: Because I have a chronic cough, my doctor recommended that I quit
immediately.
Direct Quotations: "Stop smoking today," she advised.

Coordinator Comma: Together with a coordinating conjunction, a comma links coordinate

(equal) elements in a sentence.

Compound sentence with 2 independent clauses - She has a good job, yet she is always
broke.
- They were tired, so they went home early.

Series of 3 or more words - He does not enjoy skiing, ice-skating, or sledding.

- Cecille speaks English, Spanish, French, and Creole.
(No comma with only two items: Chen speaks Mandarin and Taiwanese.)

Series of 3 or more phrases - A nurse has to work at night, on weekends, and on holidays.
- We ran into the airport, checked our luggage, raced to the
boarding gate, gave the attendant our boarding passes, and
collapsed in our seats.

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Inserter Comma: an inserter comma is used before and after any element that is inserted
into the middle of an independent clause.
Words - My uncle, however, refuses to quit smoking.
Phrases - My father, on the other hand, has never smoked.
- There is no point in living, according to my uncle, if you do not do what you enjoy.
Non-restrictive phrases and clauses - My aunt, his wife, died of lung cancer.
- My cousins, grieving over their mother's death,
resolved never to smoke.
- My mother, who just celebrated her fiftieth
birthday, enjoys an occasional cigarette.
Reporting verbs in direct quotations - "I have tried to quit dozens of times," she says, "but I can't."

Tag Comma: a tag comma is used when adding certain elements to the end of a sentence.
Words - He appears to be in good health, however.
Phrases - He swims for an hour every day, for example.
- He also plays tennis, beating me most of the time.
Tag questions - It is not logical, is it?
Direct quotations - He laughs as he says, "I will outlive all of you."

Semicolon (;)
Using semicolons is not difficult if you remember that a semicolon (;) is more like a period
than a comma. It is a very strong punctuation mark. Semicolons are used in three places:

1. Between sentences:
Use a semicolon at the end of a sentence when the following sentence is closely connected in
meaning. You could also use a period, but when the sentences are connected in meaning, a
semicolon indicates the connection.  Independent clause; independent clause.
Examples:
a. Andrew did not accept the job offer; he wants to go to graduate school.
b. Computer use is increasing; computer crime is, too.
c. The meeting ended at dawn; nothing had been decided.

2. Before Connectors:
Use a semicolon before conjunctive adverbs such as however, therefore, nevertheless,
moreover and furthermore. Also use a semicolon before transition phrases such as for
example, as a result, that is, or in fact when they are followed by an independent clause.
 Independent clause; Conjunctive adverb, or Transition phrase, Independent clause.
Examples:
a. Skiing is dangerous; nevertheless, millions of people ski.
b. I have never been to Asia; in fact, I have never been outside the country.

3. Between items in a series

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Semicolons are used to separate items in a series when some of the items already contain
commas.
Example:
My favourite leisure-time activities are going to movies, especially musical; reading novels,
especially stories of love and adventure; listening to music, both rock and classical; and
participation in sports, particularly tennis and volleyball.

Colon (:)
Using a colon at the end of an independent clause focuses attention on the words following the
colon. After a colon, we often write lists, appositives, and direct quotations.
1- Before lists: use a colon to introduce a list.
Examples:
a. Libraries have two kinds of periodicals: bound periodicals and current periodicals.
b. I need the following groceries: eggs, milk, and coffee.
2- Before appositives: use a colon after an independent clause to direct attention to an
appositive (a word or word group that renames another word or word group).
Examples:
a. He had one great love in his life: himself.
b. A doctor has two important abilities: the ability to listen and the ability to analyze.
3- Before long Quotations: use a colon to introduce a quotation longer than three lines. This
type of quote is indented on both sides, and no quotation marks are used.
Example:
As Albert C. Baugh and Thomas Cable state in their book The History of the English Language:
There is no such thing as uniformity in language. Not only does the speech of one community
differ from that of another, but the speech of different individuals of a single community, even
different members of the same family, is marked by individual peculiarities.
4- Before Subtitles
Use a colon between the main title and the subtitle of a book, article, or play.
Example:
a. A popular book on nonverbal communication is Samovar and Porter's Intercultural
Communication: A Reader.
b. The title of an article from the New York Times is "Man on Mars: Dream or Reality?"

Attention:
 Do not use a colon to introduce a list after the verb to be unless you add the following or
as follows.
Incorrect To me, the most important things in life are: good health, a happy home life, and
a satisfying occupation.
Correct To me, the most important things in life are good health, a happy home life, and
a satisfying occupation.
Correct To me, the most important things in life are the following: good health, a happy
home life, and a satisfying occupation.
 Do not use a colon after a preposition. Use a colon only at the end of an independent
clause.

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Incorrect After a long day at work, I look forward to: enjoying a quiet dinner at
home, playing with my children, and watching a little TV
Correct After a long day at work, I look forward to enjoying a quiet
Dash (-)
A dash gives a break halfway between , and .
 It shows a sharp break between two chunks of meaning
e.g. It was great to see you – we must meet again.
 Both these chunks are main clauses. A comma cannot separate two main clauses
 Marking off extra information embedded in the sentence
e.g. On Monday – the first day of our holidays – we explored the beach.
 The dash is a feature of informal writing, which echoes speech patterns.

Brackets ( )
Brackets show information which is extra to the main text…
 Marking off extra information embedded in the sentence
e.g. On Monday (the first day of our holidays) we explored the beach.
 Marking off extra facts like dates or dimensions
e.g. Elizabeth I (1553 – 1603) . Mount Everest (8850 m)
 Brackets are sometimes called parentheses. Information in brackets is said to be in
parenthesis. Commas and dashes can also enclose parenthetic information.

Quotation marks “ “
Speech marks are also called inverted commas and may be used…
 To mark the words in direct speech. Example: “Hello,” said the cat.
 To show that a word is being used ironically or ‘oddly’. Example: There were many
‘experts’ in the audience.
 To indicate the title of a book,film, etc Example: The book ‘Black Beauty’ was also made
into a film
 To show a quotation. Example: Wordsworth wrote about an ‘inward eye’.
 To show when you are talking about a word or phrase. Example: The word ‘exit’ is the
Latin for ‘he goes out’.
 “ ” ‘ ’ Double and single speech marks are usually used in handwritten texts. Single marks
are often used in printed texts.

Hyphen (-)
A hyphen links words or parts of words
 When a word is split be-tween two lines of print
 When they are put together to make a new word Example: mother-in-law . Irish-
American . co-operation
 The hyphen differs from the dash in that 1) you do not leave a space between the words and
the hyphen. 2) It is half as long.

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Ellipsis (…)
An ellipsis is three dots… it is used
 To show that a sentence is unfinished. Example: it is important to…
 To show that words have been missed out in a quotation. Example: The hyphen differs
from the dash in that… it is half as long.

The Apostrophe (‘)

The apostrophe can be used in omission or in possession
Omission: this is the shortened forms of words, the apostrophe shows where letters have
been missed out. Examples: cannot => can’t / should have => should’ve / you are => you’re

Possession: ‘s shows ownership

Examples: The girl’s coat => the coat belonging to the girl / the children’s home => the home
belonging to the children

 If the owner-noun is a plural ending in s, just add ‘  The girls’ coats => the coats
belonging to the girls / the princesses’ hats => the hats belonging to the princesses

Capitalization
Capitalization is the act of using uppercase letters at the beginning of a word / sentence. In
English, there are several capitalization rules that you should know to write properly.

RULE 1 Capitalize the first word of a sentence.

The start of a paragraph

Life is bitter and sweet.

A new senetnce in a paragraph  …………. Life is bitter and sweet.

RULE 2 Capitalize the pronoun ‘I ‘

 My friends and I often study together.

RULE 3 Capitalize the name of a specific person, place, or thing, but not general ones.

Please call Dr. Brown. But not Call the doctor.

We saw the Columbia River. But not We saw the river.

She ran down Division Street. But not She ran down the street.

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 Are you from the East? But not Turn east on 182nd Street.

Do you live near Blue Lake Park? But not Do you live near the park?

RULE 4 Nationalities, languages, religions, & ethnic groups

Swedish Jewish
English Christian
Spanish Asian
Farsi Hispanic
Muslim Native American

Don’t capitalize the names of subjects

history
math
physics
but English history

RULE 5 Capitalize the names of months, days of the week, and special days, but not the
seasons.

Capitalize : February Christmas Eve Memorial Day Thursday Easter

Do not capitalize: summer spring winter fall

Sentence problems

Sentence problems covers the problems typically associated with incorrect sentence
structure. This includes Fragments, Run-on, Comma splice, and Subject-verb agreement

1- Fragments
A sentence fragment is an incomplete sentence masquerading as a complete one

Find out the errors in these sentences:

1 . is not easy to get an A in Professor Wilson's class.
2. People in New York always in a hurry.
3. The patient struggling bravely against a terrible disease.
4. that the children were very curious

- To correct Sentence 1 , add a subject:

 1- It is not easy to get an A in Professor Wilson's class.
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- To correct Sentence 2, add a verb:
 2- People in New York are always in a hurry.
- To correct Sentence 3, add the auxiliary verb
 The patient is struggling bravely against a terrible disease.
- To correct Sentence 3, complete the thought
 He said that the children were very curious

2- Run-on
A run-on sentence is a sentence in which two or more independent clauses are written one
after another with no punctuation.
Find out the error in this sentence
The sun was extremely hot she wanted to swim in the pool.
Different ways to correct the sentence:
• The sun was extremely hot, so she wanted to swim in the pool.
• The sun was extremely hot. She wanted to swim in the pool.
• The sun was extremely hot; she wanted to swim in the pool.
• Because the sun was extremely hot, she wanted to swim in the pool.

3- Comma splice
This happens when two complete sentences, or independent clauses are joined with a comma.
A comma is not strong enough to separate two independent clauses.
Examples of Comma Splice:
1. I am going to the movies, Jennifer is coming with me.
2. My dog is a Labrador retriever, he doesn't like to swim, though.
3. I believe that it is going to rain today, we should bring our bicycles inside.
Different ways to correct the sentences:
1. I am going to the movies; Jennifer is coming with me.
2. My dog is a Labrador retriever; he doesn't like to swim, though.
3. I believe that it is going to rain today, so we should bring our bicycles inside.

Subject-verb agreement
Subject-verb agreement means that the subject and the verb must agree in case and in number
Look at the bold verbs. What words determine if the verbs are singular or plural?

1. a. The fruit in the bowls is fresh. There are three students in the hall.
b. The apples in the bowl are fresh There is a student in the hall.
2. a. Vegetables are good for you. There is no reason for his action.
b. Eating vegetables is good for you. There are many reasons for his success.

Paragraph unity and coherence

Unity
An important element of a good paragraph is unity. Unity means that a paragraph
discusses one and only one main idea from beginning to end.

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 For example, if your paragraph is about the advantages of owning a compact car, discuss
only that. Do not discuss the disadvantages.
The second part of unity is that every supporting sentence must directly explain or
prove the main idea.
 For example, in a paragraph about the high cost of prescription drugs in the United States,
you could mention buying drugs from pharmacies outside the United States as an alternative,
but if you write several sentences about buying drugs outside the United States, you are getting
off the topic, and your paragraph will not have unity.

Coherence
Another element of a good paragraph is coherence. The Latin verb cohere means "hold
together." For coherence in writing, the sentences must hold together; that is, the movement from
one sentence to the next must be logical and smooth. There must be no sudden jumps. Each
sentence should flow smoothly into the next one.
 A coherent paragraph is like a properly assembled motor; with all the parts in the right
places, the motor can run. There are five ways to achieve coherence: 1. Repeat key nouns
2. Parallelism 3. Use consistent pronouns 4. Use transition signals to link ideas 5.
Arrange your ideas in logical order.

1. Repeat key nouns

The easiest way to achieve coherence is to repeat key nouns frequently in your paragraph.
Read the model paragraph about gold to see how it uses this technique to smooth the flow of
sentences.

There is no fixed rule about how often to repeat key nouns or when to substitute pronouns.
You should repeat a key noun instead of using a pronoun when the meaning is not clear.

2. Parallelism

Parallelism means that each item in a list or comparison follows the same grammatical pattern.
If you are writing a list and the first item in your list is a noun, write all the following items as
nouns also. If the first item is an -ing word, make all the others -ing words; if it is an adverb
clause, make all the others adverb clauses.

A- Parallelism with Coordinators: And, Or, But

 Notice the parallel structures joined by coordinators in the following sentences.

a. The Federal Air Pollution Control Administration regulates automobile exhausts, and the
Federal Aviation Administration makes similar regulations for aircraft.

b. The states regulate the noise created by motor vehicles but not by commercial aircraft.

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c. Pesticides cannot be sold if they have a harmful effect on humans, on animal life, or on the
environment.

B- Parallelism with Correlative (Paired) Conjunctions: both . .. and, either . .. or, neither . ..
nor, and not only . .. but also.

 Notice the parallel structures in these clauses joined by paired conjunctions:

a. A new law provides the means for both regulating pesticides and ordering their removal if
they are dangerous.

b. Air pollutants may come either from the ocean as natural contaminants given off by sea life
or from the internal combustion engines of automobiles.

c. If neither industry nor the public works toward reducing pollution problems, future
generations will suffer.

e. At the present time, air pollution is controlled through laws passed not only to reduce the
pollutants at their sources but also to set up acceptable standards of air quality.

3. Use consistent pronouns

When you use pronouns, make sure that you use the same person and number throughout
your paragraph. Don't change from you to he or she (change of person) or from he to they
(change of number).

How many are we talking about? So that readers envision the same number consistently, be
sure that your noun and pronoun agree in number. For example, if you were to replace the
name ‘Mary’, you would not use ‘they’ or ‘them’, which are plural pronouns. You would use
‘she’ or ‘her’, which are singular pronouns.

Read the following example. What‘s wrong with the sentence? A batter runs the bases once they
hit the ball.
 In this sentence, the reader is not sure how many batters are being referred to because the
singular noun ‘batter’ is used, but the plural pronoun they is also used. This sentence can be
rewritten in one of the following ways:
A batter runs the bases once he hits the ball.
Batters run the bases once they hit the ball.
Are we talking about a person or a thing? Determine if you want your reader to imagine a
person or thing. A common error that writers make is to refer to an object by using a personal
pronouns ‘it’. Or refer to a person by using object ‘which’ or ’that,’ pronouns which refer to
objects. To refer to a person, use the pronouns ‘who’ or ‘whom.’

Examples:

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 1. The man who came first in the 100-metre race broke the world record.
2. At the zoo, there is a parrot which can talk to the people.
3. Do you know the woman whose son is a famous actor?
4. I really like the suit that you bought for the wedding!
5. It was my brother whom I entrusted with looking after my baby.

4. Use transition signals to link ideas

Transition signals are like traffic signs; they tell your reader when to go forward, turn around,
slow down, and stop. In other words, they tell your reader when you are giving a similar idea
(similarly, and, in addition), an opposite idea (on the other hand, but, in contrast), an example
(for example), a result (therefore, as a result), or a conclusion (in conclusion). Transition
signals give a paragraph coherence because they guide your reader from one idea to the next.

 Always ask yourself what the exact relationship is between the sentences or parts of
sentences. Are you leading to the result of something? And are you making a deduction? Are
you introducing some contradictory evidence or ideas? Your choice of word or phrase
obviously depends on this.

TRANSITION SIGNALS

5. Arrange your ideas in logical order

Another way to achieve coherence in a paragraph is to arrange your sentences in some kind of
logical order. Your choice of one kind of logical order over another will depend on your topic
and your purpose.

You may even combine two or more different logical orders in the same paragraph. The
important point to remember is to arrange your ideas in some kind of order that is logical to
the reader.
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 Some common kinds of logical order in English are chronological order, logical division of
ideas, and comparison/contrast.

 In the following paragraph, notice how the five elements work together to create a unified and
coherent paragraph.

Types of Paragraphs

Before you write any paragraph ask yourself: what is the purpose of writing it? Asking this
question will make you realize the type if paragraph you are writing and thus you will respect
its characteristics.

1- Descriptive Paragraph
In a Descriptive Paragraph, you should try to engage your reader by answering the Journalists’
Questions: why, who, where, what, when, where. If applicable, you should also describe how
you, as the writer, felt. You should use active voice (normal) verbs in this kind of paragraph. In
sentences with active voice verbs we know who the doer of the action is. For example: George
washed my car yesterday

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Transition words:
Explanation and Example Location Similarity/Addition
for example, for instance, Nearby, above, adjacent to, Furthermore, additionally, and,
to illustrate, one example below, beyond, farther in addition, moreover, beside
on, opposite to, there that, in the same way, also

2- Narrative paragraph
In a Narrative Paragraph, you will share your story or what happened with your reader. To get
your readers involved in your story in a better way, try using the Journalists’ Questions: why,
who, where, what, when, where. Try to write the events in your story chronologically (in
order of their occurrence).

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Transition words:
Some common transitions for narration paragraphs: after, next, later, during, immediately,
then, when, eventually, meanwhile, soon, first, one day, suddenly…

3- Process paragraph
A Process Paragraph gives your reader a step by step of how to do things, for example, cooking,
building, or assembling something. The kinds of verbs you use in this paragraph, should be
imperative. Imperative verbs are the base form of the verbs used to address the person in front
of you, such as drink, wash, grate, etc.

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Transition words:

Transition words like first, second… after, next, later, then can be used in process paragraphs

4- Classification paragraph

In Classification Paragraph, you need to put items into different groups or categories where
they belong based on a criteria or rule. You should start by identifying what it is that you are
classifying. You can categorize things from the most educational to the least educational, or
from the most watched TV show to the least watched TV show, but make sure that your
categories are consistent. In this type of paragraph you do both comparing and defining.

5- Definition paragraph

In a Definition Paragraph you explain something to the reader: an unfamiliar term, concept, or
a cultural event, etc. You can do this by likening it to something your audience is familiar with,
or by giving synonyms and explanations for it.

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6- Comparison and contrast paragraph
The basic distinction to keep in mind when working on such a paragraph is that comparison
“shows the similarities among subjects – people, ideas, situations, or items”, however, contrast
“shows the differences.” A possible reason for using comparison and contrast approach can be
to establish how two subjects (intelligence and success) can be present in the same system
(life goals) and discuss their similarities and differences.

Transition words:
Comparison Contrast
Similarly, in comparison, comparably, in on the other hand, in contrast, alternatively,
the same way, likewise, additionally, conversely, nonetheless, however,
furthermore, both. but another,

7- Cause and effect paragraph

In cases where you need to illustrate why a change happened and its results, you can do so
with a cause and effect paragraph. The basic distinction is between cause, which is “what made
an event happen”, and an effect which is “what happens as a result of the event.”

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Transition words:
Cause
Effect
one reason, Creates…, on
as a result, because of,
another reason, account of, due
consequently, hence,
because, since, to…, leads to…, for
first, second that reason, causes accordingly, so, thus,

are… due to therefore,

8- Argument paragraph
An argument paragraph has one central role, namely that it “takes a position on an issue and
gives supporting evidence to persuade someone else to accept, or at least to consider, the
position.”

Transition words:
There are many transition words to choose from. The table below lists some

To Continue a Line of Reasoning To Change the Direction of Reasoning

Furthermore, additionally, consequently, on the other hand, in contrast, alternatively,

following this, beside that, moreover, in conversely, nonetheless, however, but
addition, in the same way, also, the most another, although, nevertheless, instead,
important . . ., pursuing this further, rather, but, yet, still, otherwise, though

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