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Cornerstones

Series Editors
Charles L. Epstein, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia
Steven G. Krantz, University of Washington, St. Louis

Advisory Board
Anthony W. Knapp, State University of New York at Stony Brook, Emeritus
Steven G. Krantz

Geometric Function Theory

Explorations in Complex Analysis

Birkhäuser
Boston • Basel • Berlin
 Steven G. Krantz
Washington University
Department of Mathematics
St. Louis, MO 63130
U.S.A.
e-mail to: [email protected]
http://www.math.wustl.edu/˜sk/

Cover design by Mary Burgess.

Mathematics Subject Classicification (2000): 30Axx, 30Bxx, 30Cxx, 30Dxx, 30Exx, 30Fxx, 30H05, 32Axx,
32Bxx, 32Dxx, 32Fxx, 31Axx, 35N15

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Krantz, Steven G. (Steven George), 1951-
Geometric function theory : explorations in complex analysis / Steven G. Krantz.
p. cm. – (Cornerstones)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8176-4339-7 (alk. paper)
1. Geometric function theory. 2. Functions of complex variables. I. Title. II.
Cornerstones (Birkhäuser)

QA331.7.K733 2005
515’.9–dc22 2005050071

ISBN-10 0-8176-4339-7 eISBN 0-8176-4440-7 Printed on acid-free paper.

ISBN-13 978-0-8176-4339-3


c 2006 Birkhäuser Boston
All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the written
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Street, New York, NY 10013, USA) and the author, except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews
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Printed in the United States of America. (TXQ/MP)

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To the memory of Don Spencer
Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi

Part I Classical Function Theory

Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1 Invariant Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1 Conformality and Invariance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 Bergman’s Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3 Calculation of the Bergman Kernel for the Disk . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.3.1 Construction of the Bergman Kernel for the Disk by
Conformal Invariance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.3.2 Construction of the Bergman Kernel by means of an
Orthonormal System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.3.3 Construction of the Bergman Kernel by way of
Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.4 A New Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.5 An Application to Mapping Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Problems for Study and Exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

2 Variations on the Theme of the Schwarz Lemma . . . . . . . . . . . 29

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.2 Other Versions of Schwarz’s Lemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.3 A Geometric View of the Schwarz Lemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.3.1 Geometric Ideas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.3.2 Calculus in the Complex Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.3.3 Isometries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.3.4 The Poincaré Metric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.3.5 The Schwarz Lemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.4 Ahlfors’s Version of the Schwarz Lemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
viii Contents

2.5 Liouville and Picard Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

2.6 The Schwarz Lemma at the Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Problems for Study and Exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

3 Normal Families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.2 Topologies on the Space of Holomorphic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.3 Normal Families in Their Natural Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.4 Advanced Results on Normal Families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.5 Robinson’s Heuristic Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Problems for Study and Exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

4 The Riemann Mapping Theorem and Its Generalizations . . 83

4.1 The Riemann Mapping Theorem by way of the Green’s
Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.2 Canonical Representations for Multiply Connected Regions . . . 85
4.3 Review of Some Topological Ideas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.3.1 Cycles and Periods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.3.2 Harmonic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.4 Uniformization of Multiply Connected Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.5 The Ahlfors Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4.6 The Uniformization Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Problems for Study and Exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

5 Boundary Regularity of Conformal Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

5.1 Continuity to the Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
5.2 Preliminary Facts about Boundary Smoothness . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
5.3 Smoothness of Conformal Mappings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Problems for Study and Exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

6 The Boundary Behavior of Holomorphic Functions . . . . . . . . 135

6.0 Introductory Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
6.1 Review of the Classical Theory of H p Spaces on the disk . . . . . 136
6.2 The Lindelöf Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Problems for Study and Exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

Part II Real and Harmonic Analysis

Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

7 The Cauchy–Riemann Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
7.2 Solution of the Inhomogeneous Cauchy–Riemann Equations . . . 161
7.3 Development and Application of the ∂¯ Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Problems for Study and Exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
 Contents ix

8 The Green’s Function and the Poisson Kernel . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

8.1 The Laplacian and Its Fundamental Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
8.2 The Green’s Function and Consequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
8.3 Calculation of the Poisson Kernel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Problems for Study and Exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

9 Harmonic Measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

9.1 Introductory Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
9.2 The Idea of Harmonic Measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
9.3 Some Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
9.4 Hadamard’s Three Circles Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
9.5 A Discussion of Interpolation of Linear Operators . . . . . . . . . . . 197
9.6 The F. and M. Riesz Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Problems for Study and Exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

10 Conjugate Functions and the Hilbert Transform . . . . . . . . . . . 205

10.0 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
10.1 Discovering the Hilbert Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
10.2 The Modified Hilbert Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
10.3 The Hilbert Transform and Fourier Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
10.4 Proof of Theorem 10.3.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Problems for Study and Exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

11 Wolff ’s Proof of the Corona Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

11.1 Introductory Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
11.2 The Banach Algebra H ∞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
11.3 Statement of the Corona Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
11.4 Carleson Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
11.5 A Key Technical Lemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
11.6 Proof of the Corona Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
11.7 Proof of Lemma 11.6.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Problems for Study and Exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250

Part III Algebraic Topics

Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

12 Automorphism Groups of Domains in the Plane . . . . . . . . . . . 257

12.1 Introductory Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
12.2 Noncompact Automorphism Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
12.3 The Dimension of the Automorphism Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
12.4 The Iwasawa Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
12.5 General Properties of Holomorphic Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Problems for Study and Exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
x Contents

13 Cousin Problems, Cohomology, and Sheaves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281

13.1 The Cousin Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
13.2 A Few Words About Sheaves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Problems for Study and Exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Preface

Complex analysis is a rich and textured subject. It is quite old, and its history
is broad and deep. Yet the basic graduate course in complex variables has
become rather cut and dried. The choice of topics, the order of the topics,
and the overall flavor of the presentation are strongly influenced by the need
to prepare students for the qualifying exams. The qual-level course is designed
to serve a limited purpose, and it does that but little more.
Basic complex analysis is startling for its elegance and clarity. One pro-
gresses very rapidly from the basics of the Cauchy theory to profound results
such as the fundamental theorem of algebra and the Riemann mapping theo-
rem. Many a student is left, at the end of the course, yearning for more—to be
advanced to a level where he or she could consider research questions, indeed
the possibility of writing a thesis in the subject.
Yet there are few places to turn in such a quest. The book [BEG] of
Berenstein and Gay and the book [CON] of Conway give particular takes on
some of the more advanced material in the subject. Some of the older books,
such as [FUKS], [GOL], [HIL], [MAR] treat topics not usually found in the
basic texts. But it seems that there is a need for a book that will open the
student’s eyes to what this subject has to offer, and give him or her a taste of
some of the areas of current research. This is meant to be such a book.
Our prejudice in the subject is geometric, but this does not prevent us
from exploring byways that come from analysis, algebra, and other parts
of mathematics. Thus, on the one hand, we treat invariant geometry, the
Bergman metric, the automorphism groups of domains, and the boundary
regularity of conformal mappings. On the other hand, we also explore the
Hilbert transform, the Laplacian, the corona problem, harmonic measure, the
inhomogenous Cauchy–Riemann equations, and sheaf theory.
The aim of the book is to expose the student to mathematics as it is
practiced: as a synthesis of many different areas, exhibiting particular flavors
and features that arise from that synthesis. The student who reads this book
should be inspired to go further in the subject, to begin to explore the primary
literature, and (one hopes) to think about his or her own research problems.
xii Preface

One of the rewards and pleasures that the student will find in reading this
book is the rich interactions that are displayed among the various topics. For
example, harmonic measure is used to prove a sharp version of the Lindelöf
principle. It is also used to establish the three lines (viz. three circles) theorem
of Hadamard. This in turn is used to prove (in another chapter) the Riesz–
Thorin theorem. In another venue, the Riesz–Thorin theorem is used to prove
the Lp -boundedness of the Hilbert transform. The Laplacian is reviewed and
used as a device to introduce the Green’s function. The Green’s function is
used, of course, to derive the Poisson kernel. But it is also used to develop the
Bergman kernel. The Bergman kernel is used to study boundary regularity of
conformal mappings. It is also used in the study of automorphism groups, and
to prove various uniqueness theorems for conformal mappings. The Bergman
metric interacts with and arises alongside consideration of other conformal
metrics, and leads to Ahlfors’s version of the Schwarz lemma.
The Poisson kernel is used to study the boundary behavior of harmonic
and holomorphic functions. The Dirichlet problem for the Laplacian is used
to give a nonstandard proof of the Riemann mapping theorem. The Green’s
function is used to prove a canonical representation of multiply connected
regions on slit-domains. The Ahlfors map gives a new view of uniformization
as introduced by these topics.
The Green’s function and Stokes’s theorem lead to a solution of the in-
homogeneous Cauchy–Riemann equations, which are in turn used to make
new constructions in function theory. The Green’s function and the Hilbert
transform, together with our solution of the inhomogeneous Cauchy–Riemann
equations and the F. and M. Riesz theorem, are used to derive a proof of the
corona theorem. Duality properties of Hardy spaces (covered in an earlier
chapter) are exploited along the way.
Our study of the Ahlfors map uses Banach algebra properties of H ∞ that
we developed in our study of the corona theorem. It also gives a reprise of the
Green’s function and harmonic measure. The Green’s function and Green’s
theorem are used extensively in the proof of the corona theorem and also in our
development of the uniformization theorem. Nontrivial ideas from functional
analysis arise in our study of the Riesz–Thorin theorem, the Hilbert transform,
the summation of Fourier series, the corona theorem, and the Ahlfors map.
We provide a discussion of the statement, concept, and proof of Köbe’s uni-
formization theorem, together with various planar variants. Thus we examine
uniformization from many different points of view. When we treat automor-
phism groups, uniformization provides a powerful tool.
Algebra is encountered in various guises throughout the book. Certainly it
plays a role in the group-theoretic aspects of automorphisms. It occurs again
in our treatment of Banach algebra techniques. And it plays a decisive role
in the study of sheaves. Sheaf theory gives the student a new way to view
the Weierstrass and Mittag–Leffler theorems, as well as questions of analytic
continuation. Thus this text shows the students many different aspects of
complex analysis, and how they interact with each other.
 Preface xiii

With this book, the student and the advanced worker too are introduced
to a rich tapestry of function theory as it interacts with other parts of mathe-
matics. There is hardly any other analysis text that offers such a variety and
synthesis of mathematical topics.
Part of my own training is to think of the subject of complex analysis as a
foil, or perhaps as a gadfly. Many an interesting problem of geometric analysis
is very naturally formulated in the language of complex function theory; but
then it is best solved by stripping away the complex analysis and applying
tools of geometry, or partial differential equations, or harmonic analysis. That
is the point of view that we shall, at least in part, take in the present book.
Complex analysis will be our touchstone, but it will be the entrée to many
another byway of mathematics—from the Cauchy–Riemann equations to in-
terpolation of linear operators to the study of invariant metrics. It is our view
that this is a productive and rewarding way to practice mathematics, and we
would like to teach it to a new generation.
It is a pleasure to thank my editor, Ann Kostant, for encouraging me to
write this book, and for making the process as smooth and carefree as possible.
She enlisted strong and insightful reviewers to help me craft this book into a
more precise and useful tool. I thank Elizabeth Loew for a marvelous job of
editing and TEX typesetting. I look forward to comments and criticisms from
the readership, and hope to make future editions more accurate and therefore
more useful.

St. Louis, Missouri and Berkeley, California Steven G. Krantz

 Part I

Classical Function Theory

1
Invariant Geometry

Genesis and Development

The idea of using invariant geometry to study complex function theory
has its foundation in the ideas of Poincaré. Certainly he is credited
with the creation of a conformally invariant metric on the unit disk
D. The uniformization theorem (covered later in this book) may be
used to transfer the metric to other planar domains. Later on, Stefan
Bergman found a way to define invariant metrics on virtually any do-
main in any complex manifold. We shall explore his ideas further on
in the book.
The geometric approach provides a new way to view the subject
of complex variables. It is the source of tantalizing new questions.
But it also provides a vast array of powerful new weapons to use on
traditional problems. Any number of problems about mappings and
conformality—just as an instance—are rendered transparent by way
of geometric language.
An appreciation of the concepts in this chapter requires under-
standing of the idea of a Riemannian metric. Our presentation, how-
ever, is self-contained. The reader may learn what such a metric is by
doing, that is, by studying this chapter. Even the student who is new
to geometric language will find that the material in the ensuing pages
will introduce him to a new way to approach function theory.

1.1 Conformality and Invariance

Conformal mappings are characterized by the fact that they infinitesimally (i)
preserve angles, and (ii) preserve length (up to a scalar factor). It is worth-
while to picture the matter in the following manner: Let f be holomorphic on
the open set U ⊆ C. Fix a point P ∈ U . Write f = u + iv as usual. Thus we
may write the mapping f as (x, y) → (u, v). Then the (real) Jacobian matrix
of the mapping is
6 1 Invariant Geometry
 
ux (P ) uy (P )
J(P ) = ,
vx (P ) vy (P )
where subscripts denote derivatives. We may use the Cauchy–Riemann equa-
tions to rewrite this matrix as
 
ux (P ) uy (P )
J(P ) = .
−uy (P ) ux (P )

Factoring out a numerical coefficient, we finally write this two-dimensional

derivative as
⎛ uy (P )
⎞
 √ ux2(P ) √
⎜ ux (P ) +uy (P )2 ux (P )2 +uy (P )2 ⎟
J(P ) = ux (P )2 + uy (P )2 · ⎝ ⎠
√ −uy2 (P ) 2 √ ux2(P ) 2
ux (P ) +uy (P ) ux (P ) +uy (P )

≡ h(P ) · J (P ) .

The matrix J (P ) is of course a special orthogonal matrix (i.e., its rows form
an orthonormal basis of R2 , and it is oriented positively). Thus we see that
the derivative of our mapping is a rotation J (P ) (which preserves angles)
followed by a positive “stretching factor” h(P ) (which also preserves angles).
It would be incorrect to infer from these considerations that a conformal
map therefore preserves Euclidean angles, or Euclidean length, in any global
sense. Such a mapping would perforce be linear and in fact special orthogo-
nal; and thus complex function theory would be reduced to a triviality. The
mapping of the disk D(0, 2) given by

φ : z → (z + 4)4 ,

illustrated in Figure 1.1, exhibits rather dramatically the failure of Euclidean

isometry. The mapping is one-to-one, onto its image, yet φ(0) = 256, φ(1) =
625, and hence
1 − 0 = 1 = 369 = φ(1) − φ(0) .
And yet it is obviously desirable to have a notion of distance that is pre-
served under holomorphic mappings. Part of Klein’s Erlangen program is to
understand geometric objects according to the groups that act on them. Such
an understanding is of course facilitated when the group is actually a group
of isometries.
It was H. Poincaré who first found a way to carry out this idea when the
domain in question is the unit disk D. To understand his thinking, let us recall
that the collection of all conformal maps of the unit disk D = D(0, 1) can be
described explicitly: it consists of
 1.1 Conformality and Invariance 7

Fig. 1.1. The failure of Euclidean isometry under conformal mappings.

(i) All rotations ρλ : z → eiλ · z, 0 ≤ λ < 2π;

(ii) All Möbius transformations ϕa : z → [z − a]/[1 − az],
a ∈ C, |a| < 1;
(iii) All compositions of mappings of type (i) and (ii).
We will use Riemann’s paradigm for a metric, that is, we shall specify the
length of a (tangent) vector at each point of the disk D. If the point is P and
the vector is v, then let us denote this length by |v|P .
Our goal now is to “discover” the Poincaré metric by way of a sequence of
calculations. We must begin somewhere, so let us declare that the length of
the vector e ≡ (1, 0) ≡ 1 + 0i at the origin is 1. Thus |e|0 = 1. Now if φ is a
conformal self-map of the disk, then invariance means that

|v|P = |φ∗ (P )v|φ(P ) , (1.1.1)

where φ∗ (P )v is defined to equal φ (P ) · v. Here φ∗ (P )v is called the “push-

forward by φ” of the vector v.
Now let us apply equation (1.1.1) to the information that we have about
the length of the unit vector e at the origin. Let φ(z) = eiλ · z. Then we see
that

1 = |e|0 = |φ∗ (0)e|φ(0) = |eiλ · e|0 = |eiλ |0 . (1.1.2)

We conclude that the length of the vector eiλ at the origin is 1. So all Euclidean
unit vectors based at the origin have length 1 in our new invariant metric.
Now let ψ(z) be the Möbius transformation
z+a
ψ(z) = ,
1 + az

with a a complex number of modulus less than 1. Let v = eiλ be a unit vector
at the origin. Then ψ  (0) = 1 − |a|2 and equation (1.1.1) tells us that
8 1 Invariant Geometry

1 = |v|0 = |ψ∗ (0)v|ψ(0) = |(1 − |a|2 ) · v|a .

We conclude that
1
|v|a = .
1 − |a|2
Of course our new metric will respect scalar multiplication, so we may
apply the preceding calculation to vectors of any length. If we let v denote
the Euclidean length of a vector v, then we may summarize all our calculations
as follows:
Let P be a point of the unit disk D and let v be any vector based at
that point. Then
v
|v|P = .
1 − |P |2
We call this new metric the Poincaré metric.
We see in particular that, as P gets ever nearer to the boundary of D, the
new metric length of v becomes greater and greater.
It is well worth spending some time interpreting this new metric and its
implications for complex analysis. Let γ : [0, 1] → D be a continuously differ-
entiable curve. We define the length of γ in the Poincaré metric to be
1
(γ) = |γ  (t)|γ(t) dt .
0

Observe that γ  (t) is a vector located at γ(t), so the definition makes good
sense. Of course we can consider curves parametrized over any interval, and
the definition of length is independent (by the change of variables formula of
calculus) of the choice of parametrization. We define the length of a piecewise
continuously differentiable curve to be the sum of the lengths of its continu-
ously differentiable pieces.

Example 1.1.1. Let > 0. Consider the curve γ(t) = (1 − )t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 1. Then,
according to the definition,
1 1
(1 − )
(γ) = |γ  (t)|γ(t) dt = dt
0 0 1 − |γ(t)|2
1
(1 − ) 1 2−
= 2
dt = log .
0 1 − [(1 − )t] 2

We see immediately that, as → 0+ , the expression (γ) tends to +∞. Thus,

in some sense, the distance from 0 to the boundary (at least along the given
linear path) is infinite.

We define the Poincaré distance d(P, Q) between two points P, Q ∈ D to be

the infimum of the Poincaré lengths of all piecewise continuously differentiable
curves connecting P to Q.
 1.2 Bergman’s Construction 9

Proposition 1.1.2. Let P ∈ D. Then the Poincaré distance of 0 to P is equal

to
1 1 + |P |
d(0, P ) = · log .
2 1 − |P |
Proof. By rotational invariance, we may as well suppose that P is real and
positive, so P = (1 − ) + i0 ≡ (1 − , 0). It is an exercise for the reader
to see that there is no loss of generality to consider only curves of the form
γ(t) = (t, g(t)), 0 ≤ t ≤ 1 − . Then
1− 1−

γ  (t) 12 + |g  (t)|2
(g) = dt = dt
0 1 − |γ(t)|2 0 1 − t2 − |g 2 (t)|
1−
1 1 2−
≥ 2
dt = · log
0 1−t 2
1 1 + |P |
= · log .
2 1 − |P |

Thus we see explicitly that μ(t) = (t, 0) is the shortest curve from 0 to P , and
the distance is as we claimed.

Combining the result of this proposition with the preceding example, we

see that any curve that starts at the origin and runs out to the boundary of
the disk will have infinite length. Thus the boundary is infinitely far away.

Exercise for the Reader: Prove that if P is any point of the disk and r > 0,
then the metric disk

β(P, r) ≡ {z ∈ D : d(z, P ) < r}

is actually a Euclidean disk. What are its Euclidean center and radius (ex-
pressed in terms of r and P )? Show that the disk β(P, r) is relatively compact
(i.e., has compact closure) in the disk. It follows that any Cauchy sequence in
the Poincaré metric has a limit point in the disk. Thus the Poincaré metric
turns D into a complete metric space. ♦

1.2 Bergman’s Construction

Stefan Bergman created a device for equipping virtually any planar domain
with an invariant metric that is analogous to the Poincaré metric on the disk.1
Some tracts call this new metric the Poincaré–Bergman metric, though it is
1
Later on, in Section 4.6, we shall treat the uniformization theorem of Köbe. It
gives a means for transferring the Poincaré metric from the disk to virtually any
planar domain.
10 1 Invariant Geometry

more commonly called just the Bergman metric. In order to construct the
Bergman metric we must first construct the Bergman kernel. For that we
need just a little Hilbert space theory (see [RUD2], for example).
A domain in C is a connected open set. Fix a domain Ω ⊆ C, and define
 
A2 (Ω) = f holomorphic on Ω : |f (z)|2 dA(z) < ∞ ⊆ L2 (Ω) .
Ω

Here dA is an ordinary two-dimensional area measure. Of course A2 (Ω) is a

complex linear space, called the Bergman space. The norm on A2 (Ω) is given
by
 1/2
2
f A2 (Ω) = |f (z)| dA(z) .
Ω
2
We define an inner product on A (Ω) by

f, g = f (z)g(z) dA(z) .

Ω

The next technical lemma will be the key to our analysis of the space A2 .
Lemma 1.2.1. Let K ⊆ Ω be compact. There is a constant CK > 0, depend-
ing on K, such that

sup |f (z)| ≤ CK f A2 (Ω) , all f ∈ A2 (Ω) .

z∈K

Proof. Since K is compact, there is an r(K) = r > 0 so that, for any z ∈

K, D(z, r) ⊆ Ω. Therefore, for each z ∈ K and f ∈ A2 (Ω), we may use the
mean value property of harmonic functions to see that
 
 
1  
|f (z)| =  f (t) dA(t)
A(B(z, r))  B(z,r) 
1
≤ · χB(z,r) (t) · |f (t)| dA(t) ,
A(B(z, r)) C

where 
1 if t ∈ B(z, r)
χB(z,r) (t) =
0 if t ∈ B(z, r) .
We apply the Cauchy–Schwarz inequality from integration theory (see [RUD2])
to the last expression to find that it is less than or equal to
1
· |χB(z,r) (t)|2 dA1/2 · |f (t)|2 dA1/2
A(B(z, r)) C C
−1/2 1
= (A(B(z, r))) f A2 (B(z,r)) =√ f A2 (Ω)
πr
≡ CK f A2 (Ω) .
 1.2 Bergman’s Construction 11

Proposition 1.2.2. The space A2 (Ω) is complete.

Proof. Let {fj } be a Cauchy sequence in A2 . Then the sequence is Cauchy
in L2 (Ω), and the completeness of L2 (see [RUD2]) then tells us that there
is a limit function f . So fj → f in the L2 topology. Now the lemma tells us
that in fact the convergence is taking place uniformly on compact sets. So
f ∈ A2 (Ω). That completes the argument.
Corollary 1.2.3. The space A2 (Ω) is a Hilbert space.
With a little extra effort (see [GRK1], [RUD3]), it can be shown that A2 (Ω)
is in fact a separable Hilbert space.
Now our point of view is to find a method for representing certain linear
functionals. The key fact is this:
Lemma 1.2.4. For each fixed z ∈ Ω, the functional
Φz : f → f (z), f ∈ A2 (Ω)
is a continuous linear functional on A2 (Ω).
Proof. This is immediate from Lemma 1.2.1 if we take K to be the single-
ton {z}.
We may now apply the Riesz representation theorem (see [RUD2]) to see
that there is an element kz ∈ A2 (Ω) such that the linear functional Φz is
represented by inner product with kz : if f ∈ A2 (Ω) then, for all z ∈ Ω, we
have
f (z) = f, kz  . (1.2.1)

Definition 1.2.5. The Bergman kernel is the function K(z, ζ) = kz (ζ), z, ζ ∈

Ω. It has the reproducing property

f (z) = K(z, ζ)f (ζ) dA(ζ), ∀f ∈ A2 (Ω) . (1.2.2)

Notice that (1.2.2) is just a restatement of (1.2.1).

Proposition 1.2.6. The Bergman kernel K(z, ζ) is conjugate symmetric:
K(z, ζ) = K(ζ, z).
Proof. By its very definition, K(ζ, ·) ∈ A2 (Ω) for each fixed ζ. Therefore the
reproducing property of the Bergman kernel gives

K(z, t)K(ζ, t) dA(t) = K(ζ, z) .

Ω

On the other hand,

K(z, t)K(ζ, t) dA(t) = K(ζ, t)K(z, t) dA(t)

Ω

= K(z, ζ) = K(z, ζ) .
12 1 Invariant Geometry

Proposition 1.2.7. The Bergman kernel is uniquely determined by the

properties that it is an element of A2 (Ω) in z, is conjugate symmetric, and
reproduces A2 (Ω).
 ζ) be another such kernel. Then
Proof. Let K(z,

K(z, ζ) = K(ζ, z) =  t)K(ζ, t) dA(t)

K(z,

=  t) dA(t) = K(z,
K(ζ, t)K(z,  ζ) = K(z,
 ζ) .

Since A2 (Ω) is a separable Hilbert space, there is a complete orthonormal

basis {φj }∞ 2
j=1 for A (Ω).

Proposition 1.2.8. Let E be a compact subset of Ω. Then the series

∞

φj (z)φj (ζ)
j=1

sums uniformly on E × E to the Bergman kernel K(z, ζ).

Proof. By the Riesz–Fisher and Riesz representation theorems, we obtain

⎛ ⎞1/2
∞
  
sup ⎝ |φj (z)|2 ⎠ = sup {φj (z)}∞ 
j=1 2
z∈E j=1 z∈E
 
∞ 
 
= sup   aj φj (z)
{aj } 2 =1  
 j=1
z∈E

= sup |f (z)| ≤ CE . (1.2.3)

f  2 =1
A
z∈E

In the last inequality we have used Lemma 1.2.1. Therefore

⎛ ⎞1/2 ⎛ ⎞1/2
∞ 
  ∞
 ∞

 
φj (z)φj (ζ) ≤ ⎝ |φj (z)|2 ⎠ ⎝ |φj (ζ)|2 ⎠
j=1 j=1 j=1

and the convergence is uniform over z, ζ ∈ E. For fixed z ∈ Ω,

our preceding
calculation shows that {φj (z)}∞
j=1 ∈ 2
. Hence we have that φj (z)φj (ζ) ∈
2  ζ).
A (Ω) as a function of ζ. Let the sum of the series be denoted by K(z,
Notice that K is conjugate symmetric by its very definition. Also, for f ∈
A2 (Ω), we have

 ζ)f (ζ) dA(ζ) =
K(·, f(j)φj (·) = f (·),
 1.2 Bergman’s Construction 13

where convergence is in the Hilbert space topology. [Here f(j) is the j th Fourier
coefficient of f with respect to the basis {φj }.] But Hilbert space convergence
dominates pointwise convergence (Lemma 1.2.1), so

f (z) =  ζ)f (ζ) dA(ζ), all f ∈ A2 (Ω).

K(z,

 is the Bergman kernel.

Therefore, by Proposition 1.2.7, K

Proposition 1.2.9. If Ω is a bounded domain in C, then the mapping

P : f → K(·, ζ)f (ζ) dA(ζ)

Ω

is the Hilbert space orthogonal projection of L2 (Ω, dA) onto A2 (Ω).

Proof. Notice that P is idempotent and self-adjoint and that A2 (Ω) is pre-
cisely the set of elements of L2 that are fixed by P.

Lemma 1.2.10. Let φ : Ω1 → Ω2 be a one-to-one, onto, conformal mapping

of domains. Then
|φ (z)|2 dx dy = dx dy .
Ω1 Ω2

Proof. Write φ = u + iv. Then the Jacobian determinant of φ, thought of as

a real mapping from R2 to R2 , is

ux uy
J = det ,
vx vy

which, by the Cauchy–Riemann equations, equals

ux −vx
det = u2x + vx2 = |φx |2 = |φ |2 .
vx ux

The last equality is obtained by another application of the Cauchy–Riemann

equations.
As a result,

1 dA = J dA = |φ (z)|2 dx dy .
Ω2 Ω1 Ω1

This last result is called the Lusin area integral formula.

Proposition 1.2.11. Let Ω1 , Ω2 be domains in C. Let f : Ω1 → Ω2 be con-

formal. Then
f  (z)KΩ2 (f (z), f (ζ))f  (ζ) = KΩ1 (z, ζ) .
14 1 Invariant Geometry

Proof. Let φ ∈ A2 (Ω1 ). Then, by change of variable,

 
f  (z)KΩ2 (f (z), f (ζ))f  (ζ) φ(ζ) dA(ζ)
Ω1

  (f −1 (ζ))φ(f
 −1  1 
= f  (z)KΩ2 (f (z), ζ)f (ζ)) · dA(ζ).
Ω2  2
|f  (f −1 (ζ))|

In the last equality, we have used Lemma 1.2.10. This simplifies to

 
1  

f (z) 
KΩ2 (f (z), ζ) −1 
φ f (ζ) 
dA(ζ).
Ω2 
f  (f −1 (ζ))

By change of variables, the expression in braces { } is an element of A2 (Ω2 ).

So the reproducing property of KΩ2 applies and the last line equals
1
f  (z) · · φ (z) = φ(z) .
f  (z)

By the uniqueness of the Bergman kernel, the proposition follows.

Proposition 1.2.12. For z ∈ Ω ⊂⊂ C it holds that KΩ (z, z) > 0.

Proof. If {φj } is a complete orthonormal basis for A2 (Ω), then

∞

KΩ (z, z) = |φj (z)|2 ≥ 0 .
j=1

If in fact K(z, z) = 0 for some z, then φj (z) = 0 for all j; hence f (z) = 0 for
every f ∈ A2 (Ω). This is absurd.

As an exercise, the reader may wish to verify that the last proposition is
true with only the simple assumption that the area of Ω is finite.

Definition 1.2.13. For any bounded Ω ⊆ C we define a Hermitian metric on

Ω by
∂2
g(z) = log K(z, z), z ∈ Ω .
∂z∂z
This means that the length of a tangent vector ξ at a point z ∈ Ω is given by

|ξ|z = g(z) ξ .

The metric that we have defined is called the Bergman metric. Sometimes,
for clarity, we denote the metric by g Ω .

We note that the length of a curve, and the distance dΩ (z, w) between two
points z, w, is now defined just as for the Poincaré metric on the disk.
 1.3 Calculation of the Bergman Kernel for the Disk 15

Proposition 1.2.14. Let Ω1 , Ω2 ⊆ C be domains and let f : Ω1 → Ω2 be a

conformal mapping. Then f induces an isometry of Bergman metrics:
|ξ|z = |f  (z) · ξ|f (z) (1.2.4)
for all z ∈ Ω1 , ξ ∈ C. Equivalently, f induces an isometry of Bergman dis-
tances in the sense that
dΩ2 (f (P ), f (Q)) = dΩ1 (P, Q).
Proof. This is a formal exercise, but we include it for completeness:
From the definitions, it suffices to check that
|g Ω2 (f (z))f  (z)w| = |g Ω1 (z)w|
for all z ∈ Ω, w ∈ C. But, by Proposition 1.2.11,
∂2
g Ω1 (z) = log KΩ1 (z, z)
∂z∂z
∂ 2 
= log |f  (z)|2 KΩ2 (f (z), f (z))
∂z∂z
∂2
= log KΩ2 (f (z), f (z)) (1.2.5)
∂z∂z
since, locally,
 
log |f  (z)|2 = log (f  (z)) + log f  (z) + C .

But line (1.2.5) is nothing other than

 2
 Ω    
g 2 (f (z)) ∂f (z) ∂f (z) = g Ω2 (f (z))  ∂f (z) 
∂z ∂z  ∂z 
and (1.2.4) follows.

1.3 Calculation of the Bergman Kernel for the Disk

Proposition 1.3.1. The Bergman kernel for the unit disk D is
1 1
K(z, ζ) = · .
π (1 − zζ)2
The Bergman metric for the disk is
2
g(z) = .
(1 − |z|2 )2
This is (up to a constant multiple) the well-known Poincaré, or Poincaré–
Bergman, metric.
This fact is so important that we now present three proofs. Some interest-
ing function theory will occur along the way.
16 1 Invariant Geometry

1.3.1 Construction of the Bergman Kernel for the Disk

by Conformal Invariance
Let D ⊆ C be the unit disk. First we notice that, if either f ∈ A2 (D) or
f ∈ A2 (D), then
1
f (0) = f (ζ) dA(ζ) . (1.3.1)
π
D

This is the standard, two-dimensional area form of the mean value property
for holomorphic or harmonic functions.
Of course the constant function u(z) ≡ 1 is in A2 (D), so it is reproduced
by integration against the Bergman kernel. Hence, for any w ∈ D,

1 = u(w) = K(w, ζ)u(ζ) dA(ζ) = K(w, ζ) dA(ζ) ,

D D
or
1 1
= K(w, ζ) dA(ζ) .
π π
D
By (1.3.1), we may conclude that
1
= K(w, 0)
π
for any w ∈ D.
Now, for a ∈ D fixed, consider the Möbius transformation
z−a
h(z) = .
1 − az
We know that
1 − |a|2
h (z) = .
(1 − az)2
We may thus apply Proposition 1.2.11 with φ = h to find that
K(w, a) = h (w) · K(h(w), h(a)) · h (a)
1 − |a|2 1
= · K(h(w), 0) ·
(1 − aw)2 1 − |a|2
1 1
= 2
·
(1 − aw) π
1 1
= · .
π (1 − wa)2

This is our formula for the Bergman kernel. The formula for the Bergman
metric follows immediately by differentiation.
 1.3 Calculation of the Bergman Kernel for the Disk 17

1.3.2 Construction of the Bergman Kernel by means of an

Orthonormal System

Now we will endeavor to write down the Bergman kernel for the disk by means
of an orthonormal basis for A2 (D), that is, by applying Proposition 1.2.8. For
a general Ω, it can be rather difficult to actually write down a complete
orthonormal system for A2 (Ω). Fortunately, the unit disk D ⊆ C has enough
symmetry that we can actually pull this off.
It is not difficult to see that {z j }∞ 2
j=0 is an orthogonal system for A (D).
That is, the elements are pairwise orthogonal; but they are not normalized to
have unit length. We may confirm the first of these assertions by noting that,
if j = k, then
1 2π
z j , z k  = z j z k dA(z) = rj eijθ rk e−ikθ dθ rdr
D 0 0
1 2π
= rj+k+1 dr ei(j−k)θ dθ = 0 .
0 0

The system {z j } is complete: If f, z j  = 0 for every j, then f will have a null
power series expansion and hence be identically zero. It remains to normalize
these monomials so that we have a complete orthonormal system.
We calculate that
1 2π
|z j |2 dA(z) = r2j dθ rdr
D 0 0
1
= 2π r2j+1 dr
0
1
=π· .
j+1

We conclude that √
π
zj = √ .
j+1
Therefore the elements of our orthonormal system are
√
j + 1 · zj
φj (z) = √ .
π
Now, according to Proposition 1.2.8, the Bergman kernel is given by
∞

K(z, ζ) = φj (z) · φj (ζ)
j=0
∞
(j + 1)z j ζ j
=
j=0
π
18 1 Invariant Geometry
∞
1 
= · (j + 1) · (zζ)j .
π j=0

Observe that, in this instance, the convergence of the series is manifest (for
both |z| < 1 and |ζ| < 1). 
Of course we easily can sum j (j + 1)αj by noticing that
∞
 ∞
d  j+1
(j + 1)αj = α
j=0
dα j=0
 
d 1
= α·
dα 1−α
1
= .
(1 − α)2

Applying this result to our expression for K(z, ζ) yields that

1 1
K(z, ζ) = · .
π (1 − zζ)2

This is consistent with the formula that we obtained by conformal invariance

in Subsection 1.3.1 for the Bergman kernel of the disk. The formula for the
Bergman metric follows immediately by differentiation.

1.3.3 Construction of the Bergman Kernel by way of Differential

Equations

It is actually possible to obtain the Bergman kernel of a domain in the plane

from the Green’s function for that domain (see [EPS]). Let us now summa-
rize the key ideas. Chapter 8, especially Section 8.2, contains more detailed
information about the Green’s function. Unlike the first two Bergman kernel
constructions, the present one will work for any domain with C 2 boundary.
First, the fundamental solution for the Laplacian in the plane is the func-
tion
1
Γ (ζ, z) = log |ζ − z|
2π
(in Proposition 8.1.4 we shall prove this assertion). This means that
ζ Γ (ζ, z) = δz . [Observe that δz denotes the Dirac “delta mass” at z and
ζ is the Laplacian in the ζ variable.] Here the derivatives are interpreted in
the sense of distributions. In more prosaic terms, the condition is that

Γ (ζ, z) · ϕ(ζ) dξdη = ϕ(z)

for any C 2 function ϕ with compact support. We write, as usual, ζ = ξ + iη.

 1.3 Calculation of the Bergman Kernel for the Disk 19

Given a domain Ω ⊆ C, the Green’s function is posited to be a function

G(ζ, z) that satisfies
G(ζ, z) = Γ (ζ, z) − Fz (ζ) ,
where Fz (ζ) = F (ζ, z) is a particular harmonic function in the ζ variable.
Moreover, it is mandated that G( · , z) vanish on the boundary of Ω. One
constructs the function F ( · , z), for each fixed z, by solving a suitable Dirichlet
problem. Again, the reference [KRA1, p. 40] has all the particulars. It is worth
noting, and this point will be discussed later, that the Green’s function is a
symmetric function of its arguments.
The next proposition establishes a striking connection between the Bergman
kernel and the classical Green’s function.

Proposition 1.3.2. Let Ω ⊆ C be a bounded domain with C 2 boundary. Let

G(ζ, z) be the Green’s function for Ω and let K(z, ζ) be the Bergman kernel
for Ω. Then

∂2
K(z, ζ) = 4 · G(ζ, z) . (1.3.2)
∂ζ∂z
Proof. Our proof will use a version of Stokes’s theorem written in the notation
of complex variables. It says that if u ∈ C 1 (Ω), then
!
∂u
u(ζ) dζ = 2i · dξ dη , (1.3.3)
∂U ∂ζ
U

where again ζ = ξ + iη. The reader is invited to convert this formula to

an expression in ξ and η and to confirm that the result coincides with the
standard real-variable version of Stokes’s theorem that can be found in any
calculus book (see, e.g., [THO], [BLK]).
Now we already know that
1 1
G(ζ, z) = log(ζ − z) + log (ζ − z) + F (ζ, z) . (1.3.4)
4π 4π
Here we think of the logarithm as a multivalued holomorphic function; after
we take a derivative, the ambiguity (which comes from an additive multiple
of 2πi) goes away.
Differentiating with respect to z (and using subscripts to denote deriva-
tives), we find that
1 −1
Gz (ζ, z) = + Fz (ζ, z) .
4π ζ − z
We may rearrange this formula to read
1
= −4π · Gz (ζ, z) + 4πFz (ζ, z) .
ζ −z
20 1 Invariant Geometry

We know that G, as a function of ζ, vanishes on ∂Ω. Hence so does Gz . Let

f ∈ C 2 (Ω) be holomorphic on Ω. It follows that the Cauchy formula
!
1 f (ζ)
f (z) = dζ
2πi ∂Ω ζ − z
can be rewritten as
!
f (z) = −2i f (ζ)Fz (ζ, z) dζ .
∂Ω

Now we apply Stokes’s theorem (in the complex form) to rewrite this last
as
f (z) = 4 · (f (ζ)Fz )ζ (ζ, z) dξ dη ,
Ω

where ζ = ξ + iη. Since f is holomorphic and F is real-valued, we may con-

veniently write this last formula as

f (z) = 4 · f (ζ)Fζz (ζ, z) dξ dη .

Ω

Now formula (1.3.4) tells us that Fζz = Gζz . Therefore we have

f (z) = f (ζ)4Gζz (ζ, z) dξ dη . (1.3.5)

Ω

With a suitable limiting argument, we may extend this formula from functions
f that are holomorphic and in C 2 (Ω) to functions in A2 (Ω).
It is straightforward now to verify that 4Gζz satisfies the first three charac-
terizing properties of the Bergman kernel, just by examining our construction.
The crucial reproducing property is of course formula (1.3.5). Then it follows
that
∂2
K(z, ζ) = 4 · G(ζ, z) .
∂ζ∂z
That is the desired result.

It is worth noting that the proposition we have just established gives a

practical method for confirming the existence of the Bergman kernel—by re-
lating it to the Green’s function, whose existence is elementary.
Now let us calculate. Of course the Green’s function of the unit disk D is
1 1
G(ζ, z) = log |ζ − z| − log |1 − ζz| ,
2π 2π
as a glance at any classical complex analysis text will tell us (see, for example,
[AHL2] or [HIL]). Verify the defining properties of the Green’s function for
yourself.
 1.4 A New Application 21

With formula (1.3.2) in mind, we can make life a bit easier by writing
1 1
G(ζ, z) = log(ζ − z) + log(ζ − z)
4π 4π
1 1 " #
− log (1 − ζz) − log 1 − ζz .
4π 4π

Here we think of the expression on the right as the concatenation of four

multivalued functions, in view of the ambiguity of the logarithm function. This
ambiguity is irrelevant for us because the derivative of the Green’s function
is still well defined (i.e., the derivative annihilates additive constants).
Now we readily calculate that
∂G 1 −1 1 ζ
= · + ·
∂z 4π ζ − z 4π 1 − ζz
and
∂2G 1 1
= · .
∂ζ∂z 4π (1 − ζz)2
In conclusion, we may apply Proposition 1.3.2 to see that
1 1
K(z, ζ) = · .
π (1 − z · ζ)2

This result is consistent with that obtained in the first two calculations (Sub-
sections 1.3.1, 1.3.2). The Bergman metric, as before, is obtained by differen-
tiation.

1.4 A New Application

We now present a rather profound, and relatively new, application of invariant
metrics on planar domains. This result was first discovered around 1978 by
several different authors. The complete history may be found in [FKKM]. We
give here an argument from that paper.
Before we begin the proof, some remarks are in order. First we note that
if ϕ is an automorphism of the disk D that has just two fixed points, then ϕ
is the identity. For we may as well assume that one of the fixed points is the
origin. By Schwarz’s lemma, we know immediately that ϕ is a rotation. Now
one additional fixed point forces ϕ to be the identity. The domain Ω = C has
a similar property. All automorphisms have the form z → az +b, and two fixed
points provide the algebraic data to determine a and b. Refer to the cognate
discussion in Section 12.3.
Things are a bit more interesting for an annulus, say
 
1
A = z ∈ C : < |z| < 2 .
2
22 1 Invariant Geometry

The inversion mapping z → 1/z has 1 and −1 as fixed points. And of course it
is not the identity. Any third fixed point would (see the theorem below) force
an automorphism to be the identity. The Riemann sphere is similar. Any
automorphism is a linear fractional transformation, and it is easy to see (on
purely algebraic grounds) that three fixed points determine the transformation
uniquely.
For a Riemann surface of arbitrary genus, things are more complicated. It
is not difficult to see that if k is a positive integer, then there is a Riemann
surface with an automorphism ϕ that is not the identity such that ϕ has k
fixed points. We now provide a couple of quick examples:

Example 1.4.1. Consider the complex one-dimensional torus T generated from

the lattice {1, i}. Let π : C → T be the standard covering map. Then z → −z
on the complex plane generates an automorphism, say τ , on T . Now τ has
four fixed points, which are

π(0) , π(1/2 + i/2) , π(1/2) , π(i/2) .

Yet τ does not fix π( 14 ), and so it is not the identity map.

Example 1.4.2. We now consider a two-holed torus. This manifold can be gen-
erated by a regular octagon centered at the origin of the Poincaré disk together
with its reflections. Again, z → −z generates a nontrivial automorphism of
this Riemann surface. The number of fixed points is now six, coming from the
center (the origin), the vertices, and the corresponding pairs of midpoints of
the sides of the octagon.

It is now clear that one can obtain arbitrarily large numbers of fixed points
just from among the compact Riemann surfaces. See [FKKM] for the details.

Theorem 1.4.3. Let Ω ⊆ C be any bounded, planar domain and φ : Ω → Ω

a conformal map. If φ has three fixed points (i.e., φ(p) = p for three distinct
points p), then φ is the identity mapping.

Proof. We must begin with some terminology. We take it for granted that the
reader has at least an intuitive understanding of the concept of “geodesic” (see
[STO] or [BOO] for background). Going by the book, a geodesic is defined by
a differential equation. For our purposes here, we may think of a geodesic as
a locally length-minimizing curve.
Let x ∈ M , where M is a Riemannian manifold. A point y ∈ M is called
a cut point of x if there are two or more length-minimizing geodesics from
x to y in M . See Figure 1.2. We further use the following basic terminology
and facts from Riemannian geometry. Let dis(x, y) denote the metric distance
from x to y. A geodesic γ : [a, b] → M is called a length-minimizing geodesic
(or alternatively, a minimal geodesic, or a minimal connector) from x to y
if γ(a) = x, γ(b) = y, and dis (x, y) = [arc length of γ]. By the Hopf–Rinow
theorem, any two points in a complete Riemannian manifold can be connected
 1.4 A New Application 23

y x

Fig. 1.2. The point y is a cut point for x.

by a minimizing geodesic. If there is a smooth family of minimizing geodesics

from x to y, then these two points are said to be conjugate. Conjugate points
are cut points. The collection of cut points of x in M is called the cut locus of
x, which we denote by Cx . It is known that Cx is nowhere dense in M ([GKM],
[KLI], e.g.), in fact, Cx lies in the singular set for the distance function.
Now equip Ω with the Bergman metric. For convenience, we shall suppose
that Ω has C 1 boundary. This will guarantee that the Bergman metric is
complete (see [OHS]). We assume that f ∈ Aut (Ω) is not the identity map,
but has 3 distinct fixed points in Ω. To reach a contradiction, let us start
with the fixed point a. If the set of fixed points accumulates at a, we are
done. So we may choose as the second fixed point b the closest (with respect
to the Hermitian metric) one to a apart from a itself. This choice may not be
unique, and hence we simply choose one.
We need to consider only the case that b is a cut point (not conjugate)
of a. [For otherwise f would fix the unique geodesic connecting a to b and
hence would be the identity.] Then there will be several unit-speed minimal
connectors (all of which have the same length, of course), say γ1 , γ2 , . . . , joining
a to b. First notice that no minimal connector can have a self-intersection.
Then the automorphism f maps any one of the minimal connectors to another
such, since the endpoints a and b are fixed. Note that f ◦ γ1 cannot intersect
γ1 except at the endpoints. For, if they do intersect at a point other than the
endpoints, then they have to intersect at the same time; otherwise one may
find an even shorter connector between a and b than the minimal connector,
which is a contradiction. Then the intersection point becomes a fixed point of
f closer to a than b, which is again not allowed.
24 1 Invariant Geometry

Now, γ1 and f ◦ γ1 join to form a piecewise smooth Jordan curve in the

plane. Thus it bounds a cell, say E, in the plane C. Now consider the third
fixed point c that is distinct from a and b. Notice that we may assume that c
is not on any of the minimal connectors for a and b. Suppose that c is inside
the cell E. Now join c to a by an arc ξ in E ∩ Ω that does not intersect with
either γ1 or f ◦ γ1 , or in fact with any minimal geodesics joining a and b.
Notice that the conformality of f at the fixed point a shows that there is a
sufficiently small open disk neighborhood U of a on which f must map U ∩ ξ
to the outside of the cell E. This results in the conclusion that f ◦ ξ must
cross γ1 or f ◦ γ1 . But this is impossible, since a point not on any minimal
connector from a to b cannot be mapped to a point on a minimal connector
from a to b.
If c is outside the cell E, then the arguments are similar. Since there are
only finitely many minimal connectors between a and b (since a and b are not
conjugate to each other, and the quotient from the universal covering space
is formed by a properly discontinuous group action; see [BRE]), some iterate
f m of f will move ξ so that its image has points inside E. Then, f m ◦ ξ
again crosses one of these minimal geodesics joining a and b, which leads us
to another contradiction.

Restricting attention back to the unit disk, we recall the difference between
fixed points in the interior and fixed points in the boundary (this is a remark
of Michael Christ). As we have noted, two fixed points in the interior force
an automorphism to be the identity. But it takes three fixed points in the
boundary for rigidity. One explanation for this difference is that two fixed
points in the interior will give rise, by way of Schwarz reflection, to four fixed
points of an automorphism of the Riemann sphere. That of course is impossible
unless the map is the identity. But of course fixed points in the boundary will
not multiply under reflection, so their behavior is different.

1.5 An Application to Mapping Theory

A classical result from complex function theory is this:

Theorem 1.5.1. Let A = {z ∈ C : 1 < |z| < R}. If φ is a conformal mapping

of A to itself, then φ is either a rotation or an inversion of the form z → R/z.

It is interesting to note that it is quite difficult to compute the Bergman

kernel and metric for an annulus. One can certainly see (using Laurent series)
that the monomials {z j }∞ j=−∞ form an orthogonal system on an annulus cen-
tered at the origin. And one can use a little calculus to normalize these to
an orthonormal system. But actually performing the necessary summation is
virtually intractable (and involves elliptic functions [BER, pp. 9–10]). Fortu-
nately, the proof that we are about to present requires no detailed knowledge
 1.5 An Application to Mapping Theory 25

of the Bergman metric of the annulus. Indeed, it uses only the fact that the
metric is complete, hence blows up at the boundary. We shall take this last
result for granted, although see [APF] for a detailed treatment of this and
related matters.
We will need to know that the Bergman metric has geodesics, but that
follows from the smoothness and completeness of the metric (see [KON]). We
will also utilize the real analyticity of the Bergman kernel and metric in an
interesting and surprising way.
Again, we shall indulge the reader’s intuition and invoke the heuristic idea
of geodesic (see [KON] for all the details). Now fix an annulus A = {z ∈ C :
1 < |z| < R}. We will be using standard polar coordinates (r, θ). At any point
p ∈ A, a vector in the tangent space decomposes into a component in the
∂/∂r direction and a component in the ∂/∂θ direction. One way to look at
the metric is that it assigns a length to ∂/∂r and to ∂/∂θ at each point of the
annulus. Consider the set M of points where the Bergman length of ∂/∂θ is
minimal. Such points exist just because the Bergman metric blows up at the
boundary of the domain. What geometric properties will the set M have?
First, the set must be rotationally invariant—because the metric will be
rotationally invariant (i.e., the rotations are conformal self-maps of A). Thus
M is a union of circles centered at the origin. And M is certainly a closed set
by the continuity of the metric. The set has no interior because the Bergman
metric ρ is given by a real analytic function (it is the second derivative of the
logarithm of the real analytic Bergman kernel), and the zero set of a nontrivial
real analytic function can have no interior—see [KRP1]. In fact we may also
note that ∂/∂θ ρ is real analytic in the radial r direction, hence (by the same
reasoning) we claim that M can have only finitely many circles in it. More
precisely, let g(r, θ) = ∂/∂θ ρ,(r,θ) . We have already noted that this function
is independent of θ, so we may consider g(r) = ∂/∂θ ρ,r . This function will
assume its minimum value at points r where g  (r) = 0. Since the metric is
complete, we know that the set of such points forms a compact subset of the
interval (0, R). If the set is infinite, then it has an accumulation point, and
therefore the real analytic function g  is identically zero. That is impossible,
again by the completeness of the metric. Therefore the set M is finite.
Now it is easy to see that any curve (circle) in M will also be one of the
curves (the curves that go once around the hole in the middle of the annulus)
that minimizes arc length in the Bergman metric, and vice versa. This is so
because we have already selected the curve to have ∂/∂θ length as small as
possible; a curve whose tangents have components in the ∂/∂r direction will
a fortiori be longer. In more detail, the length of any curve γ(t), 0 ≤ t ≤ 1, is
calculated by
1 1
ρ (γ) = γ  (t) ρ,γ(t) dt = γr (t) + γθ (t) ρ,γ(t) dt ,
0 0
26 Problems for Study and Exploration

where γr and γθ are, respectively, the normal and tangential components of
γ  . Clearly, if we construct a new curve γ  by integrating the vector field γθ ,
then the result is a curve that is shorter than γ.
Thus any circle in M is a length-minimizing geodesic. And the converse is
true as well.
Now let ϕ be a conformal self-map of A. Then, as a result of the consid-
erations in the last paragraph, ϕ will map circles in M (concentric with the
annulus) to circles in M (concentric with the annulus). But more is true: any
circle c that is centered at 0 has constant Bergman distance from any one
given circle C in M . Let τc be the Bergman distance from the arbitrary circle
c to the fixed circle C. Then c will be mapped by ϕ to another circle in A
that has Bergman distance τc from ϕ(C). In short, ϕ maps circles to circles.
And the same remark applies to ϕ−1 .
Now the orthogonal trajectories to the family of circles centered at P will
of course be the radii of the annulus A. Therefore (by conformality) these
radii will get mapped to radii. Let R be the intersection of the positive real
axis with the annulus A. After composition with a rotation, we may assume
that ϕ maps R to R.
If M has just one circle in it, then that circle C must be fixed. Since each
circle c in the annulus (centered at P ) has a distance τc from C, then its image
under ϕ will have the same distance from C. Thus either c is fixed or it is
sent to its image under inversion. By continuity, whatever choice is valid for
c will be valid for all other circles. Thus, in this case, the map ϕ is either the
identity or inversion.
Now suppose that M contains at least two circles. The only possibilities
for the action of ϕ on M ∩ R are preservation of the order of the points or
inversion of the order (since any other permutation of the points is ruled out
by elementary topology of a conformal mapping). By composing ϕ with an
inversion (z → R/z), we may assume that ϕ does not act as an inversion on
R. But of course ϕ must preserve M ∩ R. We conclude that ϕ must be the
identity.
What we have just proved is that, after we normalize ϕ so that it maps the
positive real axis to itself, then in fact ϕ must be the identity (or an inversion).
In other words, the original map ϕ must be a rotation (or an inversion).

Problems for Study and Exploration

1. Prove that if F is an isometry of the unit disk equipped with the Bergman
metric, then F is conformal. Can you extend this result to any bounded,
simply connected domain?
2. Calculate the collection of all conformal self-maps of the annulus A =
{ζ ∈ C : 1/2 < |ζ| < 2}.
3. Let φ : Ω1 → Ω2 be a conformal map of bounded domains in C. Derive
a formula relating the Bergman projection PΩ1 : L2 (Ω1 ) → A2 (Ω1 ) to
 Problems for Study and Exploration 27

PΩ2 : L2 (Ω2 ) → A2 (Ω2 ). We shall consider this idea in detail in Section

5.2.
4. What can you say about the Bergman kernel of the annulus A = {ζ ∈ C :
1/2 < |ζ| < 2}? Can you write it as a “principal term” plus a “lower-order
term”?
5. Calculate the Bergman kernel on a domain with a corner, such as Ω =
{ζ ∈ C : Re ζ > 0, Im ζ > 0}. How does the kernel K(z, ζ) blow up as
z, ζ tend to 0? How does this compare with the boundary behavior of the
Bergman kernel on the disk?
6. Write an explicit formula for the Bergman kernel on the upper halfplane
U = {ζ ∈ C : Im ζ > 0}.
7. Give an example of a planar domain (not the entire plane) for which the
Bergman space consists only of the zero function. Can you characterize
all such domains?
8. What is the Bergman projection of the function ϕ(ζ) = ζ on the unit
j
disk? What about ϕj (ζ) = ζ , j = 2, 3, . . . ?
9.  a bounded domain Ω ⊆ C. Fix also a point z ∈ Ω. Prove that
Fix
KΩ (z, z) is the greatest value at z of the modulus of any Bergman
space function of norm 1 on Ω.
10. Let Ω be any bounded domain in C. Prove that the Bergman space is
separable.
11. Let Ω1 ⊆ Ω2 ⊆ · · · be domains and set Ω = ∪j Ωj . How are KΩ and KΩj
related?
12. Let Ω1 ⊆ Ω2 . How are KΩ1 (z, z) and KΩ2 (z, z) related?
13. Let Ω ⊆ C be a domain and z ∈ Ω. Let δz be the Dirac delta mass at
the point z. Explain why the Bergman kernel function K(z, ·) satisfies
equation
PΩ (δz ) = K(z, · ) .
14. On the domain the unit disk D, imitate the construction of the Bergman
kernel using harmonic functions rather than holomorphic functions. What
kernel results?
15. Let f be a one-to-one, onto map of the Riemann sphere to itself that maps
lines and great circles to lines and great circles. Prove that f is either a
linear fractional transformation or the conjugate of a linear fractional
transformation.
2
Variations on the Theme of the
Schwarz Lemma

Genesis and Development

The Schwarz lemma is one of the simplest results in all of complex

function theory. A direct application of the maximum principle, it is
merely a statement about the rate of growth of holomorphic functions
on the unit disk.
But there is hardly any result that has been quite so influen-
tial. Thanks in part to Lars Ahlfors’s geometrization of the proof
(he showed that the Schwarz lemma can be interpreted in terms of
curvature), the Schwarz lemma has assumed a central and powerful
role in complex geometry. There are many seminal generalizations of
the Schwarz lemma, some of them quite deep. The Carathéodory and
Kobayashi metrics—distinctive Finsler metrics that can be used de-
cisively in the study of function-theoretic questions—are constructed
with methodologies that are based on the Schwarz lemma. Almost any
result in the geometric theory of analytic functions has the Schwarz
lemma lurking in the background.
The present chapter explores the Schwarz lemma and its variants.
We shall certainly learn about Ahlfors’s approach, and some of its
consequences. One of the beautiful byproducts of our work will be an
elegant new proof of Picard’s theorems.

2.1 Introduction
The classical Schwarz lemma is part of the grist of every complex analysis
class. A version of it says this:
Lemma 2.1.1. Let f : D → D be holomorphic. Assume that f (0) = 0. Then
(a) |f (z)| ≤ |z| for all z ∈ D;
(b) |f  (0)| ≤ 1.
30 2 Variations on the Theme of the Schwarz Lemma

At least as important as these two statements are the cognate uniqueness state-
ments:
(c) If |f (z)| = |z| for some z = 0, then f is a rotation: f (z) = λz
for some unimodular complex constant λ;
(d) If |f  (0)| = 1, then f is a rotation: f (z) = λz for some
unimodular complex constant λ.

There are a number of ways to prove this result. The classical argument is
to consider g(z) = f (z)/z. On a circle |z| = 1− , we see that |g(z)| ≤ 1/(1− ).
Thus |f (z)| ≤ |z|/(1 − ). Since this inequality holds for all > 0, part (a)
follows. The Cauchy estimates show that |f  (0)| ≤ 1.
For the uniqueness, if |f (z)| = |z| for some z = 0, then |g(z)| = 1. The
maximum modulus principle then forces g to be a unimodular constant, and
hence f is a rotation. If instead |f  (0)| = 1, then |g(0)| = 1 and again the
maximum modulus principle yields that f is a rotation.
The Schwarz–Pick lemma observes that there is no need to restrict to
f (0) = 0. Once one comes up with the right formulation, the proof is straight-
forward:

Proposition 2.1.2. Let f : D → D. Assume that a = b are elements of D

and that f (a) = α, f (b) = β. Then
   
 β−α   b−a 
(a)  ≤ ;
1 − αβ   1 − ab 
1 − |α|2
(b) |f  (a)| ≤ .
1 − |a|2
There is also a pair of uniqueness statements:
   
 β−α   b−a 
(c) If  = , then f is a conformal self-map of the disk D;
1 − αβ   1 − ab 
1 − |α|2
(d) If |f  (a)| = , then f is a conformal self-map of the disk D.
1 − |a|2
Proof. We sketch the proof. Recall that for a a complex number in D,
ζ −a
ϕa (ζ) =
1 − aζ
defines a Möbius transformation. This is a conformal self-map of the disk that
takes a to 0. Note that ϕ−a is the inverse mapping to ϕa .
Now, for the given f , consider

g(z) = ϕα ◦ f ◦ ϕ−a .

Then g : D → D and g(0) = 0. So the standard Schwarz lemma applies to g.

By part (a) of that lemma,
|g(z)| ≤ |z| .
 2.1 Introduction 31

Letting z = ϕa (ζ) yields

|ϕα ◦ f (ζ)| ≤ |ϕa (ζ)| .
Writing this out, and setting ζ = b, gives the conclusion
   
 β−α   b−a 
 ≤ 
 1 − αβ   1 − ab  .

That is part (a).

For part (b), we certainly have that
|(ϕα ◦ f ◦ ϕ−a ) (0)| ≤ 1 .
Using the chain rule, we may rewrite this as
 
|ϕα (f ◦ ϕ−a (0))| · |f  (ϕ−a (0))| · ϕ−a (0) ≤ 1 . (2.1.1)
Now of course
1 − |a|2
ϕa (ζ) = .
(1 − aζ)2
So we may rewrite (2.1.1) as
1 − |α|2
· |f  (a)| · (1 − |a|2 ) ≤ 1 .
(1 − |α|2 )2
Now part (b) follows.
We leave parts (c) and (d) as exercises for the reader.
The quantity
|a − b|
ρ(a, b) =
|1 − ab|
is called the pseudohyperbolic metric. It is actually a metric on D (details left
to the reader). It is not identical to the Poincaré–Bergman metric. In fact it
is not a Riemannian metric at all. But it is still true that conformal maps
of the disk are distance-preserving in the pseudohyperbolic metric. Exercise:
Use the Schwarz–Pick lemma to prove this last assertion.
One useful interpretation of the Schwarz–Pick lemma is that a holomorphic
function f from the disk to the disk must take each disk D(0, r), 0 < r <
1, into (but not necessarily onto) the image of that disk under the linear
fractional map
z+α
z → ,
1 + αz
where f (0) = α. This image is in fact (in case −1 < α < 1) a stan-
dard Euclidean disk with center on the real axis at α and diameter (in case
0 < α < 1) given by the interval
 
α−r α+r
, .
1 − αr 1 + αr
32 2 Variations on the Theme of the Schwarz Lemma

2.2 Other Versions of Schwarz’s Lemma

Here we present some fascinating but less well known versions of the Schwarz
lemma concept.
Proposition 2.2.1. Let f be holomorphic on D(0, r), and assume that |f (z)| ≤
M for all z. Then  
 f (z) − f (w) 
  ≤ 2M r .
 z−w  |r2 − zw|

Proof. Define
f (rz)
g(z) = .
M
Then g : D → D and we may apply Schwarz–Pick to g. The result is
 
 g(z) − g(w)   z − w 
   ,
 ≤
 1 − g(z)g(w)   1 − zw 

which translates to
 
 f (rz)/M − f (rw)/M   z − w 
   .
 ≤
 1 − f (rz)/M · f (rw)/M   w − zw 

Doing some elementary algebra and replacing z → z/r, w → w/r yields

   
 f (z) − f (w)   r(z − w) 
   .
 ≤M · 2
 1 − [f (z)f (w)]/M 2  r − zw 

This may be rearranged as

 
 f (z) − f (w)  rM |1 − [f (z)f (w)]/M 2 |
 ≤
 z−w  |r2 − zw|
and the right-hand side here can obviously be majorized by
2M r
.
|r2 − zw|
This completes the argument.
This last proposition is one way to adapt the ideas of Schwarz–Pick to a
disk of arbitrary radius and a function of arbitrary upper bound. The next
result, due to Lindelöf, gives a means for majorizing |f (z)|, in the classical
Schwarz lemma setting, directly without assuming that f (0) = 0.
Proposition 2.2.2. Let f : D → D be holomorphic. Then
|f (0)| + |z|
|f (z)| ≤ .
1 + |f (0)||z|
 2.3 A Geometric View of the Schwarz Lemma 33

Proof. We first note that, for complex numbers a, b ∈ D,

 
 a − b 2 (1 − |a|2 )(1 − |b|2 )
 
 1 − ab  = 1 − |1 − ab|2
(1 − |a|2 )(1 − |b|2 )
≥ 1−
(1 − |a||b|)2
(|a| − |b|)2
= .
(1 − |a||b|)2
Now we use this inequality to calculate, for z ∈ D, that
|f (z)| − |f (0)| |f (z) − f (0)|
≤ .
1 − |f (0)||f (z)| |1 − f (0)f (z)|

By Schwarz–Pick this last is not greater than

|z − 0|
= |z| .
|1 − 0z|
Thus
|f (z)| − |f (0)| ≤ |z| − |z| · |f (0)| · |f (z)| .
Rearranging the inequality gives
|f (0)| + |z|
|f (z)| ≤ .
1 + |z||f (0)|
That is the desired result.

2.3 A Geometric View of the Schwarz Lemma

In 1938, Lars Ahlfors [AHL1] caused a sensation by proving that the Schwarz
lemma is really an inequality about the curvatures of Riemannian metrics. In
the present section we will give an exposition of Ahlfors’s ideas. Afterward we
can provide some applications.
We shall go into considerable detail in the present discussion, so that the
reader has ample motivation and context. Certainly it should be plain that
there is definite resonance with the material on the Poincaré and Bergman
metrics in Chapter 1.

2.3.1 Geometric Ideas

In classical analysis a metric is a device for measuring distance. If X is a set,
then a metric λ for X is a function
λ : X × X −→ R
satisfying, for all x, y, z ∈ X,
34 2 Variations on the Theme of the Schwarz Lemma

(1) λ(x, y) = λ(y, x)

(2) λ(x, y) ≥ 0 and λ(x, y) = 0 iff x = y;
(3) λ(x, y) ≤ λ(x, z) + γ(z, y).
The trouble with a metric defined in this generality is that it does not interact
well with calculus. What sort of interaction might we wish to see?
Given two points P, Q ∈ X, one would like to consider the curve of least
length connecting P to Q. Any reasonable construction of such a curve leads
to a differential equation, and thus we require that our metric lend itself to
differentiation. Yet another consideration is curvature: in the classical setting
curvature is measured by the rate of change of the normal vector field. The
concepts of normal and rate of change lead inexorably to differentiation. Thus
we shall now take a different approach to the concept of “metric.” The reader
will see definite parallels here with our treatment of “metric” in Chapter 1 on
invariant geometry.
Definition 2.3.1. If Ω ⊆ C is a domain, then a metric on Ω is a continuous
function ρ(z) ≥ 0 in Ω that is twice continuously differentiable on {z ∈ Ω :
ρ(z) > 0}. If z ∈ Ω and ξ ∈ C is a vector, then we define the length of ξ at z
to be
|ξ|ρ,z ≡ ρ(z) · ξ ,
where ξ denotes the Euclidean length of the vector ξ. We shall use the
notation for the remainder of this chapter to denote Euclidean length of
a vector. This is a departure from the rest of the book, and we indulge in this
conceit in an attempt at local consistency. After that, we shall return to the
more familiar | |.
Remark 2.3.2. Usually our metrics ρ will be strictly positive, but it will occa-
sionally be convenient for us to allow a metric to have isolated zeros. These
will arise as zeros of holomorphic functions. The zeros of ρ should be thought
of as singular points of the metric.
For the record, the metrics we are considering here are a special case of
the type of differential metric called Hermitian. This terminology need not
concern us here. Classical analysts sometimes call these metrics conformal
metrics and write them in the form ρ(z)|dz|.
Technically speaking, our metric lives on the tangent bundle to the domain
Ω. That is to say, the metric is a function of the variable (z, v), where v is
thought of as a tangent vector at the point z. This is just a mathematically
rigorous way of saying that the length of the vector v depends on the point z
at which it is positioned.
Definition 2.3.3. Let Ω ⊆ C be a domain and ρ a metric on Ω. If

γ : [a, b] → Ω

is a continuously differentiable curve, then we define its length in the metric

ρ to be
 2.3 A Geometric View of the Schwarz Lemma 35
b
ρ (γ) = |γ̇(t)|ρ,γ(t) dt.
a
The length of a piecewise continuously differentiable curve is defined to be the
sum of the lengths of its continuously differentiable pieces.

Classical sources write the arc length as

ρ (γ) = ρ(z)|dz| ,
γ

but we shall not use this notation.

If a metric ρ is given on a planar domain Ω, and if P, Q are elements of
Ω, then the distance in the metric ρ from P to Q should be defined as follows:
Define CΩ (P, Q) to be the collection of all piecewise continuously differentiable
curves γ : [0, 1] → Ω such that γ(0) = P and γ(1) = Q. Now define the ρ-
metric distance from P to Q to be

dρ (P, Q) = inf { ρ (γ) : γ ∈ CΩ (P, Q)} .

Check for yourself that the resulting notion of distance satisfies the classical
metric axioms listed at the outset of this section.
There is some subtlety connected with defining distance in this fashion. If
ρ(z) ≡ 1, the Euclidean metric, and if Ω is the entire plane, then dρ (P, Q) is
the ordinary Euclidean distance from P to Q. The “shortest curve” from P
to Q in this setting is the usual straight line segment. But if Ω and P and Q
are as shown in Figure 2.1, then there is no shortest curve in Ω connecting P
to Q. The distance from P to Q is suggested by the dotted curve, but notice
that this curve does not lie in Ω. The crucial issue here is whether the domain
is complete in the metric, and we shall have more to say about this point later
on.

2.3.2 Calculus in the Complex Domain

In order that we may be able to do calculus computations easily and efficiently

in the context of complex analysis, we recast some of the basic ideas in new
notation. We define the differential operators

∂ 1 ∂ ∂ ∂ 1 ∂ ∂
= −i and = +i .
∂z 2 ∂x ∂y ∂z 2 ∂x ∂y

This is, in effect, a new basis for the tangent space to C. In complex analysis
it is more convenient to use these operators than to use ∂/∂x and ∂/∂y.

Proposition 2.3.4. If f and g are continuously differentiable functions, and

if f ◦ g is well defined on some open set U ⊆ C, then we have
36 2 Variations on the Theme of the Schwarz Lemma

Fig. 2.1. No shortest curve.

∂ ∂f ∂g ∂f ∂g
(f ◦ g)(z) = (g(z)) (z) + (g(z)) (z)
∂z ∂z ∂z ∂z ∂z
and
∂ ∂f ∂g ∂f ∂g
(f ◦ g)(z) = (g(z)) (z) + (g(z)) (z).
∂z ∂z ∂z ∂z ∂z
Proof. We will sketch the proof of the first identity and leave the second as
an exercise.
We have
∂ 1 ∂ ∂
(f ◦ g) = −i (f ◦ g).
∂z 2 ∂x ∂y
We write g(z) = α(z) + iβ(z), with α and β real-valued functions, and apply
the usual calculus chain rule for ∂/∂x and ∂/∂y. We obtain that the last line
equals
1 ∂f ∂α ∂f ∂β ∂f ∂α ∂f ∂β
+ −i −i . (2.3.1)
2 ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂y
Now, with the aid of the identities
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
= + and =i − ,
∂x ∂z ∂z ∂y ∂z ∂z
we may reduce the expression (2.3.1) (after some tedious calculations) to the
desired formula.
Corollary 2.3.5. If either f or g is holomorphic, then
∂ ∂f ∂g
(f ◦ g)(z) = (g(z)) (z).
∂z ∂z ∂z
 2.3 A Geometric View of the Schwarz Lemma 37

Here is an example of the utility of our complex calculus notation.

Example 2.3.6. Let f be a nonvanishing holomorphic function on a planar
domain Ω. Then " #
Δ log( f 2 ) = 0.
In other words, log( f 2 ) is harmonic.
To see this, fix P ∈ Ω and let U ⊆ Ω be a neighborhood of P on which f
has a holomorphic logarithm. Then on U we have
" # " #
Δ log(|f |2 ) = Δ log f + log f
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
= 4 log f + 4 log f
∂z ∂z ∂z ∂z
= 0.

Of course the reader may also check that log f is harmonic.

We conclude this section with some exercises for the reader.

Exercises

1. Calculate that, for a > 0,

∂2 a2 (zz)a−1
log 1 + (zz)a = .
∂z∂z (1 + (zz)a )2
2. If g is holomorphic (and f continuously differentiable), then calculate that
(f ◦ g) = (f ◦ g) · |g  |2 .
3. If f is holomorphic (and g continuously differentiable), then calculate that
(f ◦ g) = (f  ◦ g)  g + (f  ◦ g)[(Dx g)2 + (Dy g)2 ] .

2.3.3 Isometries
In any mathematical subject there are morphisms: functions that preserve
the relevant properties being studied. In linear algebra these are linear maps,
in Euclidean geometry these are rigid motions, and in Riemannian geometry
these are “isometries.” We now define the concept of isometry.
Definition 2.3.7. Let Ω1 and Ω2 be planar domains and let
f : Ω1 → Ω2
be a continuously differentiable mapping with Jacobian having isolated zeros.
Assume that Ω2 is equipped with a metric ρ. We define the pullback of the
metric ρ under the map f to be the metric on Ω1 given by
 
 ∂f 
f ρ(z) = ρ(f (z)) · 
∗ 
 ∂z  .
38 2 Variations on the Theme of the Schwarz Lemma

Remark 2.3.8. The particular form that we use to define the pullback is moti-
vated by the way that f induces mappings on tangent and cotangent vectors,
but this motivation is irrelevant for us here.
It should be noted that the pullback of any metric under a conjugate
holomorphic f will be the zero metric. Thus we have designed our definition
of pullback so that holomorphic pullbacks will be the ones of greatest interest.
This assertion will be made substantive in Proposition 2.3.10 below.

Definition 2.3.9. Let Ω1 , Ω2 be planar domains equipped with metrics ρ1

and ρ2 , respectively. Let
f : Ω1 → Ω2
be an onto, holomorphic mapping. If

f ∗ ρ2 (z) = ρ1 (z)

for all z ∈ Ω1 , then f is called an isometry of the pair (Ω1 , ρ1 ) with the pair
(Ω2 , ρ2 ).

The differential definition of isometry (Definition 2.3.9) is very natural

from the point of view of differential geometry, but it is not intuitive. The
next proposition relates the notion of isometry to more familiar ideas.

Proposition 2.3.10. Let Ω1 , Ω2 be domains and ρ1 , ρ2 be metrics on these

respective domains. If
f : Ω1 → Ω2
is a holomorphic isometry (in particular, an onto mapping) of (Ω1 , ρ1 ) to
(Ω2 , ρ2 ), then the following three properties hold:
(a) If γ : [a, b] → Ω1 is a continuously differentiable curve, then so is the
push-forward f∗ γ ≡ f ◦ γ and

ρ1 (γ) = ρ2 (f∗ γ).

(b) If P, Q are elements of Ω1 , then

dρ1 (P, Q) = dρ2 (f (P ), f (Q)).

(c) Part (b) implies that the isometry f is one-to-one. Then f −1 is well
defined and f −1 is also an isometry.

Proof. Assertion (b) is an immediate consequence of (a). Also (c) is a

formal exercise in definition chasing. Therefore we shall prove (a).
By definition,
b b  

  ∂f 
ρ2 (f∗ γ) = |(f∗ γ) (t)|ρ2 ,f∗ γ(t) dt =  ∂z (γ(t)) · γ̇(t) dt .
a a ρ2 ,f∗ γ(t)

With elementary manipulations, we see that the integrand equals

 2.3 A Geometric View of the Schwarz Lemma 39
   
 ∂f   ∂f 
 (γ(t)) · |γ̇(t)|  (γ(t))
 ∂z  ρ2 ,f∗ γ(t) = 
∂z  · γ̇(t) · ρ2 (f (γ(t)))
= |γ̇(t)|f ∗ ρ2 ,γ(t)
= |γ̇(t)|ρ1 ,γ(t) ,

since f is an isometry. Substituting this result back into the formula for the
length of f∗ γ gives
b
ρ2 (f∗ γ) = |γ̇(t)|ρ1 ,γ(t) dt = ρ1 (γ).
a

This ends the proof.

In the next section we shall consider the isometries of the Poincaré metric on
the disk.
If you have previously studied metric space theory or Banach space theory,
then you may have already encountered the term “isometry.” The essential
notion is that an isometry should preserve distance. In fact you can prove as
an exercise that if f is a holomorphic mapping of (Ω1 , ρ1 ) onto (Ω2 , ρ2 ) that
preserves distance, then f is an isometry according to Definition 2.3.9. (Hint:
compose f with a curve and differentiate.)
We close this section by noting an important technical fact about isome-
tries:

Proposition 2.3.11. Let ρj be metrics on the domains Ωj , j = 1, 2, 3, re-

spectively. Let f : Ω1 → Ω2 and g : Ω2 → Ω3 be isometries. Then g ◦ f is an
isometry of the metric ρ1 to the metric ρ3 .

Proof. We calculate that

ρ3 (g([f (z)]) · g  (f (z)) = ρ2 (f (z))

hence

ρ3 (g([f (z)]) · g  (f (z)) · f  (z) = ρ2 (f (z)) · f  (z) = ρ1 (z) .

In other words,
ρ3 (g ◦ f (z)) · (g ◦ f ) (z) = ρ1 (z) ,
as required by the definition of an isometry.

2.3.4 The Poincaré Metric

The Poincaré metric on the disk has occurred frequently in this book. This
metric is the paradigm for much of what we want to do in the present chapter,
40 2 Variations on the Theme of the Schwarz Lemma

and we shall treat it in some detail here. The Poincaré metric on the disk D
is given by
1
ρ(z) = .
1 − |z|2
(For the record, we note that there is no agreement in the literature as to
what constant goes in the numerator; many references use a factor of 2.)
In this and succeeding sections, we shall use the phrase “conformal map”
to refer to a holomorphic mapping of one planar region to another that is
both one-to-one and onto.
Proposition 2.3.12. Let ρ be the Poincaré metric on the disk D. Let h :
D → D be a conformal self-map of the disk. Then h is an isometry of the pair
(D, ρ) with the pair (D, ρ).
Proof. We have that
h∗ ρ(z) = ρ(h(z)) · h (z) .
We now have two cases:
(i) If h is a rotation, then h(z) = μ · z for some unimodular constant
μ ∈ C. So h (z) = 1 and
1 1
h∗ ρ(z) = ρ(h(z)) = ρ(μz) = 2
= 2
= ρ(z)
1 − μz 1− z
as desired.
(ii) If h is a Möbius transformation, then
z−a
h(z) = , some constant a ∈ D.
1 − az
But then
1− a 2
h (z) =
1 − az 2
and
z−a
h∗ ρ(z) = ρ · h (z)
1 − az
1 1− a 2
=  z−a 2 ·
1−  1 − az 2
1−az
1− a 2
=
1 − az 2 − z − a 2
1− a 2
=
1− z − a 2+ a
2 2 z 2

1
=
1− z 2
= ρ(z).
 2.3 A Geometric View of the Schwarz Lemma 41

Since any conformal self-map of D is a composition of maps of the form (i)

or (ii), the proposition is proved.

Remark 2.3.13. Certainly the last proposition can be derived from the Schwarz–
Pick lemma. Do this as an exercise.

We know from this result and from Chapter 1 that conformal self-maps of
the disk preserve Poincaré distance. To understand what this means, consider
the Möbius transformation
z+a
ϕ(z) = .
1 + az
Then ϕ maps the disk to the disk conformally. It does not preserve Euclidean
distance, but it does preserve Poincaré distance. See Figure 2.2.
We can use what we have learned so far to calculate the Poincaré metric
explicitly.

Proposition 2.3.14. If P and Q are points of the disk D, then the Poincaré
distance of P to Q is
  P −Q  
1 1 +  1−P 
dρ (P, Q) = log  P −QQ  .
2 1− 
1−P Q

Proof. In case P = 0 and Q = R + i0, the result was already noted in

Proposition 1.1.2. In the general case, note that we may define
z−P
ϕ(z) = ,
1 − Pz
a Möbius transformation of the disk. Then, by Proposition 2.3.12,

dρ (P, Q) = dρ (ϕ(P ), ϕ(Q)) = dρ (0, ϕ(Q)).

Next we have

Q ϕ (P)
ϕ
ϕ (Q)
P

Fig. 2.2. Map preserves Poincaré distance but not Euclidean distance.
42 2 Variations on the Theme of the Schwarz Lemma

dρ (0, ϕ(Q)) = dρ (0, ϕ(Q) ) (2.3.2)

since there is a rotation of the disk taking ϕ(Q) to ϕ(Q) + i0. Finally,
 
 P −Q 
|ϕ(Q)| =  
1 − PQ ,

so that (2.3.2) together with the special case treated in the the first sentence
gives the result.

One of the reasons that the Poincaré metric is so useful is that it induces
the same topology as the usual Euclidean metric topology. That is our next
result.

Proposition 2.3.15. The topology induced on the disk by the Poincaré metric
is the usual planar topology.

Proof. A neighborhood basis for the topology of the Poincaré metric at the
origin is given by the balls

B(0, r) = {z : dρ (0, z) < r}.

However, a calculation using Proposition 2.3.14 yields that these balls are the
same as the Euclidean disks
 
e2r − 1
z : z < 2r .
e +1

These disks form a neighborhood basis for the origin in the Euclidean topology.
Thus we find that the two topologies are the same at the origin. Now the origin
can be moved to any other point a ∈ D by the Möbius transformation
z+a
z → .
1 + az
Since the Poincaré metric is invariant under Möbius transformations, and
since Möbius transformations take circles to circles (after all, they are linear
fractional) and hence disks to disks, the two topologies are the same at every
point.

One of the most striking facts about the Poincaré metric on the disk is
that it turns the disk into a complete metric space. How could this be? The
boundary is missing! The reason that the disk is complete in the Poincaré
metric is the same as the reason that the plane is complete in the Euclidean
metric: the boundary is infinitely far away. We now prove this assertion.

Proposition 2.3.16. The unit disk D, when equipped with the Poincaré met-
ric, is a complete metric space.
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blown down; chablis (a kind of wine). Chabot, sm. sha-bo, gull;
chub-fish; miller’s thumb (a plant). — s, pi. small ropes. Chacal, sm.
sha-kal, jackal (an animal). Chaconne, sf. sha-ko-n, chacone (a
dance). Cliacun, e, pron. sha-kun, u-n, every one, each, Chafouin,
sm. sha-fou-in, pole-cat. Chafouin, e, smf. sha-fou-in, i-n, mean-
looking person. — , e, adj. pitiful, poor, lean, ill-shaped. HISTORICAL
AND GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES. Cenis (Mont), mon-se-m, an Alpine
mountain. Centlivre, san-li-vr, an English dramatiewriter. Cerceau
(Du), du-slr-s6, a French poet. D. 1730. Cerda, slr-da, a learned
Portuguese lady. Cerigo, si-ri-go, one of the Ionian Islands. Cerilly,
se-ri-i ,* a small town of France. Cerini, se-ri-mi, an Italian poet.
Died 1779. Cerisiers, se-ri-zie , a small town of France.
 CH A 95 CH A oil jotlte ; eu jeu ; ed jefine ; eu peur ; an
pan ; in pin ; on bon ; un brun ; *1 liq. ; *11 liq. *gn liq. Chagrin,
sm. sha-grin, chagrin, vexation, grief, sorrow, sadness ; weariness ;
( peau ) shagreen ; {itoffe de soie) silk stuff made rough like
shagreen. — , e, adj . chagrined, vexed, sorrowful, fretful, peevish.
Chagrinant, e, adj. sha-gri-ndn , t, vexatious, grievous, troublesome.
Chagriner, va. sha-gri-ne, to vex, grieve, afflict ; to sadden ; to
weary. Se — , vr. to vex oneself. Chaine, sf. shi-n, chain, fetters,
captivity, bondage ; (la peine des galeres ) galleys ; ( — d’un
tisserand ) warp of wool ; ( — de montagnes) ridge, tract ; ( — de
rochers) ledge of rocks ; (galeriens a la — ) galley-slaves ; ( — de
port) boom of a harbour ; ( — de vergues ) topchains ; ( — Anglaise
) right and left in dancing. Chaind, e, adj. shS-nS, chained, forming a
chain. Chainetier, sm. she-n-tie, chain-maker. Chainette, sf. she-n&-t,
little chain. Chainon, sm. she-non, link of a chain. Chair, sf. sh£-r,
flesh ; skin ; body ; lust ; ( — vive) the quick; ( — de fruit) pulp of
fruit; (couleur de — ) flesh-colour; ( morceau de — ) dull, lumpish
body. Chaire, sf. sM-r, pulpit ; ( fonction de professeur) professorship
; (fonction d'ev&que) episcopal see. Chaise, sf. sM-z, chair, seat,
chaise ; ( — deposte ) post-chaise ; ( — roulante) calash ; ( — a
bras) elbow-chair; ( — pliante) folding-chair; ( — percee) close-
stool; ( — a porteur) sedan-chair; (porteur de — ) sm. chairman.
Chako, sm. sha-ko, shako, military cap. Chaland, e, smf. sha-ldn,
customer ; ( — bateau) sm. sort of barge or lighter; flat-boat.
Chalandise, sf. sha-lan-di-z, custom, good-will. Chalastique, adj . ka-
las-ti-k, chalastic, relaxing the fibres. Chalcite, sm. kal-si-t, chalcites,
calcined vitriol. Chalcographe, sm. kal-ko-gra-f, copperplateengraver.
Chalcographie, sf. kal-ko-gra-f i, copperplateengraving ; engraving
on metals. Chaldaique, adj. kal-da-i-k, Chaldaic. Chale, sm. shd-l,
shawl. Chalemie, sf. sha-l-mi, a kind of pipe. Chalet, sm. shd-U,
cheese-house ; cottage ; Swiss cottage. ‘Chaleur, sf. sha-leur, heat,
warmth ; ardour, zeal; animosity, rancour, bitterness; ( — de figure)
ague-fever ; ( — de foie) fit of anger, gust of passion ; (il fait une
grande — ) it is hot weather. Chaleureux, euse, adj. sha-leu-red, z ,
impassioned, sanguine, ardent. Chalingue, sf. sha-lin-g, a light
Indian vessel. CMlit, sm. shd-li, bedstead. Chaloir, va. sha-loar, to
care for; (il ne m'en chaut pas) I do not care for it. Chalon, sm. sha-
ldn, drag, drag-net. Chaloupe, sf. sha-lou-p, ship’s boat, long-boat; (
— canonnihre) gun-boat. Chalumeau, sm. sha-lu-md, pipe, flute,
reed; (tube de metal) blow-pipe. Chamade, sf. sha-ma-d, chamade,
parley. HISTORICAL AND GI Cervantes, sbwan-t, a Spanish novelist.
Cette, sbtt, a strong seaport of France. Cdvennes, se-vk-n, chain of
mountains in France. Ceylan, s'e-ldn , Ceylon, an East India island.
Chamailler, vn. sha-md-ie,* to fight, skirmish ; contend by argument,
wrangle, dispute. Se — , vr. to squabble, brawl. Chamaillis, sm. sha-
ma-i* fray, squabble, skirmish ; wrangling, contending by argument.
Chamarrer, va. sha-md-re, to cover with gold or silver lace, bedizen ;
to daub over. Chamarrure, sf. shd-ma-rd-r , covering with lace,
bedizening. Chambellage, sm. shdn-be-la-j , duty paid to the lord of
the manor by a new tenant. Chambellan, sm. shan-be-lan,
chamberlain. Chambourin, sm. shan-bou-rin, pebble, flint.
Chambranle, sm. shan-brdn-l , jamb ; mantelpiece ; door-case ; ( —
des ecoutilles) coverings of the hatches. Chambre, sf. shan-br,
chamber, room, apartment ; ( — & coucher) bed-chamber ; ( — en
galetas) garret-room ; ( — au rez de chaussee) room on the ground-
floor; ( — garnie) furnished room ; ( — de devant) front-room ; ( —
de derri&re) back-room ; ( — obscure) camera obscura ; ( — de
mortier ou canon) chamber of a mortar or gun ; ( — Basse) House
of Commons ; ( — Haute) House of Lords ; (valet de — ) valet,
waiting-servant, footman; (femme de — ) chambermaid ; (robe de
— ) dressing-gown. Chambrde, sf. shan-bre, persons that sleep in
the same room ; (bonne — ) houseful. Chambrer, vn. shan-bre, to
sleep in the same room, lodge in the same apartment. — , va. to
take one aside. Chambrette, sf. shan-br'e-t, small room, cabin.
Chambrier, sm. shdn-brie, chamberlain. Chambriere, sf. shan-brii-r,
housemaid, chambermaid ; (fouet) horsewhip. Chambrillon, sf. shan-
br i-ion* pot-girl; young girl that assists in the kitchen. Chame, sf.
sha-m, chama, heart-cockle. Chameau, sm. sha-md, camel.
Chamelier, sm. sha-me-lie, camel-driver. Chamois, sm. sha-mod,
chamois, a species of goat ; (peau de — ) shammy-leather.
Chamoiserie, sf. sha-moa-z-ri , shammy-leather manufactory.
Chamoiseur, sm. sha-moa-zeur, dresser of chamois skins, shammy-
leather manufacturer. Champ, sm. shan, field, piece of ground ;
country, fields ; (fond de peinture ou gravure) groundwork of a
painting or engraving ; (mature) matter, argument ; ( sujet ) theme,
subject to write upon; ( — d’un peigne) bridge of a comb ; ( — de
bataille) field of battle ; ( — clos) camp, lists ; (sur le — )
immediately ; (a tout bout de — ) ever, at every turn ; (gagner les —
s) to run away ; (aller a tr avers les — s) to go across the fields ;
(donner la clef des — s) to give liberty. Champagne, sf. shan-pa-gn*
champagne ; ( — mousseux) sparkling champagne. Champart, sm.
shan-pdr, champerty, field-rent. Champarter, va. shdn-par-te, to
collect fieldrents. Champarteur, sm. shan-par-teur, champertor, field-
rent collector. Champeaux, sm. pi. shan-pS, meadows, fields.
Champetre, adj. shdn-pe-tr, rural, country-like . (maison — )
country-house ; (vie — ) rural life. IGRAPHICAL NAMES. Chabanon,
sha-ba-non, a French writer. Chabert, sha-bbr, a French navigator.
Chablais, sha-bU, a province of Savoy. Chabrias, sha-brias. an
Athenian general. G
 CHA 96 CHA a mal; d male; e ffie; b feve; 8 fete; e je; i il ;
i ile; o mol; 6 mole; 6 mort; u sue; U sdr; ou jour; Champi, sm.
shan-pi, common paper. Champignon, sm. shan-pi-gnon*
champignon, mushroom ; ( excroissance de chair ) fungoid
excrescence ; ( — d'une chandelle ) thief in a candle (waster).
[room-bed. Champignonniere, sf. shdn-pi-gno-nib- rt*
mushChampion, sm. shan-pion, champion. Chance, sf. shan-s, luck,
chance ; (Jeu a deux ou trois des ) hazard ; ( confer sa — ) to lay
open one’s case ; ( courir la — ) to take one’s chance. Chancel, sm.
shan-sbl, chancel. Chancelant, e, adj. shdn-s-ldn, t, tottering,
unsteady. Chanceler, vn. shan-s-le , to totter, to waver. Chancelier,
sm. shan-se-lie, chancellor; ( grand — ) High Chancellor.
Chanceliere, sf. shdn-se-lib-r, chancellor’s lady; {petite caissepour les
pieds ) foot-warmer, footmuff. Chancellement, sm. shdn-sb-l-mdn,
unsteadiness, tottering. Chancellerie, sf. shdn-sb-l-ri, chancery,
chancellor’s house. Chanceux, euse, adj. shdn-sed, z, lucky,
fortunate; doubtful; ticklish. Chancir, vn. shan-sir, to begin to grow
mouldy. Se — , vr. to grow mouldy, turn musty. Chancissure, sf.
shan-si-su^r, mould. Chancre, sm. shan-kr, chancre ; cancer,
malignant ulcer; (manger comme un — ) to be a great eater.
[cancerous. Chancreux, euse, adj . shdn-kred, z, chancrous ;
Chandeleur, sf. shan-d-leur, Candlemas. Chandelier, sm. shan-de-lib,
candlestick; tallow-chandler; ( — de vaisseau ) crotch, stanchion ; (
etre place sur le — ) to be raised to an eminent station. Chandelle,
sf. shan-db-l, candle ; ( — de cire) waxcandle ; ( — de veille ) rush-
light ; ( — moulee) mould candle ; (la — briUe) time passes away ;
(le jeu n'en vaut pas la — ) it is not worth the while. Chanfrein, sm.
shan-frin, chamfer, forehead of a horse ; (panache) set of feathers
on horses’ heads ; ( cannelure ) chamfer. Chanfreiner, va. shdn-f re-
ne, to chamfer, cut slopingly. Change, sm. shan-j, exchange ; (lettre
ou billet de — ) bill of exchange ; (prendre le — ) to mistake, to be
put off ; (donner le — a quelqu'un ) to impose upon one.
Changeant,e, adj . shan-jan , t, changeable, fickle ; (tableau — )
moving picture. Changement, sm. shdn-j-mdn, change, alteration ; (
— de la maree) turn of the tide. Changer, va. shan-je , to change,
alter, transform ; to exchange, barter ; to amend ; ( — les voiles) to
shift the sails ; ( — le quart) to relieve the watch ; ( — la barre) to
shift the helm ; ( — Vartimon) to shift the mizzen over to the other
side ; ( — de, vn.) to shift ; ( — de peau) to shell, cast the skin ; ( —
de note) to turn over a new leaf ; ( — de bord) to tack ; ( — de
logis) to shift one’s quarters. Changeur, sm. shdn-jeur, money-
changer. Chanlate, sf. shan-la-t, lath to support tiles or slates.
Chanoine, sm. sha-noa-n, canon, prebendary. Chanoinesse, sf. sha-
noa-nb-s * canoness. Chanoinie, sf. shamoa-ni, canonry, canonship.
Chanson, sf. shan-son, song ; story ; (dire toujours la meme — ) to
harp upon the same string ; (refrain d'une — ) burden of a song ; (
— s que tout cela) all these are idle tales. Cliansonner, va. shan-so-
ne, to lampoon. Chansonnette, sf. shan-some-t, short song, ditty.
Chansonnier, iere, smf. shan-so-nie, ie-r, songwriter, lyric poet or
poetess ; song-book. Chant, sm. shdn, singing, tune, song ; (partie
d'un poeme) canto ; ( — du coq) cock-crowing ; (plain — ) church
music ; ( — royal) a poem. Chantant, e, adj. shan-tdn, t, singing, full
of melody. Chanteau, sm. shdn-td, cantle, large piece of bread.
Chantepleure, sf. shan-t-pleu-r, sort of funnel. Chanter, va. shan-te,
to sing; to praise, celebrate; ( — lapalinodie) to recant; ( — pouilles)
to rail at, revile. — , vn. to warble, sing; to crow, [coy-bird.
Chanterelle, sf. shdn-t-re-l, treble-string; deChanteur, euse, smf.
shan-teur, eti-z, singer. Chantier, sm. shdn-tie , wood-yard, timber-
yard ; — pour les tonneaux) stand, frame, gawntree ; — pour les
vaisseaux) dock, stocks ; ( — de construction) ship-builder’s yard ; (
mettre un bdtiment sur le — ) to lay a ship on the stocks.
Chantignole, sf. shdn-ti-gno-l,* wooden block ; bracket. [bed.
Chantournd, sm. shan-tour-ne, head-piece of a Chantourner, va.
shan-tour-ne, to cut a profile. Chantre, sm. shan-tr, chanter,
precentor, leader of church psalmody ; chorister. Chantrerie, sf.
shan-tre-ri, the chanter’s office. Chanvre, sm. shan-vr , hemp ; (toile
de — ) linen, hempen cloth. Chaos, sm. ka-6, chaos, confusion.
Chape, sf. shrimp, priest’s vestment, cope, cloak; (couvercle pour les
viandes) dish-cover; ( — d’ alembic) head of a still ; ( — d'une
boucle de soulier) anchor of a buckle ; ( — d’une boucle de
fourreau) chape of a scabbard ; (trouver — chute) to find what was
not expected. Chape, e, adj . sha-pe, clad in a cope or cloak.
Chapeau, sm. sha-pd, hat, bonnet, headpiece ; (homme) man ; (
bouquet de jleurs) circlet or wreath of flowers worn by a maiden on
her marriage-day; (chapiteau d'une chaudibre) cap ; (ce qui surnage
sur les liquides) head ; ( — de paillt) straw hat ; ( — de castor)
beaver hat ; ( — de velours) velvet hat ; ( — de soie) silk hat j ( —
borde) laced hat ; ( — de jleurs) garland of flowers ; ( — rouge)
cardinalship ; ( — x bas) hats off ; (la forme d'un — ) the crown of a
hat ; (donner un coup de — ) to salute. Chapelain, sm. sha-p-lin,
chaplain. Chapeler, va. sha-p-le, to rasp bread ; to chip. Chapelet,
sm. sha-p-le, chaplet, beads; garland, crown ; ( — pour 8 lever les
eaux) chainpump ; ( — pour le manage) stirrup-leather. Chapelier,
iere, smf. sha-pe-lie, ib-r, hatter, liat-seller, dealer in hats. Chapelle,
sf. sha-pbl, chapel ; church-plate ; chapel (meeting of the workmen
in a printing-office) ; ( — ardente) place in which a dead person lies
in state. HISTORICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES. Chalons, sha-
lon, a town of France. Chambdry, shdn-be-ri , capital of Savoy.
Chamier, sha-mie, a French Protestant divine. Champagne, shan-pa-
gn,* a pro vince of France. Champfort, shdn-f or, a French writer. D.
1794. Champier, shan-pie, a French physician. Champlain, shan-plin,
a French naval officer. Chancelade, shdn-s-la-d, a small town of
France.
 CH A 97 CH A odjodte; eu jeu; edjedne; eu peur; an pan;
In pin ; ora bon; un brun; *1 liq. ; *11 liq.; *gn liq. Chapellenie, sf.
sha-pb-l-ni, chaplainship. Chapellerie, sf. sha-pb-l-ri, hat-making,
hattrade. Chapelure, sf. sha-p-lil-r, chips, chippings. Chaperon, sm.
sha-p-ron, hood ; (compagne rlgee) companion, chaperon ; holster
(for pistols) ; ( — d'un mur ) coping of a wall ; ( — dune potence)
top of a gallows. Chaperonner, va. sha-p-n’o-ne, to cope ; to
chaperon (a lady) ; ( — Voiseau ) to hoodwink the hawk. Chapier,
sm. sha-pie, cope-hearer ; ( tiroir ) copedrawer. Chapiteau, sm. sha-
pi-tS, capital, chapiter, top of a pillar ; ( — d’un alembic) top of a still
; ( — ou corniche d'armoire) top of a press ; ( — de lanterne ) top of
a lantern. Chapitre, sm. slia-pi-tr , chapter ; (sujet) subject ; (
matibre ) matter ; ( corps ou assemblee de chanoines ) chapter ; (
lieu de V assemblee) chapterhouse. Chapitrer, va. sha-pi-tri, to
rebuke, reprimand. Chapon, sm. sha-pon, capon ; ( — de pain) crust
of bread boiled in broth ; ( vol du — ) that part of the ground of a
country-seat allowed to the eldest son. Chaponneau, sm. sha-po-n6,
young capon. Chaponner, va. sha-po-ne, to capon. Chaponniere, sf.
sha-po-nib-r, stew-pan. Chaque, adj. sha-k, each, every. Char, sm.
shar, car, chariot ; ( — funebre) hearse. Char-d-hanc, sm. sha-ra-bdn
, pleasure-car. Charade, sf. sha-ra-d, charade, pun, riddle.
Charamjon, sm sha-rdn-son, weevil, mite. Charbon, sm. shar-bon,
coal ; ( tumeur ) pimple, carbuncle, sore ; ( — vif) burning or live
coal ; ( — eteint) dead or cold coal ; ( — de bois) charcoal ; ( — de
terre) pit-coal. Charbonn^, e, adj. shar-bo-ni, blasted, rusted,
smutty (said of growing crops). Charbomffie, sf. shar-bo-nii short rib
of beef ; ( couche ) coal-seam. Charbonner, va. shar-bo-ni, to daub,
char; to blacken. Charbonnerie, sf. shar-bo-n-ri, coal-pit, coalstore;
charcoal-kiln. Charbonneux, euse, adj. shar-bo-ned, z, carbuncled
(medical term). Charbonnier, sm. shar-bo-nie, coal-merchant,
coalman, collier; coal-cellar, coal-closet, coalhole ; coal-ship ; (la foi
du — ) implicit faith. — , iere, adj. carrying coals. Charbonniere, sf.
shar-bo-nib-r, coal-woman ; oven for making charcoal ; titmouse (a
bird). Clxarbouiller, va. shar-bou-ie,* to blight. Charbucle, sf. shar-
bu-kl, blight. Charcuter, va. shar-ku-te, to hack, mangle, chop up,
tear. Charcuterie, sf. shar-ku-t-ri, pork-trade ; porkbutcher’s meat.
Charcutier, iere, smf. shar-ku-tie, ib-r, porkbutcher. Chardon, sm.
shar-don, thistle ; pike-head ; ( — binit) holy thistle ; ( — etoile ou
chaussetrape) common star-thistle ; ( — a bonnetier ou a foulon)
teasel, fuller’s thistle. Chardonner, va. shar-do-ne , to nap cloth.
Chardonneret, sm. shar-do-n-re, goldfinch. Chardonnette ou
Cardonnette, sf. shar-do-nb-t or kar-do-nb-t, prickly artichoke.
Charge, sf. shar-j , charge, burden, load ; ( imp6t ) tax ; (emploi)
employment, function ; (place) post, situation, office ; (soin)
custody, care ; (attaque) attack, onset ; (accusation) accusation,
charge ; (commission) commission, order, command ; (femme de —
) housekeeper ; ( — d’un vaisseau) cargo, freight ; (de canon) shot,
load of a gun ; ( — en grappe) grape-shot ; ( — & mitraille) case or
canister shot ; (Stre a, — a quelqu'un) to be a burden to one ; (a la
— de) on condition of ; (ala — que) on condition that. Charge, e,
adj. shar-je, laden, loaded ; ( — dannees) old ; ( — de dettes) deep
in debt ; (portrait — ■) caricature ; (temps — ) overcast weather ;
(horizon — ) cloudy horizon ; (couleur — e) deep colour ; (yeux —
s) swollen eyes ; (vaisseau — pour) ship bound for. Chargement, sm.
shar-j e-mdn, cargo, freight, lading. Chargeoir, sm. shar-joar, charger
(in gunnery). Charger, va. shar-je, to charge, load; (attaquer) to
attack, fall upon ; (ordonner) to commission, .order; (confer) to trust
with, give in charge ; (accuser) to accuse ; (emplir) to fill ; (grossir
les traits) to overcharge ; ( — quelqu'un d' injures) to revile, vilify
one; ( — a fret) to freight. Se — , vr. to undertake, take upon
oneself. Chargeur, sm. shar-jeur, loader, shipper; gunner. Chariot,
sm. sha^rio, chariot, waggon ; (le grand — ) the great bear,
Charles’s wain ; (le petit — ) the little bear, ursa minor. Charitable,
adj. sha-ri-ta-bl, charitable, merciful ; benevolent. Charitablement,
adv. sha-ri-ta-ble^man, charitably. Chariffi, sf. sha-ri-te, charity,
alms; benevolence. Charivari, sm. sha-ri-va-ri, mock-serenade ;
paltry music ; noise of marrow-bones and cleavers ; tumult, uproar,
clutter, screams. Charlatan, sm. shar-la-tan, quack, mountebank.
Charlataner, va. shar-la-ta-ne , to cheat, gull, wheedle.
Charlatanerie, sf. shar-la-ta-n-ri , quackery, deception, fair
appearance. Charlatanisme, sm. shar-la-ta-nis-m, quackery,
deception. Charmant, e, adj. shar-mdn, t, charming, delightful,
pleasant. Charm e, sm. shar-m, charm, allurement, magic spell,
enchantment; horn-beam, yoke-elm (a tree). Charmer, va. shar-me,
to charm, enchant, delight, please ; to bewitch ; to allay, appease.
Charmille, sf. shar-mi-i ,* hedge of yoke-elm trees. Charmoie, sf.
shar-moa, nursery of yoke-elms. Charnage, sm. shar-na-j, flesh-
time, obs. Charnaigre, sm. shar-nb-gr, mongrel-dog. Charnel, le, adj.
shar-nbl, carnal, sensual. Charnellement, adv. shar-nb-l-man,
carnally. Charneux, euse, adj. shar-neU, z, fleshy, carneous.
HISTORICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES. Chantereau, shdn-trd , a
French antiquary. Chan tilly, shan-ti-i* a beautiful town of France.
Chapelain, sha-p-lin, a French poet. D. 1674. Chapelle, sha-pb-l, a
French poet. Died 1688. Chappe d’Auteroche, sha-p-dS-t-ro-sh, a
French astronomer. Died 1769. Chapuzeau, sha-pu-z6, a Genevese
writer, preceptor to William III. of England.
 CH A 98 CH A a mal; & male; 6 fee ; b feve ; i fete ; e je; i
il; i ile; o mol; 6 m61e; 5 mort; u sue; f^sfir; ou jour ; Charnier, sm.
shar-nie, charnel-house ; larder. Charniere, sf. shar-nib-r, hinge.
Charnon, sm. shar-non, small ring. Charnu, e, adj. shar-nu,
carneous, fleshy, plump, brawny ; ( etat — ) fleshiness. Charnure, sf.
shar-nd-r, flesh ; skin. Charogne, sf. sha-ro-gn* carrion, carcass.
Charoi, sm. sha-roa, fishing-boat. Charpente, sf. shar-pan-t, timber-
work, carpenter’s work ; (bois de — ) timber; ( maison bdtie en — )
house built of timber. Charpenter, va. shar-pan-tS, to work timber ;
to hack, haggle ; to butcher, mangle. Charpenterie, sf. shar-pdn-t-ri ,
carpentry, timber-work. Charpentier, sm. shar-pan-tii, carpenter; ( —
de navire ) ship-carpenter. Charpi, sm. shar-pi, cooper’s block.
Charpie, sf. shar-pi , lint compress ; ( viande en — ) meat boiled to
rags. Charee, sf. sha-re, buck-ashes. Char re tee, sf. shd-r-te, cart-
load. Charretier, i&re, smf. shd-r-tie, r, carter, carman, carwoman ; (
laboureur ) ploughman ; ( il n'y a. si bon — qui ne verse ) it is a
good horse that never stumbles. Charretiere, adj. sha-r-tib-r, through
which carts can pass ; (porte — ) cart-gate ; (voie — ) cart-way.
Charrette, sf. shd-rh-t , cart. Charriage, sm. shd-ri-a-j , cartage,
carriage. Charrier, sm. shd-rie, bucking, wash-cloth. — , va. sha-i-ie,
to carry ; to cart ; ( entrainer ) to carry along ; to drag. — , vn. to
drift ice ; ( — droit ) to behave oneself well ; (la riviere charrie ) the
river is filled with floating pieces of ice. Charroi, sm. sha-roa,
carriage, cartage, waggonage ; ( chemin de — ) cart-way. Charron,
sm .shd-ron, cartwright; wheelwright. Charronnage, sm. shd-ro-na-j,
Cartwright’s work; wheelwright’s work. Charroyer, va. sha-roa-ie, to
cart. Charrue, sf. shd-rd, plough ; (valet de — ) ploughman ;
(garden de — ) ploughboy ; (soc de — ) ploughshare ; (conduire la
— ) to drive the plough ; (tirer la — ) to toil hard ; (mettre la —
devant les bceufs) to put the cart before the horse. Charte ou
Chartre, sf. slia-m-t, sha-r-tr, charter ; (vieux documents ) old title
deeds ; (anciens litres) old rights ; ( prison ) obs. prison, gaol ;
(phthisie) consumption ; (grande — ) Magna Charta ; (tenir en —
privee ) to keep in private confinement. Chartil, sm. shar-til, harvest-
cart ; penthouse for carts. Chartreuse, sf. shar-tred-z, charter-house.
Chartreux, euse, smf. shar-tred, z, Carthusian friar, Carthusian nun.
Chartrier, sm. shar-tri-e, keeper of charters; charter-chest; charter-
house. [ers. Chartulaire, sf. shar-tu-li-r, collection of chartChas, sm
.shd, eye ofaneedle; weaver’s starch. Chasse, sf. shd-s, shrine ; ( —
de lunettes) frame of spectacles ; ( — de balance) cheeks of a pair
of scales ; ( — de rasoir) handle of a razor. Chasse, sm. sha-se, step
in dancing. Chasse, sf. sha-s, hunt, hunting, coursing, chasing ;
(gibier) game, venison ; (chasseurs) huntsmen ; (expulsion violente)
chase ; ( — aux oiseaux) fowling ; ( — au fusil) shooting ; donner,
prendre, ou soutenir — ) to pursue, bear away, fight in retreat at
sea. Chasse-avant, sm. sha-s-a-van, overseer. Chasse-bosse, sm.
sha-s-bo-s. See Corneille. Chasse-cousin, sm. sha-s-kou-zin, paltry
wine ; (sol ingrat) hard soil. Chasselas, sm. sha-s-ld, kind of grapes.
Chasse-maree, sm. sha-s-ma-re, driver of a fishcart; fish-cart; fish-
boat. Chasse-mouche, sm. sha-s-mou-sh, small broom to drive away
flies ; net to protect horses from flies. Chasse-poigne, sf. shas-poa-
gne ,* driver. Ghasser, va. sha-se, to hunt, hound, be hunting,
chase, pursue ; to turn out, expel, drive forward, drive away, drive
out ; to follow, pursue, keep in sight at sea ; ( — au fusil) to shoot ;
( — a Voiseau) to hawk ; ( — la terre) to go ahead, look out for the
land at sea. — , vn. to hunt, hound ; to shoot ; to drive out (in
printing). Chasseresse, sf. sha-s-re-s, huntress. Chasseur, euse, smf.
sha-seur, eti-z, hunter, huntsman, fowler, huntress ; ( — d'oiseau)
fowler, bird-catcher. Chassie, sf. sha-si, blearedness ; eye-gum.
Chassieux, euse, adj . sha-si-ed, z, bleared, bleareyed. Chassis, sm.
shd-si, frame, enclosure ; sash or window-frame; ( — de tableau)
picture-frame; printing-chess ; (metier) loom for low warp. Chassoir,
sm. sha-soar, cooper’s driving tool. Chaste, adj. shas-t, chaste, pure;
( — par rapport au style) exact, neat, correct, terse. Chastement,
adv. shas-te-man, chastely, purely. Chastetd, sf. shas-te-te, chastity,
purity. Chasuble, sf. sha-zu-bl , chasuble (kind of cope). Chasublier,
sm. sha-zu-blie, chasuble-maker. Chat, sm. Cliatte, sf. sha, sha-t,
cat, puss; (tripled) cat, footman (utensil put before a fire);
(vaisseau) small ship used on the north coasi of England ; ( —
fourre) pettifogger, paltry lawyer ; (a bon — bon rat) tit for tat ;
(achetei - en poche) to buy a pig in a pock ; (se servir de la patte du
— pour tirer les marrons da feu) to make one a cat’s paw ; ( —
ichaudi craint Veau froide) a burnt child dreads the fire ; (vivre
comme chiens et — s) to agree like cat and dog ; (il n'y a pas de
quoi fouetter un — ) it is a mere trifle; (jeter le — aux jambes) to lay
the blame upon one ; (chats, pi.) catkins, cat’s-tails (in botany).
Cliataigne, sf. shd-te-gn* chestnut ; ( — cCeau) water-caltrops.
Chataigneraie, sf. sha-tb-gn-rb* chestnut-plot. Chataignier, sm. sha-
te-gnie,* chestnut-tree. Chatain, adj. shd-tin, chestnut-coloured,
brown, auburn, of a dark tan-colour. Chateau, sm. shd-td, castle,
palace, manorhouse, country-seat, mansion ; fort, fortress, citadel; (
— d’eau) waterworks; ( — d'avant ou de proue) forecastle of a ship ;
( — d’arrilre ou de poupe) quarter-stern, poop, quarter-deck ; ( — x
en Espagne) castles in the air. HISTORICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL
NAMES. Charente, sha-ran-t, a river and dep. of France. Char&s,
sha-res, a Grecian statuary. Charitd (La) la-sha-ri-te, a town of
France. Charkow, shar-kd, a town of Prussia. Charlemagne, s^ar-
^na-^n, *emperorofFrancei Charles V., shar-l-kin, emperor of
Germany. Charles XII., shar-l-dou-z, king of Sweden. Chartres, shar-
tr, a city of France.
 CHA 99 CHE otfjofite; eujeu; etf jeftne; ewpeur; are pan;
irapin; ora bon; wra brun ;* 1 liq. ; *llliq.; *gnliq. Chatelain, sm.
shd-t-lin , lord of a manor ; governor of a castle ; castellan. Chatele,
e, adj . shd-t-le, turreted, castellated. Chatelet, sm. shd-t-lb , castlet,
small castle. Chatellenie, sf. shd-tb-l-ni, castellany, chatellany, kind of
baron court. Chat-huant, sm. sha-u-dn, owl, screech-owl. Chatier,
va. shd-ti-b , to chastise ; ( — era composition) to amend, correct.
Chatifere, sf. sha-tie-r, cat’s hole. Chatiment, sm. shd-ti-man,
chastisement. Chaton, sm. sha-ton, kitten ; bezel (of rings) ; (
coquille verte de la noisette) outward husk of a nut, cup of a nut.
Chatouillement, sm. sha-tou-i-man* tickling, titillation ; pleasure.
Chatouiller, va. sha-tou-ie* to tickle, titillate ; ( — V oreille) to please
or flatter the ear. Chatouilleux, euse, adj. sha-tou-ied, z* ticklish,
nice ; touchy, hard to be dealt with. Chatoyant, e, adj. sha-toa-ian, t,
emitting rays. Chat-pard, sm. sha-pdr, cat-pard, mountain cat.
Chatr<5, sm. shd-tre, eunuch. Chatrer, va. shd-tre, to emasculate,
castrate : ( — un cheval) to geld a horse ; ( — la ruche) to take part
of the honey from the hive ; ( — un livre) to abridge a book ; ( — un
arbre) to prune a tree, lop off branches ; ( — la vigne) to rake the
vine. Chatreur, sm. shd-treur, gelder. Chatt^e, sf. sha-te, cat’s litter.
Chattemite, sf. sha-t-mi-t, demure hypocrite. Chatter, vn. sha-tb, to
kitten. Chaud, e, adj. sh6, d, warm, hot, ardent, eager, violent,
fierce, hasty, passionate ; zealous, fervent; ( fer — ) red-hot iron ; (
battre le fer quand il est — ) to make hay while the sun shines; (
tout — ) quite hot, burning; ( non velle toute — e) fresh news ; ( —
e alarme) sudden alarm. Chaud, sm. shd, heat, warmth ; ( il fait — )
it is warm ; ( etouffer de, crever de, mourir de — ) to be extremely
hot. Chaude, sf. shd-d, heat (in metallurgy); ( battre la — ) to beat
ingots into thin plates whilst hot ; ( donner une — suante aux
metaux) to give a welding heat to metals; (a la — ) suddenly, in the
heat of passion. Chaudeau, sm. shd-dd, caudle. [briskly.
Chaudement, adv. shd-d-mdn, warmly, hotly, Chaudiere, sf. shd-dib-
r, copper, large kettle, boiler ; ( — a vapeur) steam-boiler. Chaudron,
sm. shd-dron, kettle, cauldron; ( — de pompe) plate to cover the
bottom of a pump. Chaudronnee, sf. shd-dro-ni, kettleful.
Chaudronnerie, sf. sho-dro-n-ri, brazier’s ware. Chaudronnier, iere,
smf. sho-dro-nie, ib-r, coppersmith, brazier, tinker. Chauffage, sm.
shd-fa-j, fuel, firewood. Chauffe, sf. shd-f, furnace. Chauffe-chemise,
sm. shd-f-she-mt-z, horse (for linen); warming-basket. Chauffe-cire,
sm. sh6-f-si-r, chafe-wax. Chauffer, va. shd-f e, to heat, warm ; ( —
wra vaisseau) to bream a ship. — , vn. to grow warm ; ( ce n'est pas
pour vous que le four chauffe) there is nothing for you. Se — , vr. to
warm oneself. HISTORICAL AND GE Chastellet, sha-t-lb, a learned
French lady. Chastellux, sha-t-lu, a French general. D. 17S8.
Chateauroux, shd-td-rou, a town of France. Chatellerault, shd-tb-l-
rd, a town of France. Chaufferette, sf. shd-f-rb-t, foot-stove;
chafingpan, foot-warmer. Chaufferie, sf. sho-f-rx, chafery (forge).
Chauffeur, sm. shd-feur, fireman, stoker. Chauffoir, sm. sho-f oar,
warming-place ; warm cloth for a sick person. Chaufour, sm. sh6-
four, lime-kiln. Chaufournier, sm. shd-f our -nie, lime-burner.
Chaulage, sm. shd-la-j, mixing com with lime. Cliauler, va. sho-li, to
mix corn with lime. Chaumage, sm. shd-ma-j, cutting stubble; time
of cutting it. Chaume, sm. sh6-m, stubble, stubble-field ; haum,
thatch ; culm (in botany). Chaumer, va. shd-me, to cut stubble.
[tage. Chaumtere, sf. sh6-mib-r, thatched house, cotChaumine, sf.
sh6-mi-n, small cottage, hut. Chaussage, sm. shd-sa-j, shoe-money,
obs. Chaussant, e, adj . shd-san, t, easy to put on ; complying, easy.
Chausse, sf. shd-s, hose, stocking; ( chaperon ) graduate’s hood; (
sac de drap) filter, straining-bag ; ( — d'aisances) waste-pipe.
Chausses, sf. pi. shd-s, breeches ; {haut de — ) pantaloons, trousers
; {tirer ses — ) to fly, scamper away ; (elle porte les — ) she wears
the breeches. Chausseage, sm. shd-se-a-j, toll-money. Chauss^e, sf.
shd-se, causeway ; (& rez de — ) even with the ground. Chausse-
pied, sm. shd-s-pib, shoe-horn. Chausser, va. shd-se, to put on
boots, shoes, or stockings; ( faire des souliers) to make shoes to fit ;
( — le cothurne) to act, or become a dramatic writer ; ( — des
arbres) to raise earth round the roots of trees. — , vn. to be of a
certain length ; ( — bien) to fit well. Se — , vr. to put on one’s boots,
shoes, or stockings ; ( avoir dans la tete) to beat a thing into one’s
head, get an opinion firmly fixed. Chaussetier, sm. sho-s-tie, hosier.
Chausse-trape, sf .shd-s-tra-p, caltrop, crow-foot. Chaussette, sf.
shd-sb-t, sock ; under-stocking. Chausson, sm. shd-son, sock,
pumps. Chaussure, sf. shd-sd-r, hose, stockings; boots, slippers,
shoes ; (trouver — a son pied) to meet with one’s match. Chauve,
adj. shd-v, bald, bald-headed. Chauve-souris, sf. shd-v-sou-ri, bat.
Chauvet4, sf. shd-v-tb, baldness. Chauvir, vn. to prick up the ears.
Chaux, sf. shd, lime ; ( — vive) quick-lime ; ( — eteinte) slack-lime ;
( mineraux reduits en poudre) calx, oxide. Cliavirer, vn. sha-vi-ri, to
capsize, overset. Chef, sm, shbf chief, head, principal ; leading point
; leading man, leader, chieftain ; ( — d'armee) general ; ( — d’une
armee) generalin-chief, commander of the forces ; ( — d’escadre)
commodore ; ( — de file) leader of a file of soldiers; ( — de parti)
ringleader; ( — d’accusation) charge, indictment ; ( — d'une
carriere) head of a quarry ; ( — de pibce) captain of a gun on board
of ship ; ( le bout d'une pibce de drap ou toile) the fag-end ; {faire
quelque chose de son — ) to do a thing of one’s own accord.
IGRAPIIICAL NAMES. Chaudet, shd-db, a French artist. Chaudron,
shd-dron, a town of France. Chauffepid, shd-f-pie, a French writer.
D. 17S6. Chauffailles, shd-fa-i,* a town of France.
 CHE 100 CHE a mal ; d male; e fde; b f6ve; 2 fete; eje; iil;
Hie; omol; 6 mole; omort; u sue; d sfir; ou jour; Chef-d’oeuvre, sm.
shb-deu-vr, masterpiece. Chef-lieu, sm. shef-lieu, county town, chief
town, manor-house. [bian tribe. Cheik ou Cheick, sm. shb-k, chief of
an AraChelidoine, sf. ke-li-doa-n, celandine (a plant). Chelin, sm. sh-
lin, twenty-four French pence. Chemer, vn. she-rne, to pine, waste,
fall away. Se — , v. pro. to pine, waste, fall away. Chemin, sm. she-
min, way, road, path, means ; course, manner ; pass, passage ; (
grand — ) highway ; ( — detourne) by-road ; ( — de traverse) cross-
road ; ( — des gens de pied) footpath or way; ( — faisant) by the
way; ( — fort passant) great thoroughfare ; ( — de I’ecole)
roundabout way ; ( voleur de grand — ) highwayman ; ( alter
toujours son — ) to pursue one’s point ; ( alter le droit — ) to go
fairly to work ; ( couper — d quelque chose) to put a stop to a thing
; ( demeurer en beau — ) to stop in the middle of a successful
operation; ( J'aire son — ) to be fortunate in business ; ( — de fer)
railway, railroad ; ( embranchement de — de fer) branch railway.
Cheminee, sf. she-mi-ne, chimney ; ( tableau ou manteau de — )
chimney or mantel piece ; ( sous la — ) privately. Cheminer, vn. she-
mi-ne , to go on, walk on. Chemise, sf. shemii-z, shirt ; linen ; ( —
de femme) shift ; ( — blanche) clean shirt ; ( — de mail) coat of
mail; ( mettre sa ou changer de — ) to shift oneself ( mettre
quelqu'un en — ) to ruin one entirely. Chemisette, sf. she-mi-zb-t,
under-waistcoat ; front, dicky (for men) ; tucker (for women).
Chemosis, sf. ke-mo-zis, chemosis (a disease of the eye). Chemisier,
sm. she-mi-zie, shirt-maker. Chenaie, sf. she-rd, oak-grove. Chenal,
sm. sh-nal, channel. Chenapan, sm. sh-na-pan, scamp, blackguard.
Chene, sm. shS-n, oak. Cheneau, sm. she-nd, young oak ; water-
pipe. Chenet, sm. she-nb, andiron, fire-dog. Chene-vert, sm.she-n-
vbr, evergreen oak, holm. Ch&neviere, sf. shb-n-vie-r, hemp-field;
epouvantail de — ) scarecrow. Chfenevis, sm. she-n-vi, hemp-seed.
Chfenevotte, sf. shb-n-vo-t , boon; stalks of hemp peeled.
CMnevotter,vn. shb-n-vo-t4, to shoot weak wood. Chenil, sm. she-nif
dog-kennel, dog-hole. Chenille, sf. she-ni-i,* caterpillar ; evil-doer ; (
ouvrage en soie) chenille. Chenu, e, adj. she-nu, hoary, gray-
headed. Cheptel ou Chepteil, sm. she-tbl, te-i,* a lease of cattle,
cattle leased out. Cher, 6re, adj. shbr, dear. — , adv. dearly, dear ; (
achetS — ) dear-bought. Cherche ou Cerce, sf. sher-sh, sbr-s,
catenaria ; search. Oherche-fiche ou Cherche-pointe, sf. shbr-shf ah,
poin-t, a keen-edged pointed tool used by smiths. Chercher, va.
shbr-shi, to seek, look for, search ; endeavour; ( envoyer — ) to
send for; ( alter — ) to go for ; to fetch ; ( — noise) to pick a quarrel
; ( — midi & quatorze heures) to look for a knot in a bulrush.
HISTORICAL AND GE Chaulieu, shd-lieu, a French poet. Died 1720.
Chaumont, sh6-mon, a town of France. Chausse,sAd-s, a French
antiquary. Died 1724. Chaux-de-fond,s/td-
 CHE 101 CHI od jodte; eu jeu; edjeflne; eu peur ; an pan ;
in pin ; on bon ; un brun ; *1 liq. ; *11 liq. ; *gn liq. that is admitted
into the society of archers or arquebusiers ; ( — du guet) captain of
a watch on horseback ; ( se faire le — de quelqu'un) to take a
person’s part warmly. Chevaline, adj. she-va-li-n, of the horse-family;
(bSte — ) horse, mare ; ( race — ) horse-family. Chevalis, sm. she-
va-U , passage made with boats when a river is shallow. Chevance,
sf. she-van-s, property ; fortune. Chevauchee, sf. she-vo-she, judge’s
circuit; (cavalcade) cavalcade. Chevaucher, vn. she-vd-shi, to ride,
obs. Chevau-leger, sm. she-v6-le-je, light horseman. — s, pi. light
cavalry. Cheveche, sf. she-ve-sh, sparrow-owl. Chdvecier, sm. she-v-
sie , dean (in some collegiate churches). Chevele, e, adj. she-v-le,
chevelle (in heraldry). Chevelu, e, adj. she-v-lu , long-haired; (
plante — e) haix-y plant; ( comete — e) blazing-tailed comet.
Chevelure, sf. she-v-lli-r, hair, head of hair ; foliage of trees ; ( —
d'une comete) beams of a comet ; ( — des plantes) fibres, strings,
threads ; ( — deBerenice) Berenice’s hair (in astronomy). Chever, va.
she-ve, to make a precious stone hollow underneath. Chevet, sm.
she-vb, bolster, pillow ; ( au — du lit ) at the bed’s head. Chevetre,
sm. she-vS-tr, halter; band to support the lower jaw; trimmer,
binding joist. Cheveu, sm. she-veu , hair, hair of the head ; ( — x
blaJics) hoary head ; ( — x blonds) light hair; ( — x peignes)
dressed hair ; ( — xboucles ) curled hair ; (de — x) hairy, made of
hair ; (tresse de — x) plait of hair ; (couper les — x) to crop ; (faire
les — x) to cut the hair ; (cela fait dresser les — x a la tete) that
makes one’s hair stand on end, one’s blood run cold ; ( fendre un —
en quatre ) to split a hair, make a distinction without a difference.
Chevillage, sm. she-vi-ia-j,* bolting. Cheville, sf. she-vi-i * pin, peg,
plug ; ( — du pied) ankle-bone ; ( — poetique) botch, prop to
complete either the measure or the rhyme ; ( — de bete fauve )
branch of a deer’s head ; ( — (t bord d'un vaisseau ) bolt, iron-bolt ;
( — de hauban) chain-bolt ; (etre en — ) to be the middle hand at
cards. Cheville, e, adj. she-vi-i ,* branched (said of the horns of a
stag) ; (vers — s) botched verses ; (il a Vdme — e dans le corps) he
has nine lives. Cheviller, va. she-vi-ie,* to pin, peg ; ( — un vaisseau)
to bolt a ship ; ( — la soie) to wring the silk. Chevillette, sf. she-vi-ib-
t ,* small pin or peg. Chevillon, sm. she-vi-ion ,* turner’s peg.
Chevillot, sm. she-vi-io,* toggel, belaying pin. Chevir, vn. she-vir, to
master, manage, overrule (old law term). Chuvre, sf. shb-vr, goat,
she-goat ; (machine d'architecte) crab ; (machine a bord d'un
vaisseau) gin or triangle with pulleys ; ( — sauvage) antelope, gazel
; ( — en astronomie) goat, hircus; (prendre la — ) to take the pet;
(sauver on menager la — et le chou) to obviate two inconveniences
at once. Chevreau, sm. she-vrd , kid. Chfevre-feuille, sm. shb-vr e-
feu-i,* honeysuckle. Chevre-pied, adj . shb-vr e-pie, goat-footed.
Chevrette, sf. she-vrb-t , roe, doe; hand-iron, trevet ; shrimp.
Chevreuil, sf. she-vreui * roebuck, roe-deer. Chevrier, sm. she-vri-e,
goat-herd. Chevrillard, sm. she-vri-iar,* fawn, young roe, roebuck.
Chevron, sm. she-vron, rafter ; chevron (in heraldry) ; stripe
(military term). Chevronnd, e, adj . she-vro-ne, coat of arms having
a chevron. Chevrotement, sm. she-vro-t-man, tremulous motion.
Chevroter, vn. she-vro-tS, to kid ; to be tremulous (musical term).
Chevrotin, sm. she-vro-tin, kid-leather ; (gants de — ) kid-gloves.
Chevrotine, sf. she-vro-ti-n, deer-shot. Chez, prep, she, at, to,
among, with ; ( — moi, — toi, — lui, — elle, — nous, — vous, —
eux, — elles) at my, thy, his, her, our, your, or their house; ( — nous)
in our country, at home ; ( — les Romains) among the Romans.
Chiaoux, sm. shi-a-od, state messenger of the Turks. Chiasse, sf. shi-
a-s, scum, dross, dirt, Chicane, sf. shi-ka-n, chicane, chicanery ;
dispute, quarrel; cavil, quibble, shuffle, shift, fetch at law ; (gens de
— ) pettifoggers. Chicaner, vn. shi-ka-ne, to chicane ; to quarrel,
dispute, wrangle ; to cavil, quibble, shuffle, shift ; ( — le vent) to
come near the wind. Chicanerie, sf. shi-ka-n-ri, chicanery, cavil,
pettifogging trick. Chicaneur, euse, smf. shi-ka-nedr, eti-z, chicaner,
caviller, shuffler, litigious person ; quarreller, wrangler, pettifogger. —
, euse, adj. chicaning, shuffling. Chicanier, iere, smf. shi-ka-nie, ii,-r,
wrangler, caviller, shuffler. Chiche, adj. shi-sh, stingy, niggardly,
mean, sordid, avaricious, close-fisted; ( — face) pale meagre face;
(pois — ) gray pease; (etre — de paroles) to speak little ; (Ure — de
louanges) to praise but seldom. Chichement, adv. shi-sh-man,
stingily, niggardly, sparingly. Chicon, sm. shi-kon, coss-lettuce.
Chicoracd, e, adj. shi-ko-ra-se, endive-like. Chicoree, sf. shi-ko-re,
chicory, succory, endive. Chicot, sm. shi-ko, stump, stub, small
broken piece of wood. Chicoter, vn. shi-ko-ti, to wrangle, contend
about trifles. Chicotin, sm. shi-ko-tin, juice of bitter apple. Chien, ne,
smf. shi-in, ib-n, dog, hound, cur; ( — barbet) spaniel ; ( — basset)
terrier ; ( — couchant) setter, setter-dog ; ( — d'arrU) pointer; ( —
de chasse) hound, ranger; ( — courant) hound, beagle ; ( — de
fusil) cock of a musket ; (grand — ) dog-star, Sirius or Canis Major;
(petit — ) Canis Minor; (meute de — s) pack of hounds ; (faire le —
) to cringe ; (entre — et loup) in the dusk of the evening; (mener
une vie de — ) to lead a wretched life ; (quel — de musicien !) what
a wretched musician ! (un — de repas) a paltry meal HISTORICAL
AND GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES. Cher, shbr, a river and department of
France. Cherbourg, shdr-bour, a seaport of France. Cher et Loire,
shhr-e-loa-^r , a departm. of France. Chesne (Du) du-she-n, a
French historian. Chevalier, she-va-lie, a French ecclesiastic. Chevert,
she-v&r, a French officer. Chevillier, she-vi-U,* a French antiquarian.
Chevillon, she-vi-ion, * a town of France.
 CHI 102 CHO a mal; d male; 6 fee; e feve; e fete; e je; i il;
t lie; o mol; 6 mole; o mort ; u sue; d stir; ou jour; (etre comme un
— a V attache) to be a slave to one’s business; (ce n'est pas tant —
) that is not so bad ; ( cela ne vaut pas les quatre fers dun — ) that
is not worth a pin’s head; (il n'est pas ion d jeter aux — s) he is not
worth hanging ; (il n'en donnerait pas sa part aux — s) he would not
relinquish his pretensions to it ; (nos — ne chassent pas ensemble )
we are not friends. Chien-dent, sm. shi-in-dan, dog’s grass. Chien-
marin, sm. shi-in-ma-rin, sea-dog. Chienne, sf. shie-n, dog, bitch ;
mean creature ; rubbish, stuff. Chienner, vn. shib-nb, to whelp, pup.
Chiffe, sf. shi-f, sorry silk ; poor stuff ; rag. Chiffon, sm. shi-f on, rag;
scrap of paper; doll, darling ; ( — s) gewgaws ; (marchand de — s)
dealer in rags. Chiffonner, va. shi-f o-ni, to rumple, tumble ; to
crumple, ruffle. Chiffonnier, i&re, smf. shi-fo-nie, i-br, rag-picker, rag-
gatherer; (debiteur de nouvelles) tatler, story-teller, newsmonger.
Chiffonniere, sf. shi-f "o-nib-r , chiffonnier (piece of furniture) ; lady’s
work-table. Chiffre, sm. shi-fr, figure, cipher, number, sum total ;
digit ; (e'est un zero en — ) he is a mere cipher; (clef du — ) key to
a cipher. Cliiffrer, va. shi-fre, to cast up accounts, number, cipher,
write in cipher. — , vn. to cipher. Chiffreur, sm. shi-freur, accountant,
calculator. Chignon, sm. shi-gnon,* nape of the neck. Chim6re, sf.
shi-mb-r, chimera, idle fancy. Chimdrique, adj. shi-me-ri-k,
chimerical, fanciful, visionary. Chimie, sf. shi-nii, chemistry.
Chimique, adj. shi-mi-k, chemical. Chimiquement, adv. shi-mi-k-mdn,
chemically. Chimiste, sm. shi-mis-t, chemist. China, sm. shi-na ,
china-root, Chinchilla ou Chinsilla, sm. shin-shi-la or shinsi-la,
chinchilla (a Peruvian quadruped about the size of a squirrel). Chiner,
va. shi-ne, to colour ; to dye. [victs. Chiourme, sf. shi-our-m, crew of
a galley; conChiper, va. shi-pe, to pilfer ; to crib. Chipie, sf. shi-pi,
incessant talker, chatterbox. Chipolin, sm. shi-po-lin, sort of water-
colour. Chipoter, vn. shi-po-te, to trifle, fiddle-faddle ; to dally.
Chipotier, i6re, smf. shi-po-tU, i-br, trifler, one who dallies. Chique, sf.
shi-k, chigo, chique, kind of gnat ; marble ball ; quid of tobacco.
Chiquenaude, sf. shi-k-nd-d, fillip. Chiquer, va. shi-ke, to chew
tobacco. Chiquet, sm. shi-kb, bit, small piece ; drib, driblet ; ( — de
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