30 Ars Artium, Vol.

12, January 2024

Ars Artium: An International Refereed Research Journal

of English Studies and Culture
ISSNs: 2319-7889 (P); 2395-2423 (E)
Vol. 12, January 2024, pp. 30-41
Edited by Vijay Kumar Roy
https://www.arsartium.org

Growing up in the Caribbean: A Reading of

The Nowherians and Other Stories
Prabha Jerrybandan*

Abstract
Krishna Samaroo’s The Nowherians (2016) is a coming-of-age story, a
bildungsroman, of two brothers who are at the mercy of Trinidadian societal practices
at the time. The details of childhood are a capsule of memory from pre-independence
to post independence. In this article, I examine some key issues that arise from
Samaroo’s work and make connections to two other works set in a similar time in
Trinidad and Tobago—Hodge’s Crick Crack, Monkey (1970) and Persaud’s
Butterfly in the Wind (1990). Growing up in Trinidad and Tobago in the 1950s and
1960s includes experiences that are determined by social class and specifically in
these works, the rural-urban dynamic as it affects social issues. These three works
include childhood as a major theme and as a result, home spaces and caregivers in
the forms of grandmothers and aunts are also issues of importance. My own family
stories offer connections to thematic discussions in the article.
Keywords: Caribbean literature, home-spaces, rural-urban, family stories,
grandmothers, aunts
Introduction
Most of my research on digging up family stories are characterized by a yearning to
know more about life in Trinidad and Tobago before I was born, especially about the
lives of my relatives who have passed on, or those who are quite old and risk

*Professor of English and ESL, Centennial College, 755 Morningside Avenue, Toronto,
ON., M1C 5J9, Canada. Email: [email protected]
© 2024 The Author. Published by Paragon International Publishers. Open Access Under
CC BY 4.0 licence.
Growing up in the Caribbean: A Reading of The Nowherians... 31

forgetting. Stories of first- and second-generation Indo-Trinidadians have been sparse

in the published literature of the region, so I continue to pursue new leads that
initiate further discussions and more stories. Krishna Samaroo’s The Nowherians
is a worthy addition to a body of published literature that captures life and stories of
Trinidad and Tobago during the 1950s and 1960s. Berger and Quinney remind that
“narrative scholars of various stripes seem to concur with the proposition that lived
experience can be understood through the stories people tell about it” (5). They add
that “stories are not merely of telling others about ourselves but of constructing our
identities” (5). Since family and place are socially constructed, the family story
offers a piece of a historical record of the lives that are featured, the place where
they inhabit, and the relationships that emerge. My own family stories have helped
in making connections with works that capture life in Trinidad and Tobago. I continue
to piece together episodes of my family’s past when I encounter new literature that
contain thematic similarities to my own family stories as they offer the opportunity
to make connections to the larger social context of Trinidadian and Caribbean
experience.
Home spaces and places—domestic spaces and objects
Krishna Samaroo’s first person narrative from a boy-child’s perspective examines
the fluidity of home spaces for many characters—major and minor ones, as adults
make decisions based on circumstances that characterize the social and cultural
backdrop of rural and urban settings in 1960’s Trinidad. The unnamed narrator
seems to live in the shadow of his older brother Terry, who accompanies him as they
are carried off to live with their maternal grandmother. Through a series of storied
chapters, each an episode on its own, the plot progresses over the course of the
protagonist’s elementary education. Unable to choose for themselves, the five-year
old narrator and his brother, older by two years, are taken from Belmont in the
capital city of the island to the eastern rural district of Sangre Grande. The unnamed
protagonist at once gives the narrator fluidity of person that lends to a more generalized
representation of a societal archetype, but the details of emotion and experience
ground him in the thematic scope of childhood and coming of age.
The opening pages of The Nowherians are related to the adult narrator’s
perspective as he looks back on the time that he spent as a child in the rural district
of Sangre Grande. He acknowledges that the place where his grandmother lived
holds: “the building blocks of my life – the building blocks of the prime of my life” (i).
He invokes the power of memory in muting the present to return to the past—the
32 Ars Artium, Vol. 12, January 2024

nostalgia to which he clings. The longing for the place that had become his home in
his formative years contrasts the rest of the plot where he longs to return to his
family in the urban area of Belmont. The closing scene of the narrative examines
the child’s fears of returning to Ma’s house even in his dream. Kathy Mezei explains
the significance of domestic spaces in autobiographical work in shaping identity
(82). She highlights the power of “[i]nterior domestic spaces (furniture, rooms, doors,
windows, stairs, drawers—familiar, everyday objects) which have and could be
perceived as banal and ordinary, and hence insignificant, are vital to the shaping of
our memories, our imagination, and our ‘selves’” (82). The bed is one such symbol
in Samaroo’s work that is central to the protagonist’s place in the house that he
inhabits. It is also a site that “draws upon the everyday and human relationships
within and beyond the house” and “because domestic spaces are the product of
society, they express and reinforce its norms, social practices, and ideologies” (81).
In the opening scene of the book, the two boys—Terry and his brother— “dashed
from the gallery, raced through the living room, scampered into the bedroom and
scurried like rats, one after the other, under Ma’s four-poster” (1). The four-poster
bed in Ma’s house is a site of representation for the various relationships and
hierarchies that show up. For example, when the boys and their grandmother are
alone in the house, they sleep on the bed. They are displaced when Uncle Gabriel
returns from Port of Spain where he works during the week. The boys sleep on a
cot in the same room—they are demoted in lieu of the older male relative. On their
first night there, the boy recalls that Ma “settled us on the inside part of the four-
poster (she taking the end to lie down on)” (6). The children are stuck on the inside,
while the adult dominates the space that is considered better.
Uncle Gabriel is the person who is given priority when twenty-two relatives
from Belmont spend a night in Ma’s house. The plot reads, “They told her that she
needn’t worry about that. They would make themselves comfortable in the living
room leaving Uncle Gabriel to get his much-needed rest in the bedroom” (84). The
narrator notes, “Ma and Uncle Gabriel slept on the four-poster as usual. My mother
and Aji used the cot Terry and I slept on. On bedding made of Ma’s counterpanes
and which were spread out on the bedroom floor, the children were set to sleep”
(90). This arrangement does not seem like a chance, one as the man of the house,
even if he did not live there all the time, is given priority in terms of sleeping
arrangements. The women who sleep with the children are those with specific
positions in the family structure. The boys’ mother is Ma’s daughter, and therefore
earns the right to sleep in the bedroom, while Aji is the elder woman—the paternal
Growing up in the Caribbean: A Reading of The Nowherians... 33

grandmother who enjoys the space of the bedroom because of her place in the
family.
In the closing scene of the book, the protagonist’s symbolic falling off the new
bed in his father’s home in Belmont shows his new displacement despite his wanting
to be there. He sleeps with four of his siblings on a single bed, and dreams of being
crushed by Ma’s house in Sangre Grande. Although he dreads leaving his family
again and going back to the country, the symbolic bed is the site on which he
experiences misfitting once again. The effects of decisions that adults make are
severely disruptive for their children.
In The Nowherians, children do not have the option of voicing their feeling or
opinions in the matter of where they live. This shows up as utter heartbreak for the
young child. After a family excursion where the protagonist’s family leave Belmont
and take the two young boys, the protagonist and Terry, from Sangre Grande to
Manzanilla beach, the void that the child feels is palpable. He says, “After they left,
I hadn’t a tear to shed. There wasn’t one drop of tear left” (92). Subsequently,
when his father spontaneously takes him on a road trip where he has to deliver bolts
of cloth to a shopkeeper in Guayaguayare, the longest drive on which he had ever
been, he experiences “a holiday gift [he] hadn’t expected; and, as it came from [his]
father, it was especially sweet” (134). The child’s inability to bear the abandonment
he feels after his outing shows up when he rushes to the latrine so that he could cry:
“I cried my heart out. I wanted my father, I wanted my father. I wanted to go
home” (138).
The title of the book, The Nowherians, illustrates the volatility of the home
space for the two main characters. The term is a common one in Trinidadian dialect
that implies a person does not have a sound sense of belonging to a particular place.
The narrator comments on how he and his friends are described by adults who do
not really know them. “I wonder who chirren them is…Look like they is a set of
nowherians” (Samaroo 173). The description of Terry and his brother is symbolic as
they are moved from one home to another.
The protagonist of Crick Crack, Monkey is a motherless child who lives with
two aunts during the unfolding of the plot. Other than those two home spaces, she
finds refuge in her grandmother’s home in Pointe d’espoir. The home space shifts
as she balances education and her relationships with mother figures as discussed in
the next section of this article. Significantly, at the end of the novel, she is due to
travel to England to be reunited with her father and ventures into a new home. The
child has no voice in choosing where she lives.
34 Ars Artium, Vol. 12, January 2024

Persaud’s Kamla contrasts Hodge’s Cynthia and Samaroo’s protagonist. Kamla’s

family own a shop and is economically privileged. Her mother is progressive for her
time and insists that her daughter is well educated despite the practice of
Indo-Caribbean people at the time to neglect formal education for girls. Although
she ventures out of her district for secondary schooling, she never has to leave her
home space until she is an adult. Like in Crick Crack, Monkey, Kamla leaves her
home country to go to England. In the closing page of the work, she comments,
“And suddenly the pain of knowing that I would not be seeing my parents for three
years gushed out” (Persaud 205). For the Indo-Caribbean woman subject in colonial
Trinidad, the cost of higher education is leaving home.
Grandmothers, Tanties and Aunties
On the back cover of Nowherians, the blurb recognizes the work as “a moving
tribute to grandmothers the world over”. The young protagonist’s experience of
being taken from his original home in the urban setting of Belmont to live with his
grandmother in rural Sangre Grande is traumatic but becomes nurturing as the boys
are left with their grandmother for the next six to seven years. In the Prologue of
the book, the reminiscent voice of the protagonist of The Nowherians situates his
grandmother in the space where he, as a child, lived with her. “Where I lived as a
child is now bush – a vacant lot. But Ma is there” (Samaroo i). As an adult, he
draws on “the bittersweet teardrops of memory” and yearns for “the nostalgia to
hit” (Samaroo i). Ma Marie, the unnamed protagonist’s grandmother is the major
nurturing force in his early life from entering to the final year of elementary school
life. Dolbin-MacNab and Yancura note that “[g]lobally, it is common for grandparents
to serve as surrogate parents to their grandchildren, often in response to family
crises and other challenges such as poverty, disease epidemics, and migration” (3).
Chamberlain notes that in the Caribbean, surrogacy by grandmothers is not only an
economically underscored phenomena, but it also revolves around “cultural beliefs
in the centrality of family” (63). The main relationship in the plot of The Nowherians
is that of the young protagonist and his maternal grandmother. Even when some
women characters are not major characters in Caribbean literature, they show up
as caregivers. Chamberlain explains the importance of “the prevalence of ‘aunties’
and, in particular ‘grannies’ in our knowledge of (and in the literature on) the
Caribbean family” (64). She attributes that “poverty [is] the overriding imperative
which [drives] the sharing of childrearing activities” (64). Conforming to
Chamberlain’s theory, poverty is the reason for the child’s placement with his
Growing up in the Caribbean: A Reading of The Nowherians... 35

grandmother. The reader does not have evidence of this until the end of the narrative
when the boys return to Belmont, their previous home, after their paternal grandmother
has died. When they return to Belmont for her funeral, the protagonist notes that the
place has been considerably changed. It is the first time that the reader learns of the
domestic space that spurred the removal of Terry and his younger brother to live
with their grandmother in Sangre Grande. The narrator notes, “My father said it
was a temporary house, but at least we were no longer begging a lodging from
Uncle Sanwah as was the case before Terry and I had been sent to Sangre Grande”
(Samaroo 198). In a conversation with the author, Samaroo discusses the
autobiographical nature of this episode. He tells me that his older brother and he had
been sent to live with his grandmother as there was not much space in his uncle’s
house where they had been living. They did not have their own home at the time.
The author explains that his eldest brother was expected to help his parents with
whatever responsibilities there were, and his sister who was the eldest girl was
supposed to help with housework. As a result, the boys who were younger than
their siblings were more dispensable and were thus taken to live with their
grandmother without their understanding of what was happening.
Hodge’s Crick Crack, Monkey is another example of Trinidadian literature
that contains strong examples of the role of aunts and grandmothers who act as
surrogate parents in the absence of the mother figure. Ma Josephine is Tee’s
grandmother. Although she does not serve as the protagonist’s primary caregiver,
she takes care of a band of grandchildren. The narrator remembers the “division
[that] usually fell between those who were kept by Ma and those of us who didn’t
really live there” (Hodge 16). Ma’s home in Pointe d’Espoir is a safe-haven for
many of her grandchildren—within the plot, this phenomenon fits in as ordinary in
terms of the social and cultural setting of life in pre-Independence Trinidad and
Tobago. When Tee dreams of escaping Aunt Beatrice’s house where she does not
feel at home, she imagines that her other aunt, Tantie, would meet her with disapproval
for running away, but she knows that her grandmother “would surely welcome me
with bursting joy” (Hodge 109). Tee is a motherless child, and her grandmother
presents for her a safe space.
The narrative of Crick Crack, Monkey records examples of ways in which
grandmothers and aunts take up the care of children in the absence of a mother and
for the purpose of easing economic hardship. Tantie—Tee’s paternal aunt, and Auntie
Beatrice—her maternal aunt fight over custody of Tee and her younger brother,
Toddan. Both aunts are polarities of economic privilege in the plot. Tantie lives in the
36 Ars Artium, Vol. 12, January 2024

country and is characterized as base and culture-less by Aunt Beatrice who lives in
a pretentious environment of a higher social class. Ultimately, the privilege of a
sound secondary education is the rationale for Tee’s move to her richer aunt’s
home.
Butterfly in the Wind provides a contrasting relationship where the main character
and her family are considered affluent. Kamla enjoys being with her grandmother
but is never separated from her mother. She is sustained by a group of women: “All
the women, my mother, my grandmother and Sultan mother squeeze so much of
their energy into me that I am sure I will grow” (Persaud 10). The girl’s parents
own a shop and have paid helpers in the household. This is an example of the
advantage of economic privilege in providing the child with better care.
My family stories
My mother tells me that as a child from 11 to 15 years old, she was sent to spend
“August holidays” at her sister’s home in Claxton Bay, a village over 20 kilometres
from her own family’s home in Barrackpore. As an adult, she comments that she
was never asked if she wanted to go. Instead, at the commencement of her vacation
from school, her sister and brother-in-law would take her to their home, so she could
watch over their children while they worked in the sugar cane fields. She laments
that she did not get to spend her holidays, which spanned most of July and August
with her friends from the village. My mother’s experience conforms to Chamberlain’s
theory of aunts being included in child rearing in the Caribbean (66). Unlike
Chamberlain’s examples, my mother was not elderly, but her experience does highlight
the cultural practice at that time of incorporating the extended family in childcare,
especially women who did not have children of their own. According to the literature
being discussed and in considering my family stories, economic privilege and class
are the most important factors that characterize the practice of childrearing. For my
Indo-Trinidadian mother whose sister needed to work in the sugar-cane fields, she
fills in as caregiver.
Stories surrounding my Nanee—my maternal grandmother
Although I knew my maternal grandmother until her death in 1979 when I was 12,
I never lived with her for any prolonged periods of time. My early memories of her
are dominated by her telling me to help my mother with housework. Mostly a bother
to me when she did this, it was not until recently that I considered her reason for
doing this. Other than coaxing me into the domestic role that was expected of me,
Growing up in the Caribbean: A Reading of The Nowherians... 37

she wanted to help her child—her daughter. I recall hearing her telling my mother
that she should get me to help. Although I regularly reminisce with my cousins about
my grandmother since starting my research on family stories in 2011, in preparation
for this article, I asked them to specifically tell me about their memories about our
grandmother. Cici is my mother’s sister’s daughter, and Kat is my mother’s brother’s
daughter. Their recollections are quite different despite living on the same road of
the village in which my grandmother also lived. What could be a three-minute walk
probably took my grandmother a longer time since she had broken her foot, and it
did not heal well. Cici’s childhood home was situated to the east of Nanee’s house,
and Kat’s was to the west.
In conversations with my cousins, I learn that there are differences in the activities
that my grandmother, Nanee, chose to do with them. For Cici and her siblings, when
her mother—my grandmother’s daughter worked in the fields, Nanee would check
on them to make sure that they had eaten. Cici remembers scrubbing Nanee’s back
as she took a bath, something that my sister and I also remember doing when we
visited our grandmother. Kat is Nanee’s eldest son’s daughter. Like the protagonist
of Samaroo’s narrative, Kat’s place in her family determined that she could spend
more time away from her own home and with her grandmother. Her older sister
was expected to stay in the household to help with any domestic duties. Kat recalls
going to her grandmother’s home on evenings so that she could sleep with her. She
also describes going with Nanee to sell dahi–yogurt that my grandmother made.
They would walk to the neighbouring village carrying a simple pot with a handle.
She talks excitedly about the way in which Nanee would measure the dahi using a
cup and pour it into the buyer’s container. Since one of my uncles lived in the home
with my grandmother, I do not believe that Kat spent much time with Nanee simply
for companionship and support although this is an important feature of the experience.
Kat’s family was quite poor, so there were few pieces of furniture and bedding. She
reminisces on the warmth of Nanee’s blanket, and the large size of the bed on
which they slept. These were not luxuries that she enjoyed in her own home. This
story illustrates another example of ways in which grandmothers can sometimes
offset underprivileged situations.
Rural-Urban Difference in the Caribbean
In the three works included in this article, rural-urban differences show up in various
ways. The opening chapter of The Nowherians highlights the naivety of the
brothers—Terry and the narrator, as their mother leaves them at their grandmother’s
38 Ars Artium, Vol. 12, January 2024

house, which will become their home for the next seven years. The boys are taken
to live with their maternal grandmother in Sangre Grande, and they have no clue
about their abandonment until they watch “the back of [their] mother’s cream dress
with the red polka dots [disappear] from view” (Samaroo 1). Although the reader
never knows exactly how old the boys are, the young child is put in “ABC” class—
the first class of elementary education, and by the time they learn of their paternal
grandmother’s death, the protagonist is in Common Entrance class—the most
important one where students write an examination that determines which secondary
school they will attend. After having spent about six formative years away from
their family in the urban area of Belmont, on their return, Terry and the narrator
become “country bookies come to town” and their siblings and cousins laugh at the
way they have begun to speak (Samaroo 199). Other characters in the novel offer
clues about rural-urban difference at that time. Uncle Gabriel works in Port-of-
Spain, the capital city of the island. Due to the distance from Sangre Grande, he
stays in the city during the week and returns home on the weekend. There are
better opportunities for work in urban areas.
In Crick Crack, Monkey, Tee is sent to live with her aunt in the town, so that
she could attend a prestigious high school. The adults in the novel collide to displace
the young girl from her home with Tantie and her younger brother because they all
recognize the importance and implications of having a good education. Hodge explores
the difference in educational opportunity for secondary schooling in rural and urban
areas. The bright protagonist has earned a place at a prestigious high school, but she
must leave the country to be able to do so. Her cousins describe her as “some lil
relative Mommer found up in the country” (Hodge 109). Other than opportunities
for work and schooling, there is difference in the social habits associated with Tee’s
family and friends from the country and her more affluent relatives in the city. The
narrator notes, “One day I absent-mindedly put my food into a bowl and took a
dessert spoon with which to eat it. The other two stared, their forks suspended in
the air, and then looked at each other and burst out giggling” (Hodge 95). Aunt
Beatrice reminds her of the difference between living with her and that of living in
the country with her other aunt. She says, “We don’t eat with bowl and spoon here,
you’re not living at your precious Tantie now” (Hodge 95). Similar to the protagonist
of The Nowherians, Tee becomes cultured according to her environment. In contrast
to Terry and his brother, she is exposed to urban living in a higher social classed
household. Although she has not acquired all the social graces of Aunt Beatrice’s
Growing up in the Caribbean: A Reading of The Nowherians... 39

children, she understands the difference in practice. She watches in horror when
Tantie visits and observes,
The worst moment of all was when they drew forth a series of greasy paper
bags, announcing that they contained polorie, anchar, roti from Neighb’ Ramlal-
Wife and accra and fry-bake and zaboca from Tantie, with a few other things I had
almost forgotten existed, in short all manner of ordinary nastiness. (Hodge 106)
One of the greatest challenges that Tee faces is navigating the different cultures
characterized by two aunts, her paternal aunt—Tantie from the country, and her
maternal aunt—Aunt Beatrice from the city.
Education for Kamla in Butterfly in the Wind underscores the entire plot. She
explains, “My mother believed in education in the same way some people believe in
God” (Persaud 14). Although her family is economically privileged, education is not
simple for the Indo-Trinidadian girl subject. The narrator highlights the plight of
Indo-Trinidadians in securing a sound secondary education when she says, “[T]he
secondary schools of a high standing were in the capital and distant from the Indian
villages in the wide alluvial belt of sugarcane and rice” (Persaud 136). She explains,
“In the past, girls who wanted a sound academic education had to travel all the way
to the capital, Port of Spain” (Persaud 159). For Kamla, she is forced to leave St.
Augustine Girls’ High School, which was closer to her home but limited in its offering
of education at the time. She recognizes that “in many ways, St. Joseph’s Convent
was a contrast to SAGHS. It was not in the middle of fields, open to the cooling
Trade Winds descending from the Northern Range. It was instead situated in the
capital in the main port, retailing, administrative and commercial centre of the island”
(Persaud 167). Especially as Indo-Trinidadian, Persaud makes sure to highlight the
effect of the rural-urban dynamic in her prose as it has been through much sacrifice
that Indo-Trinidadian women received sound secondary education in 1950s and
1960s Trinidad and Tobago.
Rural-urban difference in my family stories
When my mother passed the first ever Common Entrance Examination in 1962, she
earned a place for secondary education at St. Stephen’s College in Princes Town.
She was then required to commute by bus from her home in the rural community of
Barrackpore to the more urban Princes Town. She tells me that she had to wake up
very early every day to be able to be punctual for school. Due to the time that she
had to leave her home, she could not eat breakfast as it was much too early for her.
40 Ars Artium, Vol. 12, January 2024

None of my mother’s five older siblings had had the chance to attend secondary
school, and she was grateful for the opportunity. There were no secondary schools
in rural areas at that time, so anyone who had to acquire further education needed to
venture into the town.
Until 1979, my family had been living in the urban area of San Fernando, while
my grandmother and most of her children and grandchildren were living in the rural
village of Barrackpore. In conversations with my cousin Kat, she explains that she
thought that my family was extremely rich because we lived in San Fernando. This
was probably because we lived in an apartment that had running water and electricity
and they did not. While talking to her about our memories of our grandmother, she
remembers attending my ninth birthday party. According to her, Nanee gathered as
many of her grandchildren including Kat herself and hired a taxi to take them to my
home in San Fernando. Kat had never attended a birthday celebration like that
before, and she was in awe of the number of multi-racial children who were present
at the party. As Persaud notes in her novel, Indians in Trinidad were primarily located
in the rural areas as their lives were tied to the sugar-cane fields. The urban areas
were home to more diverse populations. While economic status was not always
high for people who lived in urban areas, there was certainly more exposure to
services including education, different cultures, and varied social practices.
Conclusion
The Nowherians is a valuable contribution to the published body of Caribbean
literature. Described as fictionalised autobiography, it captures important details of
life in Trinidad and Tobago and the Caribbean that could disappear if stories such as
these are not encouraged. In teasing out predominant themes within the work, and
make connections with other works, namely Crick Crack, Monkey, and Butterfly
in the Wind, and my own family stories, there are important commonalities of life
experiences in Trinidad and Tobago. As Langer reminds, “Storytelling is probably
the best method for communicating important—sometimes complex—in a simple
and memorable way” (739). I continue to seek stories from literature that is being
published, and to use memory work and research with my own family to draw out
untold stories in my attempt “to keep history and legacy alive” (Langer 739).
Growing up in the Caribbean: A Reading of The Nowherians... 41

Works Cited
Berger, R. J., and R. Quinney, editors. Storytelling Sociology: Narrative as Social
Inquiry. Lynne Reiner, 2005.
Chamberlain, Mary. “Rethinking Caribbean Families: Extending the Links.”
Community, Work & Family, vol. 6, no. 1, 2003, pp. 63-76.
Dolbin-MacNab, Megan L., and Loriena A. Yancura. “International Perspectives
on Grandparents Raising Grandchildren: Contextual Considerations for
Advancing Global Discourse.” The International Journal of Aging and
Human Development, 2018, vol. 86, no. 1, pp. 3-33.
Hodge, Merle. Crick Crack, Monkey. Heinemann, 2000.
Langer, Nieli.“The Power of Storytelling and the Preservation
of Memories.” Editorial. Educational Gerontology, vol. 42, no.11, 2016,
pp. 739.
Mezei, Kathy. “Domestic Space and the Idea of Home.” Tracing the
Autobiographical, edited by M. Kadar, et al., Wilfrid Laurier UP, 2005,
pp. 81-96
Persaud, Lakshmi. Butterfly in the Wind. Peepal Tree, 1990.
Samaroo, Krishna. Nowherians. Bamboo Talk Press, 2016
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