INT 330

Data Communication
2024

Lecturer : Dr. Maysa Khalil Noby

[email protected]
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 Lecture 8
Ch.4
Data and Signals
⦁ DC components
⦁ Synchronization

⦁ Line Coding
⦁ Line Coding Schemes
 In this section, we see how we can represent digital data by
using digital signals.
 The conversion involves three techniques: line coding,
block coding, and scrambling.
 Line coding is always needed; block coding and scrambling
may or may not be needed.
⦁ Signal level & Data level
⦁ Pulse rate and Bit rate
⦁ DC components

⦁ synchronization
Figure 1. Line coding and decoding

4.6
⦁ When the voltage level in a digital signal is constant for a while, the
spectrum creates very low frequencies (results of Fourier analysis).
⦁ These frequencies around zero, called DC (direct-current) components,
present problems for a system that cannot pass low frequencies or a
system that uses electrical coupling (via a transformer). For example, a
telephone line cannot pass frequencies below 200 Hz.
⦁ Also a long-distance link may use one or more transformers to isolate
different parts of the line electrically. For these systems, we need a
scheme with no DC component.
⦁ Self-synchronization To correctly interpret the signals received from the
sender,the receiver's bit intervals must correspond exactly to the sender's
bit intervals.

⦁ If the receiver clock is faster or slower, the bit intervals are not matched
and the receiver might misinterpret the signals.
⦁ Figure 4.3 shows a situation in which the receiver has a shorter bit
duration. The sender sends 10110001, while the receiver receives
110111000011.
Figure 3. Effect of lack of synchronization

4.15
 Example 4.3

In a digital transmission, the receiver clock is 0.1 percent

faster than the sender clock. How many extra bits per
second does the receiver receive if the data rate is
1 kbps? How many if the data rate is 1 Mbps?
Solution
At 1 kbps, the receiver receives 1001 bps instead of 1000
bps.

At 1 Mbps, the receiver receives 1,001,000 bps instead of

1,000,000 bps.

4.16
Figure 3. Line coding schemes

4.17
Figure 4. Unipolar NRZ scheme

4.18
⦁ In a unipolar scheme, all the signal levels are on one side of the time
axis, either above or below.
⦁ NRZ (Non-Return-to-Zero) Traditionally, a unipolar scheme was
designed as a non-return-to-zero (NRZ) scheme in which the positive
voltage defines bit I and the zero voltage defines bit O.
⦁ It is called NRZ because the signal does not return to zero at the
middle of the bit.
⦁ this scheme is very costly. As we will see shortly, the normalized power
(power needed to send 1 bit per unit line resistance) is double that for
polar NRZ.
⦁ For this reason, this scheme is normally not used in data
communications today.
Figure 5 Polar NRZ-L and NRZ-I schemes

4.20
⦁ In polar schemes, the voltages are on the both sides of the time axis.
For example, the voltage level for 0 can be positive and the voltage
level for 1 can be negative.
⦁ Non-Return-to-Zero (NRZ) In polar NRZ encoding, we use two
levels of voltage amplitude. We can have two versions of polar
NRZ: NRZ-L and NRZ-I, as shown in Figure 4.6. The figure also
shows the value of r, the average baud rate, and the bandwidth.
⦁ In the first variation, NRZ-L (NRZ-Level), the level of the voltage
determines the value of the bit.
⦁ In the second variation, NRZ-I (NRZ-Invert), the change or lack of
change in the level of the voltage determines the value of the bit. If
there is no change, the bit is 0; if there is a change, the bit is 1.
 Note

In NRZ-L the level of the voltage

determines the value of the bit.
In NRZ-I the inversion
or the lack of inversion
determines the value of the bit.

NRZ-L and NRZ-I both have an average

signal rate of N/2 Bd.

NRZ-L and NRZ-I both have a DC

component problem.
4.22
 Example 4.4

A system is using NRZ-I to transfer 10-Mbps data. What

are the average signal rate and minimum bandwidth?

Solution
The average signal rate is S = N/2 = 500 kbaud. The
minimum bandwidth for this average baud rate is Bmin =
S = 500 kHz.

4.23
Figure 6. Polar RZ scheme

Here in, it solves the synchronization at NRZ

The problem here is the complexity but here is no DC component

and synchronization problem

4.24
⦁ The main problem with NRZ encoding occurs when the sender
and receiver clocks are not synchronized.
⦁ The receiver does not know when one bit has ended and the next
bit is starting.
⦁ One solution is the return-to-zero (RZ) scheme, which uses
three values: positive, negative, and zero.
⦁ In RZ, the signal changes not between bits but during the bit. In
Figure 4.7 we see that the signal goes to 0 in the middle of each
bit. It remains there until the beginning of the next bit.
⦁ The main disadvantage of RZ encoding is that it requires two
signal changes to encode a bit and therefore occupies greater
bandwidth.
⦁ The same problem we mentioned, a sudden change of polarity
resulting in all as interpreted as 1s and all 1s interpreted as 0s, still
exist here.
⦁ but there is no DC component problem.
⦁ Another problem is the complexity: RZ uses three levels of
voltage, which is more complex to create and discern.
⦁ As a result of all these deficiencies, the scheme is not used today.
Instead, it has been replaced by the
⦁ better-performing Manchester and differential Manchester schemes
Figure 7. Polar biphase: Manchester and differential Manchester schemes

The problem here is the complexity but here is no DC component

and synchronization problem and baseline wandering
⦁ Manchester and Differential Manchester The idea of RZ
(transition at the middle of the bit) and the idea of NRZ-L are
combined into the Manchester scheme.
⦁ In Manchester encoding, the duration of the bit is divided into two
halves. The voltage remains at one level during the first half and
moves to the other level in the second half. The transition at the
middle of the bit provides synchronization.
⦁ Differential Manchester, on the other hand, combines the ideas of
RZ and NRZ-I. There is always a transition at the middle of the
bit, but the bit values are determined at the beginning of the bit. If
the next bit is 0, there is a transition; if the next bit is 1, there is
none. Figure 7 shows both Manchester and differential
Manchester encoding.
⦁ The Manchester scheme overcomes several problems associated with
NRZ-L, and differential Manchester overcomes several problems
associated with NRZ-I.
⦁ First, there is no baseline wandering. There is no DC component
because each bit has a positive and negative voltage contribution.
⦁ The only drawback is the signal rate. The signal rate for
Manchester and differential Manchester is double that for NRZ. The
reason is that there is always one transition at the middle of the bit
and maybe one transition at the end of each bit.
⦁ Figure 7 shows both Manchester and differential Manchester
encoding schemes.
⦁ Note that Manchester and differential Manchester schemes are also
called biphase schemes.
⦁ In bipolar encoding (sometimes called multilevel binary), there are three voltage
levels:
⦁ positive, negative, and zero. The voltage level for one data element is at zero,
while the voltage level for the other element alternates between positive and
negative. Figure 4.9 shows two variations of bipolar encoding: AMI, and
pseudoternary.
⦁ A common bipolar encoding scheme is called bipolar alternate mark inversion
(AMI). In the term alternate mark inversion, the word mark comes from
telegraphy and means 1.
⦁ So AMI means alternate 1 inversion. A neutral zero voltage represents binary 0.
Binary 1s are represented by alternating positive and negative voltages.
⦁ A variation of AMI encoding is called pseudoternary in which the 1 bit is
encoded as a zero voltage and the 0 bit is encoded as alternating positive and
negative voltages l for the other element alternates between positive and negative.
 In a digital transmission, the receiver clock is 0.2 percent
slower than the sender clock. How many extra bits per second
does the receiver receive if the data rate is 10 kbps?
How many if the data rate is 5 Mbps?

 A system is using NRZ-I to transfer 7-Mbps data. What are

the average signal rate and minimum bandwidth?
 Convert the following bits “0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1” by using the
following line coding scheme:
▪ Unipolar NRZ line coding
▪ Polar NRZ L & I and Polar RZ
▪ Manchester and differential Manchester scheme.
 Convert the following bits “01001110” by using the following line
coding scheme:
▪ Unipolar NRZ line coding
▪ Polar NRZ L & I and Polar RZ
▪ Manchester and differential Manchester scheme.

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