Activity 9: Lipids

What are Lipids? Fatty Acids: Saturated vs.

Unsaturated
Lipids are a group of compounds that
don’t dissolve in water but dissolve in • Saturated fatty acids have no
nonpolar solvents like alcohol or acetone. double bonds between carbon
They are a broad category of molecules, atoms. They are “straight,” so they
not based on their chemical structure but can pack closely, making them
on their behavior with solvents. solid (like butter).
• Unsaturated fatty acids have
Here are the main types of lipids: one or more double bonds, which
1. Waxes – These are made of long- create “bends,” preventing tight
chain fatty acids combined with long- packing. This makes them liquid
chain alcohols. Think of the wax on (like olive oil).
leaves or beeswax.
Purpose of the Activity
2. Triacylglycerols (or Triglycerides) – This lab focuses on:
These are fats and oils. They are made
of one glycerol molecule and three fatty 1. Making soap from coconut oil and
acid molecules. caustic soda (a base, also called sodium
hydroxide).
• Fats are solid at room
temperature because they have 2. Understanding the difference
more *saturated* fatty acids (no between soap and detergent when
double bonds in their structure, so used in hard water.
they pack tightly).
Making Soap (Saponification)
• Oils are liquid at room
temperature because they have Soap is made through a process called
more *unsaturated* fatty acids saponification. This is what happens:
(with double bonds, which prevent
1. Coconut oil (a fat containing
tight packing).
triglycerides) is mixed with caustic soda
3. Phospholipids – These are found in (a strong base).
cell membranes. They are like
2. The triglycerides in the oil break apart
triglycerides but contain a phosphate
into glycerol and fatty acid salts. These
group.
salts are the soap.
4. Steroids – These include cholesterol
Why is soap effective?
and hormones like estrogen or
testosterone. Soap molecules have two ends:
5. Prostaglandins and Leukotrienes – • One end is attracted to water
These are involved in processes like (hydrophilic).
inflammation and are derived from a fatty • The other end is attracted to oil
acid called arachidonic acid. and dirt (hydrophobic).
 Activity 10: Solubility of Lipids
This is why soap can remove grease and What Are Lipids?
dirt.
Lipids are substances that:
Soap vs. Detergent in Hard Water
1. Do not dissolve in water (they are
• Hard water contains minerals like water-insoluble).
calcium (Ca²⁺) and magnesium
(Mg²⁺). These minerals can react 2. Can be hydrophobic (completely
with soap to form a sticky nonpolar, meaning they don’t mix with
substance called “soap scum,” water at all) or amphipathic (have both
which makes soap less effective. polar and nonpolar parts, which allows
them to interact with both water and fat).
• Detergents, on the other hand,
are synthetic and don’t form scum Where Do Lipids Come From?
in hard water. This makes
detergents more effective in such • Animal fat deposits - These
conditions. mainly contain triacylglycerols
(fats or oils made up of glycerol
What to Remember for the Exam and three fatty acids).
1. Lipids are grouped based on solubility, • Other cells - These contain less
not structure. fat and more phospholipids and
cholesterol, especially in cell
2. Know the types of lipids: waxes, membranes.
triacylglycerols, phospholipids, steroids,
prostaglandins, and leukotrienes. What Are Lipids Used for in the Body?

3. Fats (solid) have more saturated fatty Lipids have three main jobs:
acids, while oils (liquid) have more 1. Membrane Structure - Lipids form the
unsaturated fatty acids. bilayer in cell membranes, which acts like
4. Soap is made through saponification a barrier and helps cells function.
(triglycerides + caustic soda → soap + 2. Energy Storage - Lipids store energy
glycerol). in their hydrocarbon chains, like fat in
5. Soap works by attracting both water your body.
and grease. 3. Cell Signaling - Lipids help cells
6. Soap struggles in hard water due to communicate and send signals, like
soap scum, but detergents don’t have during inflammation or other processes.
this problem. Types of Lipids
Lipids are grouped into three main
categories:
1. Simple Lipids
 • Examples: Glycerides (fats and Hard water has minerals like calcium and
oils) and waxes. magnesium that interact with lipids.
2. Compound Lipids • Lipids reduce the water’s surface
tension and can form emulsions
• These include phospholipids
(tiny droplets of oil dispersed in
(found in membranes), water). This is why oil and water
sphingolipids (important for
don’t mix completely but can form
nerve cells), and lipoproteins a cloudy mixture.
(help transport lipids in the blood).
Purpose of the Activity
3. Derived Lipids
This activity aims to:
Examples: Steroids (like cholesterol) and
fat-soluble vitamins (like vitamins A, D, E, 1. Test how animal oil and plant oil
and K). dissolve in different solvents.
Solubility of Lipids 2. Understand how lipids behave in
various solutions.
• Lipids don’t dissolve in water
because they are nonpolar, and Key Points to Remember for Your
water is polar. Nonpolar and polar Exam
substances don’t mix (like oil and
1. Lipids don’t dissolve in water but do
water).
in organic solvents.
• Lipids dissolve in organic
solvents like acetone, alcohol, or 2. They can be **hydrophobic** (don’t
ether because these solvents are mix with water) or **amphipathic** (can
also nonpolar. mix with both water and fats).

Special Lipid Structures 3. Lipids play roles in:

Some lipids can form structures like: • Building cell membranes.

• Storing energy.
1. Micelles - Small balls where the
• Helping cells communicate.
nonpolar parts (fatty acid tails) face
inward, and the polar parts (heads) face 4. There are three types of lipids:
outward.
Simple (glycerides, waxes).
2. Bilayers - Flat sheets that make up
cell membranes. • Compound (phospholipids,
sphingolipids, lipoproteins).
3. Liposomes: Small bubbles made of a • Derived (steroids, fat-soluble
lipid bilayer that can carry substances vitamins).
like medicine.
5. Lipids can form special structures like
Oil and Hard Water micelles, bilayers, and liposomes.
When you mix oil with hard water:
6. Oil and water don’t mix but can form 3. Cleaning the DNA
an emulsion due to changes in surface
• DNA is attached to histone
tension.
proteins (proteins that help
organize DNA in chromosomes).
• To get clean DNA, you need to
Activity 12: Extraction of DNA remove these proteins. This is
from Onions done using a meat tenderizer,
What Is DNA Extraction? which contains papain, an
enzyme that breaks down
DNA extraction is a process to remove proteins. This step “cleans” the
and isolate DNA from cells. In this DNA by separating it from the
activity, the goal is to get DNA out of proteins.
onion cells so you can see it.
4. Precipitating the DNA
Steps in Extracting DNA from Onion
• Ethanol (a type of alcohol) is
1. Breaking the Cell Walls added to the solution. DNA does
• Onions have tough cell walls. not dissolve in ethanol, so it
These must be broken so the separates out (precipitates).
insides of the cell (cytoplasm) can • When the DNA uncoils, it
leak out. becomes visible as a white,
• This is done by chopping and stringy substance.
grinding the onion. This physical 5. Collecting the DNA
action helps break the walls.
• The DNA is long and thin, like
spaghetti. It can be gently wound
2. Breaking the Cell and Nuclear around a stick or skewer, making
Membranes it easier to \Why Each Step Is
Important
• Cells are surrounded by a
phospholipid bilayer (a kind of 1. Chopping and Grinding - Breaks the
fat-based barrier) that makes up onion’s tough outer structure (cell wall) to
the cell membrane and nuclear release the contents inside.
membrane. 2. Lysis - Breaks the membranes (cell
• To release the DNA, these and nuclear) to release the DNA from the
membranes must be broken. This nucleus.
is called cell lysis (breaking open
the cell). 3. Meat Tenderizer - Removes histone
proteins from DNA so the DNA becomes
• The chromosomes in the nucleus,
free and clean.
which contain DNA, are then
released into the solution. 4. Ethanol - Makes the DNA visible by
separating it from the other parts of the
cell.
What to Remember for Your Exam** • These vitamins are stored in the
body’s fat tissues and liver.
1. The purpose of this activity is to
isolate DNA from onion cells. 2. Water-Soluble Vitamins
2. Physical chopping and grinding These dissolve in water (a polar solvent).
break the onion’s cell wall.
Examples: Vitamins B-complex (like B1,
3. Lysis releases the DNA by breaking B2, B12) and C.
the membranes.
• These vitamins are not stored in
4. The meat tenderizer** has enzymes the body and are excreted in
(like papain) that remove proteins bound urine, so you need to consume
to DNA. them regularly.
5. Ethanol makes DNA visible by What Determines Solubility?
causing it to precipitate (separate out).
Fat-Soluble Vitamins
6. DNA looks like a white, stringy
substance and can be collected on a • Found in fatty foods, like meat,
skewer. dairy, and oils.
Example: Green leafy vegetables
Activity 14: Vitamins Solubility
(watery foods) can also provide some fat-
and Antioxidant Activity soluble vitamins because they contain
What Are Vitamins? certain fats.

• Vitamins are organic Water-Soluble Vitamins

compounds that your body • Found in watery foods like fruits
needs to function properly. and vegetables.
• They help enzymes work in the
body as cofactors (helpers) or - Example: Oranges and lemons are
coenzymes (parts of enzymes). good sources of Vitamin C.
• Your body cannot make enough Antioxidant Activity
vitamins on its own, so you need
to get them from your diet. What Are Antioxidants?
• If you don’t get enough vitamins, it
• Antioxidants are substances that
can cause deficiency diseases prevent oxidation (a reaction
(health problems caused by a lack
that can damage cells).
of vitamins).
• They protect other compounds by
Types of Vitamins getting oxidized first, which makes
them good reducing agents.
Fat-Soluble Vitamins:
How Do We Test for Antioxidant
These dissolve in fats or nonpolar Activity?
solvents (like oil or hydrocarbons).
Iodine Test
Examples: Vitamins A, D, E, and K.
 • Antioxidants react with iodine (I₂). • A healthy adult produces 600 to
• Iodine starts as a red-violet color. 2,000 cc of urine per day. That’s
• If an antioxidant is present, it gets like 2 to 8 glasses of urine.
oxidized, and iodine is reduced to • Urine has a specific gravity (a
a colorless iodide. measure of how concentrated it is)
between 1.003 to 1.030.
Purpose of the Activity
Example: If you drink a lot of water, the
1. Determine Vitamin Solubility specific gravity will be low (closer to
• Test if a vitamin dissolves in water 1.003). If you’re dehydrated, it’ll be higher
(water-soluble) or fat (fat-soluble). (closer to 1.030).

2. Test for Antioxidant Activity • Urine’s pH level (how acidic or

basic it is) ranges from 4.8 to 7.5,
• Use the iodine reaction to see if depending on what you eat and
the vitamin acts as an antioxidant. drink.
Key Points to Remember for Your • The yellow color of urine is due to
Exam a pigment called urochrome,
which comes from the breakdown
1. Fat-Soluble Vitamins of blood cells.
• Dissolve in fats or oils. What’s in Normal Urine?
• Stored in the body.
• Examples: A, D, E, K. Urine normally contains:

2. Water-Soluble Vitamins 1. Water - makes up most of it.

2. Urea - a waste product from breaking
• Dissolve in water.
down proteins.
• Not stored in the body, so regular
intake is important. 3. Sodium chloride (salt).
Examples: B-complex, C. 4. Creatinine - waste from muscles.
3. Antioxidant Test 5. Ammonia - gives urine its smell.
Iodine turns colorless if the vitamin has 6. Hippuric acid - comes from certain
antioxidant activity. foods.
7. Purine bodies - small molecules from
DNA breakdown.
Activity 15: Analysis of Urine
These are all normal products of
What is Urine? metabolism (how your body processes
• Urine is the liquid waste made by food and energy).
your kidneys. It removes extra
water, salts, and waste from your
body. What’s NOT Normal in Urine?
If urine has sugar, proteins, blood, • This activity helps us understand
ketone bodies, or bile, it’s not normal. what’s normal and abnormal in
These are called pathological urine.
constituents because they can indicate
a health problem: Activity 16: Analysis of Milk
1. Sugar (glucose) - could mean Milk as a “Perfect Food”
diabetes. • Milk is called a “perfect food”
2. Proteins - could mean kidney damage because it contains a mix of
or infection. nutrients that are important for the
body. Here’s what milk has:
3. Blood - could mean injury, infection, or
disease in the urinary tract. Protein

4. Ketone bodies - seen in diabetes or • The main protein in milk is casein,

starvation. a phosphoprotein (contains
phosphoric acid).
What is the Aim of This Activity? • Milk also has lactalbumin,
This lab activity has two main goals: especially in human milk.

1. To test for normal products in urine, Fats

like water, urea, and creatinine.
• Most of the fats in milk are
2. To test for pathological substances, glycerides from fatty acids like
like sugar or blood, that might show a palmitic acid and stearic acid.
health problem. • About 10% of the fats are from
lower fatty acids like glyceryl
Why Is This Important?
tributyrate.
• Urine tests are a simple way to Lactose
check your health. They can tell if
your kidneys, liver, or other organs • This is the sugar in milk, which
are working well. By looking at the provides energy.
color, pH, and contents of urine,
Vitamins and Minerals
doctors can detect diseases early.
• Contains vitamins A, B1, B2, C,
Summary
and D (in small amounts).
• Urine is made by the kidneys to • Rich in phosphorus and
remove waste. calcium, but low in iron.
• Normal urine contains water,
Color and Properties of Milk
urea, salts, and creatinine.
• Abnormal urine (with sugar, Color
protein, or blood) can show health
• Milk is white or yellowish-white.
problems.
The color comes from casein (the
protein) and fat.
Specific Gravity 3. Lactose Test
• Milk’s specific gravity (density • Lactose reacts with specific
compared to water) is between chemicals to form a color change.
1.026 and 1.036. This depends on • Result: Color reaction (e.g., red or
how much fat the milk has. orange indicates lactose).
pH (Acidity) 4. pH Test
• Milk is mildly acidic, with a pH of Use a pH strip or meter to check acidity.
6.6 to 6.9.
Result: A pH between 6.6 and 6.9
Difference Between Human Milk and confirms milk’s normal acidity.
Cow’s Milk
1. Human Milk
5. Mineral Test (Calcium and
• Less casein (so it’s easier to Phosphorus)
digest).
• Add specific reagents to detect
• More lactose (milk sugar) and
calcium or phosphorus.
lactalbumin.
Result: White precipitate or color change
2. Cow’s Milk
confirms their presence.
- More casein and less lactose
Key Points to Remember
compared to human milk.
Milk is rich in proteins (casein), fats,
Tests for Milk Components
lactose, vitamins, and minerals like
When analyzing milk in the lab, tests are calcium and phosphorus.
used to identify its components. These
Casein makes up most of the protein
tests help confirm what’s in the milk:
and contributes to milk’s color.
1. Protein Test (for Casein)
The fat content affects the specific
• A precipitate forms when casein is gravity of milk.
separated using an acid or other
• Milk’s pH is slightly acidic (6.6–
chemicals.
6.9).
Result: White curd-like precipitate • Human milk has less casein but
(casein). more lactose than cow’s milk.
2. Fat Test:
• Using solvents or centrifugation,
the fat content can be extracted.
• Result: A layer of fat separates or
is visible.