ME 311 MACHINE ELEMENTS I 2024-2025 FALL

LECTURE NOTES

1 / 84
Course Instructor 2 / 84

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ME 311
Dr. Aydın ÜLKER

Izmir Katip Celebi University

MACHINE ELEMENTS I Faculty of Engineering and Architecture
Mechanical Engineering Department
by Division of Mechanical Design & Manufacturing
Aydın ÜLKER, Ph.D
Assistant Professor of Mechanical Engineering
Office: H3 – 22 (Vice Dean Office)
H2 – 13 (ME Department Floor)
October 1, 2024

Fall 2024
E-mail : [email protected]

Lecture Notes #1

Course Assistant 3 / 84
Course Schedule 4 / 84

Lectures per week : 4 hours

MECHANICAL ENGINEERINGAsil AYAZ

Izmir Katip Celebi University

Tuesday

H1 - 87
Wednesday

H1 – 86

DEPARTMENT
Faculty of Engineering and Architecture (10:10 - 10:50) (10:10 - 10:50)
Mechanical Engineering Department (11:00 - 11:40) (11:00 - 11:40)

Office : Mechanical Engineering Lab. Building

Machine Tools Laboratory
(10:10 - 11:40) (10:10 - 11:40)
E-mail : [email protected]

Attendance 5 / 84
Attendance Requirements 6 / 84

Classroom Lectures
IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

ME 311
ME 311 students should attend 70 percent of the lectures FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE
UNDERGRADUATE EDUCATION AND EXAM REGULATION

Obligation and supervision of attendance to classes

MACHINE ELEMENTS I
Maximum allowable non-attandence (30%)

Those students who miss 30 % of the lectures

will get a course grade of DZ automatically.
ARTICLE 16‒(1)

It is mandatory for students to attend classes, practices, exams and other studies.

A student who does not attend more than 30% of the theoretical courses and more
than 20% of the practices and is not successful in the practices is not taken to the
final and resit exams of that course.

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LECTURE NOTES

Attendance Requirements (in Turkish) 7 / 84

Class Rules for Students 8 / 84

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

Derslere devam zorunluluğu ve denetlenmesi
After 5 minutes later ( >10:15) Tuesday
MADDE 16‒(1)

Öğrencilerin derslere, uygulamalara, sınavlara ve diğer çalışmalara devamı After 5 minutes later ( >10:15) Wednesday
zorunludur.

Teorik derslerin % 30’undan, uygulamaların % 20’sinden fazlasına devam You cannot participate the class !!!
etmeyen ve uygulamalarda başarılı olamayan öğrenci, o dersin yarıyıl sonu ve
bütünleme sınavına alınmaz.
You cannot leave the classroom at your own will.

Class Rules for Students 9 / 84

Class Rules for Students 10 / 84

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT

Class Rules for Students 11 / 84

Prerequisites for ME 311 Machine Elements I 12 / 84

Statics

ME 311 Dynamics

Strength of Materials (I & II) (Strongly recommended)

Material Science & Engineering (I & II)

MACHINE ELEMENTS I
All cell phones, smartphones, and other electronic devices (e.g., pagers, iPods) must be
turned off (or on vibrate) and hidden from view during class time.
Manufacturing Processes (I & II) (Continue)

Computer Aided Engineering Drawing (I & II)

Laptop and tablet computers are allowed for (quiet) note taking only: ME 312
ME 311...... First Design Course ! Machine Elements II
i.e., other activities such as checking personal e-mail or browsing the Internet are
prohibited. ME 413
Engineering Design

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LECTURE NOTES

Prerequisites for ME 311 Machine Elements I 13 / 84

Prerequisites for ME 311 Machine Elements I 14 / 84

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

ME 122
Statics

ME 212
Dynamics

ME 261 & ME 262

Strength of Materials I &
II

ME 221 & ME 222

Material Science &
Engineering I & II

ME 112 & ME 211

Computer Aided
Technical Drawing I & II

Examinations 15 / 84
Examinations & Grading 16 / 84

REGULAR EXAMINATIONS

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
• Examination dates, hours, and places will be announced
by the Mechanical Engineering Department.
• One in-class midterm exam (40 %) (in 7th or 8th week)

Closed book and notes.

Text type question(s) and problem(s) may be asked.

DEPARTMENT
MAKE-UP EXAMINATIONS

• Make-up examinations may be given to those with valid

excuses (i.e. medical report, ...) approved by the Mechanical
• Final Examination (60 %) (scheduled during final exam period )

Engineering Department. Closed book and notes

Text type question(s) and problem(s) may be asked.
• If you are eligible to take any of the make-up examinations,
you must contact the course instructor.

Questions in Examinations 17 / 84
Questions in Examinations 18 / 84

Short answer questions:

• Midterm and Final Examinations

ME 311
When studying for short-answer questions, concentrate on:

• Closed book and notes • Terminology (Key vocabulary in English)

• Short answer questions • Names, types and classification

•

•
MACHINE ELEMENTS I
Long answer questions

Problems/computational questions
• Technical drawing, parts

• Facts
• Design Reviews & Case Studies
• Concepts and theories, and examples underpinning them

• Similarities and differences.

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LECTURE NOTES

Questions in Examinations 19 / 84
Questions in Examinations 20 / 84

Long answer questions: Problems/computational questions:

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

When studying for long answer questions: When studying for problems/computational questions:

• Try to identify possible questions you may be asked • Learn the key vocabulary, theories and formulas
(including how and when to apply the formulas.)
• Read the assignments in your course material and
textbook(s) • Look for practice questions solved in the class, your course
materials, etc.
• Review concepts and theories, and examples
underpinning them • Practise answering this type of question in full, and writing
each step down as if it were an exam.
• Investigate the similarities and the differences.

Questions in Examinations 21 / 84
Lectures 22 / 84

Design Reviews & Case Studies

• Some of the chapters and sections of the textbook that are going to be

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
• Learn to use

•
•
Graphs
Diagrams
•

•
covered throughout the semester will be supplied in UBS

Video Links (Youtube etc., Company Web Sites)

Pictures

DEPARTMENT •
•
•
•
Charts
Tables
Formulas
Machine Design Data Handbooks
•

•
Design Problems, Component Catalogues

Document Links or PDF’s

• Manufacturer’s Catalogues • Reading Assignments (Before and after class)

• Learn to read • Students are responsible from all of the shared material
(not only pdf of lecture slides)
• Technical drawings,
• Figures, and design data

Lectures 23 / 84
Textbook 24 / 84

Budynas, R. G., Nisbett, J. K. “Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design”,

• During lectures, 10th Ed. in SI Units, McGraw Hill, New York.
• a brief overview of the subjects will be made and

• ME 311
• further evaluation/discussion will be carried on.

It is highly recommended that

• students have a textbook (at least PDF version)

MACHINE ELEMENTS I
• Students are required to read
• the related Chapter/Sections before coming to lectures.

• Copy of the textbook will be available at the IKC Library

for short term loan.

• No PPT (PowerPoint presentations) related to the lectures will be

available in UBS

• Only pdf of lecture slides SI version vs. Imperial Units

• Tutorials

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LECTURE NOTES

Reference Books 25 / 84
Course Outline – Modules of ME 311 26 / 84

1) Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Design ①

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY 2) Materials in Design

3) Stress Analysis
4) Deflection Analysis
②

5) Static Design Criteria (Static Failures Resulting from Static Loading) ③

6) Fatigue Design Criteria (Fatigue Failures Resulting from Variable Loading)

7) Introduction to Machine Elements (Design, Selection, Computations) ④

8) Design of Shafts and Shaft Components ⑤
(Keys, Splines, Pins, Tolerances and Fits)
9) Design of Nonpermanent (Detachable) Joints (Screws, Fasteners, Rivets)
10) Design of Permanent (Nondetachable) Joints (Welding, Soldering,
Brazing etc.)
11) Design of Mechanical Springs

Objectives of the Course 27 / 84

Objectives of the Course 28 / 84

At the end of this course, students will be able to

At the end of this course, students will be able to

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
1) use the knowledge acquired in Statics, Dynamics, Strength of
Materials and Material Science and Engineering courses in
Machine Design.

2) visualize single complex machines/mechanisms with its

5) analyze and design structural joints.

DEPARTMENT
building blocks.

3) formulate and analyze stresses and strains in machine

elements and structures in 3-D subjected to various loads.
6) analyze and design power transmission shafts carrying
various elements with geometrical features.

7) analyze and design mechanical springs.

4) apply multi-dimensional static and fatigue failure criteria in 8) do tolerance analysis and specify appropriate
the analysis and design of mechanical components.
tolerances for machine design applications.

How to success 29 / 84
Course Outline – Modules of ME 311 30 / 84

1) Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Design ①

2) Materials in Design

ME 311 3) Stress Analysis

4) Deflection Analysis

5) Static Design Criteria (Static Failures Resulting from Static Loading) ③

②

6) Fatigue Design Criteria (Fatigue Failures Resulting from Variable Loading)

MACHINE ELEMENTS I
There is no failure in education, there is a learning opportunity
7) Introduction to Machine Elements (Design, Selection, Computations)

8) Design of Shafts and Shaft Components

(Keys, Splines, Pins, Tolerances and Fits)
⑤
④

9) Design of Nonpermanent (Detachable) Joints (Screws, Fasteners, Rivets)

10) Design of Permanent (Nondetachable) Joints (Welding, Soldering,
Brazing etc.)
11) Design of Mechanical Springs

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LECTURE NOTES

Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Design 31 / 84 Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Design 32 / 84

The word “engineering” derives from the Latin root ‘ingeniere’, meaning

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

Mechanical Engineering Design

Engineering
to design or to devise,
which also forms the basis of the word “ingenious.”

Mechanical Engineering At the most fundamental level,

Machine Design engineers apply their knowledge of mathematics, science, and materials

Machine Elements —as well as their skills in communications and business—

to develop new and better technologies.

Engineering Design

ME 311
Machine Elements I

Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Design 33 / 84

Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Design 34 / 84

Rather than experiment solely through trial and error, The work of an engineer differs from

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
engineers are educated

to use mathematics, scientific principles, and

that of a scientist, who would normally emphasize
the discovery of physical laws rather than apply
those phenomena to develop new products.

computer simulations as tools Engineering is essentially a bridge between scientific discovery and

DEPARTMENT
to create

faster,
product applications.

Engineering does not exist for

the sake of furthering or applying mathematics, science,
more accurate, and
and computation by themselves.
more economical

DESIGNS Engineering is a driver of social and economic growth and

an integral part of the business cycle.

Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Design 35 / 84

Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Design 36 / 84

Engineers routinely make approximate calculations

Scientist vs. Engineers to answer such questions as,

ME 311 “Will a 10 HP engine be powerful enough

to drive that air compressor?”

MACHINE ELEMENTS I or

“How many g’s of acceleration must the blade in

turbocharger withstand?”

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Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Design 37 / 84 Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Design 38 / 84

WHO ARE MECHANICAL ENGINEERS?

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

Mechanical Engineering Design

Engineering The field of mechanical engineering encompasses the properties of

Mechanical Engineering • forces,

• materials,
Machine Design • energy,
• fluids,
Machine Elements • motion,

Engineering Design as well as the application of those elements to devise products

that advance society and improve people’s lives.

Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Design 39 / 84

Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Design 40 / 84

A series of courses focus on mechanical systems,

including modeling and analyzing

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING the components of mechanical devices

(e.g., gears, springs, mechanisms).

DEPARTMENT

Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Design 41 / 84

Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Design 42 / 84

These core courses usually include the following issues:

Mechanical Engineering Design

ME 311
• Understanding the forces that act on machines and structures
during their operation, including components that move and
those that do not
Engineering

Mechanical Engineering

MACHINE ELEMENTS I
• Determining whether structural components are strong
enough to support the forces that act on them and what
materials are the most appropriate
Machine Design

Machine Elements
• Determining how machines and mechanisms will move and
the amount of force, energy, and power that is transferred Engineering Design
between them

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LECTURE NOTES

Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Design 43 / 84 Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Design 44 / 84

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

Machine Elements ? Machine ?

Machine Components

Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Design 45 / 84

Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Design 46 / 84

Definition of machine Simple Machines (Tools) Complex Machines

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
• An assemblage of parts that
transmit forces, motion, and energy one to another in
a predetermined manner

DEPARTMENT
• A technical system (such as a lever) designed
to transmit or modify
the application of power, force, or motion

Definition of machinery
• machines in general or as a functioning unit
• the working parts of a machine

Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Design 47 / 84

Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Design 48 / 84

A machine
Definition of machine as technical system
is a combination of resistant
bodies

ME 311
so arranged that by their means
the mechanical forces of nature
Franz Reuleaux
Technical tasks are performed with the help of technical artefacts that
include
can be compelled to do work

MACHINE ELEMENTS I
accompanied by
certain determinate motions
(functions)
(1829 – 1905) • plant,
• equipment,
• machines,
• assemblies and
ME 331
Mechanisms • components,
ME 332
Dynamics of Machinery listed here in approximate order of their complexity.
Kinematics of Machinery (1876)

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Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Design 49 / 84 Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Design 50 / 84

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

Technical artefacts can be treated as

systems connected to the environment

by means of inputs and outputs..

Technical artefacts can be treated as systems connected to
the environment by means of inputs and outputs..

Energy Energy’
Material Material’
Signals Signals’

Technical System

Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Design 51 / 84

Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Design 52 / 84

The analysis of technical systems

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
(plant, equipment, machine, device, assembly or component)
makes it clear that
all of them involve technical processes in which
energy, material and signals are channelled and converted.
Conversion

Transmission of
Energy

Material

DEPARTMENT Storing Signals

Energy Energy’
Material Material’
Signals Signals’
Energy Energy’
Technical System Material Material’
Signals Signals’

Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Design 53 / 84

Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Design 54 / 84

Conversion Conversion

Transmission

Storing
ME 311 of Energy Machine Transmission

Storing
of
Energy

Material

Signals
Machine

Installations

Device

MACHINE ELEMENTS I
Energy Energy’ Energy Energy’
Material Material’ Material Material’
Signals Signals’ Signals Signals’
Technical System Technical System

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Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Design 55 / 84 Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Design 56 / 84

Technical

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

Technical Inputs / Outputs
Processes System Examples
A machine is a technical system which is
Conversion Energy Machine…….. Motor, Engine
converting, transmitting and storing energy
Transmission of Material Installations… Steam
Generator to do WORK
Storing Signals Device……… Instruments
….

Energy Energy’
Material Material’
Energy Signals Signals’
Energy’
Material Material’ Technical System
Signals Signals’

Technical System

Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Design 57 / 84

Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Design 58 / 84

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
A mechanism is

a set of rigid parts that

transforms input forces and movement into
a desired set of output forces and movement.

DEPARTMENT
Mechanism ?

Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Design 59 / 84

Engine – Mechanisms - Machine 60 / 84

ME 311 Thermal
Chemical
Electrical
etc.

Engine ?

Machine ? MACHINE ELEMENTS I

Mechanisms ? Motion

Forces

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Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Design 61 / 84 Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Design 62 / 84

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

Mechanical Engineering Design

Engineering

Mechanical Engineering

Machine Design

Machine Elements

Engineering Design

Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Design 63 / 84

Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Design 64 / 84

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT

Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Design 65 / 84 Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Design 66 / 84

Mechanical Engineering Design

ME 311
Engineering

Mechanical Engineering
Design of Machinery ( Machine Design)

Design of Machine Elements

MACHINE ELEMENTS I
Machine Design

Machine Elements

Engineering Design

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Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Design 67 / 84 Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Design 68 / 84

Design of

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

• Machinery
Dessign of Machinery (Machine Design) • Machines
• Mechanical System

These are the systems or a complete machinery made up from

• Machine Design different elements (machine elements)

• Mechanical System Design Ship, bridge, crane, automobile etc. are the examples of this category

Design of these equipments or machines covers activities of

bringing elements to work

• efficiently
• effectively
• safely

together

Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Design 69 / 84

Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Design 70 / 84

Design of Machine Elements

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Design of Machinery ( Machine Design) On the other hand, deals with the design of
individual element of the machine
(rather than the whole machine itself)

Examples are the design of

DEPARTMENT
Design of Machine Elements
•
•
•
Shafts
Springs
Bolts
• Bearings
• Gears, belts, chains

These machine elements usually are brought

together to make up a machine or system

Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Design 71 / 84

Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Design 72 / 84

Design of a Machine Elements (e.g. a shaft or a gear) generally means: Design of a Machine Elements (e.g. a shaft or a gear) generally means:

ME 311
to determine a suitable to determine a suitable

• material (with required treatment) to be used • material (with required treatment) to be used
• geometry • geometry
• sizes • sizes

MACHINE ELEMENTS I
to satify the design requirements safely.

The ultimate objective of a mechanical design, of course, is

to produce a useful machine / device / installations that is
to satify the design requirements safely.

The ultimate objective of a mechanical design, of course, is

to produce a useful machine / device / installations that is

Safe Safe
Efficient Efficient
Economical Economical
Manufacturable Manufacturable

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Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Design 73 / 84 Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Design 74 / 84

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

Safe
Efficient Designer’s Milestones
Mechanical Engineering Design

Engineering

Economical Solid Design Rules Mechanical Engineering

Manufacturable
Machine Design

Machine Elements

Engineering Design

Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Design 75 / 84 Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Design 76 / 84

Design:

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING (in general terms) is to formulate a plan for

the satisfaction of a human need

Engineering Design is the process

Engineering Design ?
DEPARTMENT in which scientific principles and the tools of engineering
(mathematics, computers, graphics, materials science, and
documentation)
are used to produce a plan which can be
• fabricated,
• installed
• commissioned and
• operated
to satify a need.

Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Design 77 / 84

Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Design 78 / 84

Mechanical Engineering Design

ME 311 Engineering

Mechanical Engineering

MACHINE ELEMENTS I Machine Design

Machine Elements

Engineering Design

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Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Design 79 / 84 Course Outline 80 / 59

Mechanical (engineering) design

1) Introduction to Mechanical Eng. Design (Machine Elements)

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

is the above process as applied to
components and systems of a
mechanical nature 2) Materials in Design
(machines, products, devices, 3) Stress Analysis
instruments, mechanical structures, 4) Deflection Analysis
and materials handling systems)
5) Static Design Criteria (Static Failures Resulting from Static Loading)
Preparing plans for production of
units (such as engine, clutch,
6) Fatigue Design Criteria (Fatigue Failures Resulting from Variable Loading)
gearbox etc.) to perform certain
functions is actually a machine 7) Introduction to Machine Elements (Design, Selection, Computations)
design process.
8) Design of Shafts and Shaft Components
Selection or determination of (Keys, Splines, Pins, Tolerances and Fits)
the material, geometry and the size of 9) Design of Nonpermanent (Detachable) Joints (Screws, Fasteners, Rivets)
the smaller parts such as shafts, gears, 10) Design of Permanent (Nondetachable) Joints (Welding, Soldering,
bearings, keys and sealing elements in
Brazing etc.)
a gearbox is a machine element
design process. 11) Design of Mechanical Springs

Ch 1. Mechanical Engineering Design 81 / 59 Design … SMED (1–1) 82 / 59

 To formulate a plan for the satisfaction of a specified need

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 


Process requires innovation, iteration, and decision-making

Communication-intensive

DEPARTMENT  Products should be

◦ Functional
◦ Safe
◦ Reliable
◦ Competitive
◦ Usable
◦ Manufacturable ME 413
◦ Marketable Engineering Design

Ch 1. Mechanical Engineering Design 83 / 59 Mechanical Engineering Design … SMED (1–2) 84 / 59

 Mechanical engineering design involves

◦ all the disciplines of mechanical engineering.

ME 311  Example
◦ Journal bearing:

MACHINE ELEMENTS I 



fluid flow,
heat transfer,
friction,
energy transport,
 material selection,
 thermomechanical treatments,
 statistical descriptions, etc.

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Ch 1. Mechanical Engineering Design 85 / 59 The Design Process … SMED (1–3) 86 / 59

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

 Iterative in nature
 Requires
initial estimation,
followed by
continued refinement
ME 413
Engineering Design

Design Considerations 87 / 59 Ch 1. Mechanical Engineering Design 88 / 59

 Some characteristics that influence the design

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT
ME 413
Engineering Design

Computational Tools … SMED (1–4) 89 / 59

Acquiring Technical Information 90 / 59

 Computer-Aided Engineering (CAE)  Libraries

◦ Engineering handbooks, textbooks, journals, patents, etc.
◦ Any use of the computer and software to aid in the engineering process

◦ Includes
ME 311
 Computer-Aided Design (CAD)
 Drafting, 3-D solid modeling, etc.
ME 413
Engineering Design
 Government sources
◦ Government agencies, U.S. Patent and Trademark,
National Institute for Standards and Technology (NIST), etc.

MACHINE ELEMENTS I
 Professional Societies (conferences, publications, etc.)
 Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM) ◦ American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME),
Society of Manufacturing Engineers (SME),
 CNC toolpath, rapid prototyping, etc.
Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), etc.

 Engineering analysis and simulation  Commercial vendors

 Finite element, fluid flow, dynamic analysis, motion, etc. ◦ Catalogs, technical literature, test data, etc.

 Math solvers  Internet

 Spreadsheet, procedural programming language, equation solver, etc. Access to much of the above information ME 413
Engineering Design

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LECTURE NOTES

A Few Useful Internet Sites 91 / 59 Ch 1. Mechanical Engineering Design 92 / 59

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY




www.globalspec.com

www.engnetglobal.com

 www.efunda.com

 www.thomasnet.com

 www.uspto.gov

The Design Engineer’s Professional Responsibilities .. SMED (1–5) 93 / 59 The Design Engineer’s Professional Responsibilities .. SMED (1–5) 94 / 59

 Satisfy the needs of the customer in a  Some key advise for a professional engineer

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
 competent,

 responsible,
◦ Be competent

◦ Keep current in field of practice

DEPARTMENT
 ethical, and

 professional manner.
◦ Keep good documentation

◦ Ensure good and timely communication

◦ Act professionally and ethically

Ethical Guidelines for Professional Practice 95 / 59

Ethical Guidelines for Professional Practice 96 / 59

 Six Fundamental Canons

 The design engineer’s professional obligations include
conducting activities in an ethical manner.

ME 311
Engineers, in the fulfillment of their professional duties, shall:

 National Society of Professional Engineers (NSPE) publishes 1. Hold paramount the safety, health, and welfare of the public.
a Code of Ethics for Engineers

MACHINE ELEMENTS I
2. Perform services only in areas of their competence.
◦ https://www.nspe.org/resources/ethics/code-ethics
3. Issue public statements only in an objective and truthful manner.

◦ https://www.nspe.org/sites/default/files/resources/pdfs/Ethics/ 4. Act for each employer or client as faithful agents or trustees.

CodeofEthics/NSPECodeofEthicsforEngineers.pdf
5. Avoid deceptive acts.

6. Conduct themselves honorably, responsibly, ethically, and lawfully so

as to enhance the honor, reputation, and usefulness of the profession.

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Ch 1. Mechanical Engineering Design 97 / 59

Standards and Codes … SMED (1–6) 98 / 59

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

 Standard

◦ A set of specifications
for parts, materials, or processes

◦ Intended to achieve
 uniformity, efficiency, and a specified quality

◦ Limits the multitude of variations

ME 413
Engineering Design

Standards and Codes … SMED (1–6) 99 / 59

Standards and Codes … SMED (1–6) 100 / 59

 Code  Some organizations that establish standards and codes of particular

interest to mechanical engineers:

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
◦ A set of specifications for
the analysis, design, manufacture, and construction of something

◦ To achieve a specified degree of

DEPARTMENTsafety, efficiency, and performance or quality

◦ Does not imply absolute safety

 Various organizations establish and publish standards and codes for common
and/or critical industries

ME 413 ME 413
Engineering Design Engineering Design

Standards and Codes … SMED (1–6) 101 / 59 Ch 1. Mechanical Engineering Design 102 / 59

 Some organizations that establish standards and codes of particular

interest to mechanical engineers:

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I
ME 413
Engineering Design

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LECTURE NOTES

Economics … SMED (1–7) 103 / 59

Typical Preferred Sizes 104 / 59

Cost is almost always an important factor in engineering design.

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY



 Use of standard sizes is a first principle of cost reduction.

 Table A–17 lists some typical preferred sizes.

 Certain common components may be less expensive

in stocked sizes.

Cost ME 413
Engineering Engineering Design

Ch 1. Mechanical Engineering Design 105 / 59

Safety and Product Liability … SMED (1–7) 106 / 59

 When doctors (physicians) make

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING mistakes, usually one person

dies, and when engineers make
mistakes, thousands can die.

DEPARTMENT  Doctors’ errors are buried,

but engineers' faults are never
buried»

Course Outline 107 / 59 Ch 1. Mechanical Engineering Design 108 / 59

1) Introduction to Mechanical Eng. Design (Machine Elements)

2) Materials in Design
3) Stress Analysis
4) Deflection AnalysisME 311
5) Static Design Criteria (Static Failures Resulting from Static Loading)

MACHINE ELEMENTS I
6) Fatigue Design Criteria (Fatigue Failures Resulting from Variable Loading)

7) Introduction to Machine Elements (Design, Selection, Computations)

8) Design of Shafts and Shaft Components

(Keys, Splines, Pins, Tolerances and Fits)
9) Design of Nonpermanent (Detachable) Joints (Screws, Fasteners, Rivets)
10) Design of Permanent (Nondetachable) Joints (Welding, Soldering,
Brazing etc.)
11) Design of Mechanical Springs

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LECTURE NOTES

Mechanical Engineering Design 109 / 59 Ch 1. Mechanical Engineering Design 110 / 59

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

ME 261, ME 262
Strength of Materials

Stress and Strength 111 / 59

Stress and Strength 112 / 59

 Strength (S )
 The survival of many products depends on

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
how the designer adjusts
the maximum stresses in a component
to be less than the component’s strength
◦ An inherent property of a material or of a mechanical
element
◦ Depends on treatment and processing

DEPARTMENT
at critical locations. ◦ May or may not be uniform throughout the part
◦ Examples: Ultimate strength (UTS, Sut) , yield strength (Sy)
 The designer must allow
the maximum stress  Stress (σ)
to be less than the strength
by a sufficient margin ◦ A state property at a specific point within a body
so that despite the uncertainties, failure is rare. ◦ Primarily a function of load and geometry
◦ Sometimes also a function of temperature and processing

Ch 1. Mechanical Engineering Design 113 / 59

Uncertainty 114 / 59

 Common sources of uncertainty in stress or strength

ME 311 • Composition of material and the effect of variation on properties

• Variations in properties from place to place within a bar of stock

MACHINE ELEMENTS I
• Effect of processing locally, or nearby, on properties.
• Effect of nearby assemblies
...(such as weldments and shrink fits on stress conditions.
• Effect of thermomechanical treatment on properties.
• Intensity and distribution of loading.

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LECTURE NOTES

Uncertainty 115 / 59
Uncertainty 116 / 59

 Common sources of uncertainty in stress or strength

 Engineers must accommodate uncertainty.

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

• Validity of mathematical models used to represent reality.  Uncertainty always accompanies change.

• Intensity of stress concentrations. ◦ Some concerns to (mechanical) designers:

• Influence of time on strength and geometry.
 material properties,
• Effect of corrosion.  load variability,
 fabrication fidelity,
• Effect of wear.
 validity of mathematical models.
• Uncertainty as to the length of any list of uncertainties.

Uncertainty 117 / 59
Stochastic Method – Probability Reliability 118 / 59

There are mathematical methods to address uncertainties.  Stochastic method

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
The primary techniques ◦ Based on statistical nature of the design parameters

DEPARTMENT
 Stochastic method
Statistics
(Probability & Reliability)
◦ Focus on the probability of survival of the design’s
function (reliability)

◦ Often limited by availability of statistical data

 Deterministic method Design Factor

Ch 1. Mechanical Engineering Design 119 / 59

Deterministic method – Design factor 120 / 59

ME 311 ◦ Establishes a design factor (nd )

◦ Based on absolute uncertainties of a loss-of-function parameter

MACHINE ELEMENTS I
and a maximum allowable parameter (load, stress, deflection)

ME 312
Machine Elements

ME 413 ◦ If, for example, the parameter is load, then

Engineering Design

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Parameters ? 121 / 59
Example 1–1 122 / 59

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

σ

load, stress, deflection

Ch 1. Mechanical Engineering Design 123 / 59

Design Factor & Factor of Safety - Design Factor Method 124 / 59

 Often used when statistical data is not available

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING  Since stress may not vary linearly with load,
it is more common to express the design factor (nd )
in terms of strength ( S ) and stress (σ, ).

DEPARTMENT
 All loss-of-function modes must be analyzed, and
the mode with the smallest design factor governs.

Design Factor and Factor of Safety - Design Factor Method 125 / 59

Example 1–2 126 / 59

 Strength (S) and stress (σ, ) terms must be of


ME 311
the same type and units.

Strength (S) and stress (σ, ) must apply to

Solution

MACHINE ELEMENTS I
the same critical location in the part.

Answer
 The factor of safety (n) is the realized design factor of the final design,
including rounding up to standard size or available components.

(geometry selection or component selection)

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Example 1–2 127 / 59 Example 1–3 128 / 59

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

Solution

Example 1–3 (continued) 129 / 59

Example 1–3 (continued) 130 / 59

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT Answer

Example 1–3 (continued) 131 / 59 Ch 1. Mechanical Engineering Design 132 / 59

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I ME 312
Machine Elements

ME 413
Engineering Design

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Ch 1. Mechanical Engineering Design 133 / 59

Course Outline 134 / 59

1) Introduction to Mechanical Eng. Design (Machine Elements)

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY 2) Materials in Design

3) Stress Analysis
4) Deflection Analysis

5) Static Design Criteria (Static Failures Resulting from Static Loading)

6) Fatigue Design Criteria (Fatigue Failures Resulting from Variable Loading)

7) Introduction to Machine Elements (Design, Selection, Computations)

8) Design of Shafts and Shaft Components

(Keys, Splines, Pins, Tolerances and Fits)
9) Design of Nonpermanent (Detachable) Joints (Screws, Fasteners, Rivets)
10) Design of Permanent (Nondetachable) Joints (Welding, Soldering,
Brazing etc.)
11) Design of Mechanical Springs

Ch 1. Mechanical Engineering Design 135 / 59

Course Outline 136 / 233

1) Introduction to Mechanical Eng. Design (Machine Elements)

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 2) Materials in Design

3) Stress Analysis
4) Deflection Analysis

DEPARTMENT 5) Static Design Criteria (Static Failures Resulting from Static Loading)
6) Fatigue Design Criteria (Fatigue Failures Resulting from Variable Loading)

7) Introduction to Machine Elements (Design, Selection, Computations)

8) Design of Shafts and Shaft Components

(Keys, Splines, Pins, Tolerances and Fits)
9) Design of Nonpermanent (Detachable) Joints (Screws, Fasteners, Rivets)
10) Design of Permanent (Nondetachable) Joints (Welding, Soldering,
Brazing etc.)
11) Design of Mechanical Springs

Chapter Outline 137 / 233

2-1 Material Strength and Stiffness - Standard Tensile Test 138 / 233

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I 


Used to obtain material characteristics and strengths

Loaded in tension with slowly increasing P

 Load and deflection are recorded

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Stress and Strain 139 / 233

Stress-Strain Diagram 140 / 233

The stress is calculated from  Plot stress vs. normal strain

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

where is the original cross-sectional area.



Typically linear relation until
the proportional limit, pl

No permanent deformation until

Ductile
material
the elastic limit, el

The normal strain is calculated from  Yield strength, Sy , defined at point

where significant plastic
deformation begins, or where
permanent set reaches a fixed
amount, usually 0.2% of the
where original gauge length Brittle
l0 is the original gauge length and material
l is the current length corresponding to the current P.  Ultimate strength, Su , defined as
the maximum stress on the diagram
Fig. 2–2

Elastic Relationship of Stress and Strain (Hooke’s law) 141 / 233 142 / 233

 Slope of linear section is

Young’s Modulus, or modulus of elasticity, E

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT  E is relatively constant for a
given type of material
(e.g. steel, copper, aluminum)
(a measure of stiffness)

 See Table A–5 for typical values

 Usually independent of heat

treatment, carbon content, or
alloying
Fig. 2–2 (a)

True Stress-Strain Diagram 143 / 233

Compression Strength 144 / 233

 Engineering stress-strain diagrams

(commonly used) are based on original area.
 Compression tests are used to obtain compressive strengths.

ME 311
Area typically reduces under load,
particularly during “necking” after point u.

Engineeringstress-strain



Buckling and bulging can be problematic.

For ductile materials,

 True stress is based on actual area compressive strengths Suc , are usually about the same as tensile strengths, Sut


MACHINE ELEMENTS I
corresponding to current P.

True strain is the sum of the incremental

elongations divided by the current gauge
length at load P. 
Suc = Sut

For brittle materials,

compressive strengths, Suc , are often greater than tensile strengths, Sut

Suc > Sut

 Note that true stress continually increases
all the way to fracture.
True Stress-strain

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Torsional Strengths 145 / 233

Torsional Strengths (Ss) 146 / 233

 Torsional strengths are found by twisting solid circular bars.  Maximum shear stress is related to the angle of twist by

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY




Results are plotted as a torque-twist diagram.

Shear stresses in the specimen are linear w.r.t. the radial location – zero at
the center and maximum at the outer radius.

 is the angle of twist (in radians)

r is the radius of the bar
l0 is the gauge length
G is the material stiffness property called
the shear modulus or modulus of rigidity.

Torsional Strengths (Ss) 147 / 233

Resilience & Modulus of resilience 148 / 233

 Maximum shear stress is related to the applied torque by

 Resilience

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
◦ J is the polar second moment of area of the cross section

◦ For round cross section,


◦ Capacity of a material to absorb
energy within its elastic range

Modulus of resilience, (uR )



DEPARTMENT
Torsional yield strength, Ssy
◦ corresponds to the maximum shear stress
◦ at the point where the torque-twist diagram
◦ becomes significantly non-linear
◦ Energy absorbed per unit volume
without permanent deformation

◦ Equals the area under the stress-

 Modulus of rupture, Ssu corresponds to the torque Tu strain curve up to the elastic limit
 at the maximum point on the torque-twist diagram

◦ Elastic limit often approximated by

yield point

Resilience 149 / 233

Toughness 150 / 233

 Area under curve to yield point gives approximation  Toughness

◦ capacity of a material to absorb energy


ME 311
If elastic region is linear, 
without fracture

Modulus of toughness, (uT )

MACHINE ELEMENTS I ◦ Energy absorbed per unit volume

without fracture

◦ Equals area under the stress-strain

curve up to the fracture point

 For two materials with the same yield strength,

the less stiff material (lower E) has greater resilience

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Toughness 151 / 233

Resilience and Toughness 152 / 233

 Area under curve up to fracture point

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

 Measures of energy absorbing characteristics of a material

 Units are energy per unit volume

 Often estimated graphically from stress-strain data
◦ [J/m3 ] or [lbf·in/in3]
 Approximated by using
the average of yield and ultimate strengths
 Assumes low strain rates
and the strain at fracture

 For higher strain rates, use impact methods (See Sec. 2–5)

Strengths from Tables 153 / 233

Chapter Outline 154 / 233

 Property tables often only report a single value for a strength term

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
 Important to check
◦ if it is mean, minimum, or some percentile
Statistics

DEPARTMENT
Common to use 99% minimum strength,
◦ indicating 99% of the samples exceed the reported value

Chapter Outline 155 / 233

Cold Work 156 / 233

 Cold work –
◦ Process of plastic straining below

ME 311 recrystallization temperature

in the plastic region of the stress-strain
diagram
Fig. 2–6 (a)

MACHINE ELEMENTS I  Loading to point i beyond the yield point,

then unloading, causes
permanent plastic deformation, ϵp

 Reloading to point i behaves elastically all

the way to i, with additional elastic strain, ϵe

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Cold Work 157 / 233

Reduction in Area 158 / 233

 The yield point is effectively increased to  Plot load P vs. Area Reduction

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY


point i

Material is said to have been

cold worked, or strain hardened
 Reduction in area
◦ corresponding to load Pf at fracture is

 Material is less ductile (more brittle)

since the plastic zone between yield
strength and ultimate strength is reduced
 R is a measure of ductility
Fig. 2–6 (a) Fig. 2–6 (b)
 Repeated strain hardening can lead to
brittle failure
 Ductility represents the ability of a material
◦ to absorb overloads and
◦ to be cold-worked

Chapter Outline 159 / 233

Hardness 160 / 233

 Hardness –
◦ The resistance of a material to penetration by a pointed tool

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING  Two most common hardness-measuring systems

DEPARTMENT
◦ Rockwell
 A, B, and C scales
 Specified indenters and loads for each scale
 Hardness numbers are relative

◦ Brinell
 Hardness number (HB ) is the applied load divided by the spherical
surface area of the indentation

Hardness 161 / 233

Strength (Su ) and Hardness (HB) 162 / 233

 For many materials,

◦ relationship between ultimate strength (Su ) and

ME 311 
Brinell hardness number (HB) is roughly linear

For steels

MACHINE ELEMENTS I  For cast iron

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Strength (Su ) and Hardness (HB) 163 / 233

Example 2–3 164 / 233

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

Chapter Outline 165 / 233

Impact Properties 166 / 233

 Charpy notched-bar test used to

determine brittleness and impact

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 
strength

Specimen struck by pendulum

DEPARTMENT  Energy absorbed, called impact value,

is computed from height of swing after
fracture

Chapter Outline 167 / 233

Effect of Temperature on Impact 168 / 233

 Some materials experience a sharp transition from ductile to brittle

at a certain temperature

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I
Fig. 2–7

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Effect of Strain Rate on Impact 169 / 233

Temperature Effects on Strengths 170 / 233

 Average strain rate for

 Plot of strength vs. temperature

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

stress-strain diagram is
0.025 mm/ (mm.s) for carbon and alloy steels

 Increasing strain rate  As temperature increases above

strengths (?) room temperature (RT)

 Due to yield strength ◦ Sut increase slightly, then

approaching ultimate decreases significantly
strength,
◦ a mild steel could be
expected to behave ◦ Sy decreases continuously
T
elastically through
practically its entire Fig. 2–9
◦ Results in increased ductility
strength range under
impact conditions

Fig. 2–8

Creep 171 / 233

Chapter Outline 172 / 233

 A continuous deformation under load

for long periods of time at elevated

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
temperatures
 Often exhibits three stages:

◦ 1st stage:

DEPARTMENT elastic and plastic

deformation; decreasing creep
rate due to strain hardening
Fig. 2–10

◦ 2nd stage: 3rd stage:

constant minimum creep rate
caused by the annealing effect • considerable reduction in
area; increased true stress;
• higher creep rate leading to
fracture

Material Numbering Systems 173 / 233

UNS Numbering System 174 / 233

 Common numbering systems  UNS system established by SAE in 1975

ME 311
◦ Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)

◦ American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI)




Letter prefix followed by 5 digit number

Letter prefix designates material class

MACHINE ELEMENTS I
◦ Unified Numbering System (UNS)

◦ American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) for cast

◦ G – carbon and alloy steel

◦ A – Aluminum alloy
G52986

irons ◦ C – Copper-based alloy

◦ S – Stainless or corrosion-resistant steel

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UNS for Steels 175 / 233

UNS for Aluminums 176 / 233

 For steel, letter prefix is S  For aluminums, letter prefix is A

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

 First two numbers indicate composition, excluding carbon content  First number indicates processing
 Second number indicates the main alloy group
 Third number is used to modify the original alloy or to designate the
impurity limits
 Last two numbers refer to other alloys used with the basic group

 Second pair of numbers indicates carbon content in hundredths of

a percent by weight
 Fifth number is used for special situations
 Example: G52986 is chromium alloy with 0.98% carbon

177 / 233
Chapter Outline 178 / 233

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT
Manufacturing Processes ME 221 & ME 222
Material Science &
Engineering

ME 361 & ME 362

Manufacuring
Engineering

Chapter Outline 179 / 233

Chapter Outline 180 / 233

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I
ME 221 & ME 222
Material Science &
Engineering

ME 361 & ME 362

Manufacuring
Engineering

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Some Casting Processes 181 / 233

Chapter Outline 182 / 233

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY




Sand Casting

Shell Molding
ME 361 & ME 362
Manufacuring
 Investment Casting Engineering

 Powder-Metallurgy Process

Hot-working Processes 183 / 233

Chapter Outline 184 / 233

 Process in which metal is formed while heated above recrystallization

temperature

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING



Refined grain size
Rough surface finish
Rolling, forging, extrusion, pressing
 Common bar cross-sections from hot-rolling

DEPARTMENT
Fig. 2–11

ME 361 & ME 362

Manufacuring
Engineering

Cold-working Processes 185 / 233

Chapter Outline 186 / 233

 Forming of metal without elevating

temperature


strength
ME 311
Strain hardens, resulting in increase in yield

Increases hardness and ultimate strength,


MACHINE ELEMENTS I
Decreases ductility

Produces bright, smooth, reasonably

accurate finish

 Cold-rolling used to produce wide flats and Fig. 2–12

sheets

 Cold-drawing draws a hot-rolled bar through

a smaller die

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Heat Treatment of Steel 187 / 233

Heat Treatment of Steel 188 / 233

 Time and temperature controlled processes that  Tempering

ME 221 & ME 222

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY


◦ modifies material properties

Annealing
Material Science &
Engineering

◦ Heated above critical temperature, held, then slowly cooled

◦ Reheat after quenching to a temperature below the critical temperature
◦ Relieves internal stresses
◦ Increases ductility, slight reduction in strength and hardness
◦ Refines grain structure, softens, increases ductility
◦ Erases memory of prior operations
◦ Normalizing provides partial annealing by adjusting time and
temperature

 Quenching
◦ Controlled cooling rate prevents full annealing
◦ Less pearlite, more martensite and/or bainite
◦ Increased strength, hardness, brittleness

Effects of Heat Treating 189 / 233

Case Hardening 190 / 233

 Process to increase hardness on outer surface,

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 
◦ while retaining ductility and toughness in the core

Addition of carbon to outer surface

◦ by exposure to high carbon solid, liquid, or gas at elevated

DEPARTMENT
temperature

 Can also achieve case hardening by heat treating only the outer surface,
e.g. induction hardening or flame hardening

Chapter Outline 191 / 233

Alloy Steels 192 / 233

 Chromium

ME 311 


Nickel

Manganese

Silicon

MACHINE ELEMENTS I 


Molybdenum

Vanadium

Tungsten

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193 / 233 194 / 233

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

Chapter Outline 195 / 233

Corrosion-Resistant Steels 196 / 233

 Stainless steels

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING ◦ Iron-base alloys with at least 12 % chromium

◦ Resists many corrosive conditions

DEPARTMENT  Four types of stainless steels

◦ Ferritic chromium
◦ Austenitic chromium-nickel
◦ Martensitic
◦ Precipitation-hardenable

Chapter Outline 197 / 233

Casting Materials 198 / 233

 Gray Cast Iron

ME 311 


Ductile and Nodular Cast Iron

White Cast Iron

ME 221 & ME 222
Material Science &
Engineering

MACHINE ELEMENTS I 


Malleable Cast Iron

Alloy Cast Iron

ME 361 & ME 362
Manufacuring
Engineering

 Cast Steel

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Chapter Outline 199 / 233

Nonferrous Metals 200 / 233

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY 


Aluminum

Magnesium
ME 221 & ME 222
Material Science &
Engineering

 Titanium

 Copper-based alloys

Nonferrous Metals ME 221 & ME 222

201 / 233
Chapter Outline 202 / 233

Material Science &

 Copper-based alloys
Engineering

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
◦ Brass with 5 to 15 percent zinc
 Gilding brass, commercial bronze, red brass

◦ Brass with 20 to 36 percent zinc

 Low brass, cartridge brass, yellow brass

DEPARTMENT
 Low-leaded brass, high-leaded brass (engraver’s brass), free-cutting brass
 Admiralty metal (an alloy of not less than 70 percent copper, about 1
percent tin,
small amounts of other elements, and the balance zinc; tin brass)
 Aluminum brass

◦ Brass with 36 to 40 percent zinc

 Muntz metal (yellow metal) is an alpha-beta brass alloy composed of
approximately 60% copper, 40% zinc and a trace of iron)
 Naval brass

◦ Bronze
 Silicon bronze, phosphor bronze, aluminum bronze, beryllium bronze

Plastics 203 / 233

Thermoplastic Properties (Table 2–2) 204 / 233

 Thermoplastic – any plastic that flows or is moldable


ME 311
◦ when heat is applied

Thermoset – a plastic for which the polymerization process is

finished in a hot molding press where the plastic is liquefied

MACHINE ELEMENTS I
under pressure

Source: These data have been obtained from the Machine Design Materials Reference Issue, published by Penton/IPC,
Cleveland. These reference issues are published about every 2 years and constitute an excellent source of data on a great variety of materials.

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Thermoset Properties (Table 2–3) 205 / 233

Chapter Outline 206 / 233

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

Source: These data have been obtained from the Machine Design Materials Reference Issue, published by Penton/IPC,
Cleveland. These reference issues are published about every 2 years and constitute an excellent source of data on a great variety of materials.

Composite Materials 207 / 233

Chapter Outline 208 / 233

 Formed from two or more dissimilar materials,

◦ each of which contributes to the final properties

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING



Materials remain distinct from each other at the macroscopic level

Usually amorphous and non-isotropic

DEPARTMENT
 Often consists of
◦ laminates of filler to provide stiffness and strength and
◦ a matrix to hold the material together

 Common filler types:

ME 413
Engineering Design

Material Families and Classes (Table 2–4) 209 / 233

Material Families and Classes (Table 2–4) 210 / 233

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I

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Material Families and Classes (Table 2–4) 211 / 233

Material Families and Classes (Table 2–4) 212 / 233

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

From M. F. Ashby, Materials Selection in Mechanical Design, 3rd ed., Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann,
Oxford, 2005. Table 4–1, pp. 49–50.

Material Families and Classes (Table 2–4) 213 / 233

Young’s Modulus for Various Materials 214 / 233

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT
Fig. 2–15

Young’s Modulus vs. Density 215 / 233

Specific Modulus 216 / 233

 Specific Modulus – ratio

of Young’s modulus to density,

ME 311 
E/

Also called specific stiffness

MACHINE ELEMENTS I  Useful to minimize weight

with primary design limitation
of deflection, stiffness, or
natural frequency Fig. 2–16
Figure courtesy of Prof. Mike Ashby, Granta Design, Cambridge, U.K.

 Parallel lines representing

different values of E /  allow
comparison of specific
modulus between materials
Fig. 2–16

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Strength vs. Density 217 / 233

Specific Strength 218 / 233

 Specific Strength – ratio of

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY 

strength to density, S / 

Useful to minimize weight with

primary design limitation of
strength

 Parallel lines representing

different values of S /  allow
comparison of specific strength
between materials

Figure courtesy of

Fig. 2–19 Prof. Mike Ashby,

Granta Design,
Cambridge, U.K.

Figure courtesy of Prof. Mike

Fig. 2–19 Ashby, Granta Design,
Cambridge, U.K.

ME 311 Machine Elements I - Course Outline 219 / 233

Ch 3 Load and Stress Analysis 220 / 233

1) Introduction to Mechanical Eng. Design (Machine Elements)

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
2) Materials in Design
3) Stress Analysis
4) Deflection Analysis
ME 261
Strength of Materials I

ME 262
Strength of Materials II

DEPARTMENT
5) Static Design Criteria (Static Failures Resulting from Static Loading)
6) Fatigue Design Criteria (Fatigue Failures Resulting from Variable Loading)

7) Introduction to Machine Elements (Design, Selection, Computations)

8) Design of Shafts and Shaft Components

(Keys, Splines, Pins, Tolerances and Fits)
9) Design of Nonpermanent (Detachable) Joints (Screws, Fasteners, Rivets)
10) Design of Permanent (Nondetachable) Joints (Welding, Soldering,
Brazing etc.)
11) Design of Mechanical Springs

Ch 4 Deflection and Stiffness 221 / 233

Ch 3 Load and Stress Analysis 222 / 233

ME 311 ME 261
Strength of Materials I

ME 262
Strength of Materials II

MACHINE ELEMENTS I

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Free-Body Diagram Example 3–1 223 / 233

Equilibrium 224 / 233

 A system that is motionless, or has constant velocity, is in

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY 

equilibrium.
The sum of all force vectors and the sum of all moment vectors
acting on a system in equilibrium is zero.

Free-Body Diagram Example 3–1 225 / 233

Free-Body Diagram Example 3–1 226 / 233

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT
Fig. 3–1

Free-Body Diagram Example 3–1 227 / 233

Free-Body Diagram Example 3–1 228 / 233

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I

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Ch 3 Load and Stress Analysis 229 / 233

Shear Force and Bending Moments in Beams 230 / 233

 Cut beam at any location x1

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY  Internal shear force V and bending moment M must ensure
equilibrium

Fig. 3−2

Sign Conventions for Bending and Shear 231 / 233

Distributed Load on Beam 232 / 233

 Distributed load q(x) called load intensity

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
 Units of force per unit length

DEPARTMENT
Fig. 3–4

Fig. 3–3

Relationships between Load, Shear, and Bending 233 / 233

Shear-Moment Diagrams 234 / 233

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I
 The change in shear force from A to B is equal to the area of the
loading diagram between xA and xB.
 The change in moment from A to B is equal to the area of the
shear-force diagram between xA and xB.
Fig. 3–5

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Moment Diagrams – Two Planes 235 / 233

Combining Moments from Two Planes 236 / 233

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

 Add moments from two
planes as perpendicular
vectors


Fig. 3–24
Fig. 3–24

Ch 3 Load and Stress Analysis 237 / 233

Ch 3 Load and Stress Analysis 238 / 233

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT

Stress 239 / 233

Stress element 240 / 233

 Normal stress is normal to a surface, designated by 


ME 311
Tangential shear stress is tangent to a surface, designated by 

Normal stress acting outward on surface is tensile stress


MACHINE ELEMENTS I
Normal stress acting inward on surface is compressive stress

U.S. Customary units of stress are pounds per square inch (psi)  Represents stress at a point
 Coordinate directions are arbitrary
 SI units of stress are newtons per square meter (N/m2)
 Choosing coordinates which result in zero shear stress will
produce principal stresses
 1 N/m2 = 1 pascal (Pa)

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Ch 3 Load and Stress Analysis 241 / 233

Cartesian Stress Components 242 / 233

 Defined by three mutually orthogonal surfaces at a point

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY 


within a body
Each surface can have normal and shear stress
Shear stress is often resolved into perpendicular components
 First subscript indicates direction of surface normal
 Second subscript indicates direction of shear stress
12

Fig. 3−8 (a) Fig. 3−7

Cartesian Stress Components 243 / 233

Ch 3 Load and Stress Analysis 244 / 233

 In most cases, “cross shears” are equal

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
 Plane stress occurs when stresses on one surface are zero

DEPARTMENT
Fig. 3−8

Mohr’s Circle for Plane Stress

Plane-Stress Transformation Equations
245 / 233
Principal Stresses for Plane Stress 246 / 233

 Cutting plane stress element at an arbitrary angle and balancing  Differentiating Eq. (3–8) with respect to  and setting equal to zero
maximizes  and gives
stresses gives plane-stress transformation equations

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I  The two values of 2pare the principal directions.

Fig. 3−9

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Principal Stresses for Plane Stress 247 / 233

Extreme-value Shear Stresses for Plane Stress 248 / 233

 The principal direction surfaces have zero shear stresses.  Performing similar procedure with shear stress in Eq. (3–9),

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

 Substituting Eq. (3–10) into Eq. (3–8) gives expression for the non-zero
principal stresses.

the maximum shear stresses are found to be on surfaces that are ± 45º
from the principal directions.

The two extreme-value shear stresses are

 Note that there is a third principal stress, equal to zero for plane stress.

Maximum Shear Stress 249 / 233

Maximum Shear Stress 250 / 233

 There are always three principal stresses. One is zero for plane stress.

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING  There are always three extreme-value shear stresses.

DEPARTMENT 


The maximum shear stress is always the greatest of these three.

Eq. (3–14) will not give the maximum shear stress in cases
where there are two non-zero principal stresses that are both positive or
both negative.

 If principal stresses are ordered so that 1 > 2 > 3

then
 max = 1/3

Mohr’s Circle Diagram 251 / 233

Mohr’s Circle Diagram 252 / 233

 A graphical method for visualizing the stress state at a point


ME 311
Represents relation between x-y stresses and principal stresses

Parametric relationship between  and  (with 2 as parameter)

MACHINE ELEMENTS I
Relationship is a circle with center at

and radius of
C = (, ) = [(x + y)/2, 0 ]

Fig. 3−10

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Example 3–4 253 / 233

Example 3–4 (continued) 254 / 233

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

Fig. 3−11

Example 3–4 (continued) 255 / 233

Example 3–4 (continued) 256 / 233

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT
Fig. 3−11 Fig. 3−11

Example 3–4 (continued) 257 / 233

Example 3–4 (continued) 258 / 233

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I
Fig. 3−11(d)

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Example 3–4 (continued) 259 / 233

Example 3–4 Summary 260 / 233

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

x-y
orientation

Principal stress
orientation

Max shear
orientation

Ch 3 Load and Stress Analysis 261 / 233

General Three-Dimensional Stress (σ3 0) 262 / 233

 All stress elements are actually 3-D. σ1, σ2 , σ3

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 

Plane stress elements simply have one surface with zero stresses.
For cases where there is no stress-free surface,
◦ the principal stresses are found from the roots of the cubic equation

DEPARTMENT σ1, σ2 , σ3

Fig. 3−12

General Three-Dimensional Stress 263 / 233

Ch 3 Load and Stress Analysis 264 / 233

 Always three extreme shear values


ME 311
Maximum Shear Stress is the largest
 Principal stresses are usually ordered such that 1 > 2 > 3,
in which case max = 1/3

MACHINE ELEMENTS I
Fig. 3−12

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Elastic Strain 265 / 233 266 / 233

 Hooke’s law

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

 E is Young’s modulus, or modulus of elasticity
 Tension in on direction produces negative strain (contraction) in a
perpendicular direction.

 For axial stress in x direction,

 The constant of proportionality is Poisson’s ratio

 See Table A–5 for values for common materials.

Elastic Strain 267 / 233

Elastic Strain 268 / 233

 For a stress element undergoing x, y, and z, simultaneously,  Hooke’s law for shear:

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING  Shear strain  is the change in a right angle of a stress element
when subjected to pure shear stress.

DEPARTMENT 


G is the shear modulus of elasticity or modulus of rigidity.

For a linear, isotropic, homogeneous material,

Ch 3 Load and Stress Analysis 269 / 233

Uniformly Distributed Stresses 270 / 233

 Uniformly distributed stress distribution is often assumed for

pure tension, pure compression, or pure shear.

ME 311  For tension and compression,

MACHINE ELEMENTS I  For direct shear (no bending present),

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Ch 3 Load and Stress Analysis 271 / 233

Normal Stresses for Beams in Bending 272 / 233

 Straight beam in positive bending

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY 


x axis is neutral axis

xz plane is neutral plane

 Neutral axis is coincident with the

Fig. 3−13
centroidal axis of the cross section

Normal Stresses for Beams in Bending (Flexure formula.) 273 / 233

Normal Stresses for Beams in Bending (Flexure formula.) 274 / 233

 Bending stress varies linearly with distance from neutral axis, y  Maximum bending stress is where y is greatest.

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
 I is the second-area moment about the z axis

DEPARTMENT 


c is the magnitude of the greatest y

Z = I/c is the section modulus

Fig. 3−14

Section Modulus (Z) 275 / 233

Section Modulus (Z) 276 / 233

 Section modulus
◦ a geometric property for a given cross-section used in


ME 311
◦ the design of beams or flexural members.

Other geometric properties used in design include

◦ area for tension and shear,

MACHINE ELEMENTS I
◦ radius of gyration for compression, and
◦ moment of inertia and polar moment of inertia for stiffness.

 Any relationship between these properties is highly dependent on the

shape in question.

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Assumptions for Normal Bending Stress 277 / 233

Example 3–5 278 / 233

 Pure bending (though effects of axial, torsional, and shear loads are

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

often assumed to have minimal effect on bending stress)

 Material is isotropic and homogeneous

 Material obeys Hooke’s law

 Beam is initially straight with constant cross section

 Beam has axis of symmetry in the plane of bending

 Proportions are such that failure is by bending rather than crushing,

wrinkling, or sidewise buckling
Fig. 3−15
Dimensions in mm
 Plane cross sections remain plane during bending

Example 3–5 (continued) 279 / 233

Example 3–5 (continued) 280 / 233

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT

Example 3–5 (continued) 281 / 233

Example 3–5 (continued) 282 / 233

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I

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Normal Stresses for Beams in Bending

Two-Plane Bending
283 / 233
Example 3–6 284 / 233

 Consider bending in both xy and xz planes

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

 Cross sections with one or two planes of symmetry only

 For solid circular cross section, the maximum bending stress is

Fig. 3−16

Example 3–6 (continued) 285 / 233

Example 3–6 (continued) 286 / 233

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT
Fig. 3−16

Example 3–6 (continued) 287 / 233

Ch 3 Load and Stress Analysis 288 / 233

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I

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3.11 Shear Stresses for Beams in Bending 289 / 233 3.11 Shear Stresses for Beams in Bending 290 / 233

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

Fig. 3−17

Transverse Shear Stress 291 / 233 Shear Formula 292 / 233

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Fig. 3−18

DEPARTMENT
 Transverse shear stress is always accompanied with bending stress.

Transverse Shear Stress in a Rectangular Beam 293 / 233 Transverse Shear Stress in a Rectangular Beam 294 / 233

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I

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Maximum Values of Transverse Shear Stress 295 / 233

Significance of Transverse Shear Compared to Bending 296 / 233

 Example: Cantilever beam, rectangular cross section

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY  Maximum shear stress, including

bending stress (M y / I ) and transverse shear stress (V Q / I b),

Significance of Transverse Shear Compared to Bending 297 / 233

Significance of Transverse Shear Compared to Bending 298 / 233

 Critical stress element (largest max) will always be either

 Transition happens at some critical value of L/h

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
◦ Due to bending, on the outer surface (y / c =1),
where the transverse shear is zero.

◦ Or due to transverse shear at the neutral axis (y/c=0),

 Valid for any cross section that does not increase in width farther away
from the neutral axis.

DEPARTMENT
where the bending is zero  Includes round and rectangular solids, but not I beams and channels

Example 3–7 299 / 233

Example 3–7 (continued) 300 / 233

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I
Fig. 3−20 Fig. 3−20(b)

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Example 3–7 (continued) 301 / 233

Example 3–7 (continued) 302 / 233

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

Fig. 3−20(c)

Example 3–7 (continued) 303 / 233

Example 3–7 (continued) 304 / 233

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT

Example 3–7 (continued) 305 / 233

Example 3–7 (continued) 306 / 233

The critical location is at point a where If the beam length to height ratio (L/h) were increased,
the maximum shear stress is the largest,

ME 311
even though the bending stress is zero.

The next critical location is at point b in the

web, where the thin web thickness
dramatically increases the transverse shear
• the critical point would move from point a to point b,
• since the transverse shear stress at point a would remain constant,
• but the bending stress at point b would increase.

MACHINE ELEMENTS I
stress compared to points c or d.

These results are counterintuitive,

since both points a and b turn out to be more critical than point d,
even though the bending stress is maximum at point d.

The thin web and wide flange increase the impact of the transverse
shear stress.

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Example 3–7 (continued) 307 / 233

Example 3–7 (continued) 308 / 233

The designer should be particularly alert to For rectangular and circular cross sections,

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

• the possibility of the critical stress element not being on
the outer surface with cross sections
• the maximum bending stresses at the outer surfaces will dominate,
as was shown in Fig. 3–19.

• that get wider farther from the neutral axis,

• particularly in cases with thin web sections and wide flanges.

Ch 3 Load and Stress Analysis 309 / 233

3.12 Torsion 310 / 233

 Torque vector – a moment vector collinear with axis of a mechanical

element

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 


A bar subjected to a torque vector is said to be in torsion

Angle of twist, in radians, for a solid round bar

DEPARTMENT
Fig. 3−21

Torsional Shear Stress 311 / 233

Assumptions for Torsion Equations 312 / 233

 For round bar in torsion,  Equations (3–35) to (3–37) are only applicable for the following conditions
◦ torsional shear stress is proportional to the radius  ◦ Pure torque


ME 311
Maximum torsional shear stress is at the outer surface
◦ Remote from any discontinuities or point of application of torque
◦ Material obeys Hooke’s law
◦ Adjacent cross sections originally plane and parallel remain plane and
parallel

MACHINE ELEMENTS I ◦ Radial lines remain straight

 Depends on axisymmetry, so does not hold true for noncircular cross
sections
 Consequently, only applicable for round cross sections

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Torsional Shear in Rectangular Section 313 / 233

Torsional Shear in Rectangular Section 314 / 233

For rectangular b x c bar, where b is longest side

 Shear stress does not vary linearly with radial distance

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY


for rectangular cross section

Shear stress is zero at the corners

 Maximum shear stress is at the middle of

he longest side

Power, Speed, and Torque (SI) 315 / 233

Power, Speed, and Torque (Custom Units) 316 / 233

 Power equals torque times speed

In U.S. Customary units, with unit conversion built in

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING


1 hp = ? W

DEPARTMENT
A convenient conversion with speed in rpm

where H = power, W
n = angular velocity, revolutions per minute

Power, Speed, and Torque 317 / 233

Example 3–8 318 / 233

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I
Fig. 3−22

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Example 3–8 (continued) 319 / 233

Example 3–8 (continued) 320 / 233

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

Fig. 3−23

Example 3–8 (continued) 321 / 233

Example 3–8 (continued) 322 / 233

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT

Example 3–8 (continued) 323 / 233

Example 3–8 (continued) 324 / 233

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I

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Example 3–9 325 / 233

Example 3–9 (continued) 326 / 233

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

Fig. 3−24

Fig. 3−24

Example 3–9 (continued) 327 / 233

Example 3–9 (continued) 328 / 233

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT
Fig. 3−24

Example 3–9 (continued) 329 / 233

Example 3–9 (continued) 330 / 233

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I
Fig. 3−24

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Ch 3 Load and Stress Analysis 331 / 233

ME 311 Machine Elements I - Course Outline 332 / 233

1) Introduction to Mechanical Eng. Design (Machine Elements)

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY 2) Materials in Design

3) Stress Analysis
4) Deflection Analysis

5) Static Design Criteria (Static Failures Resulting from Static Loading)

6) Fatigue Design Criteria (Fatigue Failures Resulting from Variable Loading)

7) Introduction to Machine Elements (Design, Selection, Computations)

Static and Fatigue Design
8) Design of Shafts and Shaft Components
(Keys, Splines, Pins, Tolerances and Fits)
9) Design of Nonpermanent (Detachable) Joints (Screws, Fasteners, Rivets)
10) Design of Permanent (Nondetachable) Joints (Welding, Soldering,
Brazing etc.)
11) Design of Mechanical Springs

Ch 3 Load and Stress Analysis 333 / 233 3.14 Stresses in Pressurized Cylinders 334 / 233

 Cylinder with inside radius ri, outside radius ro, internal pressure pi,
and external pressure po

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING  Tangential and radial stresses, σt , σr

DEPARTMENT

3.14 Stresses in Pressurized Cylinders 335 / 233

Stresses in Pressurized Cylinders 336 / 233

 Special case of zero outside pressure, po = 0

 If ends are closed, then longitudinal stresses also exist.

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I

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Thin-Walled Vessels 337 / 233

Thin-Walled Vessels 338 / 233

 Cylindrical pressure vessel with

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY


wall thickness 1/10 or less of the radius

Radial stress is quite small compared

to tangential stress



Maximum tangential stress

Longitudinal stress
(if ends are closed)
 Average tangential stress

Example 3–14 339 / 233

Example 3–14 (continued) 340 / 233

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT

Ch 3 Load and Stress Analysis 341 / 233 3.15 Stresses in Rotating Rings 342 / 233

 Rotating rings, such as flywheels, blowers, disks, etc.

 Tangential and radial stresses are similar to thick-walled pressure

ME 311 
cylinders, except caused by inertial forces

Conditions:
◦ Outside radius is large compared with thickness (>10:1)

MACHINE ELEMENTS I 
◦ Thickness is constant
◦ Stresses are constant over the thickness

Stresses are

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Ch 3 Load and Stress Analysis 343 / 233

ME 311 Machine Elements I - Course Outline 344 / 233

1) Introduction to Mechanical Eng. Design (Machine Elements)

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY 2) Materials in Design

3) Stress Analysis
4) Deflection Analysis

5) Static Design Criteria (Static Failures Resulting from Static Loading)

6) Fatigue Design Criteria (Fatigue Failures Resulting from Variable Loading)

7) Introduction to Machine Elements (Design, Selection, Computations)

8) Design of Shafts and Shaft Components

(Keys, Splines, Pins, Tolerances and Fits)
9) Design of Nonpermanent (Detachable) Joints (Screws, Fasteners, Rivets)
10) Design of Permanent (Nondetachable) Joints (Welding, Soldering,
Brazing etc.)
11) Design of Mechanical Springs

3.16 Press and Shrink Fits 345 / 233

Press and Shrink Fits 346 / 233

 Two cylindrical parts are assembled with radial interference   Eq. (3–49) for pressure cylinders applies
Pressure at interface

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING



DEPARTMENT
If both cylinders are of the same material
 For the inner member, po = p and pi = 0

 For the outer member, po = 0 and pi = p

Ch 3 Load and Stress Analysis 347 / 233

3.17 Temperature Effects 348 / 233

 Normal strain due to expansion from temperature change

ME 311 
where  is the coefficient of thermal expansion

Thermal stresses occur when members are constrained to prevent strain

MACHINE ELEMENTS I 
during temperature change

For a straight bar constrained at ends,

◦ temperature increase will create a compressive stress

 Flat plate constrained at edges

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3.17 Temperature Effects 349 / 233

Coefficients of Thermal Expansion 350 / 233

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY constrained at ends

constrained at ends

Ch 3 Load and Stress Analysis 351 / 233 3. 18 Curved Beams in Bending 352 / 233

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
3.18 Stresses in Curved Beam

DEPARTMENT &
4.9 Deflection of Curved Members
Curved Members
in Machine Design

Curved Members
in Machine Design

Ch 3 Load and Stress Analysis 353 / 121 3. 19 Contact Stresses 354 / 121

 Two bodies with curved surfaces pressed together

ME 311 


Point or line contact changes to area contact

Stresses developed are three-dimensional

MACHINE ELEMENTS I  Called contact stresses or Hertzian stresses

Rolling Contact Bearings

Gear Design

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Contact Stresses 355 / 121

Contact Stresses 356 / 121

 Common examples

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY ◦ Wheel rolling on rail

◦ Mating gear teeth
◦ Rolling bearings

ME 312
Machine Elements II

Contact Stresses 357 / 121

Contact Stresses 358 / 121

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT

Spherical Contact Stress 359 / 121

Spherical Contact Stress 360 / 121

 Two solid spheres of diameters d1

and d2 are pressed together with  Pressure distribution is hemispherical

ME 311
force F

 Maximum pressure at the center of

contact area

MACHINE ELEMENTS I
 Circular area of contact of radius a

Fig. 3−36

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LECTURE NOTES

Spherical Contact Stress 361 / 121

Spherical Contact Stress 362 / 121

 Maximum stresses on the z axis

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

 Principal stresses
z = 0.48a

0.3 pmax

 Note that max peaks below the contact surface

 From Mohr’s circle, maximum shear stress is
 Fatigue failure below the surface leads to pitting and spalling

 For Poisson ratio of 0.30, max = 0.3 pmax at depth of z = 0.48a

Contact Stress Results 363 / 121

Cylindrical Contact Stress 364 / 121

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT
pitting

Corrosion due to rust spalling

 Two right circular cylinders with length l and diameters d1 and d2

 Area of contact is a narrow rectangle of width 2b and length l

 Pressure distribution is elliptical

Cylindrical Contact Stress 365 / 121

Cylindrical Contact Stress 366 / 121

 Half-width b  Maximum stresses on z axis

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I
 Maximum pressure

Fig. 3−38

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LECTURE NOTES

Cylindrical Contact Stress 367 / 121

Ch 3 Load and Stress Analysis 368 / 121

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY ME 261

Strength of Materials I

ME 262
Strength of Materials II

0.3 pmax

For poisson ratio of 0.30,

max = 0.3 pmax
z = 0.786 b
at depth of z = 0.786b

ME 311 Machine Elements I - Course Outline 369 / 121

Ch 4 Deflection and Stiffness 370 / 121

1) Introduction to Mechanical Eng. Design (Machine Elements)

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
2) Materials in Design
3) Stress Analysis
4) Deflection Analysis
ME 261
Strength of Materials I

ME 262
Strength of Materials II

DEPARTMENT
5) Static Design Criteria (Static Failures Resulting from Static Loading)
6) Fatigue Design Criteria (Fatigue Failures Resulting from Variable Loading)

7) Introduction to Machine Elements (Design, Selection, Computations)

8) Design of Shafts and Shaft Components

(Keys, Splines, Pins, Tolerances and Fits)
9) Design of Nonpermanent (Detachable) Joints (Screws, Fasteners, Rivets)
10) Design of Permanent (Nondetachable) Joints (Welding, Soldering,
Brazing etc.)
11) Design of Mechanical Springs

Why deflections are analyzed ? 371 / 121 Why deflections are analyzed ? 372 / 121

Stress analyses are done

to ensure that machine elements will not fail σ ?
due to stress levels exceeding the allowable values.

ME 311
However, since we are dealing with deformable bodies (not rigid),
deflections should be considered also
where they are in many cases more limiting than stresses.

Take for example shafts where excessive deflection will interfere with
δ ?

MACHINE ELEMENTS I
the function of the elements mounted on the shaft and
might cause failure of the system,
thus usually shafts are designed based on deflections rather than stresses.

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Ch 4 Deflection and Stiffness 373 / 121 Spring Rates - Force vs Deflection 374 / 121

 Elasticity

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY property of a material that

enables it to regain its original configuration after deformation

 Spring
a mechanical element that exerts a force when deformed

ME 311 Machine Elements I - Course Outline 375 / 121 Force vs Deflection 376 / 121

1) Introduction to Mechanical Eng. Design (Machine Elements)

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
2) Materials in Design
3) Stress Analysis
4) Deflection Analysis
Linear spring
Nonlinear stiffening
spring
Nonlinear softening
spring

DEPARTMENT
5) Static Design Criteria (Static Failures Resulting from Static Loading)
6) Fatigue Design Criteria (Fatigue Failures Resulting from Variable Loading)

7) Introduction to Machine Elements (Design, Selection, Computations)

8) Design of Shafts and Shaft Components

(Keys, Splines, Pins, Tolerances and Fits)
9) Design of Nonpermanent (Detachable) Joints (Screws, Fasteners, Rivets)
10) Design of Permanent (Nondetachable) Joints (Welding, Soldering, Fig. 4–1
Brazing etc.)
11) Design of Mechanical Springs

Spring Rate 377 / 121

Ch 4 Deflection and Stiffness 378 / 121

 Relation between force and deflection,

 Spring rate
ME 311

MACHINE ELEMENTS I
For linear springs,
◦ k is constant, called spring constant

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LECTURE NOTES

Tension, Compression, and Torsion

Axially-Loaded Stiffness
379 / 121
Torsionally-Loaded Stiffness 380 / 121

 Angular deflection (in radians) of a uniform solid or hollow round bar

 Total extension or contraction of a uniform bar in tension or compression subjected to a twisting moment T

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY in radians

 Converting to degrees, and including J = d4 / 32 for round solid

 Spring constant, with in degrees


 Torsional spring constant for round bar

Ch 4 Deflection and Stiffness 381 / 121

Deflection Due to Bending 382 / 121

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT

ME 311 Machine Elements I - Course Outline 383 / 121

Deflection Due to Bending 384 / 121

 Curvature of beam subjected to bending moment M

1) Introduction to Mechanical Eng. Design (Machine Elements)

2) Materials in Design
3) Stress Analysis
4) Deflection Analysis ME 311  From mathematics, curvature of plane curve

5) Static Design Criteria (Static Failures Resulting from Static Loading)

MACHINE ELEMENTS I
6) Fatigue Design Criteria (Fatigue Failures Resulting from Variable Loading)

7) Introduction to Machine Elements (Design, Selection, Computations)

8) Design of Shafts and Shaft Components

 Slope of beam at any point x along the length

 If the slope is very small,

(Keys, Splines, Pins, Tolerances and Fits)
9) Design of Nonpermanent (Detachable) Joints (Screws, Fasteners, Rivets) ◦ the denominator of Eq. (4–9) ( ) approaches unity.
10) Design of Permanent (Nondetachable) Joints (Welding, Soldering,  Combining Eqs. (4–8) and (4–9), for beams with small slopes,
Brazing etc.)
11) Design of Mechanical Springs

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LECTURE NOTES

Deflection Due to Bending 385 / 121

Deflection Due to Bending 386 / 121

 Recall Eqs. (3–3) and (3–4)

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY (4–10)

(4–11)
 Successively differentiating

(4–12)

(4–13)

(4–14)

Example 4–1 387 / 121

Example 4–1 (continued) 388 / 121

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT
Fig. 4–2

Example 4–1 (continued) 389 / 121

Example 4–1 (continued) 390 / 121

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I

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LECTURE NOTES

Ch 4 Deflection and Stiffness 391 / 121

Beam Deflection Methods 392 / 121

 Some of the more common methods for solving the integration problem

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY for beam deflection

◦
◦
Superposition
Moment-area method
◦ Singularity functions
◦ Numerical integration ME 341

 Other methods that use alternate approaches

◦ Castigliano energy method

◦ Finite element software

Beam Deflection Methods 393 / 121

Ch 4 Deflection and Stiffness 394 / 121

 Some of the more common methods for solving the integration problem
for beam deflection

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
◦
◦
Superposition
Moment-area method
◦ Singularity functions


DEPARTMENT
◦ Numerical integration

Other methods that use alternate approaches

◦ Castigliano energy method

◦ Finite element software

Beam Deflection by Superposition 395 / 121 Beam Deflection by Superposition 396 / 121

 Superposition
◦ determines the effects of each load separately, then


ME 311
◦ adds the results.

Separate parts are solved using any method for simple load cases.

MACHINE ELEMENTS I
Many load cases and boundary conditions are solved and available in
Table A–9, or

in references such as Roark’s Formulas for Stress and Strain.

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LECTURE NOTES

Beam Deflection by Superposition 397 / 121

Example 4–2 398 / 121

Conditions:

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY




Each effect is linearly related to the load that produces it.

A load does not create a condition that affects the result of another load.

 The deformations resulting from any specific load are not large enough
◦ to appreciably alter the geometric relations of the parts of the
structural system.

Fig. 4–3

Example 4–2 399 / 121

Example 4 –2 (continued) 400 / 121

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING ①
①
②

DEPARTMENT ②

Fig. 4–3

Example 4 –2 (continued) 401 / 121 Example 4–3 402 / 121

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I
Fig. 4–4

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Example 4–3 (continued) 403 / 121

Example 4–3 (continued) 404 / 121

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

Fig. 4–4

Example 4–3 (continued) 405 / 121

Example 4–4 406 / 121

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT
Fig. 4–5

Example 4–4 (continued) 407 / 121

Example 4–4 (continued) 408 / 121

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I

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Ch 4 Deflection and Stiffness 409 / 121

Ch 4 Deflection and Stiffness 410 / 121

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

Afterwards

Ch 4 Deflection and Stiffness 411 / 121

Outline 412 / 121

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Elastic Stability

Compression Members (Columns & Struts )

DEPARTMENT Shock and Impact

413 / 121
Elastic Stability 414 / 121

The selection of structural and machine elements is based on

three characteristics:

ME 311
Elastic Stability



strength,

stiffness, Strength ≠ Stiffness

MACHINE ELEMENTS I  stability.

The procedures of stress and deformation analyses

in a state of stable equilibrium were discussed.

But
not all structural or mechanical systems are necessarily stable.

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LECTURE NOTES

Elastic Stability 415 / 121

Elastic Stability 416 / 121

For example, A slender measuring stick if subjected to an axial compression,

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

consider a square-ended metal rod
of say 10 mm in diameter.

If such a rod were made 20 mm long to act

could fail in the same manner.

The consideration of material strength alone is not sufficient

as an axially compressed member, to predict the behavior of such members.
no question of instability would enter,
and a considerable force could be applied.
Stability considerations are primary
On the other hand, in some structural systems.
if another rod of the same material were
made 1000 mm long to act in compression
then, at a much smaller load than
the short piece could carry,
the long rod would buckle laterally and
could collapse.

Elastic Stability 417 / 121

Outline 418 / 121

 Be alert for buckling instability in structural members that are

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
◦ Loaded in compression (directly or indirectly)
◦ Long or thin
◦ Unbraced
Elastic Stability

Compression Members (Columns & Struts )


DEPARTMENT
Instability may be

◦ Local or global
◦ Elastic or plastic
Shock and Impact

◦ Bending or torsion

Ch 4 Deflection and Stiffness 419 / 121

Ch 4 Deflection and Stiffness 420 / 121

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I

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421 / 121 Compression Members 422 / 121

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

Compression Members

Columns

Struts (Short Compression Members)

Compression Members - Columns 423 / 121

Compression Members - Outline 424 / 121

 Column –

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
◦ A member loaded in compression
◦ such that either its length or eccentric loading causes it
◦ to experience more than pure compression
1 Long columns with central loading
2 Intermediate-length columns with central loading


DEPARTMENT
Four categories of columns

1 Long columns with central loading

3 Columns with eccentric loading
4 Struts or short columns with eccentric loading

2 Intermediate-length columns with central loading

3 Columns with eccentric loading
4 Struts or short columns with eccentric loading

Ch 4 Deflection and Stiffness 425 / 121

Long Columns with Central Loading 426 / 121

 When P reaches critical load,

ME 311
◦ column becomes unstable and bending develops rapidly

 Critical load depends on ‘end conditions’

MACHINE ELEMENTS I

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LECTURE NOTES

Euler Column Formula 427 / 121

Recommended Values for End Condition Constant 428 / 121

 For pin-ended column, critical load is given by Euler column formula,  Fixed ends are practically difficult

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY 

to achieve

More conservative values of C are

often used, as in Table 4–2

Applies to other
end conditions
with addition of
constant C for
each end condition

Long Columns with Central Loading 429 / 121

Euler Curve 430 / 121

Using I = Ak2 , where A is the area and k is the radius of gyration,  Plotting Pcr /A vs l/k , with C = 1 gives curve PQR

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Euler column formula can be expressed as

DEPARTMENT
 l / k is the ‘slenderness ratio’,
◦ used to classify columns according to length categories.
P

 Pcr / A is the critical unit load, the load per unit area necessary
◦ to place the column in a condition of unstable equilibrium.
R

Long Columns with Central Loading 431 / 121

Condition for Use of Euler Equation 432 / 121

 Tests show vulnerability to failure near point Q  For (l/k) > (l/k)1 , use Euler equation
 Since buckling is sudden and catastrophic,


ME 311
a conservative approach near Q is desired

Point T is usually defined such that Pcr / A = Sy / 2 , giving

 For (l/k) ≤ (l/k)1 , use a parabolic curve between Sy and T

0.5 Sy
MACHINE ELEMENTS I
Fig. 4–19

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Condition for Use of Euler Equation 433 / 121

Ch 4 Deflection and Stiffness 434 / 121

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

Compression Members - Outline 435 / 121

Intermediate-Length Columns with Central Loading 436 / 121

 For intermediate-length columns, when (l/k) ≤ (l/k)1,

◦ use a parabolic curve between Sy and T

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
1 Long columns with central loading
2 Intermediate-length columns with central loading
3 Columns with eccentric loading
 General form of parabola
(y = a - bx2)

DEPARTMENT
4 Struts or short columns with eccentric loading

 If parabola starts at Sy, then

a = Sy

 If parabola fits tangent to Euler curve at T, then

Intermediate-Length Columns with Central Loading 437 / 121

Ch 4 Deflection and Stiffness 438 / 121

 Results in parabolic formula,

ME 311
also known as J.B. Johnson formula

MACHINE ELEMENTS I
a = Sy

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LECTURE NOTES

Compression Members - Outline 439 / 121

Columns with Eccentric Loading 440 / 121

 For eccentrically loaded column with

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

1 Long columns with central loading

eccentricity e,

Substituting into d 2y / dx2 = M / EI,

2 Intermediate-length columns with central loading
3 Columns with eccentric loading
4 Struts or short columns with eccentric loading
 Solving with boundary conditions
y = 0 at x = 0 and at x = l

Columns with Eccentric Loading 441 / 121

Columns with Eccentric Loading 442 / 121

 At midspan where x = l/2  The maximum compressive stress

includes axial and bending

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
 Substituting Mmax from Eq. (4–48)

DEPARTMENT
 Using Syc as the maximum value of c, and solving for P/A,
obtain the secant column formula

Secant Column Formula - Eccentricity Ratio 443 / 121

Example 4–16 444 / 121

 Secant Column Formula


ME 311
ec / k2 is the eccentricity ratio


MACHINE ELEMENTS I
Design charts of secant
column formula for various
eccentricity ratio can be
prepared for a given material
strength

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LECTURE NOTES

Example 4–16 (continued) 445 / 121 Example 4–17 446 / 121

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY b

h

Example 4–17 (continued) 447 / 121 Example 4–17 (continued) 448 / 121

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT

Example 4–18 (Example 4–16 cont.) 449 / 121

Example 4–19 (Hydraulic cylinder) (SI version) 450 / 121

ME 311
Ex. 4–16
MACHINE ELEMENTS I b
h

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LECTURE NOTES

Example 4–19 (continued) 451 / 121 Example 4–19 (continued) 452 / 121

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

For (l/k) > (l/k)1 , use Euler equation

Example 4–19 (continued) 453 / 121 Example 4–19 (continued) 454 / 121

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT 98831 N

Compare given design factor with safety factors

Example 4–19 - (US version) 455 / 121

Example 4–19 - (US version) (continued) 456 / 121

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I

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LECTURE NOTES

Ch 4 Deflection and Stiffness 457 / 121

Compression Members - Outline 458 / 121

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY 1 Long columns with central loading

2 Intermediate-length columns with central loading
3 Columns with eccentric loading
4 Struts or short columns with eccentric loading

Struts or Short Compression Members 459 / 121 Example 4–20 460 / 121

 Strut – short member loaded in compression

 If eccentricity exists, maximum stress is at B

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
with axial compression and bending.


DEPARTMENT
Note that it is not a function of length (l)

If bending deflection is limited to 1 percent of e, then

 from Eq. (4–44), the limiting slenderness ratio (l/k)2 for strut is

Example 4–20 (cont.) 461 / 121

Ch 4 Deflection and Stiffness 462 / 121

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I

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Outline 463 / 121 464 / 121

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

Elastic Stability

Compression Members (Columns & Struts )

Shock and Impact

Shock and Impact

Shock and Impact 465 / 121

Shock and Impact - Example of automobile collision 466 / 121

◦ m1 is mass of engine
 Impact – collision of two masses with initial relative velocity
◦ m2 is mass of rest of vehicle

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 
◦ Springs represent stiffnesses (k1, k2, k3) of various structural elements

Equations of motion, assuming linear springs

DEPARTMENT
 Shock – a suddenly applied force or disturbance
 Equations can be solved for any impact velocity

Suddenly applied loading on a cantilever beam 467 / 121

Suddenly Applied Loading 468 / 121

 Abstract model considering beam as simple spring

 Weight falls distance h and

From Table A–9, beam 1,

ME 311

suddenly applies a load to a
cantilever beam k= F/y =3EI/l3

 Find deflection and force applied  Assume the beam to be massless,

to the beam due to impact so no momentum transfer, just energy transfer

δ=?
MACHINE ELEMENTS I Fig. 4–27 (a)
 Loss of potential energy from change of elevation is

W(h + )
F=?
 Increase in potential energy from compressing spring is

k 2/2

 Conservation of energy W(h + ) = k 2/2

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LECTURE NOTES

Suddenly Applied Loading 469 / 121

ME 311 Machine Elements I - Course Outline 470 / 121

 Rearranging
1) Introduction to Mechanical Eng. Design (Machine Elements)

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

 Solving for 
2) Materials in Design
3) Stress Analysis
4) Deflection Analysis

5) Static Design Criteria (Static Failures Resulting from Static Loading)

6) Fatigue Design Criteria (Fatigue Failures Resulting from Variable Loading)
 Maximum deflection
7) Introduction to Machine Elements (Design, Selection, Computations)

8) Design of Shafts and Shaft Components

(Keys, Splines, Pins, Tolerances and Fits)
 Maximum force 9) Design of Nonpermanent (Detachable) Joints (Screws, Fasteners, Rivets)
10) Design of Permanent (Nondetachable) Joints (Welding, Soldering,
Brazing etc.)
11) Design of Mechanical Springs

ME 311 Machine Elements I - Course Outline 471 / 121

ME 311 Machine Elements I - Course Outline 472 / 80

1) Introduction to Mechanical Eng. Design (Machine Elements) 1) Introduction to Mechanical Eng. Design (Machine Elements)

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
2) Materials in Design
3) Stress Analysis
4) Deflection Analysis
2) Materials in Design
3) Stress Analysis
4) Deflection Analysis

DEPARTMENT
5) Static Design Criteria (Static Failures Resulting from Static Loading)
6) Fatigue Design Criteria (Fatigue Failures Resulting from Variable Loading)

7) Introduction to Machine Elements (Design, Selection, Computations)

5) Static Design Criteria (Static Failures Resulting from Static Loading)
6) Fatigue Design Criteria (Fatigue Failures Resulting from Variable Loading)

7) Introduction to Machine Elements (Design, Selection, Computations)

8) Design of Shafts and Shaft Components 8) Design of Shafts and Shaft Components
(Keys, Splines, Pins, Tolerances and Fits) (Keys, Splines, Pins, Tolerances and Fits)
9) Design of Nonpermanent (Detachable) Joints (Screws, Fasteners, Rivets) 9) Design of Nonpermanent (Detachable) Joints (Screws, Fasteners, Rivets)
10) Design of Permanent (Nondetachable) Joints (Welding, Soldering, 10) Design of Permanent (Nondetachable) Joints (Welding, Soldering,
Brazing etc.) Brazing etc.)
11) Design of Mechanical Springs 11) Design of Mechanical Springs

ME 311 Machine Elements I - Course Outline 473 / 80

Ch 3 Load and Stress Analysis 474 / 80

1) Introduction to Mechanical Eng. Design (Machine Elements)

2) Materials in Design
3) Stress Analysis
4) Deflection Analysis ME 311
5) Static Design Criteria (Static Failures Resulting from Static Loading)

MACHINE ELEMENTS I
6) Fatigue Design Criteria (Fatigue Failures Resulting from Variable Loading)

7) Introduction to Machine Elements (Design, Selection, Computations)

8) Design of Shafts and Shaft Components

Static and Fatigue Design

(Keys, Splines, Pins, Tolerances and Fits)

9) Design of Nonpermanent (Detachable) Joints (Screws, Fasteners, Rivets)
10) Design of Permanent (Nondetachable) Joints (Welding, Soldering,
Curved Members
Brazing etc.) in Machine Design
11) Design of Mechanical Springs

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LECTURE NOTES

Ch 4 Deflection and Stiffness 475 / 80

Ch 4 Deflection and Stiffness 476 / 80

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY ME 261

Strength of Materials I

ME 262
Strength of Materials II

Beam Deflection Methods 477 / 80

Outline 478 / 80

 Some of the more common methods for solving the integration problem
for beam deflection

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
◦
◦
Superposition
Moment-area method
Energy Methods (Strain Energy)

Castigliano’s Theorem
◦ Singularity functions


DEPARTMENT
◦ Numerical integration

Other methods that use alternate approaches

Curved Members in Machine Design

Statically Indeterminate Problems

◦ Castigliano energy method

◦ Finite element software

479 / 80
Ch 4 Deflection and Stiffness 480 / 80

ME 311
Energy Methods (Strain Energy)

MACHINE ELEMENTS I

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LECTURE NOTES

4.7 Strain Energy 481 / 80 4.7 Strain Energy 482 / 80

 The external work done on elastic member in deforming it

Work of a force:

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY


is transformed into strain energy (or potential energy).

Strain energy equals product of average force and deflection.

A force does work
when it undergoes a displacement dx
that is in the same direction as the force.

If the total displacement is x,

the work (Ue) becomes

Strain
Energy

Work due to linear elastic

deformation.

4.7 Strain Energy 483 / 80 4.7 Strain Energy 484 / 80

For a linear-elastic material, If an another force P ′ is subsequently added and

if the force F increases gradually from zero to a value F = P, it causes a further displacement ∆′ ,

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
then work done is represented by the light-color-shaded triangle, i.e. then the work done by P (not by P' ) is represented
by the dark color-shaped rectangle, and
is simply its magnitude P times the displacement ∆′,
the work

DEPARTMENT
done by P′
is equal to
the gray
shaded
triangular
area

0 0

4.7 Strain Energy 485 / 80 4.7 Strain Energy (Normal Stress) 486 / 80

When loads are applied to a body,

they will deform the material, and dA

ME 311
provided no energy is lost in the form of heat,

the external work done by the loads will be converted

into internal work called strain energy.

MACHINE ELEMENTS I
This energy is stored in the body and is caused
by the action of either normal (σ) or shear ( ) stress.

For a body of finite size (V ), the strain energy (Ui ) in the body is therefore

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Some Common Strain Energy Formulas 487 / 80

Some Common Strain Energy Formulas 488 / 80

 For direct shear loading,

 For tension and compression

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

 For torsional loading,

Some Common Strain Energy Formulas 489 / 80

Some Common Strain Energy Formulas 490 / 80

 For bending loading,  For transverse shear loading,

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT
Here AB is a section of the elastic curve of
length ds having a radius of curvature r.

The strain energy stored (dU) in this element of

the beam is
where C is a modifier dependent on the cross sectional shape.

Summary 491 / 80
Example 4–8 492 / 80

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I Fig. 4–9

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Example 4–8 (continued) 493 / 80

Example 4–8 (continued) 494 / 80

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

Fig. 4–9

Ch 4 Deflection and Stiffness 495 / 80

Outline 496 / 80

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Energy Methods (Strain Energy)

Castigliano’s Theorem

DEPARTMENT
Curved Members in Machine Design

Statically Indeterminate Problems

497 / 80
Castigliano’s Theorem 498 / 80

 When forces act on elastic systems subject to small displacements,

the displacement (δi ) corresponding to any force (Fi ),

ME 311
Castigliano’s Theorem
in the direction of the force, is equal to
the partial derivative of the total strain energy (U ) wrt that force.

MACHINE ELEMENTS I  For rotational displacement (ϴi) in radians,

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Example 4–9 499 / 80

Example 4–9 (continued) 500 / 80

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

Fig. 4–9

Utilizing a Fictitious Force 501 / 80 Utilizing a Fictitious Force 502 / 80

Take the derivative of the total strain energy wrt Q.

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Castigliano’s method can be used
◦ to find a deflection at a point
 Once the derivative is taken,
◦ even if there is no force applied at that point.
◦ Q is no longer needed and can be set to zero.


DEPARTMENT
Apply a fictitious force ( Q ) at the point, and in the direction,
of the desired deflection.

 Set up the equation

◦ for total strain energy including the energy due to Q.

Finding Deflection Without Finding Energy 503 / 80

Summary - Common Strain Energy Equations 504 / 80

 For cases requiring integration of strain energy equations,

it is more efficient to obtain the deflection directly


ME 311
 without explicitly finding the strain energy.

The partial derivative is moved inside the integral.


MACHINE ELEMENTS I
For example, for bending,

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Finding Deflection Without Finding Energy 505 / 80

Common Deflection Equations 506 / 80

Derivative can be taken before integration, simplifying the math.

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY



 Especially helpful with fictitious force Q,

◦ since it can be set to zero after the derivative is taken.

Example 4–10 507 / 80

Example 4–10 (continued) 508 / 80

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
①
DEPARTMENT
②

Fig. 4–10
Step Shaft

Example 4–10 (continued) 509 / 80

Example 4–10 (continued) 510 / 80

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I

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Example 4–11 511 / 80

Example 4–11 (continued) 512 / 80

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

Fig. 4–11

Fig. 4–11

Example 4–11 (continued) 513 / 80

Example 4–11 (continued) 514 / 80

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT
Fig. 4–11 Fig. 4–11

Example 4–11 (continued) 515 / 80

Example 4–11 (continued) 516 / 80

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I
Fig. 4–11

Fig. 4–11

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Example 4–11 (continued) 517 / 80

Outline 518 / 80

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY Energy Methods (Strain Energy)

Castigliano’s Theorem

Curved Members in Machine Design

Statically Indeterminate Problems

Fig. 4–11

519 / 80 3. 18 Curved Beams in Bending 520 / 80

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Curved Members
3.18 Stresses in Curved Beam

DEPARTMENT
in
Machine Design
&
4.9 Deflection of Curved Members
Curved Members
in Machine Design

42

Ch 4 Deflection and Stiffness 521 / 80

Ch 3 Load and Stress Analysis 522 / 80

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I Curved Members
in Machine Design

Curved Members
in Machine Design

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Ch 4 Deflection and Stiffness 523 / 80

Curved Beam 524 / 80

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

Curved Members
in Machine Design

Curved Beam 525 / 80

Curved Beam 526 / 80

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT

Curved Beam 527 / 80

Curved Beam 528 / 80

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I

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Outline 529 / 80 530 / 80

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

Curved Members in Machine Design

Curved Beams in Bending (Stress Analysis)

Curved Beams in Bending
Deflection of Curved Members (Stress Analysis)

42

Curved Beam 531 / 80

Ch 3 Load and Stress Analysis 532 / 80

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT

3.18 Curved Beams in Bending 533 / 80

Curved Beams in Bending 534 / 80

 In thick curved beams

◦ Neutral axis and centroidal axis are not coincident

ME 311
◦ Bending stress does not vary linearly with distance from the neutral axis

MACHINE ELEMENTS I ro = radius of outer fiber

ri = radius of inner fiber
rn = radius of neutral axis Fig. 3−34
rc = radius of centroidal axis
h = depth of section
co = distance from neutral axis to outer fiber
ci = distance from neutral axis to inner fiber
e = rc – rn , distance from centroidal axis to neutral axis
Fig. 3−34 M = bending moment; positive M decreases curvature

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Curved Beam 535 / 80 Location of neutral axis & stress distribution 536 / 80

The distribution of stress in a curved flexural member is

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

determined by using the following assumptions.

1. The cross section has an axis of symmetry in a plane

along the length of the beam.

2. Plane cross sections remain plane after bending.

3. The modulus of elasticity (E) is the same

in tension as in compression.
The elongation of a generic fiber gh is (R - r) dΦ

Location of neutral axis

Location of neutral axis & stress distribution 537 / 80

Curved Beams in Bending 538 / 80

 Location of neutral axis w.r.t. the center of curvature O

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING  Stress distribution as a function of y

DEPARTMENT
hyperbolic and not linear as is the case for straight beams

 Stress at inner and outer surfaces

539 / 80
Curved Beam 540 / 80

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I

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Example 3–15 (continued) 541 / 80 Formulas for Sections of Curved Beams (Table 3–4) 542 / 80

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

hyperbolic and not linear

Formulas for Sections of Curved Beams (Table 3–4) 543 / 80

Alternative Calculations for e 544 / 80

 Approximation for e, valid for large curvature where e is small with

rn ≈ rc

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING  Substituting Eq. (3–66) into Eq. (3–64), with rn – y = r, gives

DEPARTMENT

Example 3-16 545 / 80

Ch 3 Load and Stress Analysis 546 / 80

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I

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Ch 4 Deflection and Stiffness 547 / 80

Outline 548 / 80

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY Curved Members in Machine Design

Curved Beams in Bending (Stress Analysis)

Deflection of Curved Members

Ch 4 Deflection and Stiffness 549 / 41 Outline 550 / 41

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Curved Members in Machine Design

Curved Beams in Bending (Stress Analysis)

DEPARTMENT Deflection of Curved Members

4.9 Deflection of Curved Members 551 / 41 Summary of Common Strain Energy Formulas 552 / 41

 Consider case of thick curved member in bending (Sec. 3–18)

 Four strain energy terms due to

ME 311
1. Bending moment M………… U1
2. Axial force F………… U2 F
3. Bending moment due to F………… U3
(since neutral axis and centroidal axis do not coincide)

MACHINE ELEMENTS I
4. Transverse shear Fr ………… U4

Fig. 4–12

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Deflection of Curved Members 553 / 41 Deflection of Curved Members 554 / 41

 1. Strain energy due to bending moment M  2. Strain energy due to axial force F

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

where rn is the radius of the neutral axis

Deflection of Curved Members 555 / 41 Deflection of Curved Members 556 / 41

 3. Strain energy due to bending moment due to F  4. Strain energy due to transverse shear Fr

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT
Fig. 4–12

Deflection of Curved Members 557 / 41 Deflection of Curved Members 558 / 41

 Combining four energy terms  For specific example in figure,


ME 311
Deflection by Castigliano’s method


MACHINE ELEMENTS I
General for any thick circular curved member, with appropriate limits of
integration

Fig. 4–12

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Deflection of Curved Members 559 / 41 Deflection of Thin Curved Members 560 / 41

 Substituting and factoring,  For thin curved members,

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

 say R/h > 10, eccentricity is small

 so that the strain energies can be approximated directly from

Eqs. (4–17), (4–23), and (4–25) with a substitution Rd for dx

Deflection of Thin Curved Members 561 / 41 Example 4–12 562 / 41

 Further, as R increases,

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
 the contributions to deflection from the normal force and tangential force
 becomes negligibly small compared to the bending component.

 An approximate result can be obtained for a thin circular curved member

DEPARTMENT
as

Fig. 4–13

Example 4–12 (continued) 563 / 41 Example 4–12 (continued) 564 / 41

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I
Fig. 4–13

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Example 4–12 (continued) 565 / 41 Example 4–12 (continued) 566 / 41

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

Example 4–12 (continued) 567 / 41 568 / 41

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT

Example 4–13 569 / 41 Example 4–13 (continued) 570 / 41

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I
Fig. 4–14

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Example 4–13 (continued) 571 / 41 Example 4–13 (continued) 572 / 41

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

Fig. 4–14 (b)

Outline 573 / 41 Ch 4 Deflection and Stiffness 574 / 41

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Energy Methods (Strain Energy)

Castigliano’s Theorem

DEPARTMENT
Curved Members in Machine Design

Statically Indeterminate Problems

Statically Indeterminate Problems 575 / 41 Statically Indeterminate Problems 576 / 41

 Example of nested springs

 A system is overconstrained
 One equation of static equilibrium
◦ when it has more unknown support (reaction) forces


ME 311
and/or moments than static equilibrium equations.

Such a system is said to be statically indeterminate.

 Deformation equation

 To solve,
MACHINE ELEMENTS I
The extra constraint supports are call redundant supports.
 Use spring constant (k) relation
to put deflection equation
in terms of force
◦ a deflection equation is required for each redundant support.

 Substituting into equilibrium equation,

Fig. 4–15

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Procedure 1 for Statically Indeterminate Problems 577 / 41 Example 4–14 578 / 41

1. Choose the redundant reaction(s)

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

2. Write the equations of static equilibrium for the remaining
reactions in terms of the applied loads and the redundant
reaction(s).

Fig. 4–16
3. Write the deflection equation(s) for the point(s)
at the locations of the redundant reaction(s)
in terms of the applied loads and redundant reaction(s).

4. Solve equilibrium equations and deflection equations

simultaneously to determine the reactions.

Example 4–14 (continued) 579 / 41 Example 4–14 (continued) 580 / 41

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT

Example 4–14 (continued) 581 / 41 Example 4–14 (continued) 582 / 41

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I

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Example 4–14 (continued) 583 / 41 Example 4–14 (continued) 584 / 41

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

Example 4–14 (continued) 585 / 41 ME 311 Machine Elements I - Course Outline 586 / 41

1) Introduction to Mechanical Eng. Design (Machine Elements)

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 2) Materials in Design

3) Stress Analysis
4) Deflection Analysis

DEPARTMENT 5) Static Design Criteria (Static Failures Resulting from Static Loading)
6) Fatigue Design Criteria (Fatigue Failures Resulting from Variable Loading)

7) Introduction to Machine Elements (Design, Selection, Computations)

8) Design of Shafts and Shaft Components

(Keys, Splines, Pins, Tolerances and Fits)
9) Design of Nonpermanent (Detachable) Joints (Screws, Fasteners, Rivets)
10) Design of Permanent (Nondetachable) Joints (Welding, Soldering,
Brazing etc.)
11) Design of Mechanical Springs

Ch 5 Failure Resulting from Static Loading (Static Design) 587 / 64 Mechanical Engineering Design 588 / 64

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I

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Ch 1. Mechanical Engineering Design 589 / 64 Stress and Strength 590 / 64

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

 The survival of many products depends on
how the designer adjusts
the maximum stresses in a component
to be less than the component’s strength
at critical locations.

 The designer must allow

the maximum stress
to be less than the strength
by a sufficient margin
so that despite the uncertainties, failure is rare.

Stress and Strength 591 / 64 Strength 592 / 64

 Strength (S )  In addition to considering the strength of a single part,

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
◦ An inherent property of a material or of a mechanical
element
◦ Depends on treatment and processing
◦ the strengths of the mass-produced parts will all be somewhat
different from the others in the collection or ensemble

DEPARTMENT
◦ May or may not be uniform throughout the part
◦ Examples: Ultimate strength (UTS, Sut) , yield strength (Sy)


◦ because of variations in dimensions, machining, forming, and
composition.

Descriptors of strength are necessarily statistical in nature,

 Stress (σ) involving parameters such as
 mean,
◦ A state property at a specific point within a body  standard deviations, and
◦ Primarily a function of load and geometry  distributional identification.
◦ Sometimes also a function of temperature and processing

Ch 5 Failure Resulting from Static Loading (Static Design) 593 / 64 Static Load 594 / 64

A static load is a stationary force or couple applied to a member.

ME 311 To be stationary,
the force or couple must be unchanging in
 magnitude,

MACHINE ELEMENTS I  point or points of application, and

 direction.

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Static Load 595 / 64 Static Load 596 / 64

A static load can produce

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

 an axial tension or compression,
 a shear load,
 a bending load,



Time independent load

Not change with time

 a torsional load, or
 any combination of these.
 Little variations in long term time can be assumed as static load.
To be considered static,
the load cannot change in any manner.

Static Load - Summary 597 / 64 Strength and Static loading 598 / 64

 A static load is defined as a force,  Consider the relations between strength and static loading

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
◦ which is gradually applied to a mechanical component and
which does not change its
◦ in order to make the decisions concerning

 material and its

 treatment,

DEPARTMENT
 magnitude,
 location or
 direction



fabrication, and
geometry for satisfying the requirements of functionality,
safety,
 with respect to time.  reliability,
 competitiveness,
 usability,
 manufacturability, and
 marketability.

Ch 5 Failure Resulting from Static Loading (Static Design) 599 / 64 Failures 600 / 64

Failure of a part (machine or structural element)

ME 311 

separated into two or more pieces;
become permanently distorted (yielding),
 thus ruining its geometry (distortion);

MACHINE ELEMENTS I
 had its reliability downgraded;
 had its function compromised (be in risk),

Designers

on the predictability of permanent distortion or separation.

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Failures – Failure Strength 601 / 64 Types (Modes) of Failures 602 / 64

In strength-sensitive situations Excessive deflection

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

the designer must separate
mean stress (σ) and mean strength (S )
Elastic deflection (low stiffness)
Deflection caused by creep

Yielding (local plastic deformation)

at the critical location sufficiently
Fracture
to accomplish his or her purposes. Sudden failure of brittle material
Failure of cracked (flawed) members
The failure strength is the yield strength (Sy) Progressive fracture (fatigue)

Instability (buckling)

(or if the material does not yield such as

some brittle materials failure will
Other types of mechanical failure mechanisms are:
mean fracture ultimate strength - Sf). impact, creep, thermal shock, wear, stress corrosion cracking, corrosion
of surfaces, and various types of fatigue

Failure Examples 603 / 64 Failure Examples 604 / 64

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT

Failure Examples 605 / 64 Failure Examples 606 / 64

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I

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Failure Examples 607 / 64 Failure Examples 608 / 64

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

Failure Examples 609 / 64 Failure Examples 610 / 64

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT

Failure Examples 611 / 64 Failure Examples 612 / 64

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I
 Failure of truck driveshaft spline due to corrosion fatigue

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Failure Examples 613 / 64 Failure Examples 614 / 64

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

 Failure of an overhead-pulley retaining bolt
on a weightlifting machine.

 A manufacturing error caused a gap t

 Impact failure of a lawn-mower blade driver hub.
hat forced the bolt to take the entire moment load.

Failure Examples 615 / 64 Failure Examples 616 / 64

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT
Chain test fixture that failed in one cycle.
 To alleviate complaints of excessive wear,
◦ the manufacturer decided to case-harden the material
(a) Two halves showing brittle fracture initiated by stress concentration
(b) Enlarged view showing cracks induced by stress concentration at the  Valve-spring failure caused by spring surge in an overspeed engine.
support-pin holes  The fractures exhibit the classic 45 degree shear failure

Ch 5 Failure Resulting from Static Loading (Static Design) 617 / 64 Static Strength 618 / 64

When designing a machine element,

ME 311 the best way to determine its strength is

to test the part under exactly the same loading conditions
the part will experience in service.

MACHINE ELEMENTS I (Many tests are needed to account for variability).

 Performing such testing is very costly

 Cannot be justified unless the part is used for a critical application

or if the part is produced in large quantities.

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Static Strength 619 / 64 Static Strength 620 / 64

It is necessary to design using the published material properties  What about if it is subjected to biaxial or triaxial stress,

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

(yield strength (Sy), ultimate strength (Su ), percentage elongation (%), etc.)
which are obtained from testing under uniaxial stress (1D).
when would it fail?

When a material is subjected to uniaxial stress,

will it fail when the stress reaches
the failure strength

How to deal with 2D and 3D states of stress

biaxial or triaxial stress Use failure theories ?

Failures 621 / 64 Static Strength – Factor of Safety 622 / 64

Should stress concentrations be considered

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Is there a difference
in the failure mechanisms of ductile and brittle materials
𝜎 <𝑆 𝜎 <
𝑆
𝑛 for ductile materials

DEPARTMENT
𝑆

𝜎 <𝑆 for ductile materials

𝜎 <𝑆
𝜎 <
𝑆
𝑛
for brittle materials

𝑆 𝜎 <𝑆 for brittle materials Factor of Safety (n)

Why

Factor of Safety (n) 623 / 64 Factor of Safety − 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝐭 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐔𝐧𝐜𝐞𝐫𝐭𝐚𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐲 624 / 64

Why …… 𝐑𝐞𝐚𝐬𝐨𝐧

ME 311
 𝐏𝐚𝐫𝐚𝐝𝐨𝐱 between 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐭 and 𝐮𝐧𝐜𝐞𝐫𝐭𝐚𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐲
 Always uncertainity in load

 Calculations are uncertain


MACHINE ELEMENTS I
Material property uncertainity

Reliability requirements ....... for high R , n

 You have to comprimise these cases as
a mechanical (design) designer.

 Environmental Conditions (Corrossive Atmosphere ?)

 Human Safety Requirements (at lifts, cranes, aerospace ….. high R )

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Failures 625 / 64 Static Strength – Factor of Safety 626 / 64

Should stress concentrations be considered

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

Is there a difference
in the failure mechanisms of ductile and brittle materials
𝜎 <𝑆 𝜎 <
𝑆
𝑛 for ductile materials

𝜎 <𝑆 𝑆
𝑆 𝜎 < for brittle materials
𝑛
𝜎 <𝑆 for ductile materials

𝑆 𝜎 <𝑆 for brittle materials Factor of Safety (n)

Why

Allowable Stress (𝝈𝒂𝒍𝒍 ) 627 / 64 Maximum Stresses (𝝈𝒎𝒂𝒙 ) 628 / 64

𝑆  Determination of 𝝈𝒎𝒂𝒙 How ?

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
𝜎

𝜎
<𝑆

<𝑆
𝜎

𝜎
<

<
𝑆
𝑛
𝑛
for ductile materials

for brittle materials

 Relation between

𝝈𝒎𝒂𝒙 & 𝝈𝒏𝒐𝒎

𝜎DEPARTMENT
= 𝜎 ≤𝜎

𝜎 = ≤𝜎
 𝝈𝒏𝒐𝒎 𝝈𝒎𝒂𝒙

𝐹
𝜎 = 𝜎 =
𝐴
For simple axial loading Localized increase of stress near discontinuities ?

Design according to 𝝈𝒎𝒂𝒙 not 𝝈𝒏𝒐𝒎 ( 𝝈𝒐 ) 𝜎 = Should stress concentrations be considered ?

Ch 5 Failure Resulting from Static Loading (Static Design) 629 / 64 Ch 3 Load and Stress Analysis 630 / 64

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I Static and Fatigue Design

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Stress Concentration 631 / 64 3.13 Stress Concentration 632 / 64

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY Concentrated

Stresses
A discontinuity

Localized increase of stress near

discontinuities

Stress Concentration 633 / 64 Stress Concentration Factor 634 / 64

Localized increase of stress near

discontinuities

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Stress Concentration

Stress Concentration Factor

DEPARTMENT Stress Concentration

In order to consider
the effect of stress concentration and
find out localized stresses,

a factor called stress concentration factor is used.

Stress concentration is defined as It is denoted by Kt and defined as

the localization of high stresses
due to the irregularities (discontinuities) present in the component and
abrupt changes of the crosssection.

Stress Concentration Factor 635 / 64 Theoretical Stress Concentration Factor 636 / 64

 Kt is Theoretical (Geometric) Stress Concentration Factor

 Graphs available for standard
configurations

ME 311  See Appendix A–15 and A–16

for common examples

MACHINE ELEMENTS I
 Many more in Fig. A–15–1
◦ Peterson’s Stress-Concentration
Factors

 The trend for higher Kt

at sharper discontinuity radius, and
at greater disruption
Fig. A–15–9

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Theoretical Stress Concentration Factor 637 / 64 Theoretical Stress Concentration Factor 638 / 64

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

Stress Concentration Factor 639 / 64 Techniques to Reduce Stress Concentration 640 / 64

 Increase radius

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING  Reduce disruption

 Allow “dead zones” to shape flowlines more gradually

DEPARTMENT
Ch 7 Shafts and Shaft Components

Techniques to Reduce Stress Concentration 641 / 64 Techniques to Reduce Stress Concentration 642 / 64

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I

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LECTURE NOTES

Example 3–13 643 / 64 Example 3–13 644 / 64

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

Fig. 3−30 Fig. 3−30

4-mm hole is sufficient for the cable to fit, but an 8-mm drill is readily available 4-mm hole is sufficient for the cable to fit, but an 8-mm drill is readily available
Will a crack be more likely to initiate at the larger hole, the smaller hole, or at the fillet? Will a crack be more likely to initiate at the larger hole, the smaller hole, or at the fillet?
Most critical point ? Most critical point ?

Example 3–13 (continued) 645 / 64 Example 3–13 (continued) 646 / 64

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT
Fig. A−15−1

Example 3–13 (continued) 647 / 64 Stress Concentration for Static and Ductile Conditions 648 / 82

 With static loads and ductile materials

ME 311 ◦ Highest stressed fibers yield (cold work)

◦ Load is shared with next fibers

MACHINE ELEMENTS I ◦ Cold working is localized

◦ Overall part does not see damage unless ultimate strength is exceeded

◦ Stress concentration effect is commonly ignored for static loads on

ductile materials

Fig. A−15−5

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Stress Concentration for Dynamic and Brittle Conditions 649 / 82 Stress Concentration (Kt ) 650 / 82

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

 Stress concentration must be
included for dynamic loading (See Ch. 6 Fatigue Failure)

LOAD TYPE MATERIAL STATIC DYNAMIC

 Stress concentration must be
included for brittle materials, DUCTILE Kt = 1 Kt ≥ 1

since localized yielding may reach brittle failure rather

than cold-working and sharing the load. BRITTLE Kt ≥ 1 Kt ≥ 1

Static Strength 651 / 82 Ch 5 Failure Resulting from Static Loading (Static Design) 652 / 82

 What about if it is subjected to biaxial or triaxial stress,

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
when would it fail?

DEPARTMENT
How to deal with 2D and 3D states of stress

Use failure theories ?

Outline for Failure Theories 653 / 82 Multi-axial Stress Element : 3D Stresses 654 / 82

Failure Theories

ME 311
Static Failure Theories

Fatigue Failure Theories

MACHINE ELEMENTS I σyy

σxx xy
σyy xz
σzz yz
σzz σxx

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Need for Static Failure Theories 655 / 82 Need for Static Failure Theories 656 / 82

 Uniaxial stress element

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

(e.g. tension test)  Failure theories propose appropriate means of
comparing multi-axial stress states to single strength

σ S
 Multi-axial stress element .  Usually based on
◦ One strength (S), multiple stresses (σxx , σyy , σzz , xy , xz ,yz ) some hypothesis of what aspect of the stress state is critical
◦ How to compare stress state to single strength (S) ?
 Some failure theories have gained
recognition of usefulness for various situations
σ S

Structural Metal Behavior 657 / 82 Structural Metal Behavior 658 / 82

Structural metal behavior is

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
typically classified as being ductile or brittle,

although under special situations,

a material normally considered ductile can fail in a brittle manner Ductile materials

DEPARTMENT
(see Sec. 5–12). are normally classified such that εf ≥ 0. 05
and have an identifiable yield strength
that is often the same in compression as in tension
(Syt = Syc = Sy)

Brittle materials, εf < 0. 05

do not exhibit an identifiable yield strength, and
are typically classified by ultimate tensile and compressive strengths,
Sut and Suc, respectively
(where Suc is given as a positive quantity).

Static Failure Theories - Outline 659 / 82 Static Failure Theories 660 / 82

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I Maximum Normal (Principal)
Stress Theory (MNS)

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Maximum Normal (Principal) Stress Theory (MNS) 661 / 82 Maximum Normal (Principal) Stress Theory (MNS) 662 / 82

Theory: (Rankie Theory)

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

 The theory of failure due to
the maximum normal stress is generally attributed to
W. J. M. Rankine.
William Rankine
(1820-1872)
Theory: (Rankie Theory)

 Compare the largest principal stress to the yield strength (Sy).

 Often the first theory to be proposed by engineering students.

 The theory states that
a brittle material will fail when the maximum principal
stress exceeds some value,  Is it a good theory ?
independent of whether other components of
the stress values are present.

 Yielding begins
when the maximum principal stress in a stress element
exceeds the yield strength.

Maximum Normal (Principal) Stress Theory (MNS) 663 / 82 Theory Yield Envelope for Plane Stress States 664 / 82

 Experimental data shows

the theory is unsafe in

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
the 4th quadrant.


DEPARTMENT
This theory is not safe
II

III
I

IV
II

III
I

IV
to use for ductile materials.

σ1 σ2
Sy Sy

Yield strength (Sy).

4th quadrant

Theory Yield Envelope for Plane Stress States 665 / 82 Ch 5 Failure Resulting from Static Loading (Static Design) 666 / 82

ME 311
II I

MACHINE ELEMENTS IIII IV

σ1 σ2
Sy Sy

Yield strength (Sy).

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Failure Theories for Ductile Materials 667 / 82 Maximum Shear Stress Theory (MSS) [Tresca or Guest Theory] 668 / 82

Theory:

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY  Yielding begins

when the maximum shear stress in a stress element exceeds
Henri Tresca
(1814-1885)

the maximum shear stress in a tension test specimen of the

same material when that specimen begins to yield.

Maximum Shear Stress Theory (MSS) 669 / 82 Maximum Shear Stress Theory (MSS) 670 / 82

For uniaxial stress state For general stress state

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
 For a tension test specimen,
the maximum shear stress is (1 /2 ).

 At yielding, when 1 = Sy,

DEPARTMENT

the maximum shear stress

Could restate the theory as follows:

◦ Theory:
Yielding begins when the maximum shear stress in a stress
element exceeds Sy/2.

Mohr Circle Diagram Drawing

Maximum Shear Stress Theory (MSS) 671 / 82 Maximum Shear Stress Theory (MSS) 672 / 82

 For any stress element,  For design purposes,

◦ use Mohr’s circle to find the maximum shear stress (max ) ◦ Eq. (5–1) can be modified to incorporate a factor of safety (n)

 ME 311
Ordering the principal stresses such that

MACHINE ELEMENTS I  Or solving for factor of safety (n)

 The yield strength in shear ( Ssy ) is given by

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Maximum Shear Stress Theory (MSS) 673 / 82 Maximum Shear Stress Theory (MSS) 674 / 82

 To compare to experimental data,  Case 1: A ≥B ≥

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY


◦ express max in terms of principal stresses ( σ1, σ2 , σ3 ) and plot.

To simplify, consider a plane stress state


◦ 1 = A and 3 = 0
◦ Eq. (5–1) reduces to A ≥ Sy

Case 2: A ≥  ≥B
 Let A and B represent the two non-zero principal stresses,
then order them with the zero principal stress such that ◦ For this case, 1 = A and 3 = B
◦ Eq. (5–1) reduces to A − B ≥ Sy
1 ≥2 ≥3

 Assuming A ≥B there are three cases to consider  Case 3: 0 ≥A ≥ B

◦ For this case, 1 =  and 3 = B
◦ Case 1: A ≥B ≥ ◦ Eq. (5–1) reduces to B ≤ −Sy

◦ Case 2: A ≥ ≥B

◦ Case 3: 0 ≥A ≥ B

Maximum Shear Stress Theory (MSS) Inside envelope 675 / 82 Maximum Shear Stress Theory (MSS) 676 / 82
(grey zone) is
 Plot three cases on principal stress axes predicted safe zone
(nonyield region)

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
 Case 1:

A ≥B ≥
A ≥ Sy

Case 2:

DEPARTMENT


A ≥ ≥B II I II I
A − B ≥ Sy
III IV III IV
 Case 3:

0 ≥A ≥ B
B ≤ −Sy

 Other lines are symmetric cases

Maximum Shear Stress Theory (MSS) 677 / 82 Maximum Shear Stress Theory (MSS) 678 / 82

Such as at point b,,

the MSS theory predicts
that the stress element
 The factor of safety (n)
will yield guarding against yield at point a

ME 311
Suppose point a represents
the stress state of a critical is given by the ratio of strength
stress element of a member (distance to failure at point b)
to stress (distance to stress at point a)

 MACHINE ELEMENTS I
If the load is increased,
the principal stresses will
increase proportionally along
the line from the origin
II
III
I

IV
II
III
I

IV

through point a.

If the stress situation

increases along the load line
until it crosses the stress
failure envelope.

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Maximum Shear Stress Theory (MSS) 679 / 82 Maximum Normal (Principal) Stress Theory (MNS) 680 / 82

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

 Comparison to
experimental data

 Conservative in
all quadrants

 Commonly used for II I II I I

II
design situations
III IV III IVIV
III

Compare ((MSS) - (MNS)) 681 / 82 Ch 5 Failure Resulting from Static Loading (Static Design) 682 / 82

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT

Ch 5 Failure Resulting from Static Loading (Static Design) 683 / 82 Static Failure Theories 684 / 82

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I Maximum Normal (Principal)
Stress Theory (MNS)

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Failure Theories for Ductile Materials 685 / 82 Distortion Energy (DE) Failure Theory 686 / 82

 Also known as:

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY ◦ Maximum distortion-energy theory

◦ Octahedral Shear Stress

◦ Shear Energy Richard Edler von Mises

1883 – 1953

◦ Von Mises

◦ Von Mises – Hencky Theory

(redefined independently by R. von Mises and H. Hencky)

◦ The distortion-energy theory predicts that

yielding occurs when the distortion strain energy per unit volume
reaches or exceeds the distortion strain energy per unit volume for
yield in simple tension or compression of the same material.

Distortion Energy (DE) Failure Theory 687 / 82 Deriving the Distortion Energy 688 / 82

 The distortion-energy (DE) theory originated from the observation that

ductile materials stressed hydrostatically (equal principal
The unit volume subjected to any three dimensional stress state

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

stresses) exhibited yield strengths greatly
in excess of the values given by the simple tension test. designated by the stresses σ1, σ2 , σ3

DEPARTMENT
It was postulated that
yielding was not a simple tensile or compressive phenomenon at all,
but, rather, that it was related some how to the angular distortion
of the stressed element.

Multi-axial Stress Element : 3D Stresses 689 / 82 Deriving the Distortion Energy 690 / 82

 The stress state shown in Fig. 5–8b is one of hydrostatic normal stresses
due to the stresses σav acting in each of the same principal directions as in

ME 311 
Fig. 5–8a.

Hydrostatic stress is average of principal stresses

MACHINE ELEMENTS I σyy

σxx xy
σyy xz
σzz yz
σzz σxx

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Deriving the Distortion Energy 691 / 82 Deriving the Distortion Energy 692 / 82

 The element in Fig. 5–8b undergoes pure volume change

 Strain energy per unit volume for simple tension,
(no angular distortion)

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

 If we regard σav as a component of σ1, σ2 and σ3,
then this component can be subtracted from them,
resulting in the stress state shown in Fig. 5–8c
 For the element of Fig. 5–8a the strain energy per unit volume
 The element is subjected to pure angular distortion (no volume change)

no angular
no volume
distortion
change

Deriving the Distortion Energy 693 / 82 Deriving the Distortion Energy 694 / 82

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT
 Substituting Eq. (3–19) for principal strains into strain energy equation,

Deriving the Distortion Energy 695 / 82 Deriving the Distortion Energy 696 / 82

 Obtain distortion energy by subtracting volume changing energy,

Eq. (5–7), from total strain energy, Eq. (b)

ME 311
Strain energy for producing only volume change is obtained by substituting
av for 1, 2, and 3

MACHINE ELEMENTS I
substitute the square of Eq. (a) in Eq. (c)

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Distortion Energy (DE) Failure Theory 697 / 82 Distortion Energy (DE) Failure Theory 698 / 82

 Theorizes that Theory:

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

if strain energy (a) is divided into
(b) hydrostatic volume changing energy and a
(c) angular distortion energy,
the yielding is primarily affected by the distortion energy.
 Yielding occurs
when the distortion strain energy per unit volume reaches
the distortion strain energy per unit volume for yield in
simple tension or compression of the same material.

Deriving the Distortion Energy 699 / 82 Deriving the Distortion Energy 700 / 82

 For the general state of stress given by Eq. (5–8),

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING yield is predicted if Eq. (5–8) equals or exceeds Eq. (5–9).


DEPARTMENT
Tension test specimen at yield has 1 = Sy and 2 = 3 =0

Applying to Eq. (5–8), distortion energy for tension test specimen is

Von Mises Stress for Plane (2D) Stresses 701 / 82 Von Mises Stress ( σ’ ) 702 / 82

ME 311


MACHINE ELEMENTS I
For plane stress,
◦ the von Mises stress can be represented by
the principal stresses (σ1, σ2 , σ3) σA , σB and zero.
Left hand side is defined as
a single, equivalent, or effective stress
for the entire general state of stress given by σ1, σ2 and σ3

von Mises stress ( )

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Ch 5 Failure Resulting from Static Loading (Static Design) 703 / 66 Static Failure Theories 704 / 66

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

Maximum Normal (Principal)
Stress Theory (MNS)

Failure Theories for Ductile Materials 705 / 66 Ductile Mohr – Coulomb Theory for Ductile Materials 706 / 66

 Some materials have compressive strengths different from tensile strengths.

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING  e.g,

◦ the yield strength of magnesium alloys in compression may be as little as
50 % of their yield strength in tension.

DEPARTMENT ◦ The ultimate strength of gray cast irons (CI) in compression

varies from 3 to 4 times greater than the ultimate tensile strength (UTS).

In this section,
theories to be used to predict failure for materials
whose strengths in tension and compression are not equal
will be interested.

Failure Theories for Ductile Materials 707 / 66 Failure Theories for Ductile Materials 708 / 66

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I

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Failure Theories for Ductile Materials 709 / 66 Ductile Mohr – Coulomb Theory for Ductile Materials 710 / 66

 Mohr theory of failure ( 1900) is based on three simple tests:

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

tension, compression, and shear
to yielding if the material can yield, or to rupture
Christian Otto Mohr
 Plotting Mohr’s circle for each, 1835 - 1918

bounding curve defines failure envelope tangent to the three circles,

depicted as curve ABCDE in the figure

shear tension
compression

Failure Theories for Ductile Materials 711 / 66 Ductile Mohr – Coulomb Theory for Ductile Materials 712 / 66

 The three Mohr circles describing the stress state in a body (Fig. 3–12)
growing during loading until one of them became

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 
tangent to the failure envelope, thereby defining failure.

Was the form of the failure envelope straight, circular, or quadratic

DEPARTMENT
shear tension
compression

Coulomb-Mohr Theory 713 / 66 Coulomb-Mohr Theory 714 / 66

 Curved failure curve is difficult to determine analytically

 Considering the conventional
ordering of the principal stresses

ME 311
 Coulomb-Mohr theory or the internal-friction theory
such that
(a variation of Mohr’s theory) simplifies to linear failure envelope
(assuming the boundary BCD in Fig. 5–12 is straight)
using only tension and compression tests (dashed circles)
 From the geometry,

MACHINE ELEMENTS I derive the failure criteria

are the radii of the right,

center, and left circles, respectively.

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Coulomb-Mohr Theory 715 / 66 Coulomb-Mohr Theory 716 / 66

 For design equations,

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY ◦ incorporating factor of safety (n)

 For ductile material,

Canceling the 2 in each term, use tensile and compressive yield strengths (Syt , Syc)
cross multiplying, and simplifying
reduces this equation to
 For brittle material,
use tensile and compressive ultimate strengths (Sut , Suc)
n

Coulomb-Mohr Theory 717 / 66 Coulomb-Mohr Theory 718 / 66

To plot on principal stress axes, consider three cases

 For plane stress,
 Case 1: A ≥B ≥

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
◦ when the two nonzero principal stresses are
◦ For this case, 1 = A and 3 = 0
◦ Eq. (5−22) reduces to A ≥ St

 Situation similar to the three cases given for the MSS theory,  Case 2: A ≥ ≥B
Eqs. (5–4) to (5–6).

DEPARTMENT ◦ For this case, 1 = A and 3 = B

◦ Eq. (5-22) reduces to

 Case 3: 0 ≥A ≥ B
◦ For this case, 1 =  and 3 = B
◦ Eq. (5−22) reduces to A ≤ - Sc

Maximum Shear Stress Theory (MSS) 719 / 66 Coulomb-Mohr Theory 720 / 66

 Plot three cases on principal stress axes

 Case 1: A ≥B ≥
◦ 1 = A and 3 = 0  Similar to MSS theory,

 Case 2:
ME 311
◦ Eq. (5–1) reduces to A ≥ Sy

A ≥  ≥B
◦ For this case, 1 = A and 3 = B
except with different strengths for compression and tension

MACHINE ELEMENTS I
II I
◦ Eq. (5–1) reduces to A − B ≥ Sy III
IV

 Case 3: 0 ≥A ≥ B
◦ For this case, 1 =  and 3 = B Inside envelope
◦ Eq. (5–1) reduces to B ≤ −Sy (grey zone) is predicted safe
zone (nonyield region)

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Coulomb-Mohr Theory 721 / 66 Maximum Shear Stress Theory (MSS) Inside envelope 722 / 66
(grey zone) is
 Plot three cases on principal stress axes  Plot three cases on principal stress axes predicted safe zone
(nonyield region)

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

 Similar to MSS theory,
except with different strengths for compression and tension
Case 1:
A ≥B ≥
 Case 1:

A ≥B ≥
A ≥ Sy

 Case 2:
II I
III
Case 2: A ≥ ≥B II I
IV A ≥ ≥B A − B ≥ Sy
III IV
 Case 3:
Inside envelope
(grey zone) is predicted safe
Case 3:
zone (nonyield region) 0 ≥A ≥ B 0 ≥A ≥ B
B ≤ −Sy

 Other lines are symmetric cases

Von Mises Stress for Plane Stresses 723 / 66 Coulomb-Mohr Theory 724 / 66

 Intersect the pure shear load line with the failure line
 Equation is a rotated ellipse in the σA , σB plane (Fig. 5–9) with to determine the yield strength (Sy)

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
The dotted lines in the


For pure shear
The torsional yield strength (Ssy) occurs when
 Substituting

DEPARTMENT
figure represent the MSS
theory, which can be seen
to be more restrictive,
hence, more conservative  Since failure line is
a function of tensile and compressive strengths, Ssy = f ( Syc , Syt )
shear strength is also a function of these terms.

Example 5–2 725 / 66 Example 5–2 726 / 66

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I

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Ch 5 Failure Resulting from Static Loading (Static Design) 727 / 66 Failure of Ductile Materials - Summary 728 / 66

 Plot von Mises stress on principal stress axes

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

to compare to experimental data
(and to other failure theories)

 Commonly used for analysis situations

 MSS theory useful for design situations

where higher reliability (R) is desired

Failure of Ductile Materials Summary 729 / 66 Example 5−3 730 / 66

This example illustrates the use of a failure theory

to determine the strength of a mechanical element or component.

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING The example may also clear up any CONFUSION existing between the phrases
strength of a machine part,
strength of a material, and
strength of a part at a point.

DEPARTMENT
Fig. 5–15

Example 5−3 731 / 66 Example 5−3 (continued) 732 / 66

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I Shoulder A

S
A socket wrench Lever DC

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Example 5−3 (continued) 733 / 66 Example 5−3 (continued) – with DE theory 734 / 66

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

In this example

the strength of the material at point A Sy = 560 MPa

the strength of the assembly or component F = 1.8 kN.

Example 5−3 (continued) – with MSS theory 735 / 66 Maximum Shear Stress Theory (MSS) Inside envelope 736 / 66
(grey zone) is
 Plot three cases on principal stress axes predicted safe zone
(nonyield region)
1

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
 Case 1:

A ≥B ≥
A ≥ Sy

Case 2:

DEPARTMENT


A ≥ ≥B II I
A − B ≥ Sy
III IV
F = 1.8 kN for DE.  Case 3:
F = 1.65 kN for MSS.
0 ≥A ≥ B
B ≤ −Sy

B A
 Other lines are symmetric cases

Von Mises Stress for Plane Stresses 737 / 66 Example 5−4 738 / 66

 Equation is a rotated ellipse in the σA , σB plane (Fig. 5–9) with

The dotted lines in the

ME 311
figure represent the MSS
Select a stock-size tube from Table A– 8 Size ?

MACHINE ELEMENTS I
theory, which can be seen
to be more restrictive,
hence, more conservative

Fig. 5−17

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Example 5−4 (continued) 739 / 66 Example 5−4 (continued) 740 / 66

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

Example 5−4 (continued) 741 / 66 Static Failure Theories 742 / 66

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT Maximum Normal (Principal)
Stress Theory (MNS)

Chapter Outline 743 / 66 Ch 5 Failure Resulting from Static Loading (Static Design) 744 / 66

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I
.

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ME 311 Machine Elements I - Course Outline 745 / 66 Chapter Outline 746 / 66

1) Introduction to Mechanical Eng. Design (Machine Elements)

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

2) Materials in Design
3) Stress Analysis
4) Deflection Analysis

5) Static Design Criteria (Static Failures Resulting from Static Loading)

6) Fatigue Design Criteria (Fatigue Failures Resulting from Variable Loading)

7) Introduction to Machine Elements (Design, Selection, Computations)

8) Design of Shafts and Shaft Components

(Keys, Splines, Pins, Tolerances and Fits)
9) Design of Nonpermanent (Detachable) Joints (Screws, Fasteners, Rivets)
10) Design of Permanent (Nondetachable) Joints (Welding, Soldering,
Brazing etc.)
11) Design of Mechanical Springs

Static Failure Theories 747 / 66 Ch 5 Failure Resulting from Static Loading (Static Design) 748 / 66

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT Maximum Normal (Principal)
Stress Theory (MNS)

Failure Theories for Brittle Materials 749 / 66 Failure Theories for Brittle Materials 750 / 66

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I

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Failure Theories for Brittle Materials 751 / 66 Failure Theories for Brittle Materials 752 / 66

 Experimental data indicates

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY some differences in failure for brittle materials.
 Failure criteria is
generally ultimate fracture (Sut , Suc) rather than yielding
 Compressive strengths are usually
larger than tensile strengths

Maximum-Normal-Stress Theory
for Ductile Materials Fig. 5−19

Maximum Normal Stress Theory (MNS) 753 / 66 Maximum Normal Stress Theory 754 / 66

 Plot on principal stress axes

Theory:

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
 Unsafe in part of 4th quadrant
Failure occurs when the maximum principal stress
in a stress element exceeds the strength.  Not recommended for use !

 Predicts failure when


DEPARTMENT
For plane stress,
II I

 Incorporating design factor, III IV

Fig. 5−18

Static Failure Theories 755 / 66 Failure Theories for Brittle Materials 756 / 66

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I Maximum Normal (Principal)
Stress Theory (MNS)

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Ch 5 Failure Resulting from Static Loading (Static Design) 757 / 66 Brittle Coulomb-Mohr Theory (BCM) 758 / 66

MNS BCM

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

Brittle Coulomb-Mohr Theory 759 / 66 Brittle Failure Experimental Data 760 / 66

Coulomb-Mohr Theory
 Same as previously derived,
 is conservative in 4th quadrant

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
using ultimate strengths for failure
 adjusts to better fit the data in the 4th quadrant

 Failure equations dependent on quadrant

DEPARTMENT II

III
I

IV

Fig. 5−14

Static Failure Theories 761 / 66 Failure Theories for Brittle Materials 762 / 66

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I Maximum Normal (Principal)
Stress Theory (MNS)

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Brittle Coulomb-Mohr Theory - Modified-Mohr Theory 763 / 66 Modified-Mohr Theory (MM) 764 / 66

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

BCM MM

Modified-Mohr Theory 765 / 66 766 / 66

Quadrant condition Failure criteria

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT

Example 5−5 767 / 90 Example 5−5 (continued) 768 / 90

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I
Fig. 5−16

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Example 5−5 (continued) 769 / 90 Example 5−5 (continued) 770 / 90

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

Sut = 31 kpsi ≈ 210 MPa

Sut = 109 kpsi ≈ 750 MPa

Example 5−5 (continued) 771 / 90 Ch 5 Failure Resulting from Static Loading (Static Design) 772 / 90

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT

Failure of Brittle Materials - Summary 773 / 90 Failure of Brittle Materials - Summary 774 / 90

• Identified failure or strength of brittle materials that conform to the usual meaning of the Figure 5–20 shows data for a nominal grade 30 cast iron taken under biaxial stress
word brittle, relating to those materials whose true strain (ε) at fracture is 0.05 or less. conditions, with several brittle failure hypotheses shown, superposed.

ME 311
• Be aware of normally ductile materials that for some reason
may develop a brittle fracture or crack if used below the transition temperature.
Note the following:

• In the 1st quadrant the data appear on

both sides and along the failure curves of
maximum-normal-stress, Coulomb-Mohr,

MACHINE ELEMENTS I ME 221 & ME 222

Material Science &
Engineering
and modified Mohr. All failure curves are
the same, and data fit well.

• In the 4th quadrant the modified Mohr

theory represents the data best, whereas
the maximum-normal-stress theory does
not.

• In the 3rd quadrant the points A, B, C,

and D are too few to make any suggestion
concerning a fracture locus.

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Ch 5 Failure Resulting from Static Loading (Static Design) 775 / 90 Selection of Failure Criteria - Summary 776 / 90

First determine ductile vs. brittle

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY  For ductile

◦ MSS is conservative,
 often used for design where higher reliability is desired
◦ DE is typical,
 often used for analysis where agreement with experimental
data is desired
◦ If tensile and compressive strengths differ,
 use Ductile Coulomb-Mohr

 For brittle
◦ Mohr theory is best, but difficult to use
◦ Brittle Coulomb-Mohr is very conservative in 4th quadrant
◦ Modified Mohr is still slightly conservative in 4th quadrant,
but closer to typical

Static Failure Theories 777 / 90 Selection of Failure Criteria in Flowchart Form 778 / 90

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT Maximum Normal (Principal)
Stress Theory (MNS)

Fig. 5−21

Ch 5 Failure Resulting from Static Loading (Static Design) 779 / 90 Introduction to Fracture Mechanics 780 / 90

Linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM)

◦ analyzes crack growth during service

ME 311  Assumes
◦ cracks can exist before service begins, e.g. flaw, inclusion, or defect

MACHINE ELEMENTS I 


Attempts to
◦ model and predict the growth of a crack

Stress concentration approach is inadequate

◦ when notch radius becomes extremely sharp, as in a crack,
◦ since stress concentration factor approaches infinity

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Introduction to Fracture Mechanics 781 / 90 Ch 5 Failure Resulting from Static Loading (Static Design) 782 / 90

 Ductile materials

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY


◦ often can neglect effect of crack growth,
◦ since local plastic deformation blunts sharp cracks

Relatively brittle materials, such as

glass, hard steels, strong aluminum alloys, and
steel below the ductile-to- brittle transition temperature,
◦ benefit from fracture mechanics analysis

Application of Design Equations 783 / 90 Application of Design Equations 784 / 90

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Principal stresses are determined by stress analysis.

Stress analysis describes the principal stresses as a function of

1)
2)
Load carried,
Geometry and dimensions of the machine or structural element

DEPARTMENT
σxx, σyy , σzz σ 1, σ 2 , σ 3
Left hand side of design equation
xy, yz , xz
Equivalent stress in terms of loads and dimensions of machine or structural element,

Right hand side of design equation

Indicator of strength expressed as working, (design, allowable) stress a function of

strength of the material, and a factor of safety.

ME 311 Machine Elements I - Course Outline 785 / 90 Static Load 786 / 90

 In addition to considering the strength of a single part,

1) Introduction to Mechanical Eng. Design (Machine Elements)

2) Materials in Design
3) Stress Analysis
4) Deflection Analysis ME 311 ◦ the strengths of the mass-produced parts will all be somewhat
different from the others in the collection or ensemble
◦ because of variations in dimensions, machining, forming, and
composition.
5) Static Design Criteria (Static Failures Resulting from Static Loading)

MACHINE ELEMENTS I
6) Fatigue Design Criteria (Fatigue Resulting from Variable Loading)

7) Introduction to Machine Elements (Design, Selection, Computations)

8) Design of Shafts and Shaft Components

 Descriptors of strength are necessarily statistical in nature, involving
parameters such as
 mean,
(Keys, Splines, Pins, Tolerances and Fits)  standard deviations, and
9) Design of Nonpermanent (Detachable) Joints (Screws, Fasteners, Rivets)  distributional identification.
10) Design of Permanent (Nondetachable) Joints (Welding, Soldering,
Brazing etc.)
11) Design of Mechanical Springs

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Static Load 787 / 90 Static Load 788 / 90

A static load can produce axial tension or compression, a shear load,

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

A static load is a stationary force or couple applied to a member.

To be stationary,
the force or couple must be unchanging in
a bending load, a torsional load, or any combination of these.

To be considered static,
the load cannot change in any manner.
magnitude, point or points of application, and direction.

Static Load 789 / 90 Static Load - Summary 790 / 90

 Time independent load  A static load is defined as a force,

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
 Not change with time ◦ which is gradually applied to a mechanical component and
which does not change its


DEPARTMENT
Little variations in long term time can be assumed as static load.
 magnitude,
 location or
 direction
 with respect to time.

Strength and Static loading 791 / 90 Failures 792 / 90

 Consider the relations between strength and static loading Failure of a part (machine or structural element)



ME 311
◦ in order to make the decisions concerning

material and its

treatment,


separated into two or more pieces;
become permanently distorted (yielding),
 thus ruining its geometry (distortion);

MACHINE ELEMENTS I
 had its reliability downgraded;
 fabrication, and
 had its function compromised (be in risk),
 geometry for satisfying the requirements of functionality,
 safety,
 reliability,
Designers
 competitiveness,
 usability,
on the predictability of permanent distortion or separation.
 manufacturability, and
 marketability.

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Failures – Failure Strength 793 / 90 Types (Modes) of Failures 794 / 90

In strength-sensitive situations Excessive deflection

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

the designer must separate
mean stress (σ) and mean strength (S)
at the critical location sufficiently
Elastic deflection (low stiffness)
Deflection caused by creep

Yielding (local plastic deformation)

to accomplish his or her purposes. Fracture

Sudden failure of brittle material
Failure of cracked (flawed) members
The failure strength is the yield strength (Sy) Progressive fracture (fatigue)

Instability (buckling)
(or if the material does not yield such as
some brittle materials failure will
mean fracture ultimate strength - Sf).
Other types of mechanical failure mechanisms are:
impact, creep, thermal shock, wear, stress corrosion cracking, corrosion
of surfaces, and various types of fatigue

Failure Examples 795 / 90 Failure Examples 796 / 90

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT

Failure Examples 797 / 90 Failure Examples 798 / 90

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I

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Failure Examples 799 / 90 Failure Examples 800 / 90

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

Failure Examples 801 / 90 Failure Examples 802 / 90

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT

Failure Examples 803 / 90 Failure Examples 804 / 90

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I
Failure of truck driveshaft spline due to corrosion fatigue  Impact failure of a lawn-mower blade driver hub.


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Failure Examples 805 / 90 Failure Examples 806 / 90

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

 Chain test fixture that failed in one cycle.
 Failure of an overhead-pulley retaining bolt
 To alleviate complaints of excessive wear,
on a weightlifting machine.
◦ the manufacturer decided to case-harden the material
(a) Two halves showing brittle fracture initiated by stress concentration
 A manufacturing error caused a gap t
(b) Enlarged view showing cracks induced by stress concentration at the
hat forced the bolt to take the entire moment load. support-pin holes

Failure Examples 807 / 90 Ch 6 Failure Resulting from Static Loading (Fatigue Design) 808 / 90

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT
 Valve-spring failure caused by spring surge in an overspeed engine.
 The fractures exhibit the classic 45 degree shear failure

6.1 Introduction to Fatigue in Metals 809 / 90 6.1 Introduction to Fatigue in Metals 810 / 90

 Relatively simple to design against a static failure,

 Loading produces stresses that are
◦ because our knowledge is comprehensive.

ME 311
variable, repeated, alternating, or fluctuating

 Fatigue is a much more complicated phenomenon,

 Maximum stresses well below the ultimate strength of the material, and
quite frequently even below the yield strength. ◦ only partially understood

 MACHINE ELEMENTS I
Failure occurs after many stress cycles
(repeated a very large number of times) – Fatigue failure
 appearance similar to a brittle fracture,
◦ as the fracture surfaces are flat and perpendicular to the stress axis
with the absence of necking.

 The fracture features of a fatigue failure,

 Failure is by sudden ultimate fracture
◦ quite different from a static brittle fracture arising from three stages
of development.
 No visible warning in advance of failure (total, dangerous, catastrophic)

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Stages of Fatigue Failure 811 / 90 Stages of Fatigue Failure 812 / 90

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

 Stage I –
◦ Initiation of micro-crack due to
cyclic plastic deformation

 Stage II –
◦ Progresses to macro-crack that repeatedly opens
and closes,
◦ creating bands called beach marks, clamshell
marks

 Stage III –
◦ Crack has propagated far enough that remaining
material is insufficient to carry the load,
◦ and fails by simple ultimate failure

Stages of Fatigue Failure 813 / 90 Schematics of Fatigue Fracture Surfaces 814 / 90

◦ Fatigue failure is due to crack formation and propagation.

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
◦ Fatigue cracks usually initiate
at location with high stresses such as discontinuities
(hole, notch, scratch, sharp corner, crack, inclusions, etc.).

DEPARTMENT
◦ Fatigue cracks can also initiate
 at surfaces having rough surface finish or
 due to the presence of tensile residual stresses.

◦ All parts subjected to fatigue loading are heat treated and polished
in order to increase the fatigue life.

From ASM Metals Handbook, Vol. 11: Failure Analysis and

Prevention, 1986, ASM International, Materials
Fig. 6–2 Park, OH 44073-0002, fig 18, p. 111. Reprinted by permission
of ASM International®,
www.asminternational.org.

Schematics of Fatigue Fracture Surfaces 815 / 90 Schematics of Fatigue Fracture Surfaces 816 / 90

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I From ASM Metals
Handbook, Vol. 11: Failure
Analysis and Prevention, 1986,
ASM International, Materials
Park, OH 44073-0002, fig 18,
p. 111. Reprinted by permission
of ASM International®,
www.asminternational.org.
From ASM Metals
Handbook, Vol. 11: Failure
Fig. 6–2 Analysis and Prevention, 1986,
ASM International, Materials
Park, OH 44073-0002, fig 18,
p. 111. Reprinted by permission

Fig. 6–2 of ASM International®,

www.asminternational.org.

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Fatigue Fracture - Examples 817 / 90 Fatigue Fracture - Examples 818 / 90

 AISI 4320 drive shaft Fatigue failure initiating at

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY


mismatched grease holes
 B – crack initiation at  Sharp corners (at arrows)
stress concentration in provided stress
keyway concentrations

 C– Final brittle failure

From ASM Handbook,

From ASM Handbook, Vol. 12: Fractography,
Vol. 12: Fractography, 2nd printing, 1992, ASM
2nd printing, 1992, ASM International, Materials Park,
International, Materials OH 44073-0002, fig 520,

Fig. 6–3
Park, OH 44073-0002, fig 51,
p. 120. Reprinted by permission Fig. 6–4 p. 331. Reprinted by
permission
of ASM International®, of ASM International®,
www.asminternational.org. www.asminternational.org

Fatigue Fracture - Examples 819 / 90 820 / 90

 Fatigue failure of

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

forged connecting rod

Crack initiated at flash

line of the forging at the


DEPARTMENT
left edge of picture

Beach marks show crack

propagation halfway
around the hole before
ultimate fracture Fig. 6–5 From ASM Handbook,
Vol. 12: Fractography,
2nd printing, 1992, ASM
International, Materials Park,
OH 44073-0002, fig 523,
p. 332. Reprinted by permission
of ASM International®,
www.asminternational.org.)

Fatigue Fracture - Examples 821 / 90 Fatigue Fracture - Examples 822 / 90

Fig. 6–7
 Double-flange trailer wheel From ASM Metals Handbook, Vol.
11: Failure Analysis and Prevention,
 Fatigue failure of a 200 mm  Cracks initiated at stamp marks 1986, ASM International, Materials
Park, OH

ME 311
diameter piston rod of an
44073-0002, fig 51, p. 130.
Reprinted by permission of ASM
International®,

alloy steel steam hammer

www.asminternational.org.

 Loaded axially


MACHINE ELEMENTS I
Crack initiated at a forging
flake internal to the part

 Internal crack
grew outward
symmetrically (From ASM Handbook, Vol.
12: Fractography, 2nd
printing, 1992, ASM

Fig. 6–6 International, Materials

Park, OH 44073-0002, fig
570, p. 342. Reprinted
by permission of ASM
International®,
www.asminternational.org.)

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Fatigue Fracture - Examples 823 / 90 824 / 90

 Aluminum alloy landing-gear torque-arm assembly

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

redesign to eliminate fatigue fracture at lubrication hole

From ASM Metals

Handbook, Vol. 11: Failure
Analysis and Prevention,
1986,
ASM International, Materials
Park, OH 44073-0002, fig 23,
p. 114. Reprinted by
permission
of ASM International®,
www.asminternational.org
Fig. 6–8

Ch 6 Failure Resulting from Static Loading (Fatigue Design) 825 / 90 6.2 Approach to Fatigue Failure in Analysis and Design 826 / 90

Fatigue-Life Methods (Secs. 6–3 to 6–6)

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING


 Fatigue Strength and the Endurance Limit (Secs. 6–7 and 6–8)

DEPARTMENT
 Endurance Limit Modifying Factors (Sec. 6–9)

 Stress Concentration and Notch Sensitivity (Sec. 6–10)

 Combinations of Loading Modes (Sec. 6–14)

 Varying, Fluctuating Stresses; Cumulative Fatigue Damage

(Sec. 6–15)

Ch 6 Failure Resulting from Static Loading (Fatigue Design) 827 / 90 6.3 Fatigue-Life Methods 828 / 90

 Fatigue failure is a much more complicated phenomenon than

static failure where much complicating factors are involved.

ME 311  Also, testing materials for fatigue properties is more complicated

and much more time consuming than static testing.

Methods predict life

MACHINE ELEMENTS I

in number of loading cycles to failure (N) ,
for a specific level of loading

The fatigue life is usually classified according to

the number of loading cycles (N)

1 ≤ N ≤ 103 cycles – low cycle fatigue,

N > 103 cycles – high cycle fatigue.

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Fatigue-Life Methods 829 / 90 Fatigue-Life Methods 830 / 90

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

 Three major fatigue life models

1. Stress-life method
 Three major fatigue life models

1. Stress-life method

2. Strain-life method 2. Strain-life method

3. Linear-elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) method 3. Linear-elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) method

Fatigue-Life Methods (Stress-Life Method) 831 / 90 Fatigue-Life Methods 832 / 90

 Stress-life method

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
◦ Based on stress levels only

◦ Least accurate, particularly for low cycle applications

 Three major fatigue life models

1. Stress-life method

DEPARTMENT ◦ Most traditional, easiest to implement

for a wide range of design applications
2. Strain-life method

3. Linear-elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) method

◦ Ample supporting data, and

represents high-cycle applications adequately.

Fatigue-Life Methods (Strain Life Method) 833 / 90 Fatigue-Life Methods 834 / 90

 Strain-life method
 Three major fatigue life models

ME 311
◦ Involves more detailed analysis of the plastic deformation
at localized regions
(where the stresses and strains are considered for life estimates).
1. Stress-life method

2. Strain-life method

MACHINE ELEMENTS I
◦ Good for low-cycle fatigue applications

◦ Several idealizations must be compounded

3. Linear-elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) method

◦ Some uncertainties will exist in the results.

(For this reason, it will be discussed only because of its value in adding
to the understanding of the nature of fatigue)

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Fatigue-Life Methods (LEFM) 835 / 90 Fatigue-Life Methods 836 / 90

Linear-elastic fracture mechanics method

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY


 Three major fatigue life models

◦ Assumes small crack exists (already present and detected)

1. Stress-life method

◦ Predicts crack growth wrt stress intensity

2. Strain-life method

◦ Most practical when applied to large structures in conjunction

3. Linear-elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) method
with computer codes and a periodic inspection program.

◦ This method is more applicable to high-cycle fatigue.

Ch 6 Failure Resulting from Static Loading (Fatigue Design) 837 / 90 6.4 Stress-Life Method 838 / 90

 To determine the strength of materials under the action of fatigue loads,

specimens are subjected to repeated or varying forces

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 
of specified magnitudes while the cycles (N) or stress reversals are
counted to destruction.

The most widely used fatigue-testing equipment is

DEPARTMENT the R. R. Moore high-speed rotating-beam machine.

6.4 Stress-Life Method 839 / 90 6.4 Stress-Life Method 840 / 90

 Specimen subjecting to pure bending (no transverse shear)


ME 311
As specimen rotates,
◦ stress fluctuates between equal magnitudes of tension and compression
(known as completely reversed stress cycling)

MACHINE ELEMENTS I

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Stress-Life Method 841 / 90 Stress-Life Method – S-N Diagram (Wöhler Diagram) 842 / 90

 The specimen is carefully machined and polished  The first test is made at a stress that is somewhat under the UTS (Sut )

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY


(with a final polishing in an axial direction to avoid circumferential
scratches)

A constant bending load (M) is applied

 The second test is made at a stress that is less than that used in the first.

 This process is continued, and the results are plotted as an S-N diagram

 The number of revolutions (stress reversals) of the beam required for

failure is recorded.  This chart may be plotted on semilog paper or on log-log paper.

S S

N N

Stress-Life Method – S-N Diagram (Wöhler Diagram) 843 / 90 Stress-Life Method – S-N Diagram (Wöhler Diagram) 844 / 90

 For ferrous metals and alloys,  The ordinate of the S-N diagram - the fatigue strength (Sf )
◦ the graph becomes horizontal after the material has been stressed  A statement of this strength value must always be accompanied

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
for a certain number of cycles.

S S


S
by a statement of the number of cycles (N ) to which it corresponds
Number of cycles to failure at varying stress levels is plotted on log-log scale

DEPARTMENT S

N N
N

 Plotting on log paper emphasizes the bend in the curve,

which might not be apparent if the results were plotted by using
Cartesian coordinates. N

S-N Diagram 845 / 90 Wöhler Diagrams 846 / 90

 For steels, a knee occurs near 106 cycles,

◦ beyond this knee failure will not occur,


ME 311
◦ no matter how great the number of cycles.

The strength corresponding to the knee is called endurance limit (Se )

MACHINE ELEMENTS I Endurance

Limit (Se)

106 cycles
Se

Fig. 6–10

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S-N Diagram 847 / 90 S-N Diagram for Nonferrous Metals 848 / 90

• Steel and titanium alloys have a clear endurance limit, but this is not true for all materials.

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY • Nonferrous metals often do not have an endurance limit (Se )

• For instance, aluminum alloys does not have an endurance limit and for such materials the
fatigue strength is reported at 5(108) cycles.

• Fatigue strength (Sf ) is reported at a specific number of cycles

Stress levels Fatigue strength (Sf )

below Se predict
Se infinite life

infinite life

Fig. 6–10

S-N Diagram for Nonferrous Metals 849 / 90 S-N Diagram for Nonferrous Metals 850 / 90

Also, most polymers do not have an endurance limit.

 The graph of Fig. 6–10 never does become horizontal for nonferrous metals and alloys

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Sf

DEPARTMENT 260 MPa

Fatigue strength (Sf )

Se

S-N Diagram - Regions 851 / 90 Stress-Life Method - Review 852 / 90

Below 103 cycles is known as low cycle, and is often considered quasi-static.
Yielding usually occurs before fatigue in this zone.  The stress-life method is the least accurate approach
especially for low-cycle applications.

ME 311
Between 103 and 106 cycles, finite life is predicted

The boundary between these

 Most traditional method, with much published data available.
regions cannot be clearly defined
except for a specific material;
but it lies somewhere between 106  Easiest to implement for a wide range of design applications

MACHINE ELEMENTS I
and 107 cycles for steels
(high-cycle applications)
Sut

 For these reasons the stress-life method will be emphasized in subsequent

sections of study.

Se However,
care should be exercised when applying the method for low-cycle applications,
as the method does not account for the true stress-strain behavior
N=1
when localized yielding occurs.
N

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Fatigue-Life Methods 853 / 90 Ch 6 Failure Resulting from Static Loading (Fatigue Design) 854 / 90

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

 Three major fatigue life models

1. Stress-life method

2. Strain-life method

3. Linear-elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) method

.
ME 311 Machine Elements I - Course Outline 855 / 240 Ch 6 Failure Resulting from Static Loading (Fatigue Design) 856 / 240

1) Introduction to Mechanical Eng. Design (Machine Elements)

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
2) Materials in Design
3) Stress Analysis
4) Deflection Analysis

DEPARTMENT
5) Static Design Criteria (Static Failures Resulting from Static Loading)
6) Fatigue Design Criteria (Fatigue Resulting from Variable Loading)

7) Introduction to Machine Elements (Design, Selection, Computations)

8) Design of Shafts and Shaft Components

(Keys, Splines, Pins, Tolerances and Fits)
9) Design of Nonpermanent (Detachable) Joints (Screws, Fasteners, Rivets)
10) Design of Permanent (Nondetachable) Joints (Welding, Soldering,
Brazing etc.)
11) Design of Mechanical Springs

Fatigue-Life Methods 857 / 240 Fatigue-Life Methods (Stress-Life Method) 858 / 240

 Stress-life method
 Three major fatigue life models

ME 311
1. Stress-life method
◦ Based on stress levels only

◦ Least accurate, particularly for low cycle applications

2. Strain-life method

MACHINE ELEMENTS I
3. Linear-elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) method
◦ Most traditional, easiest to implement
for a wide range of design applications

◦ Ample supporting data, and

represents high-cycle applications adequately.

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Fatigue-Life Methods 859 / 240 Fatigue-Life Methods (Strain Life Method) 860 / 240

 Strain-life method

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

 Three major fatigue life models

1. Stress-life method
◦ Involves more detailed analysis of the plastic deformation
at localized regions
(where the stresses and strains are considered for life estimates).

2. Strain-life method
◦ Good for low-cycle fatigue applications

3. Linear-elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) method

◦ Several idealizations must be compounded

◦ Some uncertainties will exist in the results.

(For this reason, it will be discussed only because of its value in adding
to the understanding of the nature of fatigue)

Ch 6 Failure Resulting from Variable Loading (Fatigue Design) 861 / 240 The Strain-Life Method 862 / 240

 Fatigue failure almost always begins at a local discontinuity

(notch, crack, or other area of stress concentration)

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING  When stress at discontinuity exceeds

elastic limit (2), plastic strain ( εp )
occurs.

DEPARTMENT
 If a fatigue fracture is to occur,
there must exist cyclic plastic strains.

 Need to investigate the behavior of

materials subject to cyclic deformation.

The Strain-Life Method 863 / 240 Relation of Fatigue Life to Strain 864 / 240

 Cyclic plastic strain can change elastic limit, leading to fatigue

ME 311
Fig. 6–12 shows true stress-true strain hysteresis loops
of the first five stress reversals (change to an opposite direction)

MACHINE ELEMENTS I ∎

 Figure 6–13 plots relationship of fatigue life to true-strain amplitude ( )

 Fatigue ductility coefficient ('F ) : true strain corresponding to fracture in one reversal
(point A in Fig. 6–12)
 Fatigue strength coefficient ('F ) : true stress corresponding to fracture in one reversal
(point A in Fig. 6–12)

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Relation of Fatigue Life to Strain 865 / 240 Relation of Fatigue Life to Strain 866 / 240

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

 Fatigue ductility exponent ( c ) : the slope of the plastic-strain line, and is the power • Total strain (Δε ) is sum of elastic and plastic strain
to which the life 2N must be raised to be proportional to the true plastic-strain amplitude.
Note that 2N stress reversals corresponds to N cycles. • Total strain amplitude (Δε / 2 ) is half the total strain range

 Fatigue strength exponent ( b ) : the slope of the elastic-strain line, and is the power
to which the life 2N must be raised to be proportional to the true-stress amplitude.

Relation of Fatigue Life to Strain 867 / 240 Relation of Fatigue Life to Strain 868 / 240

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT
The equation of the plastic-strain line in Fig. 6–13
The equation of the elastic strain line in Fig. 6–13

Plastic-strain Elastic-strain
Manson-Coffin equation Basquin equation

Relation of Fatigue Life to Strain 869 / 240 Manson-Coffin Relationship (N, Δε) 870 / 240

ME 311  Known as
Manson-Coffin relationship between fatigue life (N) and total strain (Δε)

MACHINE ELEMENTS I 


Some values of coefficients (' F , 'F ) and exponents (b, c)
given in Table A–23

Equation has limited use for design

since values for total strain at discontinuities are not readily available
Applying Eq. (a), the total-strain amplitude
 There are no tables or charts of strain-concentration factors in the literature

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871 / 240 Ch 6 Failure Resulting from Variable Loading (Fatigue Design) 872 / 240

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

Ch 6 Failure Resulting from Variable Loading (Fatigue Design) 873 / 240 6.7 The Endurance Limit 874 / 240

 The determination of the endurance limit is important

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
for designing machine elements that are subjected to high-cycle fatigue.

DEPARTMENT

6.7 The Endurance Limit 875 / 240 The Endurance Limit 876 / 240

 The common practice when designing such elements is to make sure that The figure shows
the fatigue stress level in the element is below a plot of the “Endurance Limits” versus “Tensile Strengths”
the endurance limit (S'e) of the material being used.

 ME 311
Finding the endurance limit ( S'e ) using the rotating beam experiment is
time consuming where it requires testing many samples and
the time for each test is relatively long.
for a large number of steel and iron specimens.


MACHINE ELEMENTS I
Therefore they try
◦ to relate the endurance limit to other mechanical properties
S'e = f (Sut)

◦ which are easier to find (such as the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) - Sut).

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The Endurance Limit 877 / 240 6.7 The Endurance Limit ( S'e ) 878 / 240

The graph shows  The endurance limit ( S'e ) for steels has been experimentally

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

a correlation between the ultimate strength and endurance limit found to be related to the ultimate tensile strength ( Sut )
for ultimate strengths up to 1400 MPa
then the endurance limit seems to have a constant value.

1400

Fig. 6–17

The Endurance Limit – (For Steel) 879 / 240 The Endurance Limit – (For Cast Iron) 880 / 240

 Simplified estimate of endurance limit

for steels for the rotating-beam specimen, (S'e )

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT Endurance limit
[MPa]

where Sut is the minimum tensile strength.

275
The prime mark (') on S'e in this equation refers to the rotating-beam specimen
itself (modifications are still needed).

Tensile Strength
600 [MPa]

The Endurance Limit – (For Cast Iron) 881 / 240 The Endurance Limit – (Aluminum Alloys) 882 / 240

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I

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The Endurance Limit – (Titanium Alloys) 883 / 240 Ch 6 Failure Resulting from Variable Loading (Fatigue Design) 884 / 240

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

6.8 Fatigue Strength 885 / 240 6.8 Fatigue Strength 886 / 240

 For design,  The fatigue strength ( Sf ) at 103 cycles

◦ an approximation of the idealized S-N diagram is desirable.

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
 The purpose is to develop methods of approximation of the S-N diagram
in the high-cycle region

DEPARTMENT
To estimate the fatigue strength ( Sf ) at 103 cycles, start with Eq. (6–2)
∎

The equation of the elastic strain line

6.8 Fatigue Strength 887 / 240 6.8 Fatigue Strength 888 / 240

 Define the specimen fatigue strength ( S'f )N at a specific number of cycles (N) as

ME 311  Combine with Eq. (6–2),

MACHINE ELEMENTS I ∎
∎

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Fatigue Strength (Sf ) 889 / 240 Fatigue Strength ( Sf ) 890 / 240

 At 103 cycles,  The SAE approximation for steels with HB ≤ 500 may be used.

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

 f is the fraction of Sut represented by
 To find b, substitute the endurance strength and corresponding cycles into
Eq. (6–9) and solve for b

 Solving for f,

Fatigue Strength (Sf) 891 / 240 Fatigue Strength Fraction ( f ) 892 / 240

 Eqs. (6–11) and (6–12) can be substituted into Eqs. (6–9) and (6–10)
to obtain expressions for S'f and f

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Plot Eq. (6–18) for the fatigue strength

fraction f of Sut at 103 cycles.

DEPARTMENT
Sut =735 MPa
σ'F = 735 + 345 = 1080 MPa
Use f from plot for S'f = f Sut

at 103 cycles on S-N diagram

Assumes Se = S'e= 0.5 Sut at 106 cycles

S'e= 366 MPa b = - 0.0746

f = 0.833
Plotting f for 490  Sut  1400 MPa
Ne= 106 cycles

To be conservative f = 0.9 for Sut  490 MPa

Fatigue Strength Fraction ( f ) 893 / 240 Equations for S-N Diagram 894 / 240

 Write equation for

S-N line from 103 to 106 cycles

ME 311
 Two known points

At N = 103 cycles, Sf = f Sut

At N = 106 cycles, Sf = Se

MACHINE ELEMENTS I Fig. 6–10

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Equations for S-N Diagram 895 / 240 Equations for S-N Diagram 896 / 240

 Equations for line:  If a completely reversed stress (rev ) is given,

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY setting Sf = rev in

Eq. (6–13) and solving for N gives,

Note that the typical S-N diagram, and thus Eq. (6–16), is only applicable
for completely reversed loading.
For general fluctuating loading situations,
At N = 103 cycles, Sf = f Sut it is necessary to obtain an equivalent, completely reversing, stress that
is considered to be equally as damaging as the actual fluctuating stress
At N = 106 cycles, Sf = S e

Low-cycle Fatigue 897 / 240 Example 6–2 898 / 240

 Low-cycle fatigue is defined for fatigue failures in the range

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

1 ≤ N ≤ 103

On the idealized S-N diagram on a log-log scale,

failure is predicted by a straight line

DEPARTMENT
between two points (1, Sut) and (103, f Sut)

Example 6–2 899 / 240 Example 6–2 (continued) 900 / 240

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I
.

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Ch 6 Failure Resulting from Variable Loading (Fatigue Design) 901 / 240 6. 9 Endurance Limit Modifying Factors 902 / 240

 Unrealistic to expect

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY the endurance limit of a mechanical or structural member
to match the values obtained in the laboratory.

 Some differences include

 Material

 Manufacturing

 Environment

 Design

6. 9 Endurance Limit Modifying Factors 903 / 240 Endurance Limit Modifying Factors 904 / 240

Material:

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

composition, basis of failure, variability Test specimen

 Manufacturing:

DEPARTMENT
method, heat treatment, fretting corrosion,
surface condition, stress concentration

 Environment:
corrosion, temperature, stress state, relaxation times
Actual part
 Design:
size, shape, life, stress state, speed, fretting, galling

Endurance Limit Modifying Factors 905 / 240 Endurance Limit Modifying Factors 906 / 240

 Endurance limit S'e

is for carefully prepared and tested specimen

ME 311



MACHINE ELEMENTS I
If warranted, Se is obtained from testing of actual parts

When testing of actual parts is not practical or available,

a set of Marin factors are used to adjust the endurance limit (S'e Se )

S'e : The endurance limit obtained from the rotating beam test.

Se : The endurance limit at the critical location of a machine element

with the geometry and conditions of use.

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Surface Factor – ka 907 / 240 Surface Finish Effects (Surface Factor – ka) 908 / 240

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

 Stresses tend to be high at the surface

 The surface modification factor depends on

Surface Factor – ka
◦ the quality of the finish of the actual part surface
◦ the tensile strength of the part material.
ka
 Surface finish has an impact on initiation of cracks
at localized stress concentrations

 The rotating-beam test specimens are highly polished.

Ultimate Strength [MPa]

 A rough surface finish will reduce the endurance limit

because there will be a higher potential for crack initiation.

Surface Finish Effects (Surface Factor – ka) 909 / 240 Surface Finish Effects to Endurance Limits (Se) 910 / 240

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Surface Factor – ka

DEPARTMENT
ka

Se

Ultimate Strength [MPa]

A rough surface finish will reduce the endurance limit

Surface Factor – ka 911 / 240 Example 6–3 912 / 240

Surface factor is a function of ultimate strength ka = f (Sut )

ME 311
Higher strengths are more sensitive to rough surfaces.

MACHINE ELEMENTS I
If in the example the steel was forged,
the correction factor would be 0.540, a significant reduction of strength.

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Size Factor - kb 913 / 240 Size Factor - kb 914 / 240

 The rotating-beam specimens have a specific (small) diameter.

For bending and torsion loads,

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY


◦ the trend of the size factor data is given by

 Parts of larger size are more likely

◦ to contain flaws and
◦ to have more non-homogeneities.

 Applies only for round, rotating diameter

 Larger parts have greater surface area at high stress levels

 For axial load, there is no size effect, so

 Likelihood of crack initiation is higher

kb = 1
 Size factor is obtained from experimental data with wide scatter

Size Factor - kb 915 / 240 Size Factor - kb 916 / 240

 Equate the volume of material stressed

◦ at and above 95% of the maximum stress

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
 For parts that are not round and rotating,
an equivalent (effective) round rotating diameter (de ) is obtained.

◦ to the same volume in the rotating-beam specimen.

Lengths cancel, so equate the areas.

DEPARTMENT d de

portion of cross-sectional area of the non cylindrical part

that is stressed between 95% and 100% of the maximum stress

Size Factor - kb 917 / 240 Size Factor - kb 918 / 240

 For a rotating round section,

the 95% stress area (A0.95σ ) is the area of a ring,
 For non-rotating round,

ME 311  Equating to Eq. (6-22) and solving for equivalent diameter,

MACHINE ELEMENTS I
 Equate 95% stress area for other conditions to Eq. (6–22)
and solve for d as the equivalent round rotating diameter (de)

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Size Factor - kb 919 / 240 Size Factor - kb 920 / 240

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

 Similarly, for rectangular section
Equating to Eq. (6–22),
h x b, A0.95 = 0.05 hb

 Other common cross sections are given in Table 6–3

Example 6–4 921 / 240 Loading Factor - kc 922 / 240

 Accounts for changes in endurance limit for

different types of fatigue loading.

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING  Only to be used for single load types.

Use Combination Loading method (Sec. 6–14)

DEPARTMENT

when more than one load type is present.

Ch 6 Failure Resulting from Variable Loading (Fatigue Design) 923 / 240 Temperature Factor - kd 924 / 240

 Endurance limit appears to maintain same relation

to ultimate strength for elevated temperatures as at room temperature

ME 311  This relation is summarized in Table 6–4

MACHINE ELEMENTS I

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Temperature Factor - kd 925 / 240 Temperature Factor - kd 926 / 240

 If ultimate strength is known for operating temperature (ST),  Alternatively,

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

then just use that strength.

Let kd = 1 and proceed as usual.

◦ use ultimate strength at room temperature (SRT) and
◦ apply temperature factor (kd) from Table 6–4 to the endurance limit.

 If ultimate strength is known only at room temperature (SRT),  A fourth-order polynomial curve fit of the underlying data of Table 6–4
then use Table 6–4 to estimate can be used in place of the table, if desired.
ultimate strength at operating temperature (ST).

Example 6–5 927 / 240 Example 6–5 (continued) 928 / 240

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT

Reliability Factor - ke 929 / 240 Reliability Factor - ke 930 / 240

 From Fig. 6–17,  Reliability factor adjusts to other reliabilities. (R ke )

ME 311
S'e = 0.5 Sut

is typical of the data and represents 50% reliability.

 Only adjusts Fig. 6–17 assumption. Does not imply overall reliability.

MACHINE ELEMENTS I
Most endurance strength data
are reported as mean values

Fig. 6–17
Fig. 6–17

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Reliability Factor - ke 931 / 240 Miscellaneous-Effects Factor - kf 932 / 240

 Simply obtain ke for desired reliability from Table 6–5.  Reminder to consider other possible factors.

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY  Residual stresses

 Directional characteristics from cold working
 Case hardening
 Corrosion
 Surface conditioning,
e.g. electrolytic plating and metal spraying
1. (R ke )  Cyclic Frequency
 Frettage (fretting) Corrosion
2. Data presented by Haugen and Wirching
 Limited data is available.

 May require research or testing.
(R za ke )

Ch 6 Failure Resulting from Variable Loading (Fatigue Design) 933 / 240 Stress Concentration and Notch Sensitivity 934 / 240

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING  For dynamic loading,

◦ stress concentration effects must be applied.

DEPARTMENT  For fatigue,

◦ some materials are not fully sensitive to Kt
◦ so a reduced value can be used.

Fatigue Stress Concentration Factor (Kf ) and Notch Sensitivity (q) 935 / 240 Fatigue Stress Concentration Factor (Kf ) and Notch Sensitivity (q) 936 / 240

 Define Kf as the fatigue stress-concentration factor.  q ranging from 0 (not sensitive) to 1 (unity - fully sensitive).


ME 311
Convenient to think of Kf  For q = 0, Kf = 1 (the material has no notch sensitivity)


MACHINE ELEMENTS I
as a stress-concentration factor reduced from Kt
◦ because of lessened sensitivity to notches.

Kt Kf
Kt Kf
 For q = 1, Kf = Kt (the material has full notch sensitivity)

q
 Find Kt first, from the geometry of the part.
 Define q as notch sensitivity, ,  Specify the material, find q, and solve for Kf from Eq. (6–32):
ranging from 0 (not sensitive) to 1 (unity - fully sensitive).

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Notch Sensitivity (q) 937 / 240 Notch Sensitivity – Shear (qshear) 938 / 240

 Obtain q for bending or axial loading from Fig. 6–20.  Obtain q for reversed torsion from Fig. 6–21.

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

Kf = 1 + q( Kt – 1)

Notch Sensitivity (Neuber Constant) 939 / 240 Notch Sensitivity 940 / 240

 Alternatively,
For steels, with Sut in kpsi, a in in.
◦ use curve fit equations for Figs. 6–20 and 6–21

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
◦ to get notch sensitivity q , or go directly to Kf .
Bending or axial:

DEPARTMENT
Neuber equation
Kt Kf
Torsion:
a

= Neuber constant is a material constant

Notch Sensitivity for Cast Irons 941 / 240 Example 6–6 942 / 240

 The notch sensitivity of cast irons is very low,


ME 311
varying from 0 to about 0.20, depending upon the tensile strength

Cast irons are already full of discontinuities,

which are included in the strengths.


MACHINE ELEMENTS I
Additional notches do not add much additional harm.

Recommended to use q = 0.2 for cast irons.

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Example 6–6 943 / 240 Application of Fatigue Stress Concentration Factor (Kf) 944 / 240

 Use Kf as a multiplier to increase the nominal stress.

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY  Some designers (and previous editions of textbook)
sometimes applied 1/ Kf as a Marin factor to reduce Se .

 For infinite life, either method is equivalent, since

q = 0.84

Application of Fatigue Stress Concentration Factor 945 / 240 Application of Fatigue Stress Concentration Factor 946 / 240

 For finite life, increasing stress is more conservative.

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
 Decreasing Se applies more to high cycle than low cycle.
p. 305

DEPARTMENT

Example 6–7 947 / 240 Example 6–7 948 / 240

N =?

ME 311 690 MPa

583 MPa

(σrev)max 403 MPa

MACHINE ELEMENTS I N = 32.3(103) cycles

280 MPa

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Example 6–8 949 / 240 Example 6–8 (continued) 950 / 240

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

Se = ?

Sf = ?

Example 6–8 (continued) 951 / 240 Example 6–8 (continued) 952 / 240

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT

Example 6–9 953 / 240 Example 6–9 (continued) 954 / 240

ME 311
N=?

MACHINE ELEMENTS I
Fig. 6–22

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Example 6–9 (continued) 955 / 240 Example 6–9 (continued) 956 / 240

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

Example 6–9 (continued) 957 / 240 Example 6–9 (continued) 958 / 240

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT

Example 6–9 (continued) 959 / 240 Example 6–9 (continued) 960 / 240

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I
N
N = 68(103) cycles

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Ch 6 Failure Resulting from Variable Loading (Fatigue Design) 961 / 240 Characterizing Fluctuating Stresses 962 / 240

 The S-N diagram is applicable for completely reversed stresses

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY  But other fluctuating stresses exist

 Sinusoidal loading patterns are common, but not necessary !

Fluctuating Stresses 963 / 240 Characterizing Fluctuating Stresses 964 / 240

 Fluctuating stresses in machinery often

General

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
take the form of a sinusoidal pattern
Fluctuating because of the nature of some rotating
machinery.

 Other patterns, some quite irregular,

DEPARTMENT Repeated

do occur.

It has been found that in periodic

patterns exhibiting a single maximum
maximum

and a single minimum of force,

the shape of the wave is not important,
Completely but the peaks on both the high side
Reversed (maximum) and the low side (minimum)
are important.
minimum

Characterizing Fluctuating Stresses 965 / 240 Characterizing Fluctuating Stresses 966 / 240

 Fluctuating stresses can often be characterized simply Other useful definitions include
by the minimum (min ) and maximum (max ) stresses
for corresponding minimum (Fmin) and maximum (Fmax) forces

Define
ME 311
m : midrange steady component of stress (sometimes called mean stress)
R (stress ratio)

a : amplitude of alternating component of stress

MACHINE ELEMENTS I
r : range of stress
A (amplitude ratio )

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Characterizing Fluctuating Stresses 967 / 240 Application of Kf for Fluctuating Stresses 968 / 240

 For fluctuating loads at points with stress concentration,

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

the best approach is to design to avoid all localized plastic strain.

 In the absence of a notch,

◦ a and m are equal to the nominal stresses ao and mo induced by loads Fa and Fm,

 In the presence of a notch they are Kf ao and Kf mo ,

◦ as long as the material emains without plastic strain

 In this case,
Kf should be applied to
both alternating (a) and midrange stress (m ) components.

 When localized strain does occur,

some methods (e.g. nominal mean stress method and residual stress method)
recommend only applying Kf to the alternating stress a

Ch 6 Failure Resulting from Variable Loading (Fatigue Design) 969 / 240 Fatigue Failure for Fluctuating Stresses 970 / 240

 The S-N diagram is applicable for completely reversed stresses

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT
Methods

Fatigue Failure for Fluctuating Stresses 971 / 240 Fatigue Failure for Fluctuating Stresses 972 / 240

 Vary the m and a  Vary the m and a

to learn about the fatigue resistance to learn about the fatigue resistance


①
ME 311
under fluctuating loading

Three common methods of plotting results follow.

② ③

under fluctuating loading

Three common methods of plotting results follow.

① ② ③

MACHINE ELEMENTS I

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Modified Goodman Diagram (Smith Diagram) 973 / 240 Modified Goodman Diagram (Smith Diagram) 974 / 240

 

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY max

 Midrange stress m is plotted on abscissa

 All other components of stress are plotted on

the ordinate

min
m m

Fig. 6–24 Fig. 6–24

Modified Goodman Diagram (Smith Diagram) 975 / 240 Fatigue Failure for Fluctuating Stresses 976 / 240

  Vary the m and a

to learn about the fatigue resistance

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 
under fluctuating loading

Three common methods of plotting results follow.

① ② ③

DEPARTMENT
m

Fig. 6–24

Master Fatigue Diagram 977 / 240 Master Fatigue Diagram 978 / 240

 Displays four stress components as well as two stress ratios  Displays four stress components as well as two stress ratios

① ①
②

ME 311 ②

MACHINE ELEMENTS I
❷ ❸ ❷ ❸

❹ ❹

❶ Fig. 6–26 ❶

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Master Fatigue Diagram 979 / 240 Fatigue Failure for Fluctuating Stresses 980 / 240

 Vary the m and a

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY 

to learn about the fatigue resistance
under fluctuating loading

Three common methods of plotting results follow.

① ② ③

Example:
At σmax = 400 MPa, σmin = 0,
a fatigue limit of the notched specimen is less than 106 cycles.
For the unnotched specimen is below the fatigue limit

Plot of Alternating vs Midrange Stress 981 / 240 Plot of Alternating vs Midrange Stress 982 / 240

 Experimental data on normalized plot of a vs m  Experimental data on normalized plot of a vs m

m : Midrange steady component of stress

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Normalizing
strength amplitude component
to endurance limit
a : Amplitude of alternating component of stress
Sa : Alternating strength
Sm : Midrange strength Fig. 6–25

DEPARTMENT
Normalizing Normalizing
the data by using the ratio of steady the data by using the ratio of steady Fig. 6–25
strength component to compressive strength strength component to tensile strength

Plot of Alternating vs Midrange Stress 983 / 240 Plot of Alternating vs Midrange Stress 984 / 240

 Experimental data on normalized plot of a vs m  Experimental data on normalized plot of a vs m

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I
Fig. 6–25 Fig. 6–25

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Plot of Alternating vs Midrange Stress 985 / 240 Goodman – Haigh Diagram for Infinite Life 986 / 240

 Experimental data on normalized plot of a vs m

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

 Demonstrates little effect of negative midrange stress

Fig. 6–25

Goodman (Modified Goodman) Diagram 987 / 240 Goodman (Modified Goodman) Diagram 988 / 240

 Probably most common and simple to use is the plot of a vs m  Probably most common and simple to use is the plot of a vs m
 Has gradually usurped the name of  Has gradually usurped the name of

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

‘Goodman’ or ‘Modified Goodman diagram’
Modified Goodman line from Se to Sut is
one simple representation of the limiting boundary for infinite life

‘Goodman’ or ‘Modified Goodman diagram’
Modified Goodman line from Se to Sut is
one simple representation of the limiting boundary for infinite life

DEPARTMENT

Goodman (Modified Goodman) Diagram 989 / 240 Goodman (Modified Goodman) Diagram 990 / 240

 Probably most common and simple to use is the plot of a vs m  Probably most common and simple to use is the plot of a vs m
 Has gradually usurped the name of  Has gradually usurped the name of

ME 311
‘Goodman’ or ‘Modified Goodman diagram’ ‘Goodman’ or ‘Modified Goodman diagram’
 Modified Goodman line from Se to Sut is  Modified Goodman line from Se to Sut is
one simple representation of the limiting boundary for infinite life one simple representation of the limiting boundary for infinite life

MACHINE ELEMENTS I
Infinite Life Region
N=ꝏ

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Commonly used Failure Criteria 991 / 240 Plot of Alternating vs Midrange Stress 992 / 240

 Five commonly used failure criteria are shown  Experimental data on normalized plot of a vs m

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

 Gerber passes through the data
 ASME-elliptic passes through data and incorporates rough yielding check  Demonstrates little effect of negative midrange stress
Sa : alternating strength
Gerber (1874) (Germany)
Sm : midrange strength
Goodman (1890) (Germany)
σa : alternating stress Soderberg (1930) (USA)
σm : midrange stress ASME (1985) (USA)
Gerber
Gerber Parabola
Parabola

Modified Goodman
Modified Goodman

Fig. 6–27 Fig. 6–25

Commonly Used Failure Criteria 993 / 240 Commonly Used Failure Criteria 994 / 240

 Modified Goodman  Soderberg

◦ linear, ◦ provides a very conservative single check of

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

◦ so simple to use for design.
◦ more conservative than Gerber.

yielding.
Gerber
Goodman
Soderberg
(1874) (Germany)
(1890) (Germany)
(1930) (USA)
◦ both fatigue and yielding.

Gerber
Goodman
Soderberg
(1874) (Germany)
(1890) (Germany)
(1930) (USA)

DEPARTMENT
ASME (1985) (USA) ASME (1985) (USA)

Commonly Used Failure Criteria 995 / 240 Commonly Used Failure Criteria 996 / 240

 Langer line represents standard yield check.  Langer line represents standard yield check.

ME 311
It is equivalent to comparing maximum stress to yield strength (Sy)  It is equivalent to comparing maximum stress to yield strength (Sy)

MACHINE ELEMENTS I

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Commonly Used Failure Criteria 997 / 240 Commonly Used Failure Criteria 998 / 240

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

Commonly Used Failure Criteria 999 / 240 Fluctuating-stress diagram for Goodman line 1000 / 240

 Intersecting a constant slope load line with Sa : alternating strength

each failure criteria produces design equations Sm : midrange strength

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING σa : alternating stress

σm : midrange stress

DEPARTMENT
Fluctuating-stress diagram showing the Goodman line as
an infinite-life fatigue criterion.

Equations for Commonly Used Failure Criteria 1001 / 240 Commonly Used Failure Criteria 1002 / 240

 The criterion equation for the Soderberg line


ME 311
The modified Goodman relation


MACHINE ELEMENTS I
Gerber failure criterion

 The ASME-elliptic equation

 Langer first-cycle-yielding criterion

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Equations for Commonly Used Failure Criteria 1003 / 240 Summarizing Tables for Failure Criteria 1004 / 240

 n is the design factor or factor of safety for infinite fatigue life  Tables 6–6 to 6–8 summarize the equations for

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY 




Modified Goodman,
Gerber,
ASME-elliptic, and
Langer failure criteria

 The first row gives fatigue criterion

 The second row gives yield criterion

 The third row gives the intersection of static and fatigue criteria

 The fourth row gives the equation for fatigue factor of safety (nf )

 The first column gives the intersecting equations

 The second column gives the coordinates of the intersection

Summarizing Table for Modified Goodman 1005 / 240 Summarizing Diagram for Modified Goodman 1006 / 240

Sa : alternating strength
Sm : midrange strength

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Fatigue criterion
σa : alternating stress
σm : midrange stress

DEPARTMENT
Yield criterion

The intersection of static

Critical Slope

and fatigue criteria

The equation for

fatigue factor of safety Fluctuating-stress diagram showing the Goodman line as
an infinite-life fatigue criterion.

Summarizing Table for Gerber 1007 / 240 Summarizing Table for ASME-Elliptic 1008 / 240

Fatigue criterion

Yield criterion
ME 311 Fatigue criterion

Yield criterion

and fatigue criteria

MACHINE ELEMENTS I
The intersection of static
The intersection of static
and fatigue criteria

The equation for

The equation for
fatigue factor of safety
fatigue factor of safety

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Example 6–10 1009 / 240 Example 6–10 1010 / 240

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

S’e

Example 6–10 (continued) 1011 / 240 Summarizing Table for Gerber 1012 / 240

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Fatigue criterion

DEPARTMENT
Yield criterion

Gerber

The intersection of static

and fatigue criteria

The equation for

fatigue factor of safety

Example 6–10 (continued) 1013 / 240 Summarizing Table for Gerber 1014 / 240

ME 311 Fatigue criterion

Yield criterion

MACHINE ELEMENTS I The intersection of static

and fatigue criteria
Se Critical Slope Se=234 MPa

The equation for

fatigue factor of safety
Sm= ?

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Example 6–10 (continued) 1015 / 240 Summarizing Table for Gerber 1016 / 240

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY Fatigue criterion

Yield criterion

The intersection of static

and fatigue criteria

The equation for

fatigue factor of safety

To find point D

Example 6–10 (continued) 1017 / 240 Summarizing Table for ASME-Elliptic 1018 / 240

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Fatigue criterion

Yield criterion

DEPARTMENT
Se=234 MPa

The intersection of static

and fatigue criteria
Se

The equation for

fatigue factor of safety

Summarizing Table for ASME-Elliptic 1019 / 240 Example 6–10 (continued) 1020 / 240

Fatigue criterion

Yield criterion
ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I
The intersection of static
and fatigue criteria
Critical Slope

To find point D
The equation for
fatigue factor of safety

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Summarizing Table for ASME-Elliptic 1021 / 240 Example 6–11 1022 / 240

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

Fatigue criterion

Yield criterion

The intersection of static

and fatigue criteria A

for low speed

The equation for A’
fatigue factor of safety
for high speed
A’’ Fig. 6–30a

Example 6–11 (continued) 1023 / 240 Example 6–11 (continued) 1024 / 240

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING σ=Ky

σ=Ky

DEPARTMENT
Table A.9
A

A’
for low speed

A’’
for high speed

Example 6–11 (continued) 1025 / 240 Example 6–11 (continued) 1026 / 240

A
ME 311 A

A’
A’

A’
A’’
MACHINE ELEMENTS I for low speed

A’’
for high speed
A’’

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Example 6–11 (continued) 1027 / 240 Summarizing Table for Gerber 1028 / 240

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY Fatigue criterion

Yield criterion

A The intersection of static

A’ and fatigue criteria
A’’

The equation for

fatigue factor of safety

Fig. 6–30b

Example 6–11 (continued) A’

A’’
1029 / 240 Example 6–11 (continued) 1030 / 240

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING first-cycle

yielding

778,83 MPa fatigue

Sy σmax

First-cycle

DEPARTMENT 806 MPa

First-cycle yielding
ε

778,83 MPa

806 MPa 700 779 806 880

The threats from fatigue and first-cycle yielding are approximately equal

Summarizing Table for Gerber 1031 / 240 Ch 6 Failure Resulting from Variable Loading (Fatigue Design) 1032 / 240

Fatigue criterion

Yield criterion
ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I
The intersection of static
and fatigue criteria

The equation for

fatigue factor of safety

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Equivalent completely reversed stress 1033 / 240 Summarizing Table for Modified Goodman 1034 / 240

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY Fatigue criterion

a) Modified Goodman
Yield criterion

The intersection of static

and fatigue criteria

The equation for

fatigue factor of safety

Equivalent completely reversed stress 1035 / 240 Effect of nonzero midrange stresses (m ≠ 0 ) 1036 / 240

Estimate the number of cycles ( N ) to a fatigue failure

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
This indicates a finite life is predicted.

The S-N diagram is only applicable for completely reversed stresses. (m = 0 )

To estimate the finite life for a fluctuating stress,

we will obtain an equivalent completely reversed stress (rev)

DEPARTMENT
that is expected to be as damaging as the fluctuating stress.

Characteristic family of
S-N curves for increasing levels
of mean stress (m ) .

Effect of nonzero midrange steady

component of stress (mean stress)

Effect of nonzero midrange stresses (m ≠ 0 ) 1037 / 240 Equivalent completely reversed stress (rev ) 1038 / 240

A commonly used approach is to assume N= 106

that since the modified Goodman line
represents all stress situations with

ME 311 a constant life of 106 cycles,

other constant-life lines can be generated
by passing a line through (Sut , 0) and
a fluctuating stress point (m , a ).
rev
(0, rev)
(m, a)
N=?

(N=106)
The point where this line intersects

MACHINE ELEMENTS I
a
the a axis represents
a completely reversed stress (rev) (Sut, 0)
(since at this point m= 0), m
which predicts the same life (N)
as the fluctuating stress
m = 0

Se= rev

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Example 6–12 (continued) 1039 / 240 Equivalent completely reversed stress (rev ) 1040 / 240

Se = 40 kpsi

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY N = 3.4 (10)4

6

Sy = 65 kpsi
N = 106

rev 53.3 kpsi rev

Se = 40 kpsi

(0, rev)
(N=106)

(Sut, 0)

m = 0 Sut = 80 kpsi

Example 6–12 (continued) 1041 / 240 Example 6–12 (continued) 1042 / 240

b) Gerber Criterion

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT
Se= rev
N=?
Gerber
(N=106)

Se= rev
rev (0, rev)
Gerber
N=106
N = 4.6 (10)5

Sy = 65 kpsi
rev = 42.7 kpsi
rev (0, rev) Se = 40 kpsi
a
(m, a) (N=106)

(N=106)
Sut = 80 kpsi
(Sut, 0)

m (Sut, 0)

Constant-life Curves (Gerber) 1043 / 240 Ch 6 Failure Resulting from Variable Loading (Fatigue Design) 1044 / 240

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I

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Torsional Fatigue Strength under Flactuating Stresses 1045 / 240 Loading Factor kc 1046 / 240

 Testing has found that  Accounts for changes in endurance limit for different types of fatigue

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

the steady-stress component has no effect on loading.
the endurance limit for torsional loading
 Only to be used for single load types.
If the material is ductile, polished, notch-free, and cylindrical.
 Use Combination Loading method (Sec. 6–14) when more than one load
type is present.
 However, for less than perfect surfaces,
the modified Goodman line is more reasonable.

Torsional Fatigue Strength under Flactuating Stresses 1047 / 240 Ch 6 Failure Resulting from Variable Loading (Fatigue Design) 1048 / 240

 For pure torsion cases, use kc = 0.59

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
to convert normal endurance strength to shear endurance strength.


DEPARTMENT
In constructing the Goodman diagram for shear ultimate strength,
recommended to use

Combinations of Loading Modes - (Combined Loading) 1049 / 240 Combinations of Loading Modes - (Combined Loading) 1050 / 240

 When more than one type of loading

Fatigue problems in three categories: (bending, axial, torsion) exists,


ME 311
Completely reversing simple loads

Fluctuating simple loads


use the ‘Distortion Energy theory’ to combine them.

Obtain von Mises stresses ( , )

for both midrange (σm) and alternating (σa) components.

 MACHINE ELEMENTS I
Combinations of loading modes  Apply appropriate Kf to each type of stress.

 For load factor, use kc = 1

 The torsional load factor (kc = 0.59) is inherently included in

the von Mises equations.

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Von Mises Stress 1051 / 240 Combinations of Loading Modes - (Combined Loading) 1052 / 240

 If needed, axial load factor can be divided into the axial stress.

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

 In terms of xyz components, in 3D

 In terms of xyz components, for plane stress (2D)

Static Check for Combination Loading 1053 / 240 Static Check for Combination Loading 1054 / 240

 Distortion Energy theory still applies for check of static yielding Alternate simple check is

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

to obtain conservative estimate of
 Obtain von Mises stress for maximum stresses
(sum of midrange and alternating) 'max by summing 'a and 'm

DEPARTMENT
 Stress concentration factors are not necessary to check for yielding at
first cycle

Example 6–14 1055 / 240 Example 6–14 (continued) 1056 / 240

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I

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Example 6–14 (continued) 1057 / 240 Example 6–14 (continued) 1058 / 240

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

Example 6–14 (continued) 1059 / 240 Example 6–14 (continued) 1060 / 240

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT

Example 6–14 (continued) 1061 / 240 Example 6–14 (continued) 1062 / 240

ME 311
MACHINE ELEMENTS I

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Example 6–14 (continued) 1063 / 240 Example 6–14 (continued) 1064 / 240

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY r=?

Gerber
(N=106)

Sa

(N=106)

Example 6–14 (continued) 1065 / 240 Example 6–14 (continued) 1066 / 240

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
r=?
3.55

Gerber

DEPARTMENT
Gerber (N=106)
(N=106)

Sa
Sa

'a (N=106)
(N=106)
'm = 0

Example 6–14 (continued) 1067 / 240 Example 6–14 (continued) 1068 / 240

ME 311 0

MACHINE ELEMENTS I 0

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Example 6–14 (continued) 1069 / 240 Summarizing Table for Gerber 1070 / 240

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY Fatigue criterion

Gerber
(N=106) Yield criterion

Sa
The intersection of static
and fatigue criteria

(N=106)
The equation for
 'a
fatigue factor of safety

 ‘m

Example 6–14 (continued) 1071 / 240 Summarizing Table for Gerber 1072 / 240

78.7 MPa

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Fatigue criterion

DEPARTMENT
Yield criterion

n y = 2.93

n f = 3.12 291 MPa The intersection of static

and fatigue criteria

r = 0.27
The equation for
78.7 fatigue factor of safety

Ch 6 Failure Resulting from Variable Loading (Fatigue Design) 1073 / 240 Varying Fluctuating Stresses 1074 / 240

 Loading patterns may be complex

ME 311 


Simplifications may be necessary

Small fluctuations may be

negligible compared to large cycles

MACHINE ELEMENTS I  A “wiggly” time line of stress

exhibiting many and different peaks
and valleys

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Cumulative Fatigue Damage 1075 / 240 Cumulative Fatigue Damage 1076 / 240

A common situation is to

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY


load at 1 for n1 cycles,
then at 2 for n2 cycles, etc.

 The cycles at each stress level contributes to the fatigue damage

 Accumulation of damage is represented by 2

3
1
the Palmgren-Miner cycle-ratio summation rule,
2
also known as 3
1
Miner’s rule

Cumulative Fatigue Damage 1077 / 240 Cumulative Fatigue Damage 1078 / 240

 The Palmgren-Miner cycle-ratio summation rule,

Defining D as the accumulated damage,

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING


where

DEPARTMENT

ni is the number of cycles at stress level i and
Ni is the number of cycles to failure at stress level i

c is experimentally found to be in the range

When D = c = 1 failure ensues

0.7 < c < 2.2 , with an average value near unity

Example 6–15 1079 / 240 Example 6–15 (continued) 1080 / 240

ME 311
❷

MACHINE ELEMENTS I ❶

Fig. 6–33

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Example 6–15 (continued) 1081 / 240 Example 6–15 (continued) 1082 / 240

Gerber Parabola
(N=106)

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY rev

(0,rev) (m,a)
r
N=?

a (N=106)

Gerber Parabola
(Sut, 0)
(N=106)
m

1057 MPa

472.5 MPa

Example 6–15 (continued) 1083 / 240 Summarizing Table for Gerber 1084 / 240

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Fatigue criterion

DEPARTMENT
Yield criterion

The intersection of static

and fatigue criteria

The equation for

fatigue factor of safety

Example 6–15 (continued) 1085 / 240 Example 6–15 (continued) 1086 / 240

Geber Parabola
(N=106)
(rev, 0) N < 106
Sf rev

ME 311 a
Sa
r=7

(m, a)

(N=106)
N > 106

MACHINE ELEMENTS I Sm  m
(Sut, 0)

1057 MPa

Sf 472.5 MPa

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Example 6–15 (continued) 1087 / 240 Example 6–15 (continued) 1088 / 240

Geber Parabola
(N=106)

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY Sa

(m,a) N > 106

Gerber Parabola
(N=106)

(N=106)
(rev, 0)
rev r = 0.2
a
(Sut, 0)
Sm  m

1057 MPa

472.5 MPa

78.6

Example 6–15 (continued) 1089 / 240 Miner’s Rule 1090 / 240

To further illustrate

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING the use of the Miner rule,

Consider a steel having

Sut = 560 MPa,

DEPARTMENT S’e,0 =280 MPa, and

f = 0.9,
the designation S’e,0
instead of the more usual S’e

to indicate
the endurance limit of the
virgin, or undamaged,
material.
The log S–log N diagram for this material is shown
in Fig. 6–34 by the heavy red solid line ( )

Miner’s Rule 1091 / 240 Miner’s Rule 1092 / 240

a = 907 MPa
b = -0,085091

ME 311 Apply a reversed stress

σ1 = 420 MPa for n1 = 3000 cycles
The cycles to failure at stress level
σ1 = 420 MPa

MACHINE ELEMENTS I Since σ1 > S’e,0

the endurance limit will be

damaged,
n1 = 3000 N1 = 8520
Figure shows that the material has
a life N1 = 8520 cycles at 420 MPa

Then the application of

n1 = 3000
find the new endurance limit S’e,1 σ1 for n1 = 3000 cycles,
of the damaged material using the
Miner rule there are N1 – n1 = 5520 cycles of
life remaining at σ1

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LECTURE NOTES

Miner’s Rule 1093 / 240 Miner’s Rule 1094 / 240

This corresponds to
finite-life strength Sf,1
This locates the finite-life strength the finite-life strength Sf,2.

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

of the damaged material

Sf,1 of the damaged material

A line through Sf,1 and Sf,2 ( )

With n1 and N1 given,
is the log S–log N diagram of the
how many cycles of stress damaged material according to the
σ2 = S’e,0 Miner rule.
can be applied
before the damaged material fails? Two points, (N1 - n1, σ1 ) and (n2, σ2 ),
determine the new equation for the
line
This corresponds to n2 cycles of
stress reversal

Miner’s Rule 1095 / 240 Miner’s Rule 1096 / 240

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING For the undamaged material

DEPARTMENT
This means that the damaged material line has the same slope
as the virgin material line, and the two lines are parallel.

Miner’s Rule 1097 / 240 Weaknesses of Miner’s Rule 1098 / 240

 Miner’s rule fails to agree with experimental results in two ways

ME 311 New endurance limit

S’e,1 = 207 MPa

◦ It predicts the static strength Sut is damaged.

◦ It does not account for the order in which the stresses are applied

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ME 311 MACHINE ELEMENTS I 2024-2025 FALL
LECTURE NOTES

Manson’s Method 1099 / 240 Manson’s Method 1100 / 240

IZMIR KATIP CELEBI UNIVERSITY

 Manson’s method overcomes deficiencies of Miner’s rule.  It assumes all fatigue lines on the S-N diagram
converge to a common point at 0.9Sut at 103 cycles.

Fig. 6–35 Fig. 6–35

Ch 6 Failure Resulting from Variable Loading (Fatigue Design) 1101 / 240 Ch 6 Failure Resulting from Variable Loading (Fatigue Design) 1102 / 240

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DEPARTMENT
Rolling Contact Bearings
Gear Design

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