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The Project Gutenberg eBook of The
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Title: The Economy of Workshop Manipulation

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ECONOMY

OF WORKSHOP MANIPULATION ***
 Transcriber's notes:
Minor changes to the text are noted at the end of the book.
 THE ECONOMY
OF

W O R K S H O P M A N I P U LAT I O N .
 THE ECONOMY

OF

WORKSHOP MANIPULATION.

A LOGICAL METHOD OF LEARNING CONSTRUCTIVE

MECHANICS.

ARRANGED WITH QUESTIONS

FOR THE USE OF

APPRENTICE ENGINEERS AND STUDENTS.

BY

J. R I C H A R D S,
AUTHOR OF "A TREATISE ON THE CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF WOOD-WORKING
MACHINES," "THE OPERATOR'S HANDBOOK," "WOOD CONVERSION BY
MACHINERY," AND OTHER WRITINGS ON MECHANICAL SUBJECTS.

LONDON:
E. & F. N. SPON, 48 CHARING CROSS.
NEW YORK: 446 BROOME STREET.
1876.
[All rights reserved.]
Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1875, by
JOHN RICHARDS,
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.
 P R E FA C E .

The contents of the present work, except the Introduction and the
chapter on Gauges, consist mainly in a revision of a series of articles
published in "Engineering" and the Journal of the Franklin Institute,
under the head of "The Principles of Shop Manipulation," during
1873 and 1874.
The articles alluded to were suggested by observations made in
actual practice, and by noting a "habit of thought" common among
learners, which did not seem to accord with the purely scientific
manner in which mechanical subjects are now so constantly treated.
The favourable reception which the articles on "Shop
Manipulation" met with during their serial publication, and various
requests for their reproduction in the form of a book, has led to the
present edition.
The addition of a few questions at the end of each chapter, some
of which are not answered in the text, it is thought will assist the
main object of the work, which is to promote a habit of logical
investigation on the part of learners.
It will be proper to mention here, what will be more fully pointed
out in the Introduction, that although workshop processes may be
scientifically explained and proved, they must nevertheless be
learned logically. This view, it is hoped, will not lead to anything in
the book being construed as a disparagement of the importance of
theoretical studies.
 Success in Technical Training, as in other kinds of education, must
depend greatly upon how well the general mode of thought among
learners is understood and followed; and if the present work directs
some attention to this matter it will not fail to add something to
those influences which tend to build up our industrial interests.
J. R.
10 John Street, Adelphi,

London, 1875.
 C O N T E N TS.

CHAP. PAGE
INTRODUCTION, 1
I. PLANS OF STUDYING, 6
II. MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, 13
III. ENGINEERING AS A CALLING, 17
IV. THE CONDITIONS OF APPRENTICESHIP, 18
V. THE OBJECT OF MECHANICAL INDUSTRY, 25
VI. ON THE NATURE AND OBJECTS OF MACHINERY, 28
VII. MOTIVE MACHINERY, 29
VIII. WATER POWER, 35
IX. WIND POWER, 41
X. MACHINERY FOR TRANSMITTING AND DISTRIBUTING POWER, 42
XI. SHAFTS FOR TRANSMITTING POWER, 44
XII. BELTS FOR TRANSMITTING POWER, 48
XIII. GEARING AS A MEANS OF TRANSMITTING POWER, 51
XIV. HYDRAULIC APPARATUS FOR TRANSMITTING POWER, 53
XV. PNEUMATIC MACHINERY FOR TRANSMITTING POWER, 55
XVI. MACHINERY OF APPLICATION, 57
XVII. MACHINERY FOR MOVING AND HANDLING MATERIAL, 60
XVIII. MACHINE COMBINATION, 67
XIX. THE ARRANGEMENT OF ENGINEERING ESTABLISHMENTS, 71
XX. GENERALISATION OF SHOP PROCESSES, 74
XXI. MECHANICAL DRAWING, 78
XXII. PATTERN MAKING AND CASTING, 90
XXIII. FORGING, 100
XXIV. TRIP-HAMMERS, 106
XXV. CRANK-HAMMERS, 108
XXVI. STEAM-HAMMERS, 109
 XXVII. COMPOUND HAMMERS, 112
XXVIII. TEMPERING STEEL, 114
XXIX. FITTING AND FINISHING, 118
XXX. TURNING LATHES, 121
XXXI. PLANING OR RECIPROCATING MACHINES, 128
XXXII. SLOTTING MACHINES, 134
XXXIII. SHAPING MACHINES, 135
XXXIV. BORING AND DRILLING, 136
XXXV. MILLING, 140
XXXVI. SCREW-CUTTING, 143
XXXVII. STANDARD MEASURES, 145
XXXVIII. GAUGING IMPLEMENTS, 147
XXXIX. DESIGNING MACHINES, 152
XL. INVENTION, 159
XLI. WORKSHOP EXPERIENCE, 165
 THE ECONOMY

OF

WORKSHOP MANIPULATION.
 INTRODUCTION.
In adding another to the large number of books which treat upon
Mechanics, and especially of that class devoted to what is called
Mechanical Engineering, it will be proper to explain some of the
reasons for preparing the present work; and as these explanations
will constitute a part of the work itself, and be directed to a subject
of some interest to a learner, they are included in the Introduction.
First I will notice that among our many books upon mechanical
subjects there are none that seem to be directed to the instruction
of apprentice engineers; at least, there are none directed to that
part of a mechanical education most difficult to acquire, a power of
analysing and deducing conclusions from commonplace matters.
Our text-books, such as are available for apprentices, consist
mainly of mathematical formulæ relating to forces, the properties of
material, examples of practice, and so on, but do not deal with the
operation of machines nor with constructive manipulation, leaving
out that most important part of a mechanical education, which
consists in special as distinguished from general knowledge.
The theorems, formulæ, constants, tables, and rules, which are
generally termed the principles of mechanics, are in a sense only
symbols of principles; and it is possible, as many facts will prove, for
a learner to master the theories and symbols of mechanical
principles, and yet not be able to turn such knowledge to practical
account.
A principle in mechanics may be known, and even familiar to a
learner, without being logically understood; it might even be said
that both theory and practice may be learned without the power to
connect and apply the two things. A person may, for example,
understand the geometry of tooth gearing and how to lay out teeth
of the proper form for various kinds of wheels, how to proportion
and arrange the spokes, rims, hubs, and so on; he may also
understand the practical application of wheels as a means of varying
or transmitting motion, but between this knowledge and a complete
wheel lies a long train of intricate processes, such as pattern-
making, moulding, casting, boring, and fitting. Farther on comes
other conditions connected with the operation of wheels, such as
adaptation, wear, noise, accidental strains, with many other things
equally as important, as epicycloidal curves or other geometrical
problems relating to wheels.
Text-books, such as relate to construction, consist generally of
examples, drawings, and explanations of machines, gearing, tools,
and so on; such examples are of use to a learner, no doubt, but in
most cases he can examine the machines themselves, and on
entering a shop is brought at once in contact not only with the
machines but also with their operation. Examples and drawings
relate to how machines are constructed, but when a learner comes
to the actual operation of machines, a new and more interesting
problem is reached in the reasons why they are so constructed.
The difference between how machinery is constructed and why it
is so constructed, is a wide one. This difference the reader should
keep in mind, because it is to the second query that the present
work will be mainly addressed. There will be an attempt—an
imperfect one, no doubt, in some cases—to deduce from practice
the causes which have led to certain forms of machines, and to the
ordinary processes of workshop manipulation. In the mind of a
learner, whether apprentice or student, the strongest tendency is to
investigate why certain proportions and arrangement are right and
others wrong—why the operations of a workshop are conducted in
one manner instead of another? This is the natural habit of thought,
and the natural course of inquiry and investigation is deductive.
Nothing can be more unreasonable than to expect an apprentice
engineer to begin by an inductive course in learning and reasoning
about mechanics. Even if the mind were capable of such a course,
which can not be assumed in so intricate and extensive a subject as
mechanics, there would be a want of interest and an absence of
apparent purpose which would hinder or prevent progress. Any
rational view of the matter, together with as many facts as can be
cited, will all point to the conclusion that apprentices must learn
deductively, and that some practice should accompany or precede
theoretical studies. How dull and objectless it seems to a young man
when he toils through "the sum of the squares of the base and
perpendicular of a right-angle triangle," without knowing a purpose
to which this problem is to be applied; he generally wonders why
such puzzling theorems were ever invented, and what they can have
to do with the practical affairs of life. But if the same learner were to
happen upon a builder squaring a foundation by means of the rule
"six, eight, and ten," and should in this operation detect the
application of that tiresome problem of "the sum of the squares," he
would at once awake to a new interest in the matter; what was
before tedious and without object, would now appear useful and
interesting. The subject would become fascinating, and the learner
would go on with a new zeal to trace out the connection between
practice and other problems of the kind. Nothing inspires a learner
so much as contact with practice; the natural tendency, as before
said, is to proceed deductively.
A few years ago, or even at the present time, many school-books
in use which treat of mechanics in connection with natural
philosophy are so arranged as to hinder a learner from grasping a
true conception of force, power, and motion; these elements were
confounded with various agents of transmission, such as wheels,
wedges, levers, screws, and so on. A learner was taught to call
these things "mechanical powers," whatever that may mean, and to
compute their power as mechanical elements. In this manner was
fixed in the mind, as many can bear witness, an erroneous
conception of the relations between power and the means for its
transmission; the two things were confounded together, so that
years, and often a lifetime, has not served to get rid of the idea of
power and mechanism being the same. To such teaching can be
traced nearly all the crude ideas of mechanics so often met with
among those well informed in other matters. In the great change
from empirical rules to proved constants, from special and
experimental knowledge to the application of science in the
mechanic arts, we may, however, go too far. The incentives to
substitute general for special knowledge are so many, that it may
lead us to forget or underrate that part which cannot come within
general rules.
The labour, dirt, and self-denial inseparable from the acquirement
of special knowledge in the mechanic arts are strong reasons for
augmenting the importance and completeness of theoretical
knowledge, and while it should be, as it is, the constant object to
bring everything, even manipulative processes, so far as possible,
within general rules, it must not be forgotten that there is a limit in
this direction.
In England and America the evils which arise from a false or over
estimate of mere theoretical knowledge have thus far been avoided.
Our workshops are yet, and must long remain, our technological
schools. The money value of bare theoretical training is so fast
declining that we may be said to have passed the point of reaction,
and that the importance of sound practical knowledge is beginning
to be more felt than it was some years ago. It is only in those
countries where actual manufactures and other practical tests are
wanting, that any serious mistake can be made as to what should
constitute an education in mechanics. Our workshops, if other
means fail, will fix such a standard; and it is encouraging to find
here and there among the outcry for technical training, a note of
warning as to the means to be employed.
During the meeting of the British Association in Belfast (1874), the
committee appointed to investigate the means of teaching Physical
Science, reported that "the most serious obstacle discovered was an
absence from the minds of the pupils of a firm and clear grasp of the
concrete facts forming a base of the reasoning processes they are
called upon to study; and that the use of text-books should be made
subordinate to an attendance upon lectures and demonstrations."
Here, in reference to teaching science, and by an authority which
should command our highest confidence, we have a clear exposition
of the conditions which surround mechanical training, with, however,
this difference, that in the latter "demonstration" has its greatest
importance.
Professor John Sweet of Cornell University, in America, while
delivering an address to the mechanical engineering classes, during
the same year, made use of the following words: "It is not what you
'know' that you will be paid for; it is what you can 'perform,' that
must measure the value of what you learn here." These few words
contain a truth which deserves to be earnestly considered by every
student engineer or apprentice; as a maxim it will come forth and
apply to nearly everything in subsequent practice.
I now come to speak directly of the present work and its objects.
It may be claimed that a book can go no further in treating of
mechanical manipulation than principles or rules will reach, and that
books must of necessity be confined to what may be called
generalities. This is in a sense true, and it is, indeed, a most difficult
matter to treat of machine operations and shop processes; but the
reason is that machine operations and shop processes have not been
reduced to principles or treated in the same way as strains,
proportions, the properties of material, and so on. I do not claim
that manipulative processes can be so generalised—this would be
impossible; yet much can be done, and many things regarded as
matters of special knowledge can be presented in a way to come
within principles, and thus rendered capable of logical investigation.
Writers on mechanical subjects, as a rule, have only theoretical
knowledge, and consequently seldom deal with workshop processes.
Practical engineers who have passed through a successful
experience and gained that knowledge which is most difficult for
apprentices to acquire, have generally neither inclination nor
incentives to write books. The changes in manipulation are so
frequent, and the operations so diversified, that practical men have a
dread of the criticisms which such changes and the differences of
opinion may bring forth; to this may be added, that to become a
practical mechanical engineer consumes too great a share of one's
life to leave time for other qualifications required in preparing books.
For these reasons "manipulation" has been neglected, and for the
same reasons must be imperfectly treated here. The purpose is not
so much to instruct in shop processes as to point out how they can
be best learned, the reader for the most part exercising his own
judgment and reasoning powers. It will be attempted to point out
how each simple operation is governed by some general principle,
and how from such operations, by tracing out the principle which lies
at the bottom, it is possible to deduce logical conclusions as to what
is right or wrong, expedient or inexpedient. In this way, it is thought,
can be established a closer connection between theory and practice,
and a learner be brought to realise that he has only his reasoning
powers to rely on; that formulæ, rules, tables, and even books, are
only aids to this reasoning power, which alone can master and
combine the symbol and the substance.
No computations, drawings, or demonstrations of any kind will be
employed to relieve the mind of the reader from the care of
remembering and a dependence on his own exertions. Drawings,
constants, formulæ, tables, rules, with all that pertains to
computation in mechanics, are already furnished in many excellent
books, which leave nothing to be added, and such books can be
studied at the same time with what is presented here.
The book has been prepared with a full knowledge of the fact,
that what an apprentice may learn, as well as the time that is
consumed in learning, are both measured by the personal interest
felt in the subject studied, and that such a personal interest on the
part of an apprentice is essential to permanent success as an
engineer. A general dryness and want of interest must in this, as in
all cases, be a characteristic of any writing devoted to mechanical
subjects: some of the sections will be open to this charge, no doubt,
especially in the first part of the book; but it is trusted that the good
sense of the reader will prevent him from passing hurriedly over the
first part, to see what is said, at the end, of casting, forging, and
fitting, and will cause him to read it as it comes, which will in the
end be best for the reader, and certainly but fair to the writer.
 CHAPTER I.
PLANS OF STUDYING.
By examining the subject of applied mechanics and shop
manipulation, a learner may see that the knowledge to be acquired
by apprentices can be divided into two departments, that may be
called general and special. General knowledge relating to tools,
processes and operations, so far as their construction and action
may be understood from general principles, and without special or
experimental instruction. Special knowledge is that which is based
upon experiment, and can only be acquired by special, as
distinguished from general sources.
To make this plainer, the laws of forces, the proportion of parts,
strength of material, and so on, are subjects of general knowledge
that may be acquired from books, and understood without the aid of
an acquaintance with the technical conditions of either the mode of
constructing or the manner of operating machines; but how to
construct proper patterns for castings, or how the parts of
machinery should be moulded, forged, or fitted, is special
knowledge, and must have reference to particular cases. The
proportions of pulleys, bearings, screws, or other regular details of
machinery, may be learned from general rules and principles, but the
hand skill that enters into the manufacture of these articles cannot
be learned except by observation and experience. The general
design, or the disposition of metal in machine-framing, can be to a
great extent founded upon rules and constants that have general
application; but, as in the case of wheels, the plans of moulding
such machine frames are not governed by constant rules or
performed in a uniform manner. Patterns of different kinds may be
employed; moulds may be made in various ways, and at a greater
and less expense; the metal can be mixed to produce a hard or a
soft casting, a strong or a weak one; the conditions under which the
metal is poured may govern the soundness or shrinkage,—things
that are determined by special instead of general conditions.
The importance of a beginner learning to divide what he has to
learn into these two departments of special and general, has the
advantage of giving system to his plans, and pointing out that part
of his education which must be acquired in the workshop and by
practical experience. The time and opportunities which might be
devoted to learning the technical manipulations of a foundry, for
instance, would be improperly spent if devoted to metallurgic
chemistry, because the latter may be studied apart from practical
foundry manipulation, and without the opportunity of observing
casting operations.
It may also be remarked that the special knowledge involved in
applied mechanics is mainly to be gathered and retained by personal
observation and memory, and that this part is the greater one; all
the formulæ relating to machine construction may be learned in a
shorter time than is required to master and understand the
operations which may be performed on an engine lathe. Hence first
lessons, learned when the mind is interested and active, should as
far as possible include whatever is special; in short, no opportunity
of learning special manipulation should be lost. If a wheel pattern
come under notice, examine the manure in which it is framed
together, the amount of draught, and how it is moulded, as well as
to determine whether the teeth have true cycloidal curves.
Once, nearly all mechanical knowledge was of the class termed
special, and shop manipulations were governed by empirical rules
and the arbitrary opinions of the skilled; an apprentice entered a
shop to learn a number of mysterious operations, which could not be
defined upon principles, and only understood by special practice and
experiment. The arrangement and proportions of mechanism were
also determined by the opinions of the skilled, and like the
manipulation of the shop, were often hid from the apprentice, and
what he carried in his memory at the end of an apprenticeship was
all that he had gained. The tendency of this was to elevate those
who were the fortunate possessors of a strong natural capacity, and
to depress the position of those less fortunate in the matter of
mechanical "genius," as it was called. The ability to prepare proper
designs, and to succeed in original plans, was attributed to a kind of
intuitive faculty of the mind; in short, the mechanic arts were fifty
years ago surrounded by a superstition of a different nature, but in
its influences the same as superstition in other branches of
knowledge.
But now all is changed: natural phenomena have been explained
as being but the operation of regular laws; so has mechanical
manipulation been explained as consisting in the application of
general principles, not yet fully understood, but far enough, so that
the apprentice may with a substantial education, good reasoning
powers, and determined effort, force his way where once it had to
be begged. The amount of special knowledge in mechanical
manipulation, that which is irregular and modified by special
conditions, is continually growing less as generalisation and
improvement go on.
Another matter to be considered is that the engineering
apprentice, in estimating what he will have to learn, must not lose
sight of the fact that what qualifies an engineer of to-day will fall far
short of the standard that another generation will fix, and of that
period in which his practice will fall. This I mention because it will
have much to do with the conceptions that a learner will form of
what he sees around him. To anticipate improvement and change is
not only the highest power to which a mechanical engineer can hope
to attain, but is the key to his success.
By examining the history of great achievements in the mechanic
arts, it will be seen that success has been mainly dependent upon
predicting future wants, as well as upon an ability to supply such
wants, and that the commercial value of mechanical improvements is
often measured by conditions that the improvements themselves
anticipate. The invention of machine-made drills, for example, was
but a small matter; but the demand that has grown up since, and
because of their existence, has rendered this improvement one of
great value. Moulded bearings for shafts were also a trifling
improvement when first made, but it has since influenced machine
construction in America in a way that has given great importance to
the invention.
It is generally useless and injudicious to either expect or to search
after radical changes or sweeping improvements in machine
manufacture or machine application, but it is important in learning
how to construct and apply machinery, that the means of foreseeing
what is to come in future should at the same time be considered.
The attention of a learner can, for example, be directed to the
division of labour, improvements in shop system, how and where
commercial interests are influenced by machinery, what countries
are likely to develop manufactures, the influence of steam-hammers
on forging, the more extended use of steel when cheapened by
improved processes for producing it, the division of mechanical
industry into special branches, what kind of machinery may become
staple, such as shafts, pulleys, wheels, and so on. These things are
mentioned at random, to indicate what is meant by looking into the
future as well as at the present.
Following this subject of future improvement farther, it may be
assumed that an engineer who understands the application and
operation of some special machine, the principles that govern its
movements, the endurance of the wearing surfaces, the direction
and measure of the strains, and who also understands the principles
of the distribution of material, arrangement, and proportions,—that
such an engineer will be able to construct machines, the plans of
which will not be materially departed from so long as the nature of
the operations to which the machines are applied remain the same.
A proof of this proposition is furnished in the case of standard
machine tools for metal-cutting, a class of machinery that for many
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