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 Another Random Document on
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from their proper course and entered Media. The Cimmerians in their
flight kept uniformly by the seacoast; but the Scythians, having Mount
Caucasus to their right, continued the pursuit, till by following an inland
direction they entered Media.
The Scythians have the advantage of all these celebrated rivers [the
Danube, Don, Tyras, Hypanis, Borysthenes, etc.] The grass which this
country produces is, of all that we know, the fullest of moisture, which
evidently appears from the dissection of their cattle.
We have shown that this people possess the greatest abundance;
their particular laws and observances are these: of their divinities, Vesta
is without competition the first, then Jupiter, and Tellus, whom they
believe to be the wife of Jupiter; next to these are Apollo, the Cœlestial
Venus, Hercules, and Mars. All the Scythians revere these as deities, but
the Royal Scythians pay divine rites also to Neptune. In the Scythian
tongue Vesta is called Tabiti; Jupiter, and, as I think very properly,
Papæus; Tellus, Apia; Apollo, Œtosyrus; the Cœlestial Venus, Artimpasa;
and Neptune, Thamimasadas. Among all these deities Mars is the only
one to whom they think it proper to erect altars, shrines, and temples.
Their mode of sacrifice in every place appointed for the purpose is
precisely the same, and it is this: the victim is secured with a rope by its
two fore feet; the person who offers the sacrifice, standing behind,
throws the animal down by means of this rope; as it falls, he invokes the
name of the divinity to whom the sacrifice is offered; he then fastens a
cord round the neck of the victim and strangles it, by winding the cord
round a stick; all this is done without fire, without libations, or without
any of the ceremonies in use amongst us. When the beast is strangled,
the sacrificer takes off its skin and prepares to dress it.
As Scythia is very barren of wood, they have the following contrivance
to dress the flesh of the victim: having flayed the animal, they strip the
flesh from the bones, and if they have them at hand, they throw it into
certain pots made in Scythia, and resembling the Lesbian caldrons,
though somewhat larger; under these a fire is made with the bones. If
these pots cannot be procured, they enclose the flesh with a certain
quantity of water in the paunch of the victim, and make a fire with the
bones as before. The bones being very inflammable, and the paunch
without difficulty made to contain the flesh separated from the bone, the
ox is thus made to dress itself, which is also the case with the other
victims. When the whole is ready, he who sacrifices throws down with
some solemnity before him the entrails and the more choice pieces.
They sacrifice different animals, but horses in particular.
Such are the sacrifices and ceremonies observed with respect to their
other deities; but to the god Mars, the particular rites which are paid are
these: in every district they construct a temple to this divinity of this
kind; bundles of small wood are heaped together, to the length of three
stadia, and quite as broad, but not so high; the top is a regular square,
three of the sides are steep and broken, but the fourth is an inclined
plane forming the ascent. To this place are every year brought one
hundred and fifty wagons full of these bundles of wood, to repair the
structure which the severity of the climate is apt to destroy. Upon the
summit of such a pile each Scythian tribe places an ancient scimetar,
which is considered as the shrine of Mars, and is annually honoured by
the sacrifice of sheep and horses; indeed, more victims are offered to
this deity than to all the other divinities. It is their custom also to
sacrifice every hundredth captive, but in a different manner from their
other victims. Having poured libations upon their heads, they cut their
throats into a vessel placed for that purpose. With this, carried to the
summit of the pile, they besmear the above-mentioned scimetar. Whilst
this is doing above, the following ceremony is observed below: from
these human victims they cut off the right arms close to the shoulder,
and throw them up into the air. This ceremony being performed on each
victim severally, they depart; the arms remain where they happen to fall,
the bodies elsewhere.
The above is a description of their sacrifices. Swine are never used for
this purpose, nor will they suffer them to be kept in their country.
Their military customs are these: every Scythian drinks the blood of
the first person he slays; the heads of all the enemies who fall by his
hand in battle he presents to his king: this offering entitles him to a
share of the plunder, which he could not otherwise claim. Their mode of
stripping the skin from the head is this: they make a circular incision
behind the ears, then, taking hold of the head at the top, they gradually
flay it, drawing it towards them. They next soften it in their hands,
removing every fleshy part which may remain by rubbing it with an ox’s
hide; they afterwards suspend it, thus prepared, from the bridles of their
horses, when they both use it as a napkin, and are proud of it as a
trophy. Whoever possesses the greater number of these, is deemed the
most illustrious. Some there are who sew together several of these
portions of human skin and convert them into a kind of shepherd’s
garment. There are others who preserve the skins of the right arms,
nails and all, of such enemies as they kill, and use them as a covering
for their quivers. The human skin is of all others certainly the whitest,
and of a very firm texture; many Scythians will take the whole skin of a
man, and having stretched it upon wood, use it as a covering to their
horses.
Such are the customs of this people: this treatment, however, of their
enemies’ heads, is not universal; it is only perpetrated on those whom
they most detest. They cut off the skull below the eye-brows, and
having cleansed it thoroughly, if they are poor, they merely cover it with
a piece of leather; if they are rich, in addition to this, they decorate the
inside with gold; it is afterwards used as a drinking cup. They do the
same with respect to their nearest connections, if any dissensions have
arisen, and they overcome them in combat before the king. If any
stranger whom they deem of consequence happen to visit them, they
make a display of these heads, and relate every circumstance of the
previous connection, the provocations received, and their subsequent
victory: this they consider as a testimony of their valour.
Once a year the prince or ruler of every district mixes a goblet of
wine, of which those Scythians drink who have destroyed a public
enemy. But of this they who have not done such a thing are not
permitted to taste; these are obliged to sit apart by themselves, which is
considered as a mark of the greatest ignominy. They who have killed a
number of enemies, are permitted on this occasion to drink from two
cups joined together.
They have amongst them a great number who practise the art of
divination; for this purpose they use a number of willow twigs, in this
manner: they bring large bundles of these together, and having untied
them, dispose them one by one on the ground, each bundle at a
distance from the rest. This done, they pretend to foretell the future,
during which they take up the bundles separately and tie them again
together. This mode of divination is hereditary among them. The
enaries, or “effeminate men,” affirm that the art of divination was taught
them by the goddess Venus. They take also the leaves of the lime-tree,
which dividing into three parts they twine round their fingers; they then
unbind it, and exercise the art to which they pretend.
Whenever the Scythian monarch happens to be indisposed, he sends
for three of the most celebrated of these diviners. When the Scythians
desire to use the most solemn kind of oath, they swear by the king’s
throne: these diviners, therefore, make no scruple of affirming that such
or such individual, pointing him out by name, has forsworn himself by
the royal throne. Immediately the person thus marked out is seized, and
informed that by their art of divination, which is infallible, he has been
indirectly the occasion of the king’s illness by having violated the oath
which we have mentioned. If the accused not only denies the charge,
but expresses himself enraged at the imputation, the king convokes a
double number of diviners, who, examining into the mode which has
been pursued in criminating him, decide accordingly. If he be found
guilty, he immediately loses his head, and the three diviners who were
first consulted share his effects. If these last diviners acquit the accused,
others are at hand, of whom if the greater number absolve him, the first
diviners are put to death.
The manner in which they are executed is this: some oxen are yoked
to a wagon filled with fagots, in the midst of which, with their feet tied,
their hands fastened behind, and their mouths gagged, these diviners
are placed; fire is then set to the wood, and the oxen are terrified to
make them run violently away. It sometimes happens that the oxen
themselves are burned; and often when the wagon is consumed, the
oxen escape severely scorched. This is the method by which for the
above-mentioned or similar offences they put to death those whom they
call false diviners.
Of those whom the king condemns to death, he constantly destroys
the male children, leaving the females unmolested. Whenever the
Scythians form alliances, they observe these ceremonies: a large
earthen vessel is filled with wine; into this is poured some of the blood
of the contracting parties, obtained by a slight incision of a knife or a
sword; in this cup they dip a scimetar, some arrows, a hatchet, and a
spear. After this they pronounce some solemn prayers, and the parties
who form the contract, with such of their friends as are of superior
dignity, finally drink the contents of the vessel.
The sepulchres of the kings are in the district of the Gerrhi. As soon
as the king dies, a large trench of a quadrangular form is sunk, near
where the Borysthenes begins to be navigable. When this has been
done, the body is enclosed in wax, after it has been thoroughly
cleansed, and the entrails taken out; before it is sewn up, they fill it with
anise, parsley seed, bruised cypress, and various aromatics. They then
place it on a carriage, and remove it to another district, where the
persons who receive it, like the royal Scythians, cut off a part of their
ear, shave their heads in a circular form, take a round piece of flesh
from their arm, wound their foreheads and noses, and pierce their left
hands with arrows. The body is again carried to another province of the
deceased king’s realms, the inhabitants of the former district
accompanying the procession. After thus transporting the dead body
through the different provinces of the kingdom, they come at last to the
Gerrhi, who live in the remotest parts of Scythia, and amongst whom
the sepulchres are. Here the corpse is placed upon a couch, round
which, at different distances, daggers are fixed; upon the whole are
disposed pieces of wood, covered with branches of willow. In some
other part of this trench they bury one of the deceased’s concubines,
whom they previously strangle, together with the baker, the cook, the
groom, his most confidential servant, his horses, the choicest of his
effects, and, finally, some golden goblets, for they possess neither silver
nor brass: to conclude all, they fill up the trench with earth, and seem to
be emulous in their endeavours to raise as high a mound as possible.
The ceremony does not terminate here. They select such of the
deceased king’s attendants, in the following year, as have been most
about his person; these are all native Scythians, for in Scythia there are
no purchased slaves, the king selecting such to attend him as he thinks
proper: fifty of these they strangle, with an equal number of his best
horses. They open and cleanse the bodies of them all, which, having
filled with straw, they sew up again: then upon two pieces of wood they
place a third, of a semicircular form, with its concave side uppermost, a
second is disposed in like manner, then the third, and so on, till a
sufficient number have been erected. Upon these semicircular pieces of
wood they place the horses, after passing large poles through them,
from the feet to the neck. One part of the structure, formed as we have
described, supports the shoulders of the horse, the other his hinder
parts, whilst the legs are left to project upwards. The horses are then
bridled, and the reins fastened to the legs; upon each of these they
afterwards place one of the youths who have been strangled, in the
following manner: a pole is passed through each, quite to the neck,
through the back, the extremity of which is fixed to the piece of timber
with which the horse has been spitted; having done this with each, they
so leave them.
The above are the ceremonies observed in the interment of their
kings: as to the people in general, when any one dies, the neighbours
place the body on a carriage, and carry it about to the different
acquaintance of the deceased; these prepare some entertainment for
those who accompany the corpse, placing the same before the body, as
before the rest. Private persons, after being thus carried about for the
space of forty days, are then buried. They who have been engaged in
the performance of these rites, afterwards use the following mode of
purgation: after thoroughly washing the head, and then drying it, they
do thus with regard to the body; they place in the ground three stakes,
inclining towards each other; round these they bind fleeces of wool as
thickly as possible, and finally, into the space betwixt the stakes they
throw red-hot stones.
They have among them a species of hemp resembling flax, except
that it is both thicker and larger; it is indeed superior to flax, whether it
is cultivated or grows spontaneously. Of this the Thracians make
themselves garments, which so nearly resemble those of flax as to
require a skilful eye to distinguish them: they who had never seen this
hemp, would conclude these vests to be made of flax.
The Scythians take the seed of this hemp, and placing it beneath the
woollen fleeces which we have before described, they throw it upon the
red-hot stones, when immediately a perfumed vapour ascends stronger
than from any Grecian stove. This, to the Scythians, is in the place of a
bath, and it excites from them cries of exultation. It is to be observed,
that they never bathe themselves: the Scythian women bruise under a
stone, some wood of the cypress, cedar, and frankincense; upon this
they pour a quantity of water, till it becomes of a certain consistency,
with which they anoint the body and the face; this at the time imparts
an agreeable odour, and when removed on the following day, gives the
skin a soft and beautiful appearance.
The Scythians have not only a great abhorrence of all foreign
customs, but each province seems unalterably tenacious of its own.d

THE CIMMERIANS

The Cimmerians belong partly to legend, partly to history. We know

even less of them than of the Scythians. The name Cimmerians appears
in the Odyssey—the fable describes them as dwelling beyond the ocean-
stream, immersed in darkness and unblest by the rays of Helios. Of this
people as existent we can render no account, for they had passed away,
or lost their identity and become subject, previous to the
commencement of trustworthy authorities; but they seem to have been
the chief occupants of the Tauric Chersonesus (Crimea) and of the
territory between that peninsula and the river Tyras (Dniester), at the
time when the Greeks first commenced their permanent settlements on
those coasts in the seventh century b.c. The numerous localities which
bore their name, even in the time of Herodotus, after they had ceased
to exist as a nation—as well as the tombs of the Cimmerian kings then
shown near the Tyras—sufficiently attest this fact; and there is reason to
believe that they were (like their conquerors and successors the
Scythians) a nomadic people, mare-milkers, moving about with their
tents and herds, suitably to the nature of those unbroken steppes which
their territory presented, and which offered little except herbage in
profusion. Strabo tells us (on what authority we do not know) that they,
as well as the Treres and other Thracians, had desolated Asia Minor
more than once before the time of Ardys, and even earlier than Homer.c
Historical knowledge of the Cimmerians may be briefly summed up:
About 660 b.c. the Assyrian empire was mightier than ever. A brother
of the king ruled in Babylon; the host of petty princes in Egypt were
tributary; Syria, Mesopotamia, the eastern mountain lands, and even the
frontiers of Armenia and Asia Minor had been directly incorporated with
the empire. There seemed to be no reason to fear a dangerous uprising
anywhere. A few decades later the proud structure had disappeared
from the earth. Though the conquered nations had contributed in part
to its fall, both the first impulse and the decisive blows were given from
without by a great migration of nations. We find the evident effects of
them everywhere; but their course in detail is almost completely veiled
in darkness.
The first great wandering started from the northern coast of the Black
Sea. About the eighth century the Scythian Scoloti, one of the Iranian
nomadic tribes, ostensibly themselves crowded out by the Massagetæ,
crossed the Volga and the Don, and drove the Cimmerians out of their
abode. Apparently a remnant of the original population remained in the
Crimea (this name is itself derived from that of the Cimmerians); but the
great mass left home with wives and children. In all probability they
went over the Danube into Thrace, being joined by Thracian tribes on
the way; and the passage of the Thynians and Bithynians across the
Bosporus, and their settlement in the ancient territory of the Bebrykians
(as far as the Sangarius), are also connected with these movements.
About 700 b.c. the Cimmerians, together with the Thracian tribes that
had joined them, invaded Asia Minor, devastating and plundering the
land far and wide. It was a migration like that of the northern tribes
which passed through Syria in the twelfth century, and that of the
Galatians into Asia Minor in the third century, who ravaged there just as
the Cimmerians did. The invading tribes were doubtless accompanied by
wives and children, and carried all their possessions with them.
The isolated notices of the invasion which are all that we possess
cannot be determined chronologically. Aristotle records that Antandrus,
the Lelegian city on the southern slope of Mount Ida, was in the
possession of the Cimmerians for a hundred years. Thracians are also
said to have occupied Abydos before its colonisation from Miletus.
They also made their way farther to the east. Sinope is called the
principal seat of the Cimmerians; they are said to have slain here the
leader of the Milesian settlement, Abrondas (?). When they entered
Phrygia, it is said, the last king, Midas, the son of Gordius, killed himself
by drinking the blood of a bull. After that the Phrygian kingdom
disappears from history.
 From here, then, they presumably first came into contact with the
Assyrians. King Esarhaddon tells, before his Cilician campaign, of a fight
in the unknown district of Khubushna with “the Teuspa of Gimir [Hebrew
Gomer], … whose dwelling is far.” This battle, the scene of which can
only be sought in Cappadocia, must be put about 675 b.c.
The movements were directed toward Lydia as well as Phrygia. Here
at this time the last of the Heraclids, Candaules or Sadyattes, had fallen
a victim to a palace revolution, and his murderer, Gyges, son of
Dascylus, of the distinguished family of the Mermnadæ, which had been
for generations at feud with the Heraclids, had taken possession of the
throne. The Delphian oracle having decided in his favour, he had been
acknowledged by the Lydians. The new ruler seems to have been a
capable warrior. According to Strabo, the whole Troad was subject to
him; consequently, he must also have possessed the coast of
Teuthrania. That the districts of Caria were under his rule, if not that of
his predecessors, appears certain. The Greek coast cities were also
attacked by him, and Colophon was taken. In order to defend himself
against the Cimmerians, he swore allegiance to the Assyrian king,
Asshurbanapal, who records that Gyges (Assyrian Gugu), in
consequence, won a great victory over the Cimmerians, and sent two of
their chiefs captive to Nineveh.
The allegiance rendered to the Assyrian king was nothing more than a
temporary expedient. As soon as he felt safe from the Cimmerians,
Gyges began preparations to attack the Assyrian supremacy, which was
likely to become dangerous to the hitherto unassailed countries of Asia
Minor. With this end in view, he made an alliance with Psamthek of Saïs,
who had revolted against Assyria, and sent Greek and Carian
mercenaries to his aid. Asshurbanapal, who was fully occupied by his
Elamite wars, could take no steps against him.
But soon afterwards the Cimmerians appeared again in Lydia; Gyges
himself fell in battle; the whole land was overrun by the wild hordes and
Sardis taken. Then they attacked the Greek coast cities. In Ephesus the
poet Callinus inspired a resistance that successfully repulsed the attack
of the Cimmerian prince Lygdamis;[11] but the temple of Artemis outside
the city was burned. On the other hand, the flourishing city of Magnesia,
on the Mæander, was taken and destroyed. However, the savage hordes
were no more able to hold the plundered territory permanently than to
lay regular siege to the fortified cities. Ardys, the son of Gyges, finally
restored the power of his father’s kingdom; and as we are told that he
attacked the Greeks, he must first have repulsed the Cimmerians and
covered his rear. Asshurbanapal tells that he repented the sins of his
father, and sent an embassy to renew his allegiance (646 b.c.); however,
this certainly means nothing more than the restoration of friendly
relations with Assyria.e

FOOTNOTES

[11] [It is possible that this Lygdamis is the “Tuktammu of the

Manda,” for whose defeat, according to a recently deciphered
inscription, Asshurbanapal returned thanks to the Assyrian gods.]
 CHAPTER III. SOME PEOPLES OF SYRIA, ASIA
MINOR, AND ARMENIA
THE ARAMÆANS

Next to the Hittites the Aramæans were the people who held the most
important towns of Syria, gradually advancing until at last they occupied
the whole country. Of the Aramæan stocks named in Genesis x. 23; xxii.
21 sq. very little is known, but it is certain that Aramæans at an early
period had their abode close to the northern border of Palestine (in
Maachah). A great part was played in the history of Israel by the state of
Aram Dammesek, i.e., the territory of the ancient city of Damascus; it
was brought into subjection for a short time under David. The main
object of the century-long dispute between the two kingdoms was the
possession of the land to the east of the Jordan (Hauran, and especially
Gilead). Another Aramæan state often mentioned in the Bible is that of
Aram Zobah. That Zobah was situated within Syria is certain, though
how far to the west or north of Damascus is not known; in any case it
was not far from Hamath. Hamath in the valley of the Orontes, at the
mouth of the Beka valley, was from an early period one of the most
important places in Syria; according to the Bible, its original inhabitants
were Canaanites. The district belonging to it, including amongst other
places Riblah (of importance on account of its situation), was not very
extensive. In 733 b.c. Tiglathpileser III compassed the overthrow of the
kingdom of Damascus; he also took Arpad (Tel-Arfad), an important
place three hours to the north of Aleppo. Hamath was taken by Sargon
in 720. Henceforth the petty states of Syria were at all times subject to
one or other of the great world empires, even if in some cases a certain
degree of independence was preserved.c
Definite knowledge concerning the smaller peoples of Asia Minor is so
limited and vague, the intermixture of small tribes and ruling houses so
chaotic, and the literature remaining so meagre and uncertain, that we
can do little better than make a brief summary of the fortunes of each of
these lesser communities.

PHRYGIA

Phrygia is a country of many mountains and numerous river valleys.

The fertility of the latter was always remarkable, and on the northern
boundary, at the sources of the river Sangarius, wide stretches of
pasture land afforded nourishment for sheep. Grapes were also
extensively cultivated.
The ancient Phrygians were an agricultural people, and the strange
rites of their religious worship all had reference to the renewal and
decay of nature. The “Phrygian mother,” who was called by the Greeks
Rhea, or Cybele, and whose name in the Phrygian language is said to
have been Amma, had her temple at the foot of Mount Agdus, near
Pessinus, where she was served by hosts of priests. She was worshipped
in the temple under the guise of a formless stone, said to have fallen
from heaven, and was conceived of as driving over the mountains in a
chariot, and wearing a crown of towers upon her head. The beloved of
Cybele was Attys, and the festivals of his birth and death were
celebrated with wild grief and frantic joy and accompanied by barbarous
and unlovely rites, much like those of the worship of Adonis at Byblus.
Cybele represents nature, or nature as the producer of life, and the birth
and death of Attys typify the spring and autumn of the year.
The sovereigns of Phrygia are said to have come from the agricultural
class. Gordius, the first king, was called from following his wagon to rule
over Phrygia. His son Midas was the hero of many Greek legends. The
story of his receiving the gift of turning everything he touched into gold
indicates the possession of enormous wealth. This name occurs in
various connections, and it appears that the kings of the ancient
Phrygian dynasty bore alternately the names of Gordius and Midas.
Their tombs are still visible in the Doghanlu valley and exhibit
inscriptions in Greek writing, but in the Phrygian language. The dynasty
came to an end in face of an invasion of the Cimmerians, about 675 b.c.,
and on the expulsion of the latter about a century later the kingdom was
annexed by Lydia.
A story told by Herodotus shows that the Egyptians regarded the
Phrygians as the oldest people of the world. The Greeks thought that
they came from Thrace and were originally called Brigians, but the
Phrygians, while owning the relationship to the Brigians of Thrace,
declared themselves to be the older people. Modern writers are disposed
to attribute an Armenian origin to both races. There are indications
which serve to show that the Phrygians once extended their rule over a
much wider area than that assigned to their country in our maps of the
ancient world; that they held command of the seaboard and were even
found beyond the Ægean. But these indications do not amount to proof.
The people of Phrygia once inhabited rock-dwellings which still exist,
ranged in rows and one above another. They subsequently built towns,
—several were ascribed to the first Gordius and Midas,—and developed
an advanced type of civilisation. They are credited with the invention of
embroidery, and from the wool of their numerous flocks of sheep they
manufactured fine cloths. Cotiæum in Phrygia is one of the towns which
claims to be the birthplace of Æsop, and though the Greeks affected to
despise the Phrygian music, as is shown by the story of Apollo and
Marsyas, it is nevertheless a fact that the Hellenes borrowed the
Phrygian flute and shepherd’s pipe as well as a Phrygian form of poetry.
In the art of sculpture, though they did not invent a school of their own,
the Phrygians must have brought considerable originality into play, for
they have impressed a distinctly national stamp on their monuments,
though the general style was borrowed from abroad.

THE CAPPADOCIANS

The chief point of interest furnished by this people is to be found in

their religious worship. Its principal centres were the two cities of
Comana, the one situated on the river Iris, which flows north into the
Euxine, and the other in the southern part of the country on the slopes
of Anti-Taurus, near the river Sarus. The high priests were generally of
royal blood and enjoyed great consideration, even wearing a royal
diadem at the great religious festival, and their importance does not
seem to have been diminished by the Persian conquest.
The Cappadocians had the reputation of being brave but
untrustworthy, characteristics appropriate to a people who worshipped a
warrior moon-goddess. For besides the moon-god Men, they adored Ma,
or Mene, identified with Enio, or Bellona, as well as with Artemis. Ma
was waited on by numerous priests and temple servants, who
constituted the main population of the southern Comana, while hosts of
maidens, clad in warlike dress and wearing the same weapons as their
divine mistress, participated in her wild rites. It is thought that it was
the existence of these women which gave rise to the legend of the
Amazons, or nation of female warriors, whom the Greeks supposed to
have had their home in the mythical town of Themiscyra on the banks of
the Thermodon in Pontus.
The chief festival was that known as the “Exodus” of the goddess, and
was attended by many pilgrims from far and near. The worshippers
gashed their own bodies and took part in the wildest sensual excesses.
These, and the personal sacrifices required from the votaries of Ma,
reveal the Semitic origin of the race which practised them, and resemble
those belonging to the service of the “Phrygian mother.”
The Greek name for the Cappadocians was “Leuco-Syrians,” i.e., white
Syrians, and the myth traced their descent from Syros, son of Apollo.
The original Semitic population received a foreign admixture in the
eighth century b.c., when some of the Cimmerians, who invaded Asia
Minor, settled amongst them and became entirely absorbed in the
population. The Cataonians, who inhabited a district in the southeast of
the country, were said to be a distinct race, but the personal
observations of Strabo in the century before Christ could detect no
differences between the two peoples. A further evidence of Semitic
origin is found in coins of northern Cappadocia, which date from the
fourth century b.c. and bear the image of the Syrian god Baal, with
legends inscribed in Aramæan.
The southern part of Cappadocia covers the highest plateau of Asia
Minor, and its cold climate is a reason why it can never have been very
productive, though wine and oil were grown in certain districts. It
furnished, however, ample pasturage for sheep and horses, but the chief
wealth of the people seems to have consisted in slaves. Silver, iron, and
steel were to be obtained in ancient times from the northeastern
districts bordering on Armenia, where dwelt the Tibareni, the Chalybes,
and other wild tribes of unknown origin. The mineral products of their
territory were turned to account by the Greeks, who had established
colonies all along the Cappadocian coast.
Our real knowledge of Cappadocian history goes no farther back than
the Persian conquest, and the name of Cappadocians is a Persian
appellation—Katapatuka. The Persians divided the country into the two
provinces of Cappadocia on the Pontus (afterwards called simply Pontus)
and Great Cappadocia, stretching from the Taurus range on the south
and including the country on the upper reaches of the Halys. Each
constituted a separate satrapy whose governors enjoyed practical
independence and royal titles.

THE CILICIANS

Between the Taurus Mountains and that ridge which the ancients
called Amanus, lies a fertile and isolated plain which formed the principal
part of the ancient kingdom of Cilicia. Xenophon describes it as “a large
and beautiful plain, well watered, and full of all sorts of trees and vines,
abounding in sesame, panic, millet, wheat, and barley,” and “surrounded
with a strong and high ridge of hills from sea to sea.” This plain was by
no means the whole of the territory occupied by the Cilicians, which
stretched far west among the wild Taurus Mountains as far as
Coracesium on the borders of Pamphylia, and appears, from the
statements of Herodotus, to have reached to the Euphrates and to have
also included a large part of Cappadocia.
The Cilicians were a Semitic race and, like the Cappadocians, nearly
related to the Syrians. They evidently worshipped the Syrian gods, for
the latter are represented on Cilician coins belonging to the Persian
epoch, especially the sun-god Baal, seated on a throne and holding
grapes and ears of corn in his hand. But we also find representations of
Hercules on these coins, and Greek as well as Aramæan inscriptions,
showing that this Semitic race passed under the influence of the
Hellenes, who had indeed many settlements in the west of Cilicia.
The Cilician cities of Tarsus and Anchiale were said to have been built
in a single day by Sardanapalus, king of Assyria. The Assyrian
monuments know of no sovereign of that name, but they make mention
of several invasions by Assyria, apparently of the destructive nature
common to such expeditions. Sargon conferred the sovereignty of Cilicia
on Ambris, king of Tubal, whom he afterwards deposed. Cilicia
continued, however, to have her own kings, and they rebelled against
Assyria on several occasions, finally recovering their complete
independence on the fall of the empire. We hear of more than one king
of Cilicia in Persian times, all styled Syennesis, which, therefore, seems
to have been rather a title than a name. Xenophon describes the
passage of Cyrus the Younger through Cilicia, whose king did homage to
him, and was subsequently punished for his disloyalty by being deprived
of his power, after which the country was ruled by Persian governors.
Alexander passed through Cilicia on his way to his great battle of
Issus just beyond the Amanus range, and the country then passed
under Macedonian rule; but in the confused years which followed the
death of the great conqueror we find the wild country of Cilicia Trachæ,
successfully maintained in independence by hordes of Cilician pirates.

PAMPHYLIA AND PISIDIA

Cilicia Trachæ was the western section of the country; it bordered on

Pamphylia and Pisidia, and the Cilician pirates were joined in their
predatory expeditions by the two neighbouring peoples, of whom the
Pamphylians possessed a convenient harbour, that of Side, which seems
to have been their great centre. The Pisidians inhabited a country to the
north of Pamphylia, and had no coast line of their own. They were a
brave and hardy nation, who dwelt in towns built for the most part on
high ridges, and who had opposed an obstinate resistance to Alexander.
We know nothing of their origin or language, but from the imposing
ruins of their cities it is evident that, in spite of being notorious robbers,
they had arrived at an advanced stage of civilisation.
 THE CARIANS

When the Dorian Greeks settled on the coast of Caria about the year
1000 b.c., they displaced an ancient people who considered themselves
to have been settled in the country from the beginning of time. The
Greeks, however, believed that these Carians had originally been called
Leleges, and had been the subjects of Minos of Crete, whom they
served as sailors. Whether they originally came from the Ægean Islands
or no, it seems that they had sent out colonies to the Cyclades, Samos,
etc., but had been expelled from them by the Phœnicians some
centuries before the Dorians invaded their own continental home.
Though they were now forced to abandon the coast and take refuge
in the mountains of the interior, the Carians were nevertheless a
peculiarly warlike people. The Greeks imitated their fashion of wearing
crested helmets and devices on their shields, as well as their method of
carrying the shield itself, and they were much employed as mercenaries.
From the middle of the eighth well on into the seventh century b.c., the
Carian pirates were the terror of the seas, and their god was a warrior
god, the Zeus with a battle-axe, whose image is represented on their
coins. In harmony with their connection with the sea, we also find that
they regarded Zeus as lord of both the ocean and the heavens, and in
this character he was honoured at Mylasa in a temple where Lydians and
Mysians had the right to worship with the Carians, a fact which the latter
cited as a proof of the affinity of the three peoples.
The Carian nation in its mountain home was not ruled by a single
king; the different towns under their aristocratic rulers were united in a
kind of federative union, a form of government which was continued
even after their conquest by the Persians. The common council met
under the protection of the Zeus of Chrysaoris at “the white pillars” on
the river Marsyas. Sometimes one town and sometimes another would
assume a position of pre-eminence. The most famous of the towns of
Caria is Halicarnassus, the city of Herodotus, originally a Greek town,
and belonging to a Dorian hexapolis of which Cos, Cnidus, Lindus,
Camirus, and Ialysus were the other members. After she had become
alienated from the league, Halicarnassus incorporated the Carian city
Salmacis. Several of her sovereigns are notable figures in history.
Artemisia, queen of Halicarnassus, was with Xerxes at Salamis, and
Herodotus represents her in the character of a valued counsellor to the
Persian sovereign. Another Artemisia was the wife of Mausolus, who
lived in the fourth century b.c. Though a Persian satrap, his power was
practically that of an independent monarch and was inherited by his
widow. The tomb which she erected to his memory is still regarded as
one of the most wonderful monuments of the world.

THE LYCIANS

Southeast of Caria is a mountainous peninsula which was occupied by

a nation whom the Greeks named Lycians, but who called themselves
Tramilians, or according to Herodotus, Termilians. In the northeast of
the peninsula there existed a tribe who bore the name of Milyans.
Herodotus declares that these Milyans were formerly called Solymi, and
that they were the original inhabitants of the country. Herodotus further
states that the Termilians were driven from Crete with their leader
Sarpedon, in consequence of the latter’s quarrel with his brother, Minos.
Modern historians, however, reject the idea of a Cretan origin, as also
the derivation which Herodotus gives for the name Lycians. The ancient
writer said that it came from the name of Lycus, an Athenian exile who
took refuge with Sarpedon; but it is considered more likely that it was
derived from Apollo Lyceus, and if this is really the case the Lycians
probably worshipped a god of light. Another statement of Herodotus;
namely, that the Lycians reckoned descent through their mothers, is not
confirmed by the monuments.
These have been found in great numbers, and show that this people
developed a peculiar architecture of their own, but that they
subsequently submitted to the artistic influence of Greece, though they
never copied their models slavishly. The Lycian tombs are very
numerous; most of them are built in the sides or carved in isolated
fragments and pinnacles of the rocks. It is evident that the utmost
reverence was shown to the dead, and their resting places were often
placed in close proximity to the houses of the living. The inscriptions are
in a language peculiar to the country, and in a writing resembling that
used in the Peloponnesus, but distinct from it. None of very ancient date
has as yet been deciphered.
 The independence of the Lycian character was not only shown in the
peculiarly national stamp they gave to everything which they borrowed
from the Greek, but when the Lydian kingdom extended its borders so
as to include most of the surrounding nations, the Lycians still preserved
their own liberties, and Herodotus records the valiant resistance of the
inhabitants of Xanthus to the overwhelming forces of the Persian,
Harpagus. Though greatly outnumbered, they faced him in battle, but in
spite of their heroic efforts he at last succeeded in overpowering them
and driving them within their city of Xanthus; whereupon they first
collected their families and all their treasures within the walls of the
citadel and then burnt it to the ground. After which they sallied forth
against the enemy and were all slain, fighting to the last.
The city of Xanthus was afterwards rebuilt and received a population
of foreigners, to which, Herodotus asserts, there were added eighty
families of Xanthians who had chanced to be abroad at the time of the
disaster. The vast ruins of Xanthus proclaim it as the chief city of the
Lycians, but many others existed. Pliny even asserts that they were once
seventy in number. Strabo speaks of the twenty-three towns of the
Lycian League. They were for the most part built on high ridges, and
were governed by a senate and a general assembly of the people. The
different towns had each a certain number of votes in the federative
assembly, the number of votes being determined by the importance of
the individual town. The supreme authority was vested in the Lyciarch,
an official chosen by the assembly. This form of government survived
after the Persian conquest, and, though the country was afterwards
conquered by Alexander, and subsequently passed under the dominion
alternately of the Ptolemies and Seleucids, its institutions were not
destroyed, but continued to exist even under the suzerainty of Rome
and down to the time of Claudius.
Lycia was the scene of the devastations of the legendary Chimæra,
whom Bellerophon slew; and the latter was also said to have conquered
the Solymi for the Lycian king. The Chimæra is a favourite subject of
representation in the Lycian sculptures, and it has been supposed that
the origin of the legend may be found in the streams of inflammable gas
which issue from the side of a mountain of the Solyma range, in the
neighbourhood of Deliktash.
 THE MYSIANS

The Carians said that Mysus, ancestor of the Mysian nation, was the
brother of Car and Lydus, and that this was the reason why the Mysians
and Lydians had the privilege of worshipping in the temple of the Carian
Jove. Xanthus of Lydia declared that they spoke a language composed
of Phrygian and Lydian. As we only possess one specimen of the Mysian
language, and that a somewhat doubtful one, our means of testing the
question are somewhat inadequate, nor is our knowledge of Mysian
early history much more satisfactory. Some ancient writers said that
they came from Thrace, and a connection was supposed to exist
between them and the Mœsians on the Danube, the latter being
regarded as emigrants from Asia by those who believed in the
relationship between the Mysians and Lydians.
The Mysians seem to have been driven into the interior by the Greek
settlers who had established themselves all along their shores, and in
this mountainous region they remained, having apparently made little
progress in civilisation even in Persian times.
In the Homeric catalogue the Mysians appear as the allies of Troy, and
we hear of their being conquered by Lydia. Their subsequent fate was
the usual one of submission to the successive monarchs of the ancient
world. They formed part of the Syrian monarchy and after 190 b.c. their
country was added to the territory of the king of Pergamus. In 130 b.c.
they were included in the Roman province of Asia, after which we hear
no more of them as a nation.

THE BITHYNIANS AND THE PAPHLAGONIANS

Between the Olympus Mountains on the northeast of Mysia and the

river Halys, which formed the western boundary of Cappadocia on the
Pontus, lay the territory of the Bithynians and Paphlagonians. We know
little of the early history of either nation.
The Paphlagonians are mentioned in Homer as the allies of the
Trojans. Herodotus includes them among the nations conquered by
Crœsus and describes the equipment of the Paphlagonians in Xerxes’
army, while Xenophon also speaks of the numerous soldiers they were
able to put into the field. Like the other nations of Asia Minor, the
Paphlagonians passed successively under the dominion of Persia and
Macedonia and they were included with Cappadocia in the territory of
Eumenes; but it was only when their country was annexed to the
kingdom of Pontus that they ceased to be ruled by native princes. (Third
century b.c.)
Bithynia takes its name from the tribe of the Bithyni who, with the
Thyni, are said to have originally crossed from Thrace. There was an
older population which they expelled, but the tribe of the Maryandini
continued to maintain themselves in the northeastern mountains.
Bithynia shared the fate of its neighbour in being conquered by both
Lydians and Persians, but in the fourth century b.c. we find the
beginning of a native monarchy which increased in power, until, under
Nicomedes I, the founder of the city of Nicomedia, it became an
important kingdom. This kingdom continued to exist till the encroaching
strength of that of Pontus drove its sovereign to seek protection from
the Roman power. It then became a Roman province and as such was
for a time united with Paphlagonia.
The greater part of both these countries is wild and mountainous, and
they possess extensive forests, but in many districts the rugged country
gives place to fertile plains and valleys. The Greeks founded cities all
along the coast, of which Sinope in Paphlagonia was the most important
and the last place in that country to submit to the rule of Pontus (183
b.c.).

ARMENIA

In the native language Armenia is called Haik, and accordingly in the

native legend we find the name of Haik ascribed to the founder of the
first Armenian kingdom. This hero was said to be the fourth in descent
from Japhet, and to have fled with a band of followers into the
mountains of Ararat in consequence of the tyranny of Belus, king of
Babylon, whom he afterwards defeated in a battle on the shores of Lake
Van. The inscriptions reveal a close resemblance between the
Babylonian writing and that used by the people of Urartu, the name
employed in the Assyrian inscriptions for the country of Ararat. A
distinction is however to be drawn between two races, the Armenians
proper, who are of Aryan origin, and probably first appeared about the
sixth century b.c., and the Alarodians, who were previously settled in the
country and were eventually completely absorbed by the new-comers. It
is the Alarodians, mentioned only by Herodotus, who seem to have
possessed an affinity with the Babylonians.
A descendant of Haik is said to have extended his power even as far
as Syria and Cappadocia and to have entered into alliance with Ninus of
Assyria. The legend further states that Semiramis (Shamiram), queen of
Assyria, made war on Araj of Armenia who had refused her love, and
that she defeated and slew him in battle, after which she gave Armenia
to Cardus. But Cardus rebelled against her and suffered the same fate
as his predecessor, though his descendants were permitted to retain the
throne as vassals to Assyria, till on the dissolution of the empire they
recovered their independence. A later king, Tigranes, appears as the ally
of Cyrus and the slayer of his rival Astyages. Tigranes is mentioned by
Xenophon, but the value of the rest of the legendary history is extremely
doubtful. The Assyrian inscriptions make frequent mention of
expeditions into the Armenian territory. It was divided into various
principalities. The Haikian dynasty had its seat at Armavir beyond the
Araxes, and Van on the lake of the same name was a very ancient
capital. The Haikian dynasty continued to reign till Alexander the Great
defeated Vahi in 317 b.c. The eastern portion of Armenia was constituted
an independent kingdom by Artaxias in 190 b.c., and under a later
dynasty, the Arsacid, it seemed likely to become the centre of a great
empire. The Romans, however, stepped in and its king Artavasdes,
having been taken prisoner by Antony, was beheaded in the year 30 b.c.
at the command of Cleopatra, while the country was split up into
numerous rival principalities.a
 CHAPTER IV. THE LYDIANS
Of the somewhat numerous nations that inhabited Asia Minor after
the disappearance of the Hittites, the Lydians were the only ones who
attained a degree of prominence that makes them an object of
particular interest to the present day student of ancient history. And
even these have an interest of a somewhat negative kind through their
associations with the Greeks on the one hand and the Persians on the
other.
As to the origin of the Lydians and their early history, all is utterly
obscure. It is not even very clearly known whether they are to be
regarded as a Semitic, Aryan, or a Turanian stock; most likely they were
a mixed race and owed to this fact the relative power which they
attained. Tradition, which here does service for history, ascribes to them
three dynasties of kings, which are commonly spoken of as the Attyadæ,
Heraclidæ, and the Mermnadæ. The first of these dynasties is altogether
mythical, and the second very largely so. There are, however, some half
dozen kings of the later period of the second dynasty whose names are
known to us; these are Alyattes I, Ardys I, Alyattes II, Meles, Myrsus,
and Candaules, and they ruled from about the year 814 b.c. to the year
691 b.c. The last of these kings, Candaules by name, is known to fame
through the pages of Herodotus and other writers, and with his
overthrow by Gyges, the third and last and the only truly historic
dynasty of Lydia was ushered in.
The story of the overthrow of Candaules, as told by Herodotus, is one
of the most stirring and famous of that author’s narratives. That it must
be regarded as half mythical, however, is evident from the fact that
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