Error Control Protocols in the Data Link Layer

What is Error Control?

Error control is a key function of the data link layer in computer networks. It ensures that the data sent
from the sender reaches the receiver accurately, without loss, duplication, or corruption.
Since data can get damaged during transmission (due to noise, signal degradation, or synchronization
problems), error control mechanisms are necessary to:
1. Detect errors in the transmitted frames.
2. Correct errors automatically or by retransmission.
3. Ensure reliable communication between two devices.

Objectives of Error Control

1. Error Detection: Identify if an error has occurred during transmission.
2. Error Correction: Correct the error automatically (if possible) or by requesting a retransmission.
3. Loss Recovery: Ensure that lost frames are retransmitted.
4. Flow Continuity: Prevent duplication and maintain the correct order of frames.

Error Control Methods

There are two types of methods:
1. Forward Error Correction (FEC) – The sender adds redundant data so that the receiver can detect
and correct errors without needing a retransmission. This method is used in real-time systems where
retransmission is not feasible (e.g., satellite communication). It is rarely used in general-purpose data
link control.
2. Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ) – This is the main method used in data link layer protocols. If
an error is detected, the receiver asks the sender to retransmit the frame. ARQ uses a combination of
acknowledgments (ACKs) and timeouts.

Types of ARQ Protocols

1. Stop-and-Wait ARQ
Working:
• The sender sends one frame at a time.
• Then it waits for an acknowledgment (ACK) from the receiver.
• If the ACK is received, the sender sends the next frame.
• If an error is detected, or no ACK is received within a timeout period, the sender resends the same
frame.
Features:
• Simple to implement.
• Low efficiency, especially over long-distance or high-latency links.
Problems Handled:
• Lost frame: Sender does not receive ACK; resends frame.
• Corrupt frame: Receiver sends a negative acknowledgment (NAK) or no ACK at all; sender
resends frame.
• Duplicate frame: Receiver uses sequence numbers to identify duplicates and discard them.

2. Go-Back-N ARQ
Working:
• The sender sends multiple frames at once (based on a window size N).
• The receiver only acknowledges the last correctly received frame in sequence.
• If a frame is found to be in error or lost, the receiver discards that frame and all subsequent
frames.
• The sender must go back and retransmit that frame and all frames sent after it.
Features:
• More efficient than Stop-and-Wait since it allows multiple frames to be sent before requiring an
ACK.

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 • Wastes bandwidth if errors occur frequently, as many frames may be resent even if only one had an
error.
Example:
If frames 1 through 5 are sent, and frame 3 is lost, the receiver will discard frames 3, 4, and 5, and the sender
must resend 3 to 5.

3. Selective Repeat ARQ

Working:
• Similar to Go-Back-N, but the receiver individually acknowledges each frame.
• Only the frames that are detected as erroneous or lost are retransmitted.
• The receiver buffers the correctly received frames that arrive out of order until the missing frame(s)
are retransmitted and inserted.
Features:
• More efficient than Go-Back-N, especially over noisy channels.
• Requires more complex logic and memory management at both sender and receiver.
Example:
If frames 1 to 5 are sent and frame 3 is lost, only frame 3 is retransmitted. Frames 4 and 5, if correctly
received, are held in buffer until frame 3 arrives.

Supporting Techniques: Error Detection

All ARQ protocols require error detection techniques to identify errors in frames. These techniques do not
fix errors, but detect them so that retransmission can be requested.
Common Error Detection Methods:
1. Parity Bit:
o Adds a single bit (even or odd parity) to the data to make the number of 1s even or odd.
o Simple but only detects single-bit errors.
2. Checksum:
o Adds up all the binary data (in segments), and appends the result (checksum) to the data.
o The receiver performs the same calculation. If the result differs, an error is detected.
3. Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC):
o Uses polynomial division to create a CRC code, which is appended to the data.
o Very powerful and detects burst errors effectively.
o Widely used in real-world protocols like Ethernet.

Comparison of ARQ Protocols

Feature Stop-and-Wait ARQ Go-Back-N ARQ Selective Repeat ARQ
Frames Sent at Once 1 Multiple Multiple
Handling Errors Resends current frame Resends current and all after it Resends only erroneous frames
Receiver Buffering Not required Not required Required
Efficiency Low Medium High
Complexity Low Medium High

Sequence Numbers and Acknowledgments

To avoid confusion between new and retransmitted frames, ARQ protocols use sequence numbers attached
to each frame. These help in:
• Detecting duplicate frames.
• Ensuring correct order.
• Managing acknowledgments.
For example:
• Stop-and-Wait ARQ uses sequence numbers 0 and 1 alternately.
• Go-Back-N and Selective Repeat use a sliding window of sequence numbers.

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 Twisted Pair Cable and Coaxial Cable
These are two types of cables used in computer networking and telecommunications to transmit electrical
signals. They both carry data, but their construction, performance, and use cases differ significantly.

1. Structure / Construction
Twisted Pair Cable:
• Made of two insulated copper wires twisted around each other.
• The twisting helps reduce electromagnetic interference (EMI) from nearby wires.
• Commonly used in LAN (Local Area Network) and telephone lines.
There are two types:
• UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) – no additional shielding.
• STP (Shielded Twisted Pair) – includes a metallic shield for extra protection against interference.
Coaxial Cable:
• Consists of one central copper conductor surrounded by:
o An insulating layer
o A metallic shield (mesh or foil)
o An outer plastic cover
• The shielding is better than twisted pair, making it suitable for longer distances or noisy
environments.

2. Signal Transmission and Bandwidth

Twisted Pair Cable:
• Lower bandwidth compared to coaxial cables.
• Suitable for short-distance and moderate-speed data transmission.
• Common bandwidths range from 10 Mbps to 1 Gbps depending on the cable category (Cat5e, Cat6,
etc.).
Coaxial Cable:
• Higher bandwidth capacity.
• Can transmit signals over longer distances with less signal loss.
• Used for cable TV, internet (broadband), and long-distance telephony.

3. Interference Protection
Twisted Pair Cable:
• Basic resistance to interference due to twisting of wires.
• UTP cables are more prone to interference.
• STP cables provide better protection but are more expensive and harder to install.
Coaxial Cable:
• Much better protection against electromagnetic interference due to its metallic shielding.
• Can be placed near electrical equipment without significant signal degradation.

4. Cost
Twisted Pair Cable:
• Cheaper to manufacture and install.
• Most cost-effective solution for short-distance networking (e.g., offices, homes).
Coaxial Cable:
• Generally more expensive than twisted pair.
• Higher material cost due to shielding and heavier construction.

5. Installation and Flexibility

Twisted Pair Cable:
• Lighter, thinner, and more flexible.
• Easier to install in tight spaces or through conduits.

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Coaxial Cable:
• Thicker and less flexible, especially RG-6 or higher grades.
• More difficult to bend or install in tight corners.

6. Distance and Attenuation

Twisted Pair Cable:
• Shorter maximum cable length (~100 meters for Ethernet using Cat5e/Cat6).
• Higher signal loss over distance (attenuation).
Coaxial Cable:
• Longer transmission distance without significant loss.
• Used in broadband and cable TV because signals remain strong over long runs.

7. Usage / Applications
Twisted Pair Cable:
• Widely used in:
o Ethernet networks (LAN)
o Telephone systems
o DSL broadband connections
Coaxial Cable:
• Common in:
o Cable television (CATV)
o Broadband internet
o CCTV (closed-circuit television)
o Long-distance radio frequency transmission

8. Data Transfer Speed

Twisted Pair Cable:
• Speeds vary based on category:
o Cat5e: up to 1 Gbps
o Cat6: up to 10 Gbps (at short distance)
Coaxial Cable:
• Can support up to 10 Gbps or more, depending on the technology and frequency.
• Often used with DOCSIS standard for broadband internet.

9. Connector Types
Twisted Pair Cable:
• Uses RJ-45 connectors for networking.
• RJ-11 used for telephone connections.
Coaxial Cable:
• Uses BNC, F-type, or N-type connectors depending on the use case (TV, internet, radio).

10. Security
Twisted Pair Cable:
• Less secure in noisy environments.
• Data can be more easily tapped if not shielded.
Coaxial Cable:
• More secure due to shielding.
• Harder to tap or interfere with, offering better data integrity.

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Summary Table
Feature Twisted Pair Cable Coaxial Cable
Structure Two insulated wires twisted together Central conductor with shielding
Bandwidth Lower Higher
Interference Resistance Moderate (high with STP) High (due to shield)
Cost Low Higher
Flexibility High Low (rigid)
Installation Easy More difficult
Maximum Length ~100 meters Several hundred meters
Use Cases LAN, telephony TV, broadband internet, CCTV
Connectors RJ-45, RJ-11 F-type, BNC, N-type
Data Rate Up to 1–10 Gbps (Cat6) 10 Gbps or more (with proper tech)
Security Less secure More secure

OSI Reference Model

What is the OSI Model?
OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It is a conceptual framework created by the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) that describes how data travels from one computer to another
over a network.
It divides the communication process into seven distinct layers, where each layer performs a specific
function and interacts only with the layers directly above and below it.
This model helps:
• Standardize communication protocols.
• Troubleshoot network problems by isolating layers.
• Understand how different hardware and software components interact.

The 7 Layers of the OSI Model

The layers (from top to bottom) are:
1. Application Layer (Layer 7)
2. Presentation Layer (Layer 6)
3. Session Layer (Layer 5)
4. Transport Layer (Layer 4)
5. Network Layer (Layer 3)
6. Data Link Layer (Layer 2)
7. Physical Layer (Layer 1)
You can remember it with the mnemonic:
"All People Seem To Need Data Processing"

Functions of Each Layer

1. Application Layer (Layer 7)
Purpose:
This is the topmost layer, where users interact directly with networked applications.
Main Functions:
• Provides interface for user applications like web browsers, email, file transfer, etc.
• Supports protocols such as HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS.
• Ensures the user can access the network services.
Example:
When you type a website URL in a browser, the Application layer handles the request via HTTP.
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2. Presentation Layer (Layer 6)
Purpose:
Acts as a translator between the Application layer and lower layers.
Main Functions:
• Data formatting: Converts data into a format the application or receiver can understand.
• Data encryption/decryption: For secure transmission (e.g., HTTPS encryption).
• Data compression: Reduces data size for faster transmission.
Example:
When sending an image, this layer might compress it to reduce size, or encrypt it for security.

3. Session Layer (Layer 5)

Purpose:
Responsible for establishing, managing, and terminating sessions between devices.
Main Functions:
• Session control: Opens, maintains, and closes communication sessions.
• Synchronization: Adds checkpoints during long transfers to resume from failure points.
• Dialog control: Manages which device can send or receive data at a time.
Example:
During a video call, the session layer keeps the connection active and manages the session.

4. Transport Layer (Layer 4)

Purpose:
Ensures end-to-end communication with reliable data delivery.
Main Functions:
• Segmentation and reassembly of data.
• Flow control: Prevents sender from overwhelming the receiver.
• Error control: Detects errors and ensures lost data is retransmitted.
• Reliable or unreliable delivery: Uses protocols like TCP (reliable) or UDP (unreliable).
Example:
When downloading a file, the transport layer ensures it arrives complete and correct.

5. Network Layer (Layer 3)

Purpose:
Handles the routing and forwarding of data between different networks.
Main Functions:
• Assigns logical addresses (e.g., IP addresses).
• Determines best path to send data (routing).
• Manages packet delivery across networks.
• Uses protocols like IP, ICMP, ARP.
Example:
When sending data to a website in another country, this layer finds the best route through routers.

6. Data Link Layer (Layer 2)

Purpose:
Ensures error-free and reliable communication between two devices on the same local network.
Main Functions:
• Frame creation: Packages data into frames.
• Error detection and correction.
• MAC addressing: Uses hardware addresses (like your device’s MAC address).
• Controls access to the physical medium (media access control).
Divided into two sublayers:
• LLC (Logical Link Control)
• MAC (Media Access Control)
Example:
When two computers are connected via Ethernet, the Data Link layer handles their communication.

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7. Physical Layer (Layer 1)
Purpose:
The lowest layer, responsible for the actual transmission of raw bits over a physical medium (cable, air,
etc.).
Main Functions:
• Converts binary data into electrical, optical, or radio signals.
• Defines hardware specifications (cables, connectors, voltages).
• Handles data rate control, signal timing, and synchronization.
Example:
When data is transmitted as electrical signals over a copper wire or light over a fiber optic cable, it’s handled
by the Physical layer.

Summary Table of OSI Layers

Layer Number Layer Name Main Function(s) Example Protocols / Devices

7 Application User interface, application services HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS

6 Presentation Data translation, encryption, compression SSL, JPEG, MP3, MPEG
5 Session Session setup, maintenance, and termination NetBIOS, PPTP

4 Transport Reliable delivery, segmentation, flow and error control TCP, UDP

3 Network Logical addressing, routing IP, ICMP, ARP

2 Data Link Framing, MAC addressing, error detection Ethernet, PPP, Switches

1 Physical Transmission of bits, hardware details Cables, Hubs, Fiber, Radio Signals

Transmission Medium and Its Types

A transmission medium is the physical path or channel through which data is transmitted from one
device to another in the form of signals (electrical, light, or radio waves).
It acts as the carrier of data between the sender and the receiver in a computer network.

Classification of Transmission Media

Transmission media can be broadly classified into two main types:
1. Guided (Wired) Media
2. Unguided (Wireless) Media

1. Guided Media (Also called Bounded Media)

In guided media, data signals are guided along a solid medium such as a cable. These are physical links.
a. Twisted Pair Cable
• Consists of two insulated copper wires twisted around each other.
• Twisting reduces electromagnetic interference.
• Commonly used in LANs, telephones.
Types:
• UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) – No extra shielding.
• STP (Shielded Twisted Pair) – Has a metallic shield for better noise resistance.
Advantages:
• Inexpensive
• Easy to install
Disadvantages:
• Limited bandwidth
• More prone to interference (especially UTP)

b. Coaxial Cable
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 • Has a central copper conductor, surrounded by insulation, a metallic shield, and an outer plastic
cover.
• Provides better shielding than twisted pair.
Common Uses:
• Cable TV
• Broadband internet
• CCTV systems
Advantages:
• Better resistance to noise
• Higher data rate than twisted pair
Disadvantages:
• Thicker and less flexible
• More expensive than twisted pair

c. Optical Fiber Cable

• Uses light signals instead of electrical signals.
• Composed of a glass or plastic core, a cladding, and a protective outer coating.
• Light travels through the core by total internal reflection.
Types:
• Single-mode fiber – Carries one light signal (used for long-distance).
• Multi-mode fiber – Carries multiple signals (used for shorter distances).
Advantages:
• Extremely high bandwidth
• Immune to electromagnetic interference
• Suitable for long-distance communication
Disadvantages:
• Expensive
• Difficult to install and maintain

2. Unguided Media (Also called Unbounded or Wireless Media)

In unguided media, data signals are transmitted through the air or vacuum, without using physical
conductors.
These media transmit radio, microwave, or infrared waves.
a. Radio Waves
• Travel in all directions (omnidirectional).
• Suitable for wireless LANs, AM/FM radio, TV broadcasts, mobile phones.
Advantages:
• Can cover large areas
• Signals pass through walls
Disadvantages:
• Subject to interference
• Insecure if not encrypted

b. Microwaves
• Travel in straight lines (line-of-sight communication).
• Used in satellite communication, television distribution, cellular phones, Wi-Fi.
Types:
• Terrestrial microwave – between ground-based stations
• Satellite microwave – via satellite in orbit
Advantages:
• High frequency allows high data rates
• Suitable for long-distance wireless communication
Disadvantages:
• Cannot penetrate solid objects
• Affected by weather conditions

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c. Infrared Waves
• Short-range communication using light signals.
• Common in remote controls, IR-based wireless keyboards/mice, short-range data transfer.
Advantages:
• Secure (doesn’t pass through walls)
• No interference from radio signals
Disadvantages:
• Requires direct line-of-sight
• Limited range

Summary Table
Type Medium Direction Common Uses Range Speed/Bandwidth

Twisted Pair Copper wires Guided LAN, Telephony Up to 100m Up to 1 Gbps (Cat6)

Coaxial Cable Copper core Guided Cable TV, Broadband Up to 500m Up to 10 Gbps

Optical Fiber Glass/Plastic Guided Internet backbone, Telecom Many km Extremely high (Tbps)

Radio Waves Air Unguided AM/FM Radio, Mobile, Wi-Fi Few km Medium

Microwaves Air Unguided (Line-of-sight) Satellites, Cellular, TV Up to 100 km+ High

Infrared Air Unguided (LOS) Remote controls, peripherals Up to 5m Moderate

TCP/IP Reference Model

What is the TCP/IP Model?
The TCP/IP reference model is the foundation of modern networking. It defines how data should be
transmitted across interconnected networks like the internet.
TCP/IP stands for:
• TCP = Transmission Control Protocol
• IP = Internet Protocol
The model was developed by the U.S. Department of Defense in the 1970s and became the standard for
internetworking.
It provides a set of protocols that computers use to communicate over long distances. It is also known as the
Internet Protocol Suite.

Structure of the TCP/IP Model

The TCP/IP model has 4 layers, compared to the 7 layers in the OSI model. Each layer performs specific
functions and interacts with the layers directly above and below it.
The 4 Layers of TCP/IP:
1. Application Layer
2. Transport Layer
3. Internet Layer
4. Network Access Layer (also called Link or Host-to-Network layer)

Functions of Each Layer

1. Application Layer

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Purpose:
Provides services and applications to the user. It is the topmost layer and directly interacts with the end
user.
Key Functions:
• Provides network services like file transfers, emails, browsing.
• Handles application-specific protocols.
Common Protocols:
• HTTP – for web browsing
• FTP – for file transfer
• SMTP/POP3/IMAP – for emails
• DNS – domain name resolution
• Telnet, SSH – remote access
Note: This layer includes three layers of the OSI model: Application, Presentation, and Session.

2. Transport Layer
Purpose:
Provides end-to-end communication between two devices. Ensures that data is delivered reliably and in
order.
Key Functions:
• Segmentation and reassembly of data.
• Error detection and correction.
• Flow control and retransmission.
• Supports both reliable and unreliable delivery.
Common Protocols:
• TCP (Transmission Control Protocol):
o Reliable, connection-oriented.
o Ensures delivery, retransmits lost data.
o Used by applications like web (HTTP), email, file transfer.
• UDP (User Datagram Protocol):
o Unreliable, connectionless.
o Faster but no guarantee of delivery.
o Used in real-time applications like video streaming, VoIP, DNS.

3. Internet Layer
Purpose:
Responsible for routing the data across different networks. Handles logical addressing and path selection.
Key Functions:
• Assigns IP addresses.
• Routes data packets from source to destination.
• Handles packet fragmentation and reassembly.
Common Protocols:
• IP (Internet Protocol):
o Core protocol for addressing and routing.
o IPv4 and IPv6 versions exist.
• ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol):
o Used for diagnostics (e.g., ping).
• ARP (Address Resolution Protocol):
o Maps IP addresses to MAC addresses.

4. Network Access Layer (Link Layer)

Purpose:
Manages the physical transmission of data over a network medium. Also deals with frame-level
addressing and error checking.
Key Functions:
• Defines how data is physically sent (as bits).
• Provides MAC addressing, framing, and error detection.
• Interacts directly with network hardware like switches, routers, and NICs.

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Examples:
• Ethernet
• Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11)
• DSL
• Fiber optics

Comparison with OSI Model

OSI Layer TCP/IP Layer
Application Application
Presentation Application
Session Application
Transport Transport
Network Internet
Data Link + Physical Network Access

OSI Reference Model

What is OSI?
The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection Model) Model is a conceptual framework that describes how
data moves from one computer to another over a network.
It breaks down the communication process into 7 layers, each with specific functions.
Think of it like a postal system: Writing a letter (Application Layer), putting it in an envelope
(Presentation), addressing it (Session), and finally handing it to the post office (lower layers) for delivery.

Why is OSI Important?

• Helps understand how networking works.
• Ensures interoperability between different systems (hardware/software).
• Guides network troubleshooting (e.g., “Which layer is failing?”).

The Seven Layers of OSI Model (From Top to Bottom)

Layer No. Layer Name Purpose in Simple Words
7 Application Directly interacts with the user/application
6 Presentation Translates data between application and network
5 Session Opens, manages, and closes communication
4 Transport Ensures complete, error-free data transfer
3 Network Finds the best path for data (routing)
2 Data Link Transfers data between two directly connected devices
1 Physical Moves bits over cables, Wi-Fi, or fiber optics

Detailed Explanation of Each Layer (With Examples)

1. Physical Layer (Layer 1)
"How is data physically sent?"
• Deals with raw bits (0s and 1s).
• Manages cables, voltages, frequencies, etc.
• Includes: Ethernet cables, USB, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi signals.
Example: Sending a signal over a wire or via Wi-Fi.

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2. Data Link Layer (Layer 2)
"How do two devices directly connected talk reliably?"
• Ensures error-free communication between two adjacent devices.
• Breaks data into frames.
• Adds MAC addresses to identify devices.
Example: Your laptop sends a frame to the Wi-Fi router.

3. Network Layer (Layer 3)

"How does data travel across multiple devices/networks?"
• Responsible for routing and addressing.
• Uses IP addresses.
• Chooses best path from sender to receiver (via routers).
Example: Your message goes through several routers to reach Google’s server.

4. Transport Layer (Layer 4)

"How is reliable data delivery ensured?"
• Breaks large data into segments, reassembles at destination.
• Provides error control, retransmission, and flow control.
• Protocols: TCP (reliable), UDP (faster but no guarantee).
Example: Ensuring your file arrives completely and in the right order.

5. Session Layer (Layer 5)

"How do we start, maintain, and end communication?"
• Manages sessions or connections between two systems.
• Handles authentication and reconnection if needed.
Example: Logging in to a website and keeping you logged in during your session.

6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6)

"How is data formatted and translated?"
• Encrypts, decrypts, compresses, and formats data.
• Makes data readable between different systems.
Example: Converts video file format (.mp4 to .mov) or encrypts data using SSL.

7. Application Layer (Layer 7)

"How does the user interact with the network?"
• Closest to the end user.
• Provides services like email, web browsing, file transfer.
• Protocols: HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS.
Example: You open Chrome and load a website using HTTP.

Summary Chart (with Mnemonic)

Layer Name Keyword Example Protocols
7 Application User Interface HTTP, FTP, DNS, SMTP
6 Presentation Translation JPEG, SSL/TLS, ASCII
5 Session Connection Mgmt NetBIOS, RPC
4 Transport Reliable Delivery TCP, UDP
3 Network Routing IP, ICMP
2 Data Link MAC & Framing Ethernet, PPP
1 Physical Signals Cables, Wi-Fi, Hubs

Mnemonic to remember:
"All People Seem To Need Data Processing"

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Functions of Each Layer in the OSI Model
1. Physical Layer (Layer 1)
Function: Transfers raw bits (0s and 1s) over a physical medium.
• Manages physical connection between devices.
• Converts digital data into electrical, light, or radio signals.
• Defines hardware: cables, connectors, voltages, pins.
Example: Transmitting data through Ethernet cable or Wi-Fi signal.

2. Data Link Layer (Layer 2)

Function: Ensures reliable data transfer between two directly connected devices.
• Organizes bits into frames (structured data units).
• Adds MAC addresses for source & destination.
• Detects and sometimes corrects errors in transmission.
Example: Helps your PC send a data frame to your Wi-Fi router.

3. Network Layer (Layer 3)

Function: Determines the best path to send data from source to destination across multiple networks.
• Handles routing and IP addressing.
• Breaks data into packets.
• Ensures data reaches correct destination across different networks.
Example: Routes data from your device in India to a server in the USA.

4. Transport Layer (Layer 4)

Function: Provides end-to-end communication, reliability, and flow control.
• Breaks data into segments, reorders and reassembles it.
• Ensures complete data transfer using TCP or UDP.
• Adds port numbers to identify applications.
Example: Ensures that your WhatsApp message arrives completely and in order.

5. Session Layer (Layer 5)

Function: Manages the start, maintenance, and termination of communication (sessions) between
applications.
• Opens and closes communication sessions.
• Maintains session state (e.g., logged in or timed out).
• Supports synchronization and dialog control.
Example: Keeps you logged in while watching a video stream or using an online banking session.

6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6)

Function: Translates data between application and network formats.
• Handles data format conversion (e.g., from binary to text).
• Performs encryption, decryption, and data compression.
• Ensures data is in a readable form for the application.
Example: Decrypts SSL/TLS encrypted content when opening a secure website (HTTPS).

7. Application Layer (Layer 7)

Function: Enables user interaction with networked services.
• Provides services directly to users and applications.
• Manages protocols like HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS, etc.
• Acts as the user’s window to the network.
Example: When you open Chrome to browse a website, this layer runs HTTP to fetch the page.

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 Computer Networking and its objectives
with application of it

What is Computer Networking?

Computer networking is the process of connecting multiple computers and devices (like printers,
servers, smartphones) so they can communicate, share data, and resources with each other.
• It can involve wired connections (Ethernet cables) or wireless connections (Wi-Fi, Bluetooth).
• The communication happens using network protocols (e.g., TCP/IP).
• A network can range from a few computers (in a home or office) to millions of devices globally
(like the Internet).

Examples of Computer Networks

Type Example
LAN Computers in a school lab
WAN The Internet
MAN City-wide cable TV network
PAN Bluetooth between phone & earbuds

Objectives of Computer Networking

1. Resource Sharing
Devices can share physical resources like printers, storage, or scanners.
• Saves cost (no need to buy a printer for each user).
• Centralized resource management.
Example: All employees in an office use the same network printer.

2. File and Data Sharing

Networking enables easy and fast data exchange between users.
• Supports file transfer over LAN or Internet.
• Allows collaboration on documents in real-time.
Example: Sharing a project file with your teammate over Google Drive or a shared folder.

3. Communication
A network allows different devices and people to communicate efficiently.
• Email, chat, video conferencing, VoIP calls.
• Real-time messaging across the globe.
Example: Video calling on Zoom or WhatsApp.

4. Centralized Data Management

Organizations can manage and back up data centrally using servers.
• Better data control and security.
• Efficient data access and recovery.
Example: A company stores all employee records in a central server, accessible to HR.

5. Improved Security
Networks help apply security measures across all connected systems.
• Firewalls, encryption, user authentication, and access control.
• Monitors network traffic for suspicious activities.
Example: Only authorized employees can access confidential documents.

6. Remote Access
Users can access network resources from anywhere using the Internet.
• Enables work-from-home and cloud computing.

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 • Access company files, apps, or databases remotely.
Example: A teacher uploads class material to Google Classroom from home.

7. Scalability and Flexibility

A network can be expanded easily by adding more devices.
• New users and resources can be added without affecting existing ones.
• Wireless networks add even more flexibility.
Example: Adding a new computer to office LAN takes just a few steps.

8. Cost Efficiency
Reduces cost of operations by sharing devices, services, and centralized systems.
• Less hardware needed.
• Low maintenance with centralized support.
Example: A business uses one powerful server instead of separate computers for heavy tasks.

9. Backup and Recovery

Networks allow for automated backups of data.
• Reduces risk of data loss.
• Helps in quick disaster recovery.
Example: Cloud storage auto-backs up your files daily.

10. Support for Distributed Systems

Supports systems that run on multiple computers across locations, but act like one.
• Common in cloud-based applications and scientific simulations.
Example: A multiplayer online game hosted on global servers.

Applications of Computer Networking

1. Communication
Networking enables instant communication across the world.
• Email (Gmail, Outlook)
• Instant Messaging (WhatsApp, Telegram)
• Voice over IP (VoIP) (Skype, Zoom)
• Video Conferencing (Google Meet, MS Teams)
Example: You attend an online class or meeting through Zoom.

2. Resource Sharing
Devices and users can share hardware and software resources.
• Shared printers, scanners, and files
• Shared applications hosted on servers
• Access to common databases
Example: Multiple students use the same college printer via LAN.

3. Internet Access and Web Services

Internet is the largest computer network used for:
• Browsing websites (Google, Wikipedia)
• Online services (banking, shopping, streaming)
• Downloading/uploading files
• Accessing cloud storage (Google Drive, Dropbox)
Example: Ordering food online via a mobile app.

4. Cloud Computing
Networking allows users to access computing resources on demand over the Internet.
• Store, access, and process data remotely
• Platforms: Google Cloud, AWS, Microsoft Azure
Example: Editing documents online using Google Docs without installing software.
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5. Online Education and E-Learning
Students and teachers can connect over networks for learning and teaching.
• Online classes (Zoom, MS Teams)
• Learning Management Systems (Google Classroom, Moodle)
• E-books, tutorials, online exams
Example: Attending a live class during lockdown through Google Meet.

6. E-Commerce
Networking supports buying and selling of goods/services over the Internet.
• Online shopping platforms: Amazon, Flipkart
• Digital payments (UPI, Paytm, Google Pay)
• Product delivery tracking
Example: Booking a mobile phone online.

7. Banking and Financial Services

Banks use secure networks for:
• Online banking (NEFT, RTGS, IMPS)
• ATM transactions
• Mobile banking apps
Example: Transferring money from one bank account to another via Internet banking.

8. Entertainment
Networks allow users to enjoy online content:
• Streaming music/videos (YouTube, Netflix, Spotify)
• Online gaming (PUBG, Free Fire)
• Live sports or events
Example: Watching IPL live on Hotstar.

9. Industrial and Business Applications

Organizations rely on networking for:
• Managing inventory, customer data, and supply chain
• Employee collaboration and file sharing
• Cloud-based business apps (ERP, CRM)
Example: A company tracks product shipments in real time using cloud-based systems.

10. Remote Access and Work-from-Home

Employees access company systems from home or other locations.
• Use of VPNs (Virtual Private Networks)
• Remote desktop tools
• Cloud apps for meetings and work
Example: IT professionals managing servers from home.

11. Government and Defense

Governments use networks for:
• National ID systems
• Online tax filing (Income Tax Portal)
• Secure communication in defense/military
• Law enforcement coordination
Example: Filing your income tax return online.

12. Health Care and Telemedicine

Doctors and patients connect via networks for:
• Remote consultations
• Digital medical records
• Online health monitoring
Example: Consulting a doctor on Practo or Apollo 24/7 app.
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 Optical Fibre
Definition
Optical fibre is a thin, transparent transmission medium made of glass or plastic, designed to carry data
signals in the form of light pulses over long distances with high speed and minimal loss.
• It is also known as a fibre optic cable.
• Operates based on the physical phenomenon of Total Internal Reflection (TIR).
• Commonly used in network communication, internet services, and medical imaging.

Structure of Optical Fibre

An optical fibre consists of three major layers:
1. Core
o The central and innermost part through which light travels.
o Made of ultra-pure glass (silica) or plastic.
o Has a higher refractive index than cladding to enable TIR.
2. Cladding
o The outer optical layer that surrounds the core.
o Has a lower refractive index than the core.
o Its main role is to reflect light back into the core, maintaining signal integrity.
3. Outer Jacket (or Buffer Coating)
o The protective outer covering.
o Made of plastic or polymer.
o Protects the fibre from moisture, abrasion, and mechanical damage.

Working Principle
The working of optical fibre is based on the principle of Total Internal Reflection:
• Light enters the fibre at a certain angle known as the angle of incidence.
• When it hits the core-cladding boundary at an angle greater than the critical angle, it reflects back
into the core instead of refracting out.
• This repeated reflection allows the light signal to travel through the fibre in a zigzag manner over
long distances without escaping.
Key Concepts:
• Critical Angle: The minimum angle of incidence required for total internal reflection to occur.
• Refractive Index: Determines how much light bends when entering a material.

Types of Optical Fibre

Type Description Common Use Cases
Single- Has a very small core diameter (around 8-10 µm). Used in long-distance communication, such as
Mode Fibre Transmits only one ray of light. telephone and cable TV transmission.
Multi-Mode Has a larger core diameter (50-100 µm). Allows Used in short-distance communication, such as
Fibre multiple light rays to travel simultaneously. LANs and campus networks.

Advantages of Optical Fibre

1. High Bandwidth – Can transmit significantly more data than copper cables.
2. Very High Speed – Signals travel at the speed of light, allowing faster transmission.
3. Low Attenuation – Signal loss is minimal, especially over long distances.
4. Immunity to Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) – Unlike copper, it is unaffected by electrical
noise or interference.
5. Lightweight and Thin – Easier to install and manage than bulky copper cables.
6. Better Security – Difficult to tap without being detected, ensuring secure communication.

Disadvantages of Optical Fibre

1. High Initial Cost – Installation and equipment (e.g., splicing machines, connectors) are expensive.
2. Fragility – Glass fibres are delicate and can break if bent excessively.

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 3. Complex Installation and Maintenance – Requires skilled professionals for splicing, termination,
and repairs.
4. Specialized Components Required – Needs light sources (lasers/LEDs) and receivers
(photodetectors).

Applications of Optical Fibre

Field Specific Applications
Telecommunications Long-distance telephone lines and mobile data networks
Internet & Broadband High-speed internet backbone and fibre-to-home (FTTH)
Medical Field Used in endoscopy, laser surgeries, and imaging
Military and Aerospace Secure, reliable communication systems in critical areas
Cable Television (CATV) Transmission of digital TV signals to households
Data Centers High-speed backbone connectivity between servers

Comparison: Optical Fibre vs Copper Cable

Feature Optical Fibre Copper Cable
Transmission Speed Extremely high (light speed) Moderate (electrical signals)
Bandwidth Very high Limited
Signal Attenuation Very low Higher compared to fibre
EMI Resistance Immune Prone to electromagnetic interference
Distance Support Up to hundreds of kilometers Limited to a few hundred meters
Cost Expensive (initial setup and equipment) Cheaper and widely used
Security High – difficult to tap or intercept Lower – can be tapped or spliced

Summary
• Optical fibre is a modern transmission medium that uses light to transmit data.
• It operates based on the Total Internal Reflection principle.
• The three main components are core, cladding, and jacket.
• There are two main types: Single-mode (for long distances) and Multi-mode (for short distances).
• It offers high speed, high bandwidth, low signal loss, and better security, making it ideal for modern
communication systems.

LAN Technology
A Local Area Network (LAN) is a computer network that connects multiple devices within a limited
geographical area, such as a home, office, school, or campus, for the purpose of resource sharing and
communication.
LAN technology includes both the hardware (like switches, cables, routers) and software protocols (like
Ethernet, TCP/IP) required for building and managing a local network.

Key Characteristics of LAN

Feature Description
Geographical Scope Small areas such as a room, building, or a group of nearby buildings
Data Speed High speed (commonly 100 Mbps to 10 Gbps)
Ownership Usually owned and managed by a single organization or individual
Latency Very low due to short distances and direct connections
Resource Sharing Devices can share printers, files, applications, and internet

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Architecture of LAN
The architecture of a LAN refers to the design and structure of how the devices (nodes) are organized and
how they communicate. It consists of the following elements:
1. Devices (Nodes)
• Includes computers, printers, scanners, smartphones, etc., connected to the LAN.
2. Network Interface Cards (NICs)
• Each device in a LAN must have a NIC that allows it to send and receive data.
3. Connecting Devices
• Switches: Central devices that manage data traffic by forwarding packets only to intended devices.
• Hubs: Basic and outdated devices that broadcast data to all connected nodes.
• Routers: Connect the LAN to external networks such as the Internet.
4. Transmission Media
• Wired: Twisted pair (Ethernet cables), Coaxial, or Fibre optic cables.
• Wireless: Radio waves (Wi-Fi using IEEE 802.11 standards).
5. Topology
• Defines how devices are physically or logically arranged (explained in detail below).
6. Protocols
• Define rules and standards for communication (e.g., TCP/IP, Ethernet, ARP).

LAN Topologies (Network Structures)

Topology Structure Description Advantages Disadvantages
All devices share a single cable or Easy to install and Difficult to troubleshoot, limited
Bus
backbone inexpensive devices
All devices connect to a central Failure of central device affects entire
Star Easy to manage, reliable
hub/switch network
Devices connected in a circular
Ring Predictable performance A single failure affects the whole ring
fashion
Every device connects to every other High redundancy and
Mesh Expensive and complex to install
device reliability

Communication Technologies Used in LAN

Technology Description
Ethernet Most widely used LAN technology for wired communication using IEEE 802.3.
Wi-Fi Wireless LAN based on IEEE 802.11 standards.
Token Ring An older LAN method where data travels in a ring using a token.
FDDI High-speed optical fibre-based LAN technology, mostly used in backbone LANs.

Protocols Used in LAN

Protocol Function
IEEE 802.3 Standard for Ethernet (wired LANs)
IEEE 802.11 Standard for wireless LANs (Wi-Fi)
TCP/IP Main protocol suite for communication over LAN and internet
ARP Resolves IP addresses to MAC addresses
DHCP Dynamically assigns IP addresses to devices in the LAN

Applications of LAN Technology

Sector Application Example
Corporate Offices Employees share documents, printers, servers, and internal software
Educational Institutions Students and teachers use LAN for digital resources, e-learning
Libraries Catalog management, inventory, and public internet access

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 Sector Application Example
Home Networks Connecting PCs, smartphones, smart TVs, and IoT devices
Banks Internal communication between bank systems and security monitoring

Advantages of LAN
1. High Data Transmission Speed – Ideal for real-time communication and file sharing.
2. Resource Sharing – Enables shared use of files, printers, internet connections, and applications.
3. Cost Efficiency – Reduces need for separate resources for each device.
4. Enhanced Security – Access control and user management within a local network.
5. Scalability – Easy to add or remove devices as per requirements.
6. Reliability – Minimal data loss and low transmission errors due to short distance.

Disadvantages of LAN
1. Geographical Limitation – Cannot connect distant users; limited to a confined area.
2. High Setup Costs (Initially) – Requires investment in routers, switches, and cabling.
3. Maintenance Overhead – Requires periodic monitoring and skilled personnel.
4. Security Threats from Inside – Unauthorized access or data theft from internal users if not properly
secured.

Summary Table
Feature Description
Full Form Local Area Network
Coverage Area Small (up to a few kilometers)
Data Speed Up to 10 Gbps (wired), up to 1 Gbps (wireless)
Ownership Private
Transmission Media Ethernet cables, Optical fibre, Wi-Fi
Typical Topology Star (most common), followed by Bus and Ring
Common Technologies Ethernet, Wi-Fi

MAN (Metropolitan Area Network

Definition
A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a type of computer network that spans a city or a large campus,
connecting multiple Local Area Networks (LANs) within a defined geographical area (typically 5 to 50
kilometers in range).
• It is larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN.
• MANs are often established by government bodies, ISPs, universities, or large corporations to
connect multiple buildings or branches within a city.
• It can be either public or private in nature.

Key Characteristics of MAN

Feature Description
Geographical Scope Covers an area larger than LAN (such as a city or urban district)
Data Speed Moderate to high (commonly 100 Mbps to several Gbps)
Ownership May be owned by an organization or provided by service providers
Connection Type Uses high-speed fiber optics, leased lines, or wireless connections
Interconnection Connects multiple LANs and provides backbone infrastructure

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Architecture of MAN
The architecture of a MAN typically includes the following components:
1. Multiple LANs
• Several LANs located in different buildings or campuses are connected through the MAN
infrastructure.
2. Routers and Switches
• Used for forwarding data between networks efficiently.
• Routers manage traffic between LANs; switches manage traffic within LANs.
3. Transmission Media
• Often uses fiber optic cables, coaxial cables, or microwave wireless links for high-speed data
transfer.
4. Communication Links
• Either dedicated leased lines or shared public infrastructure.
• Data often passes through service provider’s equipment when MAN is managed by a third party.
5. Protocols
• Uses a mix of LAN and WAN protocols, such as Ethernet, ATM, MPLS, or Metro Ethernet.

Technologies Used in MAN

Technology Description
Metro Ethernet Uses Ethernet technology to provide MAN connectivity.
SONET/SDH High-speed fiber optic standards used in telecommunication MANs.
MPLS Multi-Protocol Label Switching – efficient routing over large networks
WiMAX Wireless broadband technology suitable for MAN-scale connectivity
Fibre Optics Preferred for backbone due to speed, reliability, and low latency

Advantages of MAN
1. Covers Large Areas – Ideal for connecting campuses, business branches, or municipal offices
across a city.
2. High Speed – Faster than WAN and suitable for high-bandwidth applications.
3. Efficient Resource Sharing – Allows centralized management and access to shared data and
services.
4. Scalability – New networks or users can be added easily.
5. Economic for Organizations – Reduces cost by eliminating the need for multiple ISPs between
branches.

Disadvantages of MAN
1. Complex Setup – Requires professional planning and configuration.
2. High Installation and Maintenance Cost – Infrastructure setup (like fiber cables, routers) can be
costly.
3. Dependency on Service Providers – Often requires leased lines or third-party connectivity.
4. Security Risks – As it spans multiple locations, additional security layers are required.

Applications of MAN
Sector Application Example
Educational Institutions Connecting multiple campuses of a university within a city
Corporate Organizations Linking various offices or data centers in a metropolitan region
Government & Public Sector Interconnecting departments (e.g., police, transport, tax offices)
Internet Service Providers Delivering broadband internet services to residential areas
Media Broadcasting Real-time content distribution across city-wide networks

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 Multiplexing
Definition
Multiplexing is a technique used in communication systems to combine multiple signals (analog or digital)
into a single transmission medium or channel for simultaneous transmission.
The goal is to maximize the utilization of available bandwidth and reduce transmission cost.
The device that performs this task is called a multiplexer (MUX), and the corresponding receiver is called a
demultiplexer (DEMUX).

Need for Multiplexing

• To efficiently use the bandwidth of a communication channel.
• To allow multiple data streams to share the same physical medium (cable, fiber, etc.).
• To reduce the cost of infrastructure by minimizing the number of transmission lines.

Basic Principle
Multiplexing works on the idea that multiple signals can share a medium either by dividing time,
frequency, code, or wavelength. Each signal is separated logically or physically to avoid interference.

Types of Multiplexing
There are three primary types of multiplexing:

1. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

• Each signal is assigned a fixed time slot in a rotating cycle.
• Signals take turns to transmit over the channel.
• Used in digital systems.
Types of TDM:
• Synchronous TDM – Fixed time slots whether or not data is present.
• Asynchronous (Statistical) TDM – Time slots are assigned dynamically based on data availability.
Example: Telecommunication systems for voice transmission.

2. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

• Each signal is assigned a separate frequency band within the channel’s bandwidth.
• Signals are transmitted simultaneously on different frequencies.
• Used in analog systems.
Example: FM radio stations transmitting on different frequency bands.

3. Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

• A form of FDM used in optical fibre networks.
• Multiple light signals of different wavelengths (colors) are transmitted through the same fibre.
• Common in fiber-optic communication.
Example: Optical networks like DWDM systems used by ISPs.

Other Forms of Multiplexing (Advanced/Modern)

Type Description
Code Division Multiplexing Uses unique codes for each signal; allows simultaneous transmission. Widely
(CDM/CDMA) used in mobile networks.
Space Division Multiplexing (SDM) Different physical paths (space) used to transmit signals, e.g., MIMO antennas.
Polarization Division Multiplexing
Used in advanced optical systems; transmits light in different polarizations.
(PDM)

Advantages of Multiplexing
1. Efficient bandwidth usage – Multiple signals over one medium.
2. Reduced cost – Fewer cables and hardware required.
3. Scalability – More users or signals can be added easily.

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 4. Improved performance – Especially in digital systems with TDM.

Disadvantages of Multiplexing
1. Complexity – Requires multiplexer and demultiplexer at both ends.
2. Delay and synchronization issues – Especially in TDM systems.
3. Interference – FDM may suffer from adjacent channel interference.
4. Failure of single channel – Affects all multiplexed signals.

Applications of Multiplexing
Sector Application Example
Telecommunications Multiple telephone calls over a single cable (TDM, FDM)
Broadcasting Multiple radio/TV channels via single antenna (FDM)
Optical Networks High-speed internet using WDM in fiber optics
Mobile Networks CDMA systems allowing multiple calls in the same frequency band
Satellite Communication Multiplexed signals sent to and from satellites

Data Communication and Data Transmission

1. Data Communication
Definition:
Data communication refers to the process of transmitting digital or analog data between two or more
devices using a transmission medium (such as cables or wireless signals) in such a way that the data is
received accurately and reliably.
It involves not just the act of sending data, but also the control, management, and coordination between
sender and receiver, ensuring that data is understood and synchronized at both ends.
Key Features of Data Communication:
Feature Description
Sender and Receiver At least two devices are required – one to send, and one to receive data.
Message The actual data being communicated.
Transmission Medium The physical path (cable, fiber, wireless) through which the data flows.
Protocol Set of rules that govern data communication (e.g., TCP/IP, HTTP, etc.).
Accuracy Involves error detection and correction mechanisms.
Timeliness Real-time communication may be required (e.g., in video calls).
Modes of Data Communication:
Mode Description Example
Simplex One-way communication Keyboard to CPU
Half-duplex Two-way, but only one side transmits at a time Walkie-talkie
Full-duplex Two-way communication simultaneously Telephone conversation
Importance:
• Enables resource sharing (files, printers, etc.).
• Facilitates remote communication and automation.
• Fundamental for networking, cloud computing, internet services, and more.

2. Data Transmission
Definition:
Data transmission is the physical movement of data bits or signals over a communication medium from
one point to another.
It is a subset of data communication, focusing only on the actual delivery of bits, without necessarily
ensuring meaning, interpretation, or error handling.
Key Aspects of Data Transmission:

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 Aspect Description
Direction Unidirectional or bidirectional movement of bits
Medium Uses physical channels like twisted pair cables, optical fibre, etc.
Format Data may be analog or digital depending on the system
Speed Measured in bits per second (bps)
Mode Serial or Parallel transmission
Types of Data Transmission:
1. Serial Transmission
o Data bits are sent one after another over a single channel.
o Slower but cheaper and used in long-distance communication.
2. Parallel Transmission
o Multiple bits are sent simultaneously using multiple channels.
o Faster but expensive; used for short-distance communication (e.g., inside CPUs).

Difference Between Data Communication and Data Transmission

Feature Data Communication Data Transmission
Scope Broad – includes all aspects of data exchange Narrow – only refers to data transfer
Functionality Includes synchronization, protocol management, etc. Concerned only with sending data bits
Focus Ensures data is delivered correctly and meaningfully Ensures bits are delivered physically
Includes Data transmission, error detection, encoding, etc. Only deals with sending data over a channel
Example Sending an email (with formatting and protocol use) Transferring raw bits over a cable

Switching and its type

Definition
Switching is the process used in communication networks to forward data from a source to a destination
by selecting a specific path through intermediate devices (such as switches or routers).
Switching determines how data travels through a network. In large networks, a direct connection between
every device is not practical. Instead, data is transmitted through intermediate nodes, and switching
techniques decide the best path.
Switching is fundamental to network communication, especially in WANs (Wide Area Networks) and
public telecommunication systems.

Purpose of Switching
• To efficiently route data from sender to receiver.
• To optimize bandwidth and reduce congestion.
• To support multiple users simultaneously in shared networks.
• To increase scalability and flexibility in networks.

Types of Switching
Switching techniques are classified mainly into three types:

1. Circuit Switching
Definition
Circuit switching is a method of communication where a dedicated communication path or circuit is
established between the sender and the receiver before the actual transmission begins.
Working Process
1. Connection Establishment – A fixed route (circuit) is established across the network.
2. Data Transfer – Data flows continuously through the established circuit.
3. Connection Release – Once the communication is complete, the circuit is disconnected.
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Key Features
• The resources are reserved for the duration of the communication.
• Commonly used in traditional telephone networks.
• It offers a constant bandwidth and fixed delay.
Advantages
• Reliable and predictable performance.
• No interference from other traffic during the session.
• Constant transmission rate.
Disadvantages
• Wastes resources if the line is idle during the call.
• Slow to set up the connection.
• Not efficient for data traffic with variable rates.
Example: Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN)

2. Packet Switching
Definition
Packet switching is a technique in which data is divided into packets and each packet is independently
transmitted across the network, possibly taking different paths to reach the destination.
Working Process
1. Data is broken into small units (packets).
2. Each packet contains addressing information.
3. Packets are transmitted independently and may arrive out of order.
4. The destination reassembles packets into the original message.
Key Features
• No dedicated path is reserved.
• Supports store-and-forward transmission at intermediate nodes.
• Efficient use of network resources.
Advantages
• Efficient for bursty data traffic (e.g., web browsing, emails).
• Dynamic path selection improves resource usage.
• Supports multiple communications simultaneously.
Disadvantages
• Packets may arrive out of order.
• Requires extra processing for reordering and error checking.
• Delay and jitter can occur in real-time communication.
Types of Packet Switching
Type Description
Datagram Switching Each packet is routed independently; no guaranteed delivery order.
Virtual Circuit Switching A logical path is established before transmission, packets follow the same path.
Examples: Internet, LANs using IP

3. Message Switching
Definition
Message switching involves transmitting the entire message as a single unit, storing it temporarily at
intermediate nodes, and then forwarding it to the next node. It follows a store-and-forward approach.
Working Process
1. The sender sends the entire message to the first node.
2. Each intermediate node stores the message completely.
3. The node forwards the message when the next path is available.
Key Features
• No need for a dedicated path.
• Can handle very large messages.
• No message loss occurs due to store-and-forward.
Advantages
• Efficient use of bandwidth.
• Can be used when network congestion exists.

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 • Supports routing flexibility.
Disadvantages
• High delay, especially for large messages.
• Requires large storage at intermediate nodes.
• Not suitable for real-time communication.
Example: Telegraph networks, Email systems (conceptually)

Comparison of Switching Techniques

Feature Circuit Switching Packet Switching Message Switching
No fixed path; message is
Path Type Fixed path during session No fixed path; dynamic routing
stored
Data Unit Continuous stream Packets Whole message
Low (reserved path unused if
Efficiency High Moderate
idle)
Delay Low (after setup) Variable High
Storage at
Not needed Needed (for buffering packets) Required (entire message)
Nodes
Data communication (Internet,
Suitability Voice communication Delayed communication
emails)
Example Traditional telephony (PSTN) Internet, IP networks Telegraph, Email

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