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A Modern View
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of the!Universe
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� About the photo: This Hubble Space Telescope photo shows thousands of galaxies in a region of the sky
so small you could cover it with a grain of sand held at arm’s length.

LEARNING GOALS
1.1 The Scale of the Universe 1.3 Spaceship Earth
� What is our place in the universe? � How is Earth moving through space?
� How big is the universe? � How do galaxies move within the universe?

1.2 The History of the Universe 1.4 The Human Adventure of Astronomy
� How did we come to be? � How has the study of astronomy affected human
� How do our lifetimes compare to the age of the history?
universe?

1
It suddenly struck me that that tiny pea, pretty and Our Cosmic Address The galaxies that we see in the
blue, was the Earth. I put up my thumb and shut Hubble Space Telescope photo are just one of several key
levels of structure in our universe, all illustrated as our
one eye, and my thumb blotted out the planet Earth. “cosmic address” in FIGURE 1.1.
I didn’t feel like a giant. I felt very, very small. Earth is a planet in our solar system, which consists of
—Neil Armstrong on looking back at the Earth from the Sun, the planets and their moons, and countless smaller
the Moon, July 1969 objects that include rocky asteroids and icy comets. Keep in
mind that our Sun is a star, just like the stars we see in our
night sky.
Chapter 1 Overview Our solar system belongs to the huge, disk-shaped col-

F
lection of stars called the Milky Way Galaxy. A galaxy is
ar from city lights on a clear night, you can gaze upward at a great island of stars in space, all held together by gravity
a sky filled with stars. Lie back and watch for a few hours, and orbiting a common center. The Milky Way is a rela-
and you will observe the stars marching steadily across the sky. tively large galaxy, containing more than 100 billion stars,
Confronted by the seemingly infinite heavens, you might won- and we think that most of these stars are orbited by planets.
der how Earth and the universe came to be. If you do, you will Our solar system is located a little over halfway from the
be sharing an experience common to humans around the world
galactic center to the edge of the galactic disk.
and in thousands of generations past.
Billions of other galaxies are scattered throughout space.
Modern science offers answers to many of our fundamental
Some galaxies are fairly isolated, but most are found in
questions about the universe and our place within it. We now
groups. Our Milky Way, for example, is one of the two larg-
know the basic content and scale of the universe. We know the
ages of Earth and the universe. And, although much remains to
est among more than 50 galaxies (most relatively small) in

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be discovered, we are rapidly learning how the simple ingredi- the Local Group. Groups of galaxies with many more large
ents of the early universe developed into the incredible diversity members are often called galaxy clusters.

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of life on Earth—and, perhaps, life on other worlds as well. On a very large scale, galaxies and galaxy clusters appear
In this first chapter, we will survey the scale, history, and to be arranged in giant chains and sheets with huge voids
motion of the universe. This “big picture” perspective on our between them; the background of Figure 1.1 represents this
universe will provide a base on which you’ll be able to build a large-scale structure. The regions in which galaxies and gal-
deeper understanding in the rest of!the book.
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axy clusters are most tightly packed are called superclusters,
which are essentially clusters of galaxy clusters. Our Local
Group is located in the outskirts of the Local Supercluster
1.1 The Scale of the Universe (also called Laniakea, Hawaiian for “immense heaven”).
For most of human history, our ancestors imagined Earth to Together, all these structures make up our universe.
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be stationary at the center of a relatively small universe. This In other words, the universe is the sum total of all matter
idea made sense at a time when understanding was built and energy, encompassing the superclusters and voids and
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upon everyday experience. After all, we cannot feel the con- everything within them.
stant motion of Earth as it rotates on its axis and orbits the Think about it Some people think that our tiny physical size
Sun, and if you observe the sky you’ll see that the Sun, Moon,
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in the vast universe makes us insignificant. Others think that

planets, and stars all appear to revolve around us each day.
our ability to learn about the wonders of the universe gives
Nevertheless, we now know that Earth is a planet orbiting a
us significance despite our small size. What do you think?
rather average star in a rather typical galaxy in a vast universe.
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The historical path to this knowledge was long and com-

plex. In later chapters, we’ll see that the ancient belief in an Astronomical Distance Measurements The labels in
Earth-centered (or geocentric) universe changed only when Figure 1.1 give an approximate size for each structure in kilo-
people were confronted by strong evidence to the contrary, and meters (recall that 1 kilometer ≈ 0 .6 mile), but!many dis-
we’ll explore how the method of learning that we call science tances in astronomy are so large that kilometers are not the
enabled us to acquire this evidence. First, however, it’s useful most convenient unit. Instead, we often use two other units:
to have a general picture of the universe as we know it today. � One astronomical unit (AU) is Earth’s average distance
from the Sun, which is about 150 million kilometers (93
What is our place in the universe? million miles). We commonly describe distances within
Take a look at the remarkable photo that opens this our solar system in AU.
chapter (on page 1). This photo, taken by the Hubble Space
� One light-year (ly) is the distance that light can travel
Telescope, shows a piece of the sky so small that you could
in 1 year, which is about 10 trillion kilometers (6 trillion
block your view of it with a grain of sand held at arm’s
miles). We generally use light-years to describe the dis-
length. Yet it encompasses an almost unimaginable expanse
tances of stars and galaxies.
of both space and time. Nearly every object within it is a
galaxy filled with billions of stars, and some of the smaller Be sure to note that a light-year is a unit of distance,
smudges are galaxies so far away that their light has taken not of time. Light travels at the speed of light, which is
billions of years to reach us. Let’s begin our study of astron- 300,000 kilometers per second. We therefore say that one
omy by exploring what a photo like this one tells us about light-second is about 300,000 kilometers, because that
our own place in the universe. is the distance light travels in one second. Similarly, one

2 PA RT I D EVELOPING PERSPECTIVE
 Our Cosmic Address
FIGURE 1.1 Our cosmic address. These diagrams
show key levels of structure in our universe. For
a more detailed view, see the “You Are Here in
Universe Space” foldout diagram in the front of the book.

approx. size: 1021 km ≈ 100 million ly

Local Supercluster
approx. size: 3 x 1019 km ≈ 3 million ly

Local Group

approx. size:
1018 km ≈ 100,000 ly

Milky Way Galaxy

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Solar System
(not to scale)
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Earth
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approx. size: 1010 km ≈ 60 AU

approx. size: 104 km

CHAPTER 1 A M ODERN VI EW O F T HE !UN I VERS E 3

light-minute is the distance that light travels in one minute, we cannot yet know about them because the light from
one light-hour is the distance that light travels in one hour, these events has not yet reached us.
and so on. Mathematical Insight 1.1 (page 6) shows that The general idea that light takes time to travel through
light travels about 10 trillion kilometers in one year, so that space leads to a remarkable fact:
distance represents a light-year.
The farther away we look in distance, the further
back we look in time.
Looking Back in Time The speed of light is extremely fast
by earthly standards. It is so fast that if you could make The Andromeda Galaxy (FIGURE 1.3) is about 2.5 million
light go in circles, it could circle Earth nearly eight times light-years away, which means we see it as it looked about
in a single second. Nevertheless, even light takes time to 2.5 million years ago. We see more distant galaxies as they
travel the vast distances in space. Light takes a little more were even further in the past. Some of the galaxies in the
than 1 second to reach Earth from the Moon, and about 8 Hubble Space Telescope photo that opens the chapter are
minutes to reach Earth from the Sun. Stars are so far away more than 12 billion light-years away, meaning we see them
that their light takes years to reach us, which is why we as they were more than 12 billion years ago.
measure their distances in light-years. See it for yourself The central region of the Andromeda
Consider Sirius, the brightest star in the night sky, which Galaxy is faintly visible to the naked eye and easy to see with
is located about 8 light-years away. Because it takes light 8 binoculars. Use a star chart to find it in the night sky and
years to travel this distance, we see Sirius not as it is today, remember that you are seeing light that spent 2.5 million years
but rather as it was 8 years ago. The effect is more dra- in space before reaching your eyes. If students on a planet
matic at greater distances. The Orion Nebula (FIGURE 1.2)
in the Andromeda Galaxy were looking at the Milky Way, what
is a giant cloud in which stars and planets are forming. It
would they see? Could they know that we exist here on Earth?

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is located about 1350 light-years from Earth, which means
we see it as it looked about 1350 years ago. If any major It’s also amazing to realize that any “snapshot” of

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events have occurred in the Orion Nebula since that time, a distant galaxy is a picture of both space and time. For

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BASIC ASTRONOMICAL DEFINITIONS
Astronomical Objects cluster of galaxies (or group of galaxies) A collection of gal-
star A large, glowing ball of gas that generates heat and light axies bound together by gravity. Small collections (up to a few
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through nuclear fusion in its core. Our Sun is a star. dozen galaxies) are generally called groups, while larger col-
lections are called clusters.
planet A moderately large object that orbits a star and shines
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primarily by reflecting light from its star. According to the cur- supercluster A gigantic region of space in which many groups
rent definition, an object can be considered a planet only if it and clusters of galaxies are packed more closely together than
(1) orbits a star, (2) is large enough for its own gravity to make elsewhere in the universe.
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it round, and (3) has cleared most other objects from its orbital universe (or cosmos) The sum total of all matter and energy—
path. An object that meets the first two criteria but has not that is, all galaxies and everything between them.
cleared its orbital path, like Pluto, is designated a dwarf planet. observable universe The portion of the entire universe that
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moon (or satellite) An object that orbits a planet. The term can be seen from Earth, at least in principle. The observable
satellite is also used more generally to refer to any object orbit- universe is probably only a tiny portion of the entire universe.
ing another object.
asteroid A relatively small and rocky object that orbits a star. Astronomical Distance Units
comet A relatively small and ice-rich object that orbits a star. astronomical unit (AU) The average distance between Earth
and the Sun, which is about 150 million kilometers. More tech-
small solar system body An asteroid, comet, or other object that
nically, 1 AU is the length of the semimajor axis of Earth’s orbit.
orbits a star but is too small to qualify as a planet or dwarf planet.
light-year The distance that light can travel in 1 year, which is
Collections of Astronomical Objects about 10 trillion kilometers (more precisely, 9.46 trillion km).
solar system The Sun and all the material that orbits it,
including planets, dwarf planets, and small solar system bod- Terms Relating to Motion
ies. Although the term solar system technically refers only to rotation The spinning of an object around its axis. For example,
our own star system (solar means “of the Sun”), it is often Earth rotates once each day around its axis, which is an imagi-
applied to other star systems as well. nary line connecting the North and South Poles.
star system A star (sometimes more than one star) and any orbit (or revolution) The orbital motion of one object around
planets and other materials that orbit it. another due to gravity. For example, Earth orbits the Sun once
galaxy A great island of stars in space, all held together by each year.
gravity and orbiting a common center, with a total mass equiv- expansion (of the universe) The increase in the average dis-
alent to millions, billions, or even trillions of stars. tance between galaxies as time progresses.

4 PA RT I D EVELOPING PERSPECTIVE
 Cassiopeia
Betelgeuse
M31
Bellatrix

Orion’s
belt

VIS Andromeda
Orion
Nebula Pegasus VIS
Orion’s
sword

Rigel
Saiph

FIGURE 1.3 The Andromeda Galaxy (also known as M31).

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FIGURE 1.2 The Orion Nebula, located about 1350 light-years away. When we look at this galaxy, we see light that has been traveling
The inset shows its location in the constellation Orion. through space for 2.5!million years. The inset shows the galaxy’s

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location in the constellation Andromeda.

example, because the Andromeda Galaxy is about 100,000 pa Hubble Space Telescope photo), we see it as it was 12!billion
light-years in diameter, the light we currently see from the years ago, when the universe was only 2! billion years old.
far side of the galaxy must have left on its journey to us And if we tried to look beyond 14 billion light-years, we’d be
some 100,000 years before the light we see from the near looking to a time more than 14! billion years ago—which is
side. Figure 1.3 therefore shows different parts of the galaxy before the universe existed and therefore means that there is
spread over a time period of 100,000 years. When we study nothing to see. This distance of 14!billion light-years there-
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the universe, it is impossible to separate space and time. fore marks the boundary (or horizon) of our observable uni-
verse—the portion of the entire universe that we can
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The Observable Universe As we’ll discuss in Section 1.2, potentially observe. Note that this fact does not put any limit
the measured age of the universe is about 14 billion years. on the size of the entire universe, which we assume to be far
This fact, combined with the fact that looking deep into larger than our observable universe. We simply cannot see
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space means looking far back in time, places a limit on the or study anything beyond the bounds of our observable uni-
portion of the universe that we can see, even in principle. verse, because the light from such distances has not yet had
FIGURE 1.4 shows the idea. If we look at a galaxy that is
time to reach us in a 14-billion-year old universe.
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7! billion light-years away, we see it as it looked 7 billion

*As we’ll discuss in Chapter 20, distances to faraway galaxies in an
years ago*—which means we see it as it was when the uni-
expanding universe can be described in more than one way; distances
verse was half its current age. If we look at a galaxy that is like those given here are based on the time it has taken a galaxy’s light to
12 billion light-years away (like the most distant ones in the reach us (called the lookback time).

Far: We see a galaxy 7 billion light-years away Farther: We see a galaxy 12 billion light-years The limit of our observable universe:
as it was 7 billion years ago–when the universe away as it was 12 billion years ago–when the Light from nearly 14 billion light-years away
was about half its current age of 14 billion years. universe was only about 2 billion years old. shows the universe as it looked shortly
after the Big Bang, before galaxies existed.

Beyond the observable universe:

-years rs We cannot see anything farther
light n light-yea than 14 billion light-years away,
lion 12 billio
7 bil because its light has not had
14 billion light-years enough time to reach us.

FIGURE 1.4 The farther away we look in space, the further back we look in time. The age of the universe therefore puts a limit on the
size of the observable universe—the portion of the entire universe that we can observe, at least in principle.

CHAPTER 1 A M ODERN VI EW O F T HE !UN I VERS E 5

 showing sizes and distances in the solar system at one ten-
COMMON MISCONCEPTIONS billionth of their actual values.
FIGURE 1.6a shows the Sun and planets at their actual
The Meaning of a Light-Year
sizes (but not distances) on the Voyage scale. The model

M aybe you’ve heard people say things like “It will take me
light-years to finish this homework!” But that statement
doesn’t make sense, because a light-year is a unit of distance, not
Sun is about the size of a large grapefruit, Jupiter is about
the size of a marble, and Earth is about the size of the ball
point in a pen. You can immediately see some key facts
time. If you are unsure whether the term light-year is being used cor-
rectly, try testing the statement by using the fact that 1 light-year is about our solar system. For example, the Sun is far larger
about 10 trillion kilometers, or 6 trillion miles. The statement then than any of the planets; in mass, the Sun outweighs all the
reads “It will take me 6 trillion miles to finish this homework,” which planets combined by a factor of nearly 1000. The planets
clearly does not make sense. also vary considerably in size: The storm on Jupiter known
as the Great Red Spot (visible near Jupiter’s lower left in
the painting) could swallow up the entire Earth.
How big is the universe? The scale of the solar system is even more remarkable
Figure 1.1 put numbers on the sizes of different structures when you combine the sizes shown in Figure 1.6a with
in the universe, but these numbers have little meaning for the distances illustrated by the map of the Voyage model
most people—after all, they are literally astronomical. To in FIGURE 1.6b. For example, the ball-point-size Earth is
help you develop a greater appreciation of our modern located about 15 meters (49 feet) from the grapefruit-size
view of the universe, we’ll discuss a few ways of putting Sun, which means you can picture Earth’s orbit as a circle
these numbers into perspective. of radius 15 meters around a grapefruit.
Perhaps the most striking feature of our solar system
The Scale of the Solar System One of the best ways to

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when we view it to scale is its emptiness. The Voyage
develop perspective on cosmic sizes and distances is to model shows the planets along a straight path, so we’d

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imagine our solar system shrunk down to a scale that would need to draw each planet’s orbit around the model Sun
allow you to walk through it. The Voyage scale model to show the full extent of our planetary system. Fitting all
solar system (FIGURE 1.5) makes such a walk possible by these orbits would require an area measuring more than a
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MATHEMATICAL INSIGHT 1.1 Problem Solving Part 1

How Far Is a Light-Year? An Introduction to Astronomical Problem Solving

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We can develop greater insight into astronomical ideas by apply- at 50 kilometers per hour, how far will you travel in 2 hours?”
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ing mathematics. The key to using mathematics is to approach You’ll realize that you simply multiply the speed by the time:
problems in a clear and organized way. One simple approach distance = speed * time. In this case, the speed is the speed
uses the following three steps: of light, or 300,000 km/s, and the time is 1 year.
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Step 1 Understand the problem: Ask yourself what the solution Step 2 Solve the problem: From Step 1, our equation is that 1
will look like (for example, what units will it have? will it be big light-year is the speed of light times 1 year. To make the units
or small?) and what information you need to solve the problem. consistent, we convert 1 year to seconds by remembering that
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Draw a diagram or think of a simpler analogous problem to help there are 60 seconds in 1 minute, 60 minutes in 1 hour, 24 hours
you decide how to solve it. in 1 day, and 365 days in 1 year. (See Appendix C.3 to review
unit conversions.) We now carry out the calculations:
Step 2 Solve the problem: Carry out the necessary calculations.
Step 3 Explain your result: Be sure that your answer makes 1 light@year = 1 speed of light 2 * 1 1 yr2
sense, and consider what you’ve learned by solving the problem. km 365 days
= a 300,000 b * a 1 yr *
You can remember this process as “Understand, Solve, and s 1 yr
Explain,” or U-S-E for short. You may not always need to write
out the three steps explicitly, but they may help if you are stuck. 24 hr 60 min 60 s
* * * b
1 day 1 hr 1 min
EXAMPLE: How far is a light-year?
= 9,460,000,000,000 km (9.46 trillion km)
SOLUTION: Let’s use the three-step process.
Step 3 Explain your result: In sentence form, our answer is
Step 1 Understand the problem: The question asks how far, “One light-year is about 9.46 trillion kilometers.” This answer
so we are looking for a distance. In this case, the definition of a makes sense: It has the expected units of distance (kilometers)
light-year tells us that we are looking for the distance that light and it is a long way, which we expect for the distance that light
can travel in 1 year. We know that light travels at the speed can travel in a year. We say “about” in the answer because we
of light, so we are looking for an equation that gives us dis- know it is not exact. For example, a year is not exactly 365 days
tance from speed. If you don’t remember this equation, just long. In fact, for most purposes, we can approximate the answer
think of a simpler but analogous problem, such as “If you drive further as “One light-year is about 10 trillion kilometers.”

6 PA RT I D EVELOPING PERSPECTIVE
 kilometer on a side—an area equivalent to more than 300
football fields arranged in a grid. Spread over this large
area, only the grapefruit-size Sun, the planets, and a few
moons would be big enough to see. The rest of it would
look virtually empty (that’s why we call it space!).
Seeing our solar system to scale also helps put space
exploration into perspective. The Moon, the only other
world on which humans have ever stepped (FIGURE 1.7), lies
only about 4 centimeters (112 inches) from Earth in the Voy-
age model. On this scale, the palm of your hand can cover
the entire region of the universe in which humans have so
far traveled. The trip to Mars is more than 150 times as far
as the trip to the Moon, even when Mars is on the same side
of its orbit as Earth. And while you can walk from Earth to
Pluto in a few minutes on the Voyage scale, the New Hori-
FIGURE 1.5 This photo shows the pedestals housing the Sun (the zons spacecraft, which flew past Pluto in 2015, took more
gold sphere on the nearest pedestal) and the inner planets in the than 9 years to make the real journey, despite traveling at a
Voyage scale model solar system (Washington, D.C.). The model speed nearly 100 times that of a commercial jet.
planets are encased in the sidewalk-facing disks visible at about
eye level on the planet pedestals. To the left is the National Air and
Distances to the Stars If you visit the Voyage model in
Space Museum.
Washington, D.C., you need to walk only about 600 meters

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Mercury
Venus
Earth
Jupiter Mars
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Saturn
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Uranus
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Neptune

Pluto Sun

Eris

a The scaled sizes (but not distances) of the Sun, the planets, and the two largest known dwarf planets.

Mars
Venus to
Capitol
Pluto Neptune Uranus Saturn Jupiter SUN
Hill

to Washington
Monument Mercury
7th Earth
St
50 m
Art and Industries Hirshhorn National Air and Space Museum
Building Museum

b Locations of major objects in the Voyage model (Washington, D.C.).

FIGURE 1.6 The Voyage scale model represents sizes and distances in the solar system at one ten-billionth of their actual values. Planets are
lined up in the model, but in reality each planet orbits the Sun independently and a perfect alignment never occurs.

CHAPTER 1 A M ODERN VI EW O F T HE !UN I VERS E 7

 Alpha
Centauri
Sun

Centaurus

Alpha
Centauri

Crux
(Southern
Cross)
FIGURE 1.7 This famous photograph from the first Moon landing
(Apollo 11 in July 1969) shows astronaut Buzz Aldrin, with Neil Arm-
strong reflected in his visor. Armstrong was the first to step onto FIGURE 1.8 On the same 1-to-10 billion scale on which you can
the Moon’s surface, saying, “That’s one small step for a man, one walk from the Sun to Pluto in just a few minutes, you’d need to
giant leap for mankind.” (When asked why this photo became so cross the United States to reach Alpha Centauri, the nearest other

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iconic, Aldrin replied, “Location, location, location!”) star system. The inset shows the location and appearance of Alpha
Centauri among the constellations.

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to go from the Sun to Pluto. How much farther would you is roughly the same size and brightness as our Sun, viewing it
have to walk to reach the next star on this scale? in the night sky is somewhat like being in Washington, D.C.,
Amazingly, you would need to walk to California. If this and seeing a very bright grapefruit in San Francisco (neglect-
answer seems hard to believe, you can check it for yourself.
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ing the problems introduced by the curvature of Earth). It may
A light-year is about 10 trillion kilometers, which becomes seem remarkable that we can see the star at all, but the black-
1000 kilometers on the 1-to-10-billion scale (because ness of the night sky allows the naked eye to see it as a faint
1 0 trillion , 1 0 billion = 1 0 0 0 ). The nearest star sys- dot of light. It looks much brighter through powerful tele-
tem to our own, a three-star system called Alpha Centauri scopes, but we still cannot see features of the star’s surface.
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(FIGURE 1.8), is about 4.4 light-years away. That distance Now, consider the difficulty of detecting planets orbit-
is about 4400 kilometers (2700 miles) on the 1-to-10-bil- ing nearby stars, which is equivalent to looking from
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lion scale, or roughly equivalent to the distance across the Washington, D.C., and trying to find ball points or marbles
United States. orbiting grapefruits in California or beyond. When you
The tremendous distances to the stars give us some per- consider this challenge, it is all the more remarkable to
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spective on the technological challenge of astronomy. For realize that we now have technology capable of finding
example, because the largest star of the Alpha Centauri system such planets [Section 13.1].
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SPECIAL TOPIC How Many Planets Are There in Our Solar System?

P rior to 2006, children were taught that Pluto was one of

nine planets in our solar system. But we now call Pluto a
dwarf planet, leaving the solar system with only eight planets.
world. In 2006, an IAU vote defined “planet” in a way that
left out Pluto and Eris (see Basic Astronomical Definitions on
page 4), but added the “dwarf planet” category to accommo-
Why the change? date them. These definitions still spark some controversy, but
When Pluto was discovered in 1930, it was assumed to be perhaps are best thought of as an example of the difference
similar to other planets. But by the mid-1990s, it had become between the fuzzy boundaries of nature and the human prefer-
clear that Pluto is part of a large group of ice-rich objects that ence for categories. After all, the argument about whether Pluto
share its region of the solar system (called the Kuiper belt, which is a planet or a dwarf planet is not so different from the argu-
we’ll discuss in Chapter 12). Still, as long as Pluto was the larg- ment you may hear over whether a particular waterway is a
est known of these objects, most astronomers were content to creek, stream, or river.
leave the planetary status quo. Change was forced by the 2005 A more recent question about the number of planets in our
discovery of an object called Eris. Because Eris is slightly larger solar system has arisen from calculations based on the orbits of
in mass than Pluto, astronomers could no longer avoid the ques- the ice-rich objects of the outer solar system. Some astronomers
tion of what objects should count as planets. argue that these orbits show patterns indicating the gravita-
Official decisions on astronomical names and definitions rest tional tug of an undiscovered “planet nine.” If such an object is
with the International Astronomical Union (IAU), an organi- actually found, astronomers may be forced to revisit the defini-
zation made up of professional astronomers from around the tion of “planet” once again.

8 PA RT I D EVELOPING PERSPECTIVE
 The vast distances to the stars also offer a sobering les- football field. Visualize a football field with a scale model
son about interstellar travel. Although science fiction shows of our galaxy centered over midfield (FIGURE 1.9). Our
like Star Trek and Star Wars make such travel look easy, entire solar system is a microscopic dot located around
the reality is far different. Consider the Voyager 2 space- the 20-yard line. The 4.4-light-year separation between our
craft. Launched in 1977, Voyager 2 flew by Jupiter in 1979, solar system and Alpha Centauri becomes just 4.4 milli-
Saturn in 1981, Uranus in 1986, and Neptune in 1989. It meters on this scale—smaller than the width of your little
is now bound for the stars at a speed of close to 50,000 finger. If you stood at the position of our solar system in
kilometers per hour—about 100 times as fast as a speeding this model, millions of star systems would lie within reach
bullet. But even at this speed, Voyager 2 would take about of your arms.
100,000 years to reach Alpha Centauri if it were headed in Another way to put the galaxy into perspective is to
that direction (which it’s not). Convenient interstellar travel consider its number of stars—more than 100 billion.
remains well beyond our present technology. Imagine that tonight you are having difficulty falling
asleep (perhaps because you are contemplating the scale
The Size of the Milky Way Galaxy The vast separation of the universe). Instead of counting sheep, you decide to
between our solar system and Alpha Centauri is typical of count stars. If you are able to count about one star each
the separations between star systems in our region of the second, how long would it take you to count 100 billion
Milky Way Galaxy. We therefore cannot use the 1-to-10- stars in the Milky Way? Clearly, the answer is 100 billion
billion scale for thinking about distances beyond the nearest 1 1 0 1 1 2 seconds, but how long is that? Amazingly, 100
stars, because more distant stars would not fit on Earth with billion seconds is more than 3000 years. (You can confirm
this scale. To visualize the galaxy, let’s reduce our scale by this by dividing 100 billion by the number of seconds in
another factor of 1 billion (making it a scale of 1!to 1 0 1 9 ). 1 year.) You would need thousands of years just to count

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On this new scale, each light-year becomes 1 milli- the stars in the Milky Way Galaxy, and this assumes you
meter, and the 100,000-light-year diameter of the Milky never take a break—no sleeping, no eating, and abso-

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Way Galaxy becomes 100 meters, or about the length of a lutely no dying!

MATHEMATICAL INSIGHT 1.2

pa Scientific Notation, Parts 1 to 3

The Scale of Space and Time

Making a scale model usually requires nothing more than divi- 103 m 102 cm
sion. For example, in a 1-to-20 architectural scale model, a 6.95 * 10-5 km * * = 6.95 cm
e
1 km 1m
building that is actually 6 meters tall will be only 6 , 2 0 = 0 .3 On the 1-to-10-billion scale, the Sun’s radius is about 7 centi-
meter tall. The idea is the same for astronomical scaling, except meters, which is a diameter of about 14 centimeters—about the
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that we usually divide by such large numbers that it’s easier size of a large grapefruit.
to work in scientific notation—that is, with the aid of powers
of!10. (See Appendixes C.1 and C.2 to review these concepts.) EXAMPLE 2:What scale allows the 100,000-light-year diameter of
m

the Milky Way Galaxy to fit on a 100-meter-long football field?

EXAMPLE 1: How big is the Sun on a 1-to-10-billion scale?
SOLUTION:
SOLUTION:
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Step 1 Understand: We want to know how many times larger

Step 1 Understand: We are looking for the scaled size of the the actual diameter of the galaxy is than 100 meters, so we’ll
Sun, so we simply need to divide its actual radius by 10 billion, divide the actual diameter by 100 meters. To carry out the divi-
or 1 0 1 0 . Appendix E.1 gives the Sun’s radius as 695,000 km, or sion, we’ll need both numbers in the same units. We can put the
6 .9 5 * 1 0 5 km in scientific notation. galaxy’s diameter in meters by using the fact that a light-year is
Step 2 Solve: We carry out the division: about 1 0 1 3 kilometers (see Mathematical Insight 1.1) and a kilo-
meter is 1 0 3 meters; because we are working with powers of 10,
actual radius we’ll write the galaxy’s 100,000-light-year diameter as 1 0 5 ly.
scaled radius =
1010 Step 2 Solve: We now convert the units and carry out the
5
6.95 * 10 km division:
=
1010 1013 km 103 m
105 ly * *
galaxy diameter 1 ly 1 km
= 6.95 * 1015-102 km=6.95 * 10-5 km =
football field diameter 102 m
Notice that we used the rule that dividing powers of 10 means
=1015 + 13 + 3 - 22=1019
subtracting their exponents [Appendix C.1].
Note that the answer has no units, because it simply tells us
Step 3 Explain: We have found an answer, but because most of
how many times larger one thing is than the other.
us don’t have a good sense of what 1 0 -5 kilometer looks like,
the answer will be more meaningful if we convert it to centime- Step 3 Explain: We’ve found that we need a scale of 1 to 1 0 1 9
ters (recalling that 1 km = 1 0 3 m and 1 m = 1 0 2 cm): to make the galaxy fit on a football field.

CHAPTER 1 A M ODERN VI EW O F T HE !UN I VERS E 9

 The Observable Universe As incredible as the scale of our
galaxy may seem, the Milky Way is only one of more than
100 billion large galaxies (and many more small galaxies)
You are here. in the observable universe. Just as it would take thousands
of years to count the stars in the Milky Way, it would take
thousands of years to count all these galaxies.
Think for a moment about the total number of stars in
all these galaxies. If we assume 100 billion galaxies and
100 billion stars per galaxy, the total number of stars in the
observable universe is roughly 1 0 0 billion * 1 0 0 billion,
or 10,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 1 1 0 2 2 2 . How big is this
number? Visit a beach. Run your hands through the fine-
grained sand. Imagine counting each tiny grain of sand as
it slips through your fingers. Then imagine counting every
grain of sand on the beach and continuing to count every
FIGURE 1.9 This painting shows the Milky Way Galaxy on a scale grain of dry sand on every beach on Earth (see Mathemati-
where its diameter is the length of a football field. On this scale, stars
cal Insight 1.3). If you could actually complete this task,
are microscopic and the distance between our solar system and Alpha
Centauri is only 4.4 millimeters. There are so many stars in our galaxy you would find that the number of grains of sand is com-
that it would take thousands of years just to count them out loud. parable to the number of stars in the observable universe
(FIGURE 1.10).

Think about it Contemplate the vast number of stars in Think about it Study the foldout in the front of this book,

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our galaxy, and consider that each star is a potential sun for which illustrates the ideas covered in this section in greater
a system of planets. How does this perspective affect your detail. Overall, how does visualizing Earth to scale affect

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thoughts about the possibilities for finding life—or intelli- your perspective on our planet and on human existence?
gent life—beyond Earth? Explain. Explain.
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MATHEMATICAL INSIGHT 1.3 Order of Magnitude Estimation
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In astronomy, numbers are often so large that an estimate can measuring out a small volume of sand, counting the number
be useful even if it’s good only to about the nearest power of 10. of grains in this volume, and then dividing the volume by the
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For example, when we multiplied 100 billion stars per galaxy by number of grains. If you do this, you’ll find that a reasonable
100 billion galaxies to estimate that there are about 1 0 2 2 stars in order of magnitude estimate is one-tenth of a cubic millimeter,
the observable universe, we knew that the “ballpark” nature of or 1 0 -1 0 m 3 , per sand grain. We can estimate beach width and
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these numbers means the actual number of stars could easily be depth from experience or photos of beaches. Typical widths are
anywhere from about 1 0 2 1 to 1 0 2 3 . Estimates good to about the about 20 to 50 meters and typical sand depth is about 2 to 5
nearest power of 10 are called order of magnitude estimates. meters, so we can make the numbers easy by assuming that the
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product of beach width times depth is about 100 square meters,

EXAMPLE: Verify the claim that the number of grains of (dry) sand or 1 0 2 m 2 . The total length of sandy beach on Earth is more
on all the beaches on Earth is comparable to the number of difficult to estimate, but you can look online and find that it is
stars in the observable universe. less than about 1 million kilometers, or 1 0 9 m.
SOLUTION: Step 2 Solve: We already have our equation and all the numbers
Step 1 Understand: To verify the claim, we need to estimate the we need, so we just put them in; note that we group beach width
number of grains of sand and see if it is close to our estimate and depth together, since we estimated them together in Step 1:
of 1 0 2 2 stars. We can estimate the total number of sand grains
beach length * 1beach width * beach depth 2
by dividing the total volume of sand on Earth’s beaches by the total sand grains =
average volume of an individual sand grain. Volume is equal to average volume of 1 sand grain
length times width times depth, so the total volume is the total 10 m * 102 m2
9
=
length of sandy beach on Earth multiplied by the typical width 10-10 m3
and depth of dry sand. That is,
=1039+2 - 1-1024=1021
total volume of beach sand
total sand grains = Step 3 Explain: Our order of magnitude estimate for the total
average volume of 1 sand grain
number of grains of dry sand on all the beaches on Earth is 1 0 2 1 ,
beach length * beach width * beach depth
= which is within a factor of 10 of the estimated 1 0 2 2 stars in the
average volume of 1 sand grain observable universe. Because both numbers could easily be off
We now need numbers to put into the equation. We can esti- by a factor of 10 or more, we cannot say with certainty that one
mate the average volume of an individual sand grain by is larger than the other, but the numbers are clearly comparable.

10 PA RT I DEVELOPING PERSPECTIVE
 COMMON MISCONCEPTIONS
Confusing Very Different Things

M ost people are familiar with the terms solar system and galaxy,
but few realize how incredibly different they are. Our solar sys-
tem is a single star system, while our galaxy is a collection of more
than 100 billion star systems—so many that it would take thou-
sands of years just to count them. Moreover, if you look at the sizes
in Figure 1.1, you’ll see that our galaxy is about 100 million times
larger in diameter than our solar system. So be careful; numerically
speaking, mixing up solar system and galaxy is a gigantic mistake!

won out against the overall expansion. That is, while the
universe as a whole continues to expand, individual galaxies
and galaxy clusters (and objects within them such as stars
and planets) do not expand. This idea is also illustrated by
the three cubes in Figure 1.11. Notice that as the cube as a
FIGURE 1.10 The number of stars in the observable universe is whole grew larger, the matter within it clumped into galaxies
comparable to the number of grains of dry sand on all the beaches and galaxy clusters. Most galaxies, including our own Milky
on Earth. Way, formed within a few billion years after the Big Bang.

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Stellar Lives and Galactic Recycling Within galaxies

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1.2 The History of the Universe like the Milky Way, gravity drives the collapse of clouds of
gas and dust to form stars and planets. Stars are not living
Our universe is vast not only in space, but also in time. In organisms, but they nonetheless go through “life cycles.” A
this section, we will briefly discuss the history of the uni- star is born when gravity compresses the material in a cloud
verse as we understand it today.
pa to the point at which the center becomes dense enough and
Before we begin, you may wonder how we can claim hot enough to generate energy by nuclear fusion, the pro-
to know anything about what the universe was like in the cess in which lightweight atomic nuclei smash together and
distant past. We’ll devote much of this textbook to under- stick (or fuse) to make heavier nuclei. The star “lives” as
standing how science enables us to do this, but you already long as it can shine with energy from fusion, and “dies”
e
know part of the answer: Because looking farther into when it exhausts its usable fuel.
space means looking further back in time, we can actually In its final death throes, a star blows much of its contents
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see parts of the universe as they were long ago, simply by back out into space. The most massive stars die in titanic
looking far enough away. In other words, telescopes are explosions called supernovae. The returned matter mixes
somewhat like time machines, enabling us to observe the with other matter floating between the stars in the galaxy,
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history of the universe. eventually becoming part of new clouds of gas and dust
from which new generations of stars can be born. Galax-
How did we come to be? ies therefore function as cosmic recycling plants, recycling
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FIGURE 1.11 (pages 12–13) summarizes the history of the material expelled from dying stars into new generations of
universe according to modern science. Let’s start at the stars and planets. This cycle is illustrated in the lower right
upper left of the figure, and discuss the key events and of Figure 1.11. Our own solar system is a product of many
what they mean. generations of such recycling.

The Big Bang, Expansion, and the Age of the Universe Star Stuff The recycling of stellar material is connected to
Telescopic observations of distant galaxies show that the our existence in an even deeper way. By studying stars of
entire universe is expanding, meaning that average dis- different ages, we have learned that the early universe con-
tances between galaxies are increasing with time. This fact tained only the simplest chemical elements: hydrogen and
implies that galaxies must have been closer together in the helium (and a trace of lithium). We and Earth are made
past, and if we go back far enough, we must reach the point primarily of other elements, such as carbon, nitrogen, oxy-
at which the expansion began. We call this beginning the gen, and iron. Where did these other elements come from?
Big Bang, and scientists use the observed rate of expansion Evidence shows that they were manufactured by stars,
to calculate that it occurred about 14 billion years ago. The some through the nuclear fusion that makes stars shine,
three cubes in the upper left portion of Figure 1.11 represent and most others through nuclear reactions accompanying
the expansion of a small piece of the universe through time. the explosions that end stellar lives.
The universe as a whole has continued to expand ever By the time our solar system formed, about 412 billion
since the Big Bang, but on smaller size scales the force of years ago, earlier generations of stars had already converted
gravity has drawn matter together. Structures such as gal- up to 2% of our galaxy’s original hydrogen and helium into
axies and galaxy clusters occupy regions where gravity has heavier elements. Therefore, the cloud that gave birth to our

CHAPT ER 1 A MODERN VI EW OF T HE!U N I VERS E 11

 COSMIC
Context FIGURE 1.11 Our Cosmic Origins
Throughout this book we will see that human life is intimately
connected with the development of the universe as a whole. This
illustration presents an overview of our cosmic origins, showing
some of the crucial steps that made our existence possible.

1 Birth of the Universe: The expansion of the universe began with the hot
and dense Big Bang. The cubes show how one region of the universe has
expanded with time. The universe continues to expand, but on smaller
scales gravity has pulled matter together to make galaxies.

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m
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4 Earth and Life: By the time our solar system was born, 41/2 billion years
ago, about 2% of the original hydrogen and helium had been converted
into heavier elements. We are therefore “star stuff,” because we and our
planet are made from elements manufactured in stars that lived and died
long ago.

12 PA RT I DEVELOPING PERSPECTIVE
2 Galaxies as Cosmic Recycling Plants: The early universe contained only
two chemical elements: hydrogen and helium. All other elements were
made by stars and recycled from one stellar generation to the next within
galaxies like our Milky Way.

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Stars are born in clouds of gas

and dust; planets may form in
surrounding disks.

Massive stars explode when Stars shine with energy

they die, scattering the elements released by nuclear fusion,
they’ve produced into space. which ultimately manufactures
all elements heavier than
hydrogen and helium.

3 Life Cycles of Stars: Many generations of stars have lived and died in the
Milky Way.

CHAPT ER 1 A MODERN VI EW OF T HE!U N I VERS E 13

 THE HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSE IN 1 YEAR
December 30:
January 1: February: September 3: September 22: December 17: December 26: Extinction of
The Big Bang The Milky Way forms Earth forms Early life on Earth Cambrian explosion Rise of the dinosaurs the dinosaurs

S M T W T
JANUARY
F S
FEBRUARY
S M T W T F S S M T W T
MARCH
F S S M
APRIL
T W T F S
DECEMBER
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 S M T W T F S
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
28 29 30 31 25 26 27 28 29 24
31 25 26 27 28 29 30 28 29 30 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
MAY JUNE JULY AUGUST
S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S 15 16 17 The 18 19 20 21
1 2 3 4 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 Cambrian
explosion
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
12 13 14 15 16 17 18 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
Rise of the
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 dinosaurs
23
26 27 28 29 30 31 30 24 25 26 27 28 29 28 29 30 31 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 30 (7:00 A.M.) 31
29
Dinosaurs
SEPTEMBER OCTOBER NOVEMBER DECEMBER extinct
S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
15 16 17 18 19 20 21 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
22 23 24 25 26 27 28 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
29 30 27 28 29 30 31 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 29 30 31

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FIGURE 1.12 The cosmic calendar compresses the 14-billion-year history of the universe into 1 year, so each month represents a little more
than 1 billion years. Adapted from the cosmic calendar created by Carl Sagan. (For a more detailed version, see the “You Are Here in Time”

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foldout diagram in the front of the book.)

solar system was made of roughly 98% hydrogen and helium dinosaurs occurred some 65 million years ago, but on the cos-
and 2% other elements. This 2% may sound small, but it
pa mic calendar it was only yesterday. With the dinosaurs gone,
was more than enough to make the small rocky planets of small furry mammals inherited Earth. Some 60 million years
our solar system, including Earth. On Earth, some of these later, or around 9 p.m. on December 31 of the cosmic calen-
elements became the raw ingredients of life, which ultimately dar, early hominids (human ancestors) began to walk upright.
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blossomed into the great diversity of life on Earth today. Perhaps the most astonishing fact about the cosmic cal-
In summary, most of the material from which we and endar is that the entire history of human civilization falls
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our planet are made was created inside stars that lived and into just the last half-minute. The ancient Egyptians built
died before the birth of our Sun. As astronomer Carl Sagan the pyramids only about 11 seconds ago on this scale.
(1934–1996) said, we are “star stuff.” About 1 second ago, Kepler and Galileo provided the key
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evidence that led us to understand that Earth orbits the

Sun rather than vice versa. The average college student
How do our lifetimes compare to the
was born about 0.05 second ago, around 11:59:59.95 p.m.
age!of the universe?
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on the cosmic calendar. On the scale of cosmic time, the

We can put the 14-billion-year age of the universe into per- human species is the youngest of infants, and a human life-
spective by imagining this time compressed into a single time is a mere blink of an eye.
year, so each month represents a little more than 1 billion
years. On this cosmic calendar, the Big Bang occurred at Think about it Study the more detailed cosmic calendar
the first instant of January 1 and the present is the stroke of found on the foldout in the front of this book. How does
midnight on December 31 (FIGURE 1.12). an understanding of the scale of time affect your view of
On this time scale, the Milky Way Galaxy probably human civilization? Explain.
formed in February. Many generations of stars lived and died
in the subsequent cosmic months, enriching the galaxy with
the “star stuff” from which we and our planet are made. 1.3 Spaceship Earth
Our solar system and our planet did not form until early
Wherever you are as you read this book, you probably have
September on this scale, or 412 billion years ago in real time.
the feeling that you’re “just sitting here.” But, in fact, all of
By late September, life on Earth was flourishing. However,
us are moving through space on what noted inventor and
for most of Earth’s history, living organisms remained rela-
philosopher R. Buckminster Fuller (1895–1983) described
tively primitive and microscopic. On the scale of the cosmic
as spaceship Earth.
calendar, recognizable animals became prominent only in
mid-December. Early dinosaurs appeared on the day after
Christmas. Then, in a cosmic instant, the dinosaurs disap- How is Earth moving through space?
peared forever—probably because of the impact of an aster- Let’s explore the major motions we are all undergoing with
oid or a comet [Section 12.5]. In real time the death of the our spaceship Earth.

14 PA RT I DEVELOPING PERSPECTIVE
 1 second ago:
December 31:
Kepler and Galileo
9:00 pm: 11:58 pm: 25 seconds ago: 11 seconds ago: show that Earth
Early hominids evolve Modern humans evolve Agriculture arises Pyramids built orbits the Sun Now

DECEMBER 31
Morning...
12:00 noon
1:00 pm
2:00 pm
3:00 pm
4:00 pm
5:00 pm
6:00 pm
7:00 pm
8:00 pm
9:00 pm
10:00 pm
11:00 pm
11:58 pm
11:59 pm
12:00 midnight

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Earth’s Rotation and Orbit At the same time as it is rotating, Earth also orbits the
Sun, completing one orbit each year (FIGURE 1.14). Earth’s
Rotation and Orbit The most basic motions of Earth are orbital distance varies slightly over the course of each year,
its daily rotation (spin) and its yearly orbit (or revolution)
pa but as we discussed earlier, the average distance is one
around the Sun. astronomical unit (AU), which is about 150 million kilo-
Earth rotates once each day around its axis (FIGURE 1.13), meters. Again, even though we don’t feel this motion, the
which is the imaginary line connecting the North Pole to the speed is impressive: We are racing around the Sun at a
South Pole. Earth rotates from west to east—counterclock- speed in excess of 100,000 kilometers per hour (60,000 miles
wise as viewed from above the North Pole—which is why per hour), which is faster than any spacecraft yet launched.
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the Sun and stars appear to rise in the east and set in the As you study Figure 1.14, notice that Earth’s orbital path
west each day. Although the physical effects of rotation are defines a flat plane that we call the ecliptic plane. Earth’s
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so subtle that our ancestors assumed the heavens revolved axis is tilted by 2312° from a line perpendicular to the eclip-
around us, the rotation speed is substantial: Unless you live tic plane. This axis tilt happens to be oriented so that the
quite far north or south, you are whirling around Earth’s axis points almost directly at a star called Polaris, or the
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axis at a speed of more than 1000 kilometers per hour (600 North Star. Keep in mind that the idea of axis tilt makes
miles per hour)—faster than most airplanes travel. sense only in relation to the ecliptic plane. That is, the idea
of “tilt” by itself has no meaning in space, where there is
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no absolute up or down. In space, “up” and “down” mean

Earth rotates from cwhich means counterclockwise
west to east c as viewed from above the North Pole.
only “away from the center of Earth” (or another planet)
and “toward the center of Earth,” respectively.
0 km > hr

Earth’s axis remains pointed The average Earth-Sun distance

1100 km > hr in the same direction is 1 AU, or about 150 million km.
(toward Polaris)
throughout to Polaris
to Polaris
the year.

1
1670 km > hr 23 2 8
1 AU

ecliptic plane
axis (not to scale!)
1100 km > hr
Earth takes 1 year to orbit the Sun at
an average speed of 107,000 km > hr.
FIGURE 1.13 As Earth rotates, your speed around Earth’s axis FIGURE 1.14 This diagram shows key characteristics of Earth’s
depends on your location: The closer you are to the equator, the daily rotation and yearly orbit, both of which are counterclockwise
faster you travel with rotation. as viewed from above the North Pole.

CHAPT ER 1 A MODERN VI EW OF T HE!U N I VERS E 15

Think about it If there is no up or down in space, why do
you think that most globes and maps have the North Pole
on top? Would it be equally correct to have the South Pole
on top or to turn a globe sideways? Explain. llion-year o
-mi rb
Sun 30 i

2
Notice also that Earth orbits the Sun in the same direc-

t
tion that it rotates on its axis: counterclockwise as viewed
from above the North Pole. This is not a coincidence but 27,000
a consequence of the way our planet was born. As we’ll light-years
Stars in the local
discuss in Chapter 8, strong evidence indicates that Earth solar neighborhood
and the other planets were born in a spinning disk of gas move randomly relative
that surrounded our Sun as it formed, and Earth rotates and to one another at typical
speeds of 70,000 km/hr c cwhile the galaxy's rotation
orbits in the same direction that the disk was spinning.
carries us around the galactic
center at about 800,000 km/hr.
Motion Within the Milky Way Galaxy Rotation and orbit
are only a small part of the travels of spaceship Earth. Our FIGURE 1.15 This painting illustrates the motion of the Sun both within
entire solar system is on a great journey within the Milky the local solar neighborhood and around the center of the galaxy.
Way Galaxy. There are two major components to this
motion, both shown in FIGURE 1.15. our Sun is moving relative to nearby stars at a speed of about
First, our solar system is moving relative to nearby stars 70,000 kilometers per hour (40,000 miles per hour), almost
in our local solar neighborhood, the region of the Sun and three times as fast as the International Space Station orbits

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nearby stars. The small box in Figure 1.15 shows that stars Earth. Given these high speeds, you might wonder why we
in our local solar neighborhood (like the stars of any other don’t see stars racing around our sky. The answer lies in their

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small region of the galaxy) move essentially at random rela- vast distances from us. You’ve probably noticed that a distant
tive to one another. The speeds are quite fast: On average, airplane appears to move through your sky more slowly than
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MATHEMATICAL INSIGHT 1.4 Problem Solving Part 3

Speeds of Rotation and Orbit

Building upon prior Mathematical Insights, we will now see a little over 1000 miles per hour, or about twice the flying speed
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how simple formulas—such as the formula for the circumfer- of a commercial jet.
ence of a circle—expand the range of astronomical problems we
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can solve.
EXAMPLE 2: How fast is Earth orbiting the Sun?
m

EXAMPLE 1: How fast is a person on Earth’s equator moving with SOLUTION:

Earth’s rotation?
Step 1 Understand: We are again asked how fast and therefore
SOLUTION: need to divide a distance by a time. In this case, the distance
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Step 1 Understand: The question how fast tells us we are look- is the circumference of Earth’s orbit, and the time is the 1 year
ing for a speed. If you remember that highway speeds are posted that Earth takes to complete each orbit.
in miles (or kilometers) per hour, you’ll realize that speed is
Step 2 Solve: Earth’s average distance from the Sun is 1 AU,
a distance (such as miles) divided by a time (such as hours).
or about 150 million (1.5 * 108) km, so the orbit circumference
In this case, the distance is Earth’s equatorial circumference,
is about 2 * p * 1.5 * 108 km ≈ 9.40 * 108 km. The orbital
because that is how far a person at the equator travels with
speed is this distance divided by the time of 1 year, which we
each rotation (see Figure 1.13); we’ll therefore use the formula
convert to hours so that we end up with units of km/hr:
for the circumference of a circle, C = 2 * p * radius. The time
is 24 hours, because that is how long each rotation takes.
orbital circumference
Step 2 Solve: From Appendix E.1, Earth’s equatorial radius is 6378 orbital speed =
1 yr
km, so its circumference is 2 * p * 6378 km = 40,074 km. We
divide this distance by the time of 24 hours: 9.40 * 108 km km
= ≈ 107,000
equatorial circumference 365 days 24 hr hr
rotation speed at equator = 1 yr * *
length of day yr day

40,074 km km
= = 1670 Step 3 Explain: Earth orbits the Sun at an average speed of
24 hr hr
about 107,000 km/hr (66,000 mi/hr). Most “speeding bullets”
Step 3 Explain: A person at the equator is moving with Earth’s travel between about 500 and 1000 km/hr, so Earth’s orbital
rotation at a speed of about 1670 kilometers per hour, which is speed is more than 100 times that of a speeding bullet.

16 PA RT I DEVELOPING PERSPECTIVE
 FIGURE 1.16 This painting shows an edge-on
Most of the galaxy’s view of the Milky Way Galaxy. Study of galactic
light comes from stars
rotation shows that although most visible
and gas in the galactic
disk and central bulge c stars lie in the central bulge or thin disk,
most of the mass lies in the halo that sur-
rounds and encompasses the disk. Because
this mass emits no light that we have
detected, we call it dark matter.

cbut measurements suggest

that most of the mass lies unseen
in the spherical halo that surrounds
the entire disk.

one flying close overhead. Stars are so far away that even at to as dark matter (because of the lack of light from it).
speeds of 70,000 kilometers per hour, their motions would Studies of other galaxies indicate that they also are made
be noticeable to the naked eye only if we watched them for mostly of dark matter, which means this mysterious matter
thousands of years. That is why the patterns in the constella- significantly outweighs the ordinary matter that makes up
tions seem to remain fixed. Nevertheless, in 10,000 years the planets and stars; this also means that dark matter must be

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constellations will be noticeably different from those we see the dominant source of gravity that has led to the formation
today. In 500,000 years they will be unrecognizable. If you of galaxies, clusters, and superclusters. We know even less

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could watch a time-lapse movie made over millions of years, about the mysterious dark energy that astronomers first
you would see stars racing across our sky. recognized when they discovered that the expansion of the
universe is actually getting faster with time, and that scien-
Think about it Despite the chaos of motion in the local pa tists have since found to make up the majority of the total
solar neighborhood over millions and billions of years, colli- energy content of the universe. We’ll discuss the mysteries
sions between star systems are extremely rare. Explain why. of dark matter and dark energy in Chapter 23.
(Hint: Consider the sizes of star systems, such as the solar
system, relative to the distances between them.)
How do galaxies move within the universe?
The second motion shown in Figure 1.15 is much more
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The billions of galaxies in the universe also move relative
organized. If you look closely at leaves floating in a stream,
to one another. Within the Local Group (see Figure 1.1),
their motions relative to one another might appear random,
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some of the galaxies move toward us, some move away

just like the motions of stars in the local solar neighbor-
from us, and numerous small galaxies (including the Large
hood. As you widen your view, you see that all the leaves
and Small Magellanic Clouds) apparently orbit our Milky
m

are being carried in the same general direction by the

Way Galaxy. Again, the speeds are enormous by earthly
downstream current. In the same way, as we widen our
standards. For example, the Milky Way and Andromeda gal-
view beyond the local solar neighborhood, the seemingly
axies are moving toward each other at about 300,000 kilo-
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random motions of its stars give way to a simpler and even

meters (180,000 miles) per hour. Despite this high speed,
faster motion: rotation of the Milky Way Galaxy. Our solar
we needn’t worry about a collision anytime soon. Even if
system, located about 27,000 light-years from the galactic
the Milky Way and Andromeda Galaxies are approaching
center, completes one orbit of the galaxy in about 230 mil-
each other head-on, it will be billions of years before any
lion years. Even if you could watch from outside our gal-
collision begins.
axy, this motion would be unnoticeable to your naked eye.
When we look outside the Local Group, however, we
However, if you calculate the speed of our solar system as
find two astonishing facts first discovered by Edwin Hubble
we orbit the center of the galaxy, you will find that it is
(1889–1953), for whom the Hubble Space Telescope was
close to 800,000 kilometers (500,000 miles) per hour.
named:
Careful study of the galaxy’s rotation reveals one of the
greatest mysteries in science. Stars at different distances 1. Virtually every galaxy outside the Local Group is mov-
from the galactic center orbit at different speeds, and we ing away from us.
can learn how mass is distributed in the galaxy by measur-
2. The more distant the galaxy, the faster it appears to be
ing these speeds. Such studies indicate that the stars in the
racing away.
disk of the galaxy represent only the “tip of the iceberg”
compared to the mass of the entire galaxy (FIGURE! 1.16). These facts might make it sound as if we suffered from
Most of the mass of the galaxy seems to be located out- a cosmic case of chicken pox, but there is a much more
side the visible disk (occupying the galactic halo that sur- natural explanation: The entire universe is expanding.
rounds the disk), but the matter that makes up this mass is We’ll save the details for later in the book, but you can
completely invisible to our telescopes. We therefore know understand the basic idea by thinking about a raisin cake
very little about the nature of this matter, which we refer baking in an oven.

CHAPT ER 1 A MODERN VI EW OF T HE!U N I VERS E 17

The Raisin Cake Analogy Imagine that you make a rai- you now imagine the Local Raisin as representing our Local
sin cake in which the distance between adjacent raisins Group of galaxies and the other raisins as representing more
is 1 centimeter. You place the cake into the oven, where distant galaxies or clusters of galaxies, you have a basic pic-
it expands as it bakes. After 1 hour, you remove the cake, ture of the expansion of the universe. Like the expanding
which has expanded so that the distance between adjacent dough between the raisins in the cake, space itself is grow-
raisins has increased to 3 centimeters (FIGURE 1.17). The ing between galaxies. More distant galaxies move away from
expansion of the cake seems fairly obvious. But what would us faster because they are carried along with this expansion
you see if you lived in the cake, as we live in the universe? like the raisins in the expanding cake. You can also now see
Pick any raisin (it doesn’t matter which one) and call how observations of expansion allow us to measure the age
it the Local Raisin. Figure 1.17 shows one possible choice, of the universe: The faster the rate of expansion, the more
with three nearby raisins also labeled. The accompanying quickly the galaxies reached their current positions, and
table summarizes what you would see if you lived within therefore the younger the universe must be. It is by precisely
the Local Raisin. Notice, for example, that Raisin 1 starts measuring the expansion rate that astronomers have learned
out at a distance of 1 centimeter before baking and ends up that the universe is approximately 14 billion years old.
at a distance of 3 centimeters after baking, which means
it moves a distance of 2 centimeters farther away from the The Real Universe There’s at least one important distinc-
Local Raisin during the hour of baking. Hence, its speed as tion between the raisin cake and the universe: A cake has a
seen from the Local Raisin is 2 centimeters per hour. Raisin center and edges, but we do not think the same is true of the
2 moves from a distance of 2 centimeters before baking to entire universe. Anyone living in any galaxy in an expand-
a distance of 6 centimeters after baking, which means it ing universe sees just what we see—other galaxies moving
moves a distance of 4 centimeters farther away from the away, with more distant ones moving away faster. Because

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Local Raisin during the hour. Hence, its speed is 4 centime- the view from each point in the universe is about the same,
ters per hour, or twice the speed of Raisin 1. Generalizing, no place can claim to be more “central” than any other place.

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the fact that the cake is expanding means that all the raisins It’s also important to realize that, unlike the case with
are moving away from the Local Raisin, with more distant a raisin cake, we can’t actually see galaxies moving apart
raisins moving away faster. with time—the distances are too vast for any motion to
be noticeable on the time scale of a human life. Instead,
Think about it Suppose a raisin started out 10 centimeters
from the Local Raisin. How far away would it be after 1!hour,
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we measure the speeds of galaxies by spreading their light
into spectra and observing what we call Doppler shifts
and how fast would it be moving away from the Local Raisin?
[Section 5.4]. This illustrates how modern astronomy
Hubble’s discovery that galaxies are moving in much the depends both on careful observations and on using current
same way as the raisins in the cake, with most moving away understanding of the laws of nature to explain what we see.
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from us and more distant ones moving away faster, implies
that the universe is expanding much like the raisin cake. If Motion Summary FIGURE 1.18 summarizes the motions we
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have discussed. As we have seen, we are never truly sitting

1 still. We spin around Earth’s axis at more than 1000 kilome-
1 cm ters per hour, while our planet orbits the Sun at more than
m

1 cm
cm Before baking: raisins 100,000 kilometers per hour. Our solar system moves among
3 are all 1 cm apart.
1
2 the stars of the local solar neighborhood at a typical speed of
Local Raisin
70,000 kilometers per hour, while also orbiting the center of
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the Milky Way Galaxy at a speed of about 800,000 kilometers

per hour. Our galaxy moves among the other galaxies of the
From an outside
perspective, the cake 1 Distances and Speeds as Seen from the Local Raisin
expands uniformly as hr
it bakes c Distance Distance
After baking: Raisin Before After Baking
3 cm raisins are all
3 cm Number Baking (1 hour later) Speed
3 cm apart.
3 cm 3 1 1 cm 3 cm 2 cm/hr
Local 2
Raisin 1 2 2 cm 6 cm 4 cm/hr
3 3 cm 9 cm 6 cm/hr
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .

FIGURE 1.17 An expanding raisin cake offers an analogy to

the expanding universe. Someone living in one of the raisins inside
the cake could figure out that the cake is expanding by noticing that
all other raisins are moving away, with more distant raisins moving
cbut from the point of view of the Local Raisin, away faster. In the same way, we know that we live in an expanding
all other raisins move farther away during baking, universe because all galaxies outside our Local Group are moving
with more distant raisins moving faster. away from us, with more distant ones moving faster.

18 PA RT I DEVELOPING PERSPECTIVE
 Earth rotates around its axis once each day, carrying people
in most parts of the world around the axis at more than 1000 km/hr.

Earth orbits the Sun once each year, moving at more than 100,000 km/hr.

The Solar System moves relative to nearby stars, typically at a speed of 70,000 km/hr.

The Milky Way Galaxy rotates, carrying our Sun around its center
once every 230 million years, at a speed of about 800,000 km/hr.

Our galaxy moves relative to others in the

Local Group; we are traveling toward the
Andromeda Galaxy at about 300,000 km/hr.

The universe expands. The

more distant an object, the

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faster it moves away from us;
the most distant galaxies are

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receding from us at speeds
close to the speed of light.

FIGURE 1.18 This figure summarizes the basic motions of Earth in the universe, along with their associated speeds.
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Local Group, while all other galaxies move away from us at culminated with Isaac Newton’s uncovering of the laws of
speeds that grow greater with distance in our expanding uni- motion and gravity. Newton’s work, in turn, became the foun-
verse. Spaceship Earth is carrying us on a remarkable journey. dation of physics that helped fuel the industrial revolution.
e
More recently, the development of space travel and the
computer revolution have helped fuel tremendous progress
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1.4 The Human Adventure in astronomy. We’ve sent probes to all the planets in our
solar system, and many of our most powerful observatories
of!Astronomy reside in space. On the ground, computer design and con-
m

In relatively few pages, we’ve laid out a fairly complete trol have led to tremendous growth in the size and power of
overview of modern scientific ideas about the universe. But telescopes.
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our goal in this book is not simply for you to be able to Many of these efforts, and the achievements they
recite these ideas. Rather, it is to help you understand the spawned, led to profound social change. The most famous
evidence that supports them and the extraordinary story of example is the fate of Galileo, whom the Vatican put under
how they developed. house arrest in 1633 for his claims that Earth orbits the
Sun. Although the Church soon recognized that Galileo
was right, he was formally vindicated only in 1992 with a
How has the study of astronomy affected statement by Pope John Paul II. In the meantime, his case
human history? spurred great debate in religious circles and profoundly
Astronomy is a human adventure in the sense that it affects influenced both theological and scientific thinking.
everyone—even those who have never looked at the sky— As you progress through this book, keep the context of
because the history of astronomy has been so deeply inter- the human adventure in mind. You will then be learning
twined with the development of civilization. Revolutions in not just about astronomy, but also about one of the great
astronomy have gone hand in hand with the revolutions in forces that has shaped our modern world.
science and technology that have shaped modern life. These forces will continue to play a role in our future.
Witness the repercussions of the Copernican revolution, What will it mean to us when we learn the nature of dark
which showed us that Earth is not the center of the universe matter and dark energy? How will our view of Earth change
but rather just one planet orbiting the Sun. This revolution, when we learn whether life is common or rare in the uni-
which we will discuss further in Chapter! 3, began when verse? Only time may answer these questions, but the
Copernicus published his idea of a Sun-centered solar system chapters ahead will give you the foundation you need to
in 1543. Three later figures—Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler, understand how we changed from a primitive people look-
and Galileo—provided the key evidence that eventually led ing at patterns in the night sky to a civilization capable of
to wide acceptance of the Copernican idea. The revolution asking deep questions about our existence.
CHAPT ER 1 A MODERN VI EW OF T HE!U N I VERS E 19
The BIG Picture PUTTING CHAPTER 1 INTO CONTEXT
In this first chapter, we developed a broad overview of our place in released these atoms into space, where our galaxy recycled
the universe. As we consider the universe in more depth in the rest them into new stars and planets. Our solar system formed
of the book, remember the following “big picture” ideas: from such recycled matter some 4 12 billion years ago.
� Earth is not the center of the universe but instead is a planet � We are latecomers on the scale of cosmic time. The universe
orbiting a rather ordinary star in the Milky Way Galaxy. The was already more than half its current age when our solar sys-
Milky Way Galaxy, in turn, is one of billions of galaxies in our tem formed, and it took billions of years more before humans
observable universe. arrived on the scene.
� Cosmic distances are literally astronomical, but we can put them � All of us are being carried through the cosmos on spaceship
in perspective with the aid of scale models and other scaling Earth. Although we cannot feel this motion in our everyday
techniques. When you think about these enormous scales, don’t lives, the associated speeds are surprisingly high. Learning
forget that every star is a sun and every planet is a unique world. about the motions of spaceship Earth gives us a new perspec-
� We are “star stuff.” The atoms from which we are made tive on the cosmos and helps us understand its nature and
began as hydrogen and helium in the Big Bang and were later history.
fused into heavier elements by massive stars. Stellar deaths

MY COSMIC PERSPECTIVE The science of astronomy affects all of us on many levels. In particular, it helps
us understand how we as humans fit into the universe as a whole, and the history of astronomy has been deeply intertwined with the
development of civilization.

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Summary of Key Concepts

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1.1 The Scale of the Universe and recycled within galaxies from one generation of stars
to the next, which is why we are “star stuff.”
What is our place in the universe? Earth is a planet orbiting
�
the Sun. Our Sun is one of more
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� How do our lifetimes compare to the age of the universe?
than 100 billion stars in the 7 8
JANUARY
S M T W T
1 2 3 4
F
5
9 10 11 12 13
14 15 16 17 18 19 20
S
6 On a cosmic calendar that
FEBRUARY
S M T W T F S
1 2 3
4 5 6 7 8 9 10
11 12 13 14 15 16 17

DECEMBER
compresses the history of
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
28 29 30 31 25 26 27 28 29
S M T W T F S

Milky Way Galaxy. Our galaxy

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

8 9 10 11 12 13 14

the universe into 1 year, 15 16 17 The 18 19 20 21

Cambrian

is one of more than 70 galaxies

SEPTEMBER DECEMBER explosion
S M T W T F S S M T W T F S 26
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 22 23 24 25 Rise of the
27 28
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 dinosaurs
15 16 17 18 19 20 21 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
29 30 (7:00 A.M.) 31

human civilization is just a

22 23 24 25 26 27 28 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 Dinosaurs
extinct
29 30 29 30 31

in the Local Group. The Local

e
Group is one small part of the few seconds old, and a human lifetime lasts only a fraction
Local Supercluster, which is of!a!second.
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one small part of the universe.

1.3 Spaceship Earth
� How big is the universe? If we imagine our Sun as a large
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grapefruit, Earth is a ball point � How is Earth moving through space? Earth rotates on
that orbits 15 meters away; the its axis once each day and
nearest stars are thousands of orbits the Sun once each year.
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kilometers away on the same At the same time, we move

scale. Our galaxy contains more with our Sun in random
than 100 billion stars—so many directions relative to other stars!in our local solar neigh-
that it would take thousands borhood, while the galaxy’s rotation carries us around the
of years just to count them out center of the galaxy every 230 million years.
loud. The observable universe contains more than 100 bil-
lion galaxies, and the total number of stars is comparable to
� How do galaxies move within the universe? Galaxies
1

the number of grains of dry sand on all the beaches on Earth. move essentially at random
1
1 cmcm
cm
2 3
within the Local Group, but all
1

1 galaxies beyond the Local

1.2 The History of the Universe hr
Group are moving away from 3 cm
3 cm

� How did we come to be? The universe began in the 2

3 us. More distant galaxies are
3 cm

Big!Bang and has been moving faster, which tells us

expanding ever since, except in that we live in an expanding
localized regions where gravity universe.
has caused matter to collapse
into galaxies and stars. The 1.4 The Human Adventure of Astronomy
Big Bang essentially produced
only two chemical elements:
� How has the study of astronomy affected human
hydrogen and helium. The rest history? Throughout history, astronomy has developed
have been produced by stars hand in hand with social and technological development.
Astronomy thereby touches all of us and is a human
adventure that all can enjoy.

20 PA RT I DEVELOPING PERSPECTIVE
Visual Skills Check
Use the following questions to check your understanding of some of the many types of visual informa-
tion used in astronomy. For additional practice, try the Chapter 1 Visual Quiz in the Study Area at www
.MasteringAstronomy.com.

Useful Data:
Earth@Sun distance = 150,000,000 km
Diameter of Sun = 1,400,000 km
Earth@Moon distance = 384,000 km
Diameter of Earth = 12,800 km

The figure above shows the sizes of Earth and the Moon to scale; the scale used is 1 cm = 4000 km. Using what
you’ve learned about astronomical scale in this chapter, answer the following questions. Hint: If you are unsure
of the answers, you can calculate them using the data given above.

1. If you wanted to show the distance between Earth and the c. 3.5 meters in diameter (about 11" feet across)
Moon on the same scale, about how far apart would you d. 3.5 kilometers in diameter (the size of a small town)
need to place the two photos? 3. About how far away from Earth would the Sun be located

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a. 10 centimeters (about the width of your hand) on this scale?
b. 1 meter (about the length of your arm) a. 3.75 meters (about 12 feet)

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c. 100 meters (about the length of a football field) b. 37.5 meters (about the height of a 12-story building)
d. 1 kilometer (a little more than a half mile) c. 375 meters (about the length of four football fields)
2. Suppose you wanted to show the Sun on the same scale. d. 37.5 kilometers (the size of a large city)
About how big would it need to be? 4. Could you use the same scale to represent the distances to
a. 3.5 centimeters in diameter (the size of a golf ball)
pa nearby stars? Why or why not?
b. 35 centimeters in diameter (a little bigger than a basketball)

Exercises and Problems

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For instructor-assigned homework and other learning materials, go to www.MasteringAstronomy.com.

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Chapter Review Questions 12. What key observations lead us to conclude that the uni-
verse is expanding? Use the raisin cake model to explain
Short-Answer Questions Based on the Reading
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how these observations imply expansion.

1. Briefly describe the major levels of structure (such as
planet, star, galaxy) in the universe. Does It Make Sense?
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2. Define astronomical unit and light-year.

Decide whether or not each of the following statements
3. Explain the statement “The farther away we look in dis-
makes sense (or is clearly true or false). Explain clearly; not
tance, the further back we look in time.”
all of these have definitive answers, so your explanation is
4. What do we mean by the observable universe? Is it the same
more important than your chosen answer.
thing as the entire universe?
5. Using techniques described in the chapter, put the following Example: I walked east from our base camp at the North Pole.
into perspective: the size of our solar system; the distance
Solution: The statement does not make sense because east
to nearby stars; the size and number of stars in the Milky
has no meaning at the North Pole—all directions are south
Way Galaxy; the number of stars in the observable universe.
from the North Pole.
6. What do we mean when we say that the universe is expand-
ing, and how does expansion lead to the idea of the Big 13. Our solar system is bigger than some galaxies.
Bang and our current estimate of the age of the universe? 14. The universe is billions of light-years in age.
7. In what sense are we “star stuff”? 15. It will take me light-years to complete this homework
8. Use the cosmic calendar to describe how the human race assignment!
fits into the scale of time. 16. Someday we may build spaceships capable of traveling a
9. Briefly explain Earth’s daily rotation and annual orbit, light-year in only a decade.
defining the terms ecliptic plane and axis tilt. 17. Astronomers recently discovered a moon that does not orbit
10. Briefly describe our solar system’s location and motion a planet.
within the Milky Way Galaxy. 18. NASA will soon launch a spaceship that will photograph
11. Why do scientists suspect that most of our galaxy’s mass our Milky Way Galaxy from beyond its halo.
consists of dark matter? Briefly describe the mystery of dark 19. The observable universe is larger today than it was a few
matter and dark energy. billion years ago.

CHAPT ER 1 A MODERN VI EW OF T HE!U N I VERS E 21

20. Photographs of distant galaxies show them as they were a. Working independently, make a simple sketch of a profes-
when they were much younger than they are today. sional scientist and write down five words that describe the
21. At a nearby park, I built a scale model of our solar system scientist in your sketch. Then join with a group of two to
in which I used a basketball to represent Earth. three other students to share your sketches and word lists.
22. Because nearly all galaxies are moving away from us, we b. Make a list of all the words the group wrote down, then
must be located near the center of the universe. rank them in order of how often they were used.
c. Discuss any similarities, differences, or patterns you notice
Quick Quiz among the scientists described by the group members.
Choose the best answer to each of the following. For d. Discuss whether you and the other members of your
additional practice, try the Chapter 1 Reading and Concept group feel as if you have much in common with profes-
Quizzes in the Study Area at www.MasteringAstronomy.com. sional scientists.
e. Discuss how your beliefs about what you have (or do not
23. Which of the following correctly lists our “cosmic address” have) in common with scientists might affect your approach
from small to large? (a) Earth, solar system, Milky Way Gal- to scientific thinking.
axy, Local Group, Local Supercluster, universe (b) Earth,
solar system, Local Group, Local Supercluster, Milky Way
Galaxy, universe (c) Earth, Milky Way Galaxy, solar system, The Process of Science
Local Group, Local Supercluster, universe These questions may be answered individually in short-
24. An astronomical unit is (a) any planet’s average distance essay form or discussed in groups, except where identified
from the Sun. (b) Earth’s average distance from the Sun. as group-only.
(c)!any large astronomical distance.
25. The star Betelgeuse is about 600 light-years away. If it 34. Earth as a Planet. For most of human history, scholars assumed
explodes tonight, (a) we’ll know because it will be brighter Earth was the center of the universe. Today, we know that our

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than the full Moon in the sky. (b) we’ll know because Sun is just one star in a vast universe. How did science make it
debris from the explosion will rain down on us from space. possible for us to learn these facts about Earth?

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(c) we won’t know about it until about 600 years from now. 35. Thinking About Scale. One key to success in science is find-
26. If we represent the solar system on a scale that allows us to ing simple ways to evaluate new ideas, and making a simple
walk from the Sun to Pluto in a few minutes, then (a)!the scale model is often helpful. Suppose someone tells you that
planets are the size of basketballs and the nearest stars are the reason it is warmer during the day than at night is that
a few miles away. (b) the planets are marble-size or smaller
pa the day side of Earth is closer to the Sun than the night side.
Evaluate this idea by thinking about the size of Earth and its
and the nearest stars are thousands of miles away. (c) the
planets are microscopic and the stars are light-years away. distance from the Sun in a scale model of the solar system.
27. The total number of stars in the observable universe is 36. Looking for Evidence. In this first chapter, we have dis-
roughly equivalent to (a) the number of grains of sand on cussed the scientific story of the universe but have not yet
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all the beaches on Earth. (b) the number of grains of sand discussed most of the evidence that backs it up. Choose one
on Miami Beach. (c) infinity. idea presented in this chapter—such as the idea that there
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28. When we say the universe is expanding, we mean that are billions of galaxies in the universe, or that the universe
(a)! everything in the universe is growing in size. (b) the was born in the Big Bang, or that the galaxy contains more
average distance between galaxies is growing with time. dark matter than ordinary matter—and briefly discuss the
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(c)!the universe is getting older. type of evidence you would want to see before accepting
29. If stars existed but galaxies did not, (a) we would probably the idea. (Hint: It’s okay to look ahead in the book to see
still exist anyway. (b) we would not exist because life on the evidence presented in later chapters.)
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Earth depends on the light of galaxies. (c) we would not exist 37. A Human Adventure. Astronomical discoveries clearly are
because we are made of material that was recycled in galaxies. important to science, but are they also important to our per-
30. Could we see a galaxy that is 50 billion light-years away? sonal lives? Defend your opinion.
(a) Yes, if we had a big enough telescope. (b) No, because 38. Infant Species. In the last few tenths of a second before
it would be beyond the bounds of our observable universe. midnight on December 31 of the cosmic calendar, we have
(c)!No, because a galaxy could not possibly be that far away. developed an incredible civilization and learned a great deal
31. The age of our solar system is about (a) one-third of the age about the universe, but we also have developed technology
of the universe. (b) three-fourths of the age of the universe. with which we could destroy ourselves. The midnight bell
(c) two billion years less than the age of the universe. is striking, and the choice for the future is ours. How far
32. The fact that nearly all galaxies are moving away from us, into the next cosmic year do you think our civilization will
with more distant ones moving faster, helped us to con- survive? Defend your opinion.
clude that (a) the universe is expanding. (b) galaxies repel 39. Group Activity: Counting the Milky Way’s Stars. Work as a
each other like magnets. (c) our galaxy lies near the center group to answer each part. Note: This activity works par-
of the universe. ticularly well in groups of four students, with each student
taking on one of the following roles: Scribe—takes notes on
the group’s activities; Proposer—suggests tentative explana-
Inclusive Astronomy tions to the group; Skeptic—points out weaknesses in pro-
posed explanations; Moderator—leads group discussion and
Use these questions to reflect on participation in science.
makes sure everyone contributes.
33. Group Discussion: What does a scientist look like? The pur- a. Work together to estimate the number of stars in the Milky
pose of this exercise is to help you identify preconceptions Way from just these two facts: (1) the number of stars within 12
that you or others may have about science and scientists. light-years of the Sun, which you can count in Appendix F; (2)

22 PA RT I DEVELOPING PERSPECTIVE
 the total volume of the Milky Way’s disk (100,000 light-years spacecraft. How long does it take a message to travel from
in diameter and 1000 light-years thick), which is about 1 bil- Earth to a spacecraft at
lion times the volume of the region of your star count. a. Mars at its closest to Earth (about 56 million km)?
b. Discuss how your value from part a compares to the b. Mars at its farthest from Earth (about 400 million km)?
value given in this chapter. Make a list of possible reasons c. Pluto at its average distance from Earth (about 5.9 billion km)?
why your technique may have underestimated or overesti- 47. Saturn vs. the Milky Way. Photos of Saturn and photos of
mated the actual number. galaxies can look so similar that children often think the
photos show similar objects. In reality, a galaxy is far larger
than any planet. About how many times larger is the diam-
Investigate Further eter of the Milky Way Galaxy than the diameter of Saturn’s
Short-Answer/Essay Questions rings? (Data: Saturn’s rings are about 270,000 km in diam-
40. Alien Technology. Some people believe that Earth is regu- eter; the Milky Way is 100,000 light-years in diameter.)
larly visited by aliens who travel here from other star sys- 48. Galaxy Scale. Consider the 1 @to@1 0 1 9 scale, on which the
tems. For this to be true, how much more advanced than disk of the Milky Way Galaxy fits on a football field. On
our own technology would the alien space travel technol- this scale, how far is it from the Sun to Alpha Centauri (real
ogy have to be? Write one to two paragraphs to give a sense distance: 4.4 light-years)? How big is the Sun itself on this
of the technological difference. (Hint: The ideas of scale in scale? Compare the Sun’s size on this scale to the actual
this chapter can help you contrast the distance the aliens size of a typical atom (about 1 0 -1 0 m in diameter).
would have to travel with the distances we currently are 49. Universal Scale. Suppose we wanted to make a scale model
capable of traveling.) of the Local Group of galaxies in which the Milky Way Gal-
41. Raisin Cake Universe. Suppose that all the raisins in a cake axy was the size of a marble (about 1 cm in diameter).
are 1 centimeter apart before baking and 4 centimeters a. How far from the Milky Way Galaxy would the Androm-

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apart after baking. eda Galaxy be on this scale?
a. Draw diagrams to represent the cake before and after baking. b. How far would the Sun be from Alpha Centauri on this

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b. Identify one raisin as the Local Raisin on your diagrams. scale?
Construct a table showing the distances and speeds of other c. How far would it be from the Milky Way Galaxy to the
raisins as seen from the Local Raisin. most distant galaxies in the observable universe on this scale?
c. Briefly explain how your expanding cake is similar to the
pa 50. Driving Trips. Imagine that you could drive your car at a
expansion of the universe. constant speed of 100 km/hr (62 mi/hr), even across oceans
42. Scaling the Local Group of Galaxies. Both the Milky Way and in space. (In reality, the law of gravity would make
Galaxy and the Andromeda Galaxy (M31) have a diameter driving through space at a constant speed all but impos-
of about 100,000 light-years. The distance between the two sible.) How long would it take to drive
galaxies is about 2.5 million light-years. a.! around Earth’s equator? b.! from the Sun to Earth?
a. Using a scale on which 1 centimeter represents 100,000 c.! from the Sun to Pluto? d.!to Alpha Centauri?
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light-years, draw a sketch showing both galaxies and the 51. Faster Trip. Suppose you wanted to reach Alpha Centauri in
distance between them to scale. 100 years.
pl

b. How does the separation between galaxies compare to a. How fast would you have to go, in km/hr?
the separation between stars? Based on your answer, dis- b. How many times faster is the speed you found in part
cuss the likelihood of galactic collisions in comparison to a than the speed of our fastest current spacecraft (around
m

the likelihood of stellar collisions. 50,000 km/hr)?

43. The Hubble eXtreme Deep Field. The photo that opens this 52. Galactic Rotation Speed. We are located about 27,000 light-
chapter is called the Hubble eXtreme Deep Field. Find this years from the galactic center and we orbit the center about
Sa

photo on the Hubble Space Telescope website. Learn how it once every 230 million years. How fast are we traveling
was taken, what it shows, and what we’ve learned from it. around the galaxy, in km/hr?
Write a short summary of your findings. 53. Earth Rotation Speed. Mathematical Insight 1.4 shows how
44. The Cosmic Perspective. Write a short essay describing how to find Earth’s equatorial rotation speed. To find the rota-
the ideas presented in this chapter affect your perspectives tion speed at any other latitude, you need the following
on your own life and on human civilization. fact: The radial distance from Earth’s axis at any latitude
is equal to the equatorial radius times the cosine of the lati-
Quantitative Problems tude. Use this fact to find the rotation speed at the follow-
ing latitudes. (Hint: When using the cosine (cos) function,
Be sure to show all calculations clearly and state your final
be sure your calculator is set to recognize angles in degree
answers in complete sentences.
mode, not in radian or gradient mode.)
45. Distances by Light. Just as a light-year is the distance that a. 30°N b. 60°N c. your latitude
light can travel in 1 year, we define a light-second as the 54. Order of Magnitude Estimate. Mathematical Insight 1.3
distance that light can travel in 1 second, a light-minute as defines order of magnitude estimates, and in the text we
the distance that light can travel in 1 minute, and so on. estimated there are about 1 0 2 2 stars in the observable uni-
Calculate the distance in both kilometers and miles repre- verse by assuming that 100 billion large galaxies each have
sented by each of the following: about 100 billion stars. Now, assume that there are also
a.! 1 light-second. b.! 1 light-minute. 1! trillion small galaxies, but that each has only 10 million
c.! 1 light-hour. d.!1 light-day. stars on average. How will this affect the estimate of the
46. Spacecraft Communication. We use radio waves, which total number of stars in the observable universe? Explain
travel at the speed of light, to communicate with robotic your answer without calculating.

CHAPT ER 1 A MODERN VI EW OF T HE!U N I VERS E 23