CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study
In developed countries, the achievement of sustainable development is largely

underpinned by political stability and effective security systems. Nations like Germany, Canada

and Japan have recorded significant progress in infrastructure, education, healthcare and

agriculture due to a secure environment that allows for policy consistency and long-term

investments. Adequate security creates a climate conducive to economic growth, the smooth

operation of institutions and an effective food distribution system (United Nations

Development Programme [UNDP], 2020).

Conversely, in Nigeria, the development process has been severely hampered by

multiple challenges, with insecurity being particularly damaging. Despite being endowed with

abundant natural and human resources, the nation has seen its development goals consistently

undermined by corruption, weak governance, ethnic tensions, terrorism and widespread

insecurity (Punch, 2024; BusinessDay, 2024). Insecurity has escalated sharply in recent years,

becoming a defining feature of Nigeria’s socio-political landscape. Armed banditry, terrorism,

herder–farmer conflicts and kidnapping have devastated communities especially in border and

rural areas leading to widespread displacement and fear (Guardian Nigeria, 2024; UN OCHA,

2023).

This persistent insecurity has had a profound ripple effect on the country’s agricultural

sector. Frequent displacement of farmers, destruction of farmlands and fear of attacks have

drastically reduced agricultural productivity. Ogun State, known for its agricultural potential in

Southwest Nigeria, has not been spared. Many rural farming communities have been abandoned

due to these threats, triggering widespread food shortages (Punch, 2025; BusinessDay, 2024).

Consequently, food insecurity, inflation and a soaring cost of living have deepened the

country’s development challenges, exacerbating poverty and undermining efforts toward

sustainable growth.
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 The interplay between security crises and food insecurity has compounded Nigeria’s

development woes. As agriculture is a critical pillar of economic development and

employment, disruptions in this sector have far-reaching implications for poverty reduction,

nutrition and economic resilience. In Nigeria, where many rural communities depend on

farming, insecurity has not only limited food availability but also eroded livelihoods and

increased rural-urban migration (FAO, 2021). Despite government interventions such as the

National Security Strategy, Operation Amotekun in the Southwest and food security initiatives

like the Anchor Borrowers’ Programme among others, insecurity and food scarcity remain

persistent. Structural weaknesses, poor inter-agency coordination, corruption and a lack of

community engagement continue to hinder the effectiveness of efforts to address security crisis

and food insecurity in the country (Olu-Adeyemi, 2020). Efforts to address the root causes of

these crises are often reactive rather than preventive, allowing the challenges to resurface and

evolve.

Therefore, understanding the link between security crises, food insecurity and national

development is vital for framing effective policy responses. This study aims to assess how the

rising security challenges in Ogun State from 2019 to 2024 have influenced food security and

development outcomes. By critically examining these interrelated issues, the research hopes to

contribute to the search for practical solutions that will enhance security, ensure food

sufficiency and accelerate development in Nigeria.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Food security is a vital component of national development, as it

ensures that people have regular access to safe, nutritious and affordable

food. In a stable society, agricultural productivity supports economic

growth, reduces poverty and enhances the overall well-being of citisens.

However, in Nigeria, the rising level of food insecurity has become a major

concern, especially in the last five years. From 2019 to 2024, the country

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has experienced growing insecurity such as kidnapping, banditry, herder–

farmer conflicts and communal clashes, which have disrupted farming

activities and food distribution systems (FAO, 2022; International Crisis

Group, 2021). Insecurity has forced many farmers off their lands, destroyed

rural livelihoods and increased food prices, making it difficult for vulnerable

populations to meet their basic needs. Ogun State, while often regarded as

relatively peaceful compared to other parts of the country, has not been

immune to these issues. Communities across the state have reported cases

of farmland invasions, theft and violence, leading to declining agricultural

output and increased dependence on food imports from other states

(Punch, 2023; Vanguard, 2022).

These security challenges coupled with food security have slowed

development efforts, particularly in rural areas, by discouraging investment

in infrastructure, education and health. The link between insecurity and

food scarcity poses a direct threat to sustainable development and social

stability. Although various government programmes have aimed to address

either food insecurity or insecurity separately, little research has examined

how both crises interact and jointly affect development at the state level.

Therefore, this study investigated the relationship between security crisis,

food insecurity and development in Ogun State from 2019 to 2024. It

explored how rising insecurity has contributed to food scarcity and

underdevelopment and to identify possible policy interventions for

sustainable improvement.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The main objective of this study is to examine the relationship

between security crisis, food insecurity and development in Nigeria from

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2019 to 2024, using Ogun State as a case study. However, the specific

objectives of the study are to:

i. enalyse the nature and trend of security crisis in Ogun State

ii. Examine the extent to which security crises affects agricultural and food

systems in Ogun State

iii. identify the factors promoting security crisis and food insecurity in Ogun

State

iv. investigate the effects of security crisis and food insecurity on

development indicators such as health, education and income levels in

Ogun State;

v. assess the efforts of government and non-governmental stakeholders in

addressing security crisis and food insecurity in Ogun State.

1.4 Research Questions

The study seeks to answer the following research questions:

i. What is the nature and trend of security crisis in Ogun State?

ii. To what extent do security crises affect agricultural activities and food systems in Ogun

State?

iii. What are the major factors promoting security crises and food insecurity in Ogun State?

iv. How have security crises and food insecurity impacted key development indicators such as

health, education and income levels in Ogun State?

v. What efforts have been made by governmental and non-governmental stakeholders to

address security crises and food insecurity in Ogun State?

1.5 Research Hypotheses

The following research hypotheses were formulated to guide the study:

H01: Security crisis does not significantly contribute to food insecurity in Ogun State.

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H02: Security crisis and food insecurity have no significant impact on development in Ogun

State.

1.6 Scope of the Study

This study examined the relationship between security crisis, food insecurity and

development in Nigeria, using Ogun State as a case study. Thematically, the study explored the

patterns, causes and effects of security crisis and food insecurity in the context of farmer-herder

conflicts, kidnapping and rural banditry. It also assessed the broader developmental

implications of these issues on health, education and economic activities within Ogun State.

The study covered the period from 2019 to 2024. This timeframe has been selected because it

captures recent trends in Nigeria’s food production and distribution systems, while also

accounting for the rising wave of security-related disruptions in many parts of the country,

particularly in Ogun State.

Geographically, the study focused exclusively on Ogun State, with particular attention

given to local government areas that have experienced recurrent food shortages, insecurity and

development setbacks. While national events may be referenced for context, the analysis and

conclusions were based on data and developments within the boundaries of Ogun State during

the specified period.

1.7 Significance of the Study

This study seeks to fill an important gap in the existing literature regarding the

intersection of security crises, food insecurity and development in Nigeria, particularly in Ogun

State. While food insecurity and security challenges have been discussed separately, their

combined effect on development outcomes has not been thoroughly examined in the context of

Ogun State. By focusing on the period between 2019 and 2024, this research will provide new

insights into how ongoing security crises such as farmer-herder conflicts and kidnappings have

exacerbated food insecurity and hindered socio-economic development in the region.

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 The significance of this study extends to various stakeholders, including policymakers,

government agencies, non-governmental organisations (NGOs), local communities and

academic researchers. For policymakers and government institutions, the study will provide a

clearer understanding of the interplay between food insecurity and security crises, offering

recommendations for targeted interventions to mitigate their impact on development. It will

help inform policy decisions aimed at improving food security and addressing the root causes

of insecurity, contributing to the creation of more stable and prosperous communities.

For security agencies, including the Nigerian Police Force and local security outfits, the

findings of this study will contribute to enhancing their operational strategies. Understanding

the link between food insecurity and insecurity-related activities can help these agencies

anticipate potential hotspots and implement preventive measures more effectively. For NGOs

and civil society organisations, the study will offer evidence-based recommendations for

programmes focused on improving food security and promoting peaceful coexistence in

affected regions. It will also provide valuable insights into how non-state actors can play a more

active role in alleviating both food insecurity and insecurity.

Finally, this study will contribute to the academic body of knowledge in the fields of

food security, conflict studies and development economics, particularly with regard to Nigeria.

It will provide empirical data and theoretical insights that will pave the way for future research

on the interconnections between food security, security crises and development in Nigeria.

1.8 Definition of Terms

Security: Security refers to the condition of being protected from or not exposed to danger,

risk, or harm. In this study, it denotes the protection of lives, property and socio-economic

systems from threats such as violence, crime and instability.

Security Crisis: A security crisis is a breakdown in public safety resulting from

widespread violence, criminal activities, or conflict. It includes events such as banditry,

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kidnappings, armed robbery and communal clashes that destabilise communities and obstruct

economic and social development.

Food: Food in the context of this study refers to any substance consumed to provide

nutritional support for the body. It includes all agricultural products, both plant and animal-

based, that are essential for the sustenance and well-being of individuals.

Food Security: Food security is the state in which all people, at all times, have physical,

social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs

and preferences for an active and healthy life. It includes dimensions such as food availability,

accessibility, utilisation and stability.

Development: Development refers to the process of improving the quality of life and

economic well-being of people. In this study, it involves progress in areas such as income

levels, healthcare, education, infrastructure and general standards of living. It is often measured

using indicators like poverty rates, literacy rates, life expectancy and GDP growth.

1.9 Organiation of the Study

The study was structured into five chapters. Chapter one consists of the introductory

part which encompasses the background to the study, statement of the problem, objective of the

study, research questions, research hypothesis, significance of the study, scope of the study and

the operational definition of terms. Chapter two was dedicated to reviewing the existing

literature and theoretical framework on the scope of the study. Chapter three centres on the

methodology that was adopted for the conduct of the study. These elements of methodology

includes research design, population of the study, sample sise and sampling technique, research

instruments, validity and reliability of research instruments, method of data collection as well

as methods of data analysis. Chapter four presents and analyses the data gathered on the field as

well as discuss the findings of the study. The last chapter synthesises and summarise sthe study,

deduce meaningful conclusions and proffer recommendations.

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

This chapter offers a comprehensive analysis of previous studies on the topic under

investigation. The examination will be structured under several subheadings, including

conceptual clarifications and review of related literature.

2.1 Conceptual Clarification

2.1.1 Security Crisis

The concept of a security crisis is broadly understood as a severe disruption or

breakdown in the mechanisms that ensure public safety, societal order and state sovereignty.

According to Achumba, Ighomereho and Akpor-Robaro (2013), a security crisis emerges when

there is a persistent threat to life and property, often resulting from the inability of state

institutions to prevent or effectively manage violence and criminality. These threats can be

physical such as terrorism, armed banditry, kidnapping and communal violence or structural,

including political marginalisation and economic deprivation.

From a conflict studies perspective, Adebayo (2013) links security crises in Nigeria to

systemic issues such as poverty, corruption, youth unemployment and weak governance

structures. These root causes create environments ripe for violence and instability. In this

context, a security crisis is not merely a failure of law enforcement but a deeper expression of

institutional fragility and social injustice.

The International Crisis Group (2021) emphasises the cyclical nature of insecurity in

Nigeria. It argues that prolonged crises erode trust in public institutions, discourage investment,

displace populations and hinder agricultural and commercial activity thereby feeding back into

further insecurity and underdevelopment. Collier (2007) also supports this view, asserting that

nations plagued by internal conflicts often find themselves trapped in a vicious cycle of poverty

and insecurity.

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 In the Nigerian setting, the term “security crisis” gained national prominence with the

rise of Boko Haram in the Northeast and later expanded to include armed banditry in the

Northwest, herder–farmer clashes in the Middle Belt and oil militancy in the Niger Delta. Ogun

State, though once perceived as relatively stable, has recently witnessed a surge in security-

related issues, including cultist violence, herder-farmer conflicts and highway kidnappings,

especially in border areas (Amzat & Omotosho, 2022). These challenges signal a breakdown in

both state capacity and community resilience.

Additionally, the proliferation of non-state actors such as vigilante groups in Ogun State

underscores the population’s lack of faith in formal security institutions. While these informal

groups may offer immediate security relief, they often operate without clear oversight, leading

to concerns about human rights abuses and long-term governance implications (Ajayi, 2021).

From a developmental standpoint, security crises have far-reaching implications. They reduce

access to education and health services, deter infrastructural development and paralyze local

economies. As farming and trading become unsafe due to fear of attacks, food insecurity and

inflation increase further deepening poverty and inequality.

In a personal view, a security crisis should be viewed not only as a manifestation of

violence but as a broader societal dysfunction where the protective functions of the state are

either absent, insufficient or distrusted. In the case of Ogun State and Nigeria more broadly, the

concept encapsulates a multidimensional challenge rooted in both governance failure and socio-

economic discontent. Addressing security crises thus requires a holistic approach that integrates

law enforcement with inclusive governance, equitable development and local capacity-building

to ensure lasting peace and progress.

2.1.2 Food Insecurity

Food insecurity refers to a condition in which individuals or households lack reliable

access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to maintain a healthy and active life. It is widely

understood as a multidimensional concept, encompassing not only the physical availability of

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food but also economic and social access, proper utilisation and stability over time. The Food

and Agriculture Organisation (FAO, 2006) defines food security as existing "when all people,

at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food

that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life."

Food insecurity, therefore, emerges when one or more of the four pillars availability,

access, utilisation and stability are compromised. Food availability refers to the supply of food

through production, distribution and exchange; access pertains to individuals’ ability to acquire

food through financial or social means; utilisation involves the nutritional knowledge and

health infrastructure necessary for proper dietary intake; and stability implies a continuous,

uninterrupted access to food over time (Barrett, 2010).

In conflict-prone countries such as Nigeria, food insecurity is often exacerbated by

structural and political instability. According to Maxwell and Fitzpatrick (2012), armed conflict

and insecurity are major disruptors of food systems, leading to displacement of farmers,

destruction of crops, reduced access to markets and inflation. Nigeria's recent history has

witnessed a steady increase in food insecurity due to the convergence of security crises (e.g.,

insurgency, banditry, herder-farmer clashes), environmental degradation and poor agricultural

investment (World Food Programme, 2022).

Ogun State, though traditionally regarded as agriculturally rich, has not escaped this

national crisis. In recent years, insecurity in border and rural communities has disrupted

farming activities. Cases of land invasions, cattle grazing on cultivated fields and attacks on

farmers have been reported, leading to reduced agricultural output (Amzat & Omotosho, 2022).

The National Bureau of Statistics (2023) reported a consistent rise in food inflation in Ogun and

other southwestern states, largely attributed to insecurity along transport routes and rural

displacement.

In addition, the nutritional impacts of food insecurity cannot be overstated. Poor food

access results in malnutrition, stunting in children, reduced worker productivity and increased

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vulnerability to illness. As the World Health Organisation (2021) notes, food insecurity

undermines health, education and economic performance, reinforcing cycles of poverty and

underdevelopment.

From a developmental perspective, food insecurity is both a symptom and a cause of

weak institutional capacity. As argued by Headey and Ruel (2020), inadequate infrastructure,

inefficient food storage systems and limited rural credit facilities worsen food shortages and

deepen vulnerability to shocks. In Ogun State, farmers face significant barriers to bringing

goods to market due to poor rural roads and threats of ambush, resulting in post-harvest losses

and reduced rural income.

In my perspective, food insecurity in Ogun State represents more than a failure of

agricultural output; it reflects broader systemic weaknesses in governance, rural development

and security enforcement. The interplay between conflict, poor infrastructure and economic

hardship has entrenched food insecurity as a structural problem. Addressing this issue requires

more than food aid it demands an integrated response that includes rural safety, agricultural

investment, infrastructure development and community resilience planning.

2.1.3 Development

Development is a multidimensional and dynamic process aimed at

enhancing the quality of life and improving the socio-economic conditions of

individuals and societies. Traditionally, development was measured using

economic indicators such as gross domestic product (GDP) and income per

capita. However, contemporary development thinking recognises that

growth alone does not necessarily translate to improved well-being.

According to Todaro and Smith (2015), development includes the reduction

of poverty, inequality and unemployment, as well as increased access to

education, healthcare, political freedom and social justice.

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 Amartya Sen (1999), in his seminal work “Development as Freedom”,

reconceptualised development as the expansion of human capabilities the

real freedoms that individuals enjoy. He argued that development must go

beyond income to include the ability of individuals to live lives they value,

such as being healthy, well-nourished and educated. This human-centered

perspective is echoed by the United Nations Development Programme

(UNDP), which defines development in terms of human development indices

(HDIs) such as life expectancy, literacy rates and access to basic needs

(UNDP, 2022).

Development occurs at both macro and micro levels. At the national

level, it involves infrastructural growth, technological advancement,

institutional reform and sustainable industrialisation. At the community

level, it is reflected in improved agricultural productivity, access to clean

water and sanitation, healthcare services, employment generation and rural

electrification (World Bank, 2020). Sustainable development, as promoted

by the United Nations' 2030 Agenda, involves integrating economic growth,

social inclusion and environmental sustainability (UN, 2023).

In the Nigerian context, development is often hindered by structural

challenges such as insecurity, corruption, governance deficits and

inadequate infrastructure. Although efforts have been made to promote

economic diversification and infrastructure development, persistent

violence and poor policy implementation have undermined these gains

(Ibrahim & Adamu, 2022). Ogun State, a southwestern region with

considerable industrial and agricultural potential, has experienced

moderate improvements in education and manufacturing but continues to

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grapple with poverty, rural underdevelopment and food insecurity (Adewuyi

& Adebayo, 2023).

Security is a foundational element of development. Adebayo (2021)

asserts that without peace and stability, no meaningful economic or human

development can take place. Security crises such as farmer-herder

conflicts, kidnappings and communal clashes divert resources away from

developmental initiatives toward emergency responses, often leaving

critical sectors like health, education and infrastructure underfunded

(Amzat & Omotosho, 2022).

Furthermore, food security plays a crucial role in the development

equation. According to the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO, 2021),

access to adequate nutrition is essential for cognitive development,

workforce productivity and social stability. In Ogun State, agricultural

disruptions caused by insecurity have led to reduced food availability,

higher food prices and increased malnutrition factors that significantly

weaken human capital and slow down overall development (WFP, 2022).

From this perspective, development is best understood as a holistic

transformation that must occur alongside peace, adequate food systems

and institutional resilience. Insecurity and food scarcity are not just social

challenges; they are structural impediments to achieving sustainable

development. Therefore, this study views development as the convergence

of security, food systems, infrastructure and human empowerment. To

achieve meaningful development in Ogun State and similar regions,

integrated strategies must be adopted ones that address safety, food

sustainability and socio-economic equity in a unified manner.

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2.2 Theoretical Framework
This study is underpinned by two complementary theories human security theory and

structural violence theory, which together provide a robust analytical lens for understanding the

intersection of security crises, food insecurity and development challenges in Nigeria, with

particular reference to Ogun State. These theories shift attention from conventional, state-

focused explanations of security and development toward a more nuanced, people-centered and

structure-aware approach.

Human security theory emerged in the early 1990s as a critique of traditional

conceptions of security that prioritised military power, territorial integrity and the protection of

state sovereignty. Introduced formally by the United Nations Development Programme

(UNDP) in its 1994 Human Development Report, this framework redefined security as freedom

from fear and freedom from want (UNDP, 1994). It introduced seven pillars of human security:

economic, food, health, environmental, personal, community and political security. Unlike

traditional security perspectives that focus on national threats such as war or insurgency, human

security theory is concerned with the daily and chronic threats that affect individuals hunger,

disease, poverty, displacement and repression (King & Murray, 2001; Paris, 2001).

At the heart of human security theory is the argument that development cannot occur in

the absence of security and that genuine security must address both direct violence and

structural conditions that undermine human well-being. In the context of this study, this theory

is highly relevant for examining how persistent security crises in Ogun State ranging from

herder-farmer conflicts and armed robbery to kidnappings and cultist violence impact food

systems, livelihoods and social cohesion (Akinola, 2020; Adepoju, 2022). These crises directly

threaten personal and community security and indirectly affect economic and food security by

displacing farmers, discouraging investment and disrupting local food production and

distribution.

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 According to human security theory, threats such as food insecurity and physical

violence are not standalone phenomena; they are interlinked and often mutually reinforcing.

For instance, a breakdown in law and order may lead to the displacement of farming

communities, which reduces agricultural productivity and increases hunger. In turn, widespread

hunger and unemployment can fuel social unrest and crime, thereby perpetuating insecurity

(Tadjbakhsh & Chenoy, 2007). Applying this theory in the Ogun State context allows for a

holistic understanding of how multiple dimensions of insecurity converge to erode human

capabilities, impoverish communities and obstruct long-term development.

Complementing this perspective is structural violence theory, first conceptualised by

Johan Galtung in 1969 and later expanded by Paul Farmer and others. Structural violence refers

to a form of harm that is built into the fabric of social, political and economic systems. Unlike

direct violence, which is immediately visible and perpetrated by identifiable actors, structural

violence is indirect and often normalised. It results from unequal power relations and

institutional arrangements that prevent individuals or groups from meeting their basic needs or

achieving their full potential (Galtung, 1969; Farmer, 2004; Farmer et al., 2006).

This theory holds that poverty, inequality, hunger and marginalisation are not simply

natural occurrences or unfortunate outcomes they are produced and sustained by policies,

practices and systems that benefit some at the expense of others. For instance, the inability of

smallholder farmers in Ogun State to access government-backed loans, secure their farmlands,

or safely transport goods to market is not merely a logistical issue it is a form of structural

violence that limits their productivity, reduces food availability and increases vulnerability to

insecurity (Ogun State Ministry of Agriculture, 2023; Eze & Oladipo, 2023).

Structural violence theory is particularly useful in exposing the deeper roots of

insecurity and food scarcity. In many rural areas of Ogun State, years of infrastructural neglect,

poor access to healthcare and education and weak institutional presence have created conditions

of chronic underdevelopment. This structural neglect makes communities more vulnerable to

15
insecurity and reduces their resilience in the face of food shocks and economic downturns

(Okeke, 2019; Adamu, 2021). For example, when security personnel are either absent or

ineffective in protecting rural communities from herder-farmer clashes or kidnapping

syndicates, this reflects not only a security lapse but a systemic failure rooted in unequal

resource allocation and governance deficits (Ibrahim & Hassan, 2022; Nwosu, 2023).

Furthermore, food insecurity itself can be seen as a form of structural violence. It is not

just the lack of food that causes harm but the systemic inability or unwillingness of institutions

to ensure equitable access to food. Government failure to provide agricultural subsidies, invest

in irrigation and storage infrastructure, or implement protective policies for rural farmers

contributes to persistent hunger and poverty, which in turn fuel migration, unrest and

disillusionment (Adeyemi & Akinbode, 2021; Amadi, 2021). When such institutional neglect

becomes chronic, it leads to generational underdevelopment and cyclical insecurity conditions

that structural violence theory helps to illuminate.

Taken together, human security theory and structural violence theory provide a

comprehensive framework for this study. While the former highlights the importance of

securing individuals from both chronic and acute threats, the latter reveals how deeper

institutional and systemic failures perpetuate those threats. The combination of both theories

underscores the point that development is not possible without addressing both immediate

violence and the long-standing structures that sustain inequality and vulnerability.

In applying these theories to Ogun State, the study does not only seek to describe the

surface manifestations of insecurity and food scarcity but aims to uncover the underlying

processes that generate and sustain them. The failure of the state to ensure equitable access to

land, security, markets and basic services, particularly in marginalised rural areas, is both a

security and a development issue. This theoretical orientation demands integrated policy

responses ones that go beyond policing and food aid to include governance reform, institutional

accountability, inclusive agricultural development and community empowerment.

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 In sum, human security theory and structural violence theory, when combined, enable a

nuanced and layered understanding of the insecurity, food insecurity, underdevelopment nexus

in Nigeria. They provide the conceptual foundation for analysing how insecurity and hunger are

not isolated problems, but deeply interwoven challenges that reflect broader failures of the

social contract. Addressing them requires not only immediate interventions but long-term

structural changes to ensure inclusive and sustainable development in Ogun State and beyond.

2.3 Nature and Dimensions of Security Crisis in Nigeria

The nature of the security crisis in Nigeria is multifaceted, deeply rooted in historical,

socio-political and economic contexts that have evolved over decades. In recent years, the

security landscape has become increasingly complex, with the proliferation of various forms of

violence and insecurity that threaten national unity, food security and sustainable development

(Akinola, 2021; Obasanjo & Musa, 2022). These crises have intensified particularly since 2019

and have had a profound impact on states such as Ogun, where rural and semi-urban

communities are especially vulnerable (Nwosu, 2023).

One of the defining features of Nigeria’s security crisis is its asymmetry and

multiplicity. Unlike traditional warfare between states, the threats facing Nigeria are non-

conventional and dispersed, often involving non-state actors with localised, political, religious,

or economic motivations (Ibrahim, 2020). The country faces simultaneous challenges from

terrorist organisations such as Boko Haram and the Islamic State in West Africa Province

(ISWAP) in the Northeast; armed banditry and mass kidnapping in the Northwest; herder-

farmer conflicts and land disputes in the North-Central and parts of the South; cult-related

violence, armed robbery and gang conflicts in the Southwest; as well as persistent separatist

agitations in the Southeast (Adamu, 2021; Eze & Oladipo, 2023). In the Southwest, including

Ogun State, the dominant security concerns revolve around kidnappings for ransom, armed

robbery, communal clashes, herder-farmer violence and the rise of youth gangs and cultism,

17
especially in peri-urban areas (Olufemi, 2022). The porous nature of Nigeria’s borders and

internal state boundaries allows for easy movement of arms and criminals, which compounds

the security situation (Okeke, 2019). These threats are often intensified by weak security

institutions, inadequate policing, corruption and limited state presence in rural areas (Umar &

Bello, 2023).

One major dimension of the security crisis is its impact on agriculture and food systems.

As farmers abandon their farmlands due to fear of attacks or violence, food production declines

sharply (FAO, 2022; Adeyemi & Akinbode, 2021). In states like Ogun, which has a substantial

portion of its economy tied to agriculture, this results in food shortages, higher prices and

increasing food insecurity (Ogun State Ministry of Agriculture, 2023). Many rural dwellers,

especially women and youth who depend on farming, fishing and local trade, are displaced or

pushed into poverty due to these insecurities (Ibrahim & Hassan, 2022). Another dimension is

the psychological and social impact of prolonged insecurity. Fear, trauma and distrust erode the

social fabric of communities, undermining cooperation and collective efforts toward

development (Okafor, 2020). School attendance drops, public health delivery is disrupted and

social cohesion is weakened. The loss of lives, destruction of property and displacement of

populations also place additional burdens on already strained government resources and

infrastructures (Amadi, 2021).

Importantly, the crisis is not just physical but structural and institutional. It is driven by

years of neglect, rising inequality, youth unemployment, weak governance and the

marginalisation of certain groups (Chukwuemeka, 2022). This has created fertile ground for

violence, making many communities susceptible to manipulation by political or criminal actors

who exploit grievances for personal or ideological gains (Nwankwo, 2023).

Furthermore, the proliferation of arms and light weapons, inadequate intelligence

gathering and inter-agency rivalry among security institutions have made effective responses

difficult (UNODC, 2022). State and local governments often lack the capacity and autonomy to

18
address the crisis independently, while federal responses are frequently delayed or poorly

coordinated (Eze & Oladipo, 2023). The security crisis in Nigeria especially since 2019 is

characterised by its complexity, regional variations and deeply rooted structural causes. It

encompasses physical violence, threats to livelihoods, institutional breakdowns and systemic

inequality. Understanding the nature and dimensions of this crisis is critical for formulating

effective interventions that address not only immediate threats but also the underlying

conditions that sustain insecurity and hinder development, especially in vulnerable states like

Ogun (Akinola, 2021; FAO, 2022).

2.4 Historical Overview of Food Insecurity in Nigeria

Food insecurity in Nigeria is a persistent challenge influenced by a complex interplay of

historical, socio-economic, political and environmental factors. Despite Nigeria's rich

agricultural potential, food insecurity remains a significant issue, particularly among rural

populations (FAO, 2020).

In the pre-colonial period, subsistence farming was the mainstay for most Nigerians,

with traditional farming practices ensuring local food availability (Adewuyi, 2012). However,

food supply was vulnerable to natural shocks such as droughts and pests (Akanbi, 2011).

Colonial agricultural policies shifted focus from food crops to cash crops for export, such as

cocoa and groundnuts, undermining local food production and increasing dependency on food

imports (Olaniyan & Lawanson, 2010). This structural bias contributed to the long-term decline

in staple crop production and heightened vulnerability to food shortages (Oluwatayo & Ojo,

2014). Post-independence governments initiated various agricultural programs, including

the National Accelerated Food Production Programme (NAFPP) and Operation Feed the Nation

(OFN) in the 1970s, to boost food production (Ike, 2007). However, poor implementation,

insufficient funding and lack of infrastructure limited their success (Omolehin, 2016). The

discovery of oil further diverted resources from agriculture to petroleum, leading to reduced

investment in the sector (Obadan, 2004).

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 The Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs) of the 1980s and 1990s, enforced under

IMF and World Bank guidance, resulted in the removal of agricultural subsidies and reduced

government support, causing increases in food prices and decreased accessibility for vulnerable

populations (Adeleke & Oladosu, 2017). These reforms also disrupted rural economies,

contributing to poverty and food insecurity (Idowu, 2014). Efforts in the 2000s, such as

the National Economic Empowerment and Development Strategy (NEEDS) and

the Agricultural Transformation Agenda (ATA), aimed to revitalise agriculture and enhance

food security (Adewale, 2013). Nonetheless, persistent challenges including poor governance,

land tenure insecurity and climate variability have limited these programs' effectiveness (FAO,

2018). Recent years, particularly from 2015 onward, have seen a marked increase in food

insecurity, exacerbated by security crises including Boko Haram insurgency, farmer-herder

conflicts and banditry across several states (NBS, 2023). These conflicts disrupt farming

activities, displace communities and hinder food production and distribution (Amusan &

Adebayo, 2021). In Ogun State, rising insecurity has similarly affected rural farming

communities, contributing to declining agricultural output and increased food shortages (Ogun

State Ministry of Agriculture, 2022).

Additionally, the COVID-19 pandemic disrupted supply chains and increased economic

hardship, pushing more Nigerians into food insecurity (World Bank, 2021). Climate change

effects such as irregular rainfall, flooding and desertification have further undermined

agricultural productivity (IPCC, 2022). Nigeria's rapid population growth has also intensified

pressure on food systems (UN DESA, 2019). Nigeria's history of food insecurity reflects a

confluence of colonial legacies, economic policy shifts, governance challenges, environmental

stresses and growing security threats. Addressing food insecurity in Nigeria requires a

comprehensive approach that accounts for these historical and structural factors.

20
2.5 Interrelationship between Security Crisis and Food Insecurity
The relationship between food insecurity and security crisis is multidimensional and

mutually reinforcing. In contexts like Nigeria, rising insecurity has not only deepened food

shortages but also created a vicious cycle where hunger fuels further violence and instability.

This bidirectional link presents serious challenges to sustainable development and national

stability.

On one hand, security crises directly undermine food production, distribution and

access. Violent conflicts, especially those involving Boko Haram in the northeast, herder-

farmer clashes in the Middle Belt and banditry in the northwest, have displaced millions of

people from their homes and farmlands (FAO, 2022). These crises reduce agricultural

productivity by displacing farmers, destroying crops and making farmland inaccessible. For

instance, the Global Report on Food Crises (GRFC) noted that in 2023, Nigeria had over 25

million people facing acute food insecurity, largely due to conflict-driven disruptions (GRFC,

2023). In Ogun State, rising incidents of local insecurity and kidnapping have similarly

discouraged rural farming, threatening regional food supply and increasing dependence on

external sources (The Guardian, 2023).

Moreover, insecurity disrupts market access, supply chains and the delivery of

agricultural inputs such as seeds and fertilisers. As a result, food becomes scarce and expensive,

disproportionately affecting poor households (WFP, 2021). Farmers often abandon their fields,

while traders and transporters avoid high-risk zones, limiting the movement of food from

surplus to deficit areas (Okorie & Okoro, 2022).

Conversely, food insecurity itself can fuel insecurity, especially in contexts marked by

poverty, inequality and weak governance. When people lack access to adequate food, they may

become susceptible to recruitment by insurgent groups, criminal gangs, or participate in

communal conflicts over resources (Maxwell, 2020). For example, Boko Haram has reportedly

used food incentives as a recruitment tool in food-insecure communities (Amusan & Adebayo,

21
2021). In rural areas where hunger is widespread, particularly during planting seasons or post-

harvest deficits, competition over arable land and water can lead to violent confrontations,

especially between herders and farmers (Adisa & Adekunle, 2020). The interdependence

between food insecurity and security crisis has far-reaching implications for development.

Hunger erodes human capital, weakens productivity and undermines social cohesion, while

insecurity limits the state's capacity to implement policies that can reverse food insecurity

(World Bank, 2022). Regions that experience both simultaneously often face chronic poverty,

youth unemployment and deteriorating livelihoods, thus trapping populations in cycles of

vulnerability.

Furthermore, Nigeria’s weak institutional capacity and inconsistent food policies

exacerbate both insecurity and food challenges. Programs aimed at improving food availability

are often poorly coordinated or inaccessible in insecure areas (Adewale, 2018). International

and local aid responses are also constrained by safety concerns, reducing the reach of food

assistance to internally displaced persons (IDPs) and vulnerable rural communities (UN OCHA,

2023). The interrelationship between food insecurity and security crisis in Nigeria is cyclic and

complex. Insecurity undermines agricultural productivity and food systems, while food

insecurity exacerbates social unrest and conflict. Without a holistic approach that

simultaneously addresses the root causes of hunger and insecurity such as poverty, exclusion,

unemployment and climate stressors the cycle will continue to threaten national development

and the well-being of millions.

2.6 Causes of Security Crisis and Food Insecurity in Nigeria

The persistent security crisis and food insecurity in Nigeria are rooted in a complex

interplay of political, socio-economic, environmental and institutional factors. These drivers

often reinforce each other, creating a cycle of instability and deprivation that significantly

hampers national development. Between 2019 and 2024, Nigeria has witnessed worsening

22
trends in both security and food access, with several overlapping causes contributing to the

crises.

High levels of poverty and youth unemployment have created fertile ground for

recruitment into armed groups, criminal gangs and insurgent organisations. According to the

National Bureau of Statistics (2022), over 40% of Nigerians live below the poverty line. The

lack of gainful employment, especially among the youth, has made them vulnerable to

manipulation by extremist groups and local militias (International Crisis Group, 2021). Poverty

also limits people's ability to purchase food, exacerbating food insecurity even when food is

available.

Nigeria is deeply divided along ethnic and religious lines. Disputes over land, political

representation and identity frequently erupt into violence, particularly in the Middle Belt and

northern regions. These conflicts often displace farmers and destroy agricultural infrastructure,

thereby contributing to both insecurity and food shortages (Adisa & Adekunle, 2020). The

farmer-herder conflicts, rooted in competition over land and water resources, are especially

notable. Climate change has pushed pastoralists southward, increasing friction with sedentary

farming communities.

The Boko Haram insurgency in the northeast, coupled with rising incidents of armed

banditry in the northwest and north-central regions, has had devastating impacts on agriculture

and rural livelihoods. These groups target villages, kidnap farmers, destroy farmlands and

extort rural communities, driving mass displacement and fear that prevents farming activity

(FAO, 2022). Insecurity has also led to the abandonment of vast tracts of arable land, reducing

food production in affected regions (WFP, 2021).

Climate-related factors, such as droughts, desertification and flooding, have

significantly contributed to declining agricultural productivity and migration-induced conflicts.

Northern Nigeria is especially affected by desert encroachment, which has reduced grazing and

farming land, sparking conflicts between pastoralists and crop farmers (UNEP, 2021). The

23
variability in rainfall and increasing extreme weather events have led to crop failures, further

exacerbating food insecurity and migration pressures.

The failure of the state to provide basic security and social services, coupled with

widespread corruption, has deepened public distrust and enabled the growth of non-state armed

actors. Government interventions are often poorly coordinated and underfunded, particularly in

rural areas (Adewale, 2018). The weak enforcement of agricultural policies and land tenure

systems also discourages investment in farming and leads to unresolved land disputes, further

aggravating insecurity.

Inadequate transport, storage and communication infrastructure limit the movement of

goods and services, especially in conflict-affected regions. Farmers are often unable to access

markets, resulting in post-harvest losses and reduced income. Poor road networks in rural areas

also make it difficult for security personnel to respond quickly to threats, enabling banditry and

criminality to flourish (World Bank, 2022).

Rapid population growth and urban expansion exert pressure on land and food systems.

Nigeria’s population, estimated to surpass 220 million by 2024, increases the demand for food

while reducing the availability of cultivable land in peri-urban areas (UN DESA, 2023). The

scramble for land and dwindling natural resources often triggers land-use conflicts, which in

turn generate insecurity and reduce agricultural activity.

The lack of continuity in food security and agricultural policies has stifled long-term

investment in the sector. Many government programs are short-lived, donor-dependent, or fail

to address the unique needs of farmers in insecure regions. Additionally, subsidy

mismanagement and elite capture of agricultural schemes undermine the intended impact of

food support programs (Adebayo & Yusuf, 2019).

The causes of security crisis and food insecurity in Nigeria are multifaceted and deeply

interwoven. Addressing them requires a comprehensive approach that integrates security

reform, agricultural transformation, climate adaptation and inclusive governance. Unless these

24
root causes are confronted holistically, Nigeria will continue to face the dual threat of hunger

and insecurity, with dire consequences for development, peace and national cohesion.

2.7 Impact of Security Crisis and Food Insecurity on Development in Nigeria

The twin challenges of security crisis and food insecurity have had far-reaching

consequences on Nigeria’s overall development. As a lower-middle-income country with a

rapidly growing population, Nigeria’s quest for sustainable development is increasingly being

undermined by persistent threats to national security and food systems. These crises not only

affect economic productivity but also contribute to social instability, weakened governance and

stalled progress toward achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

One of the most direct impacts of insecurity and food scarcity is the disruption of

agricultural production, which remains the backbone of Nigeria’s rural economy. Conflict-

affected areas such as the North-East, North-West and Middle Belt have witnessed large-scale

displacement of farmers, destruction of crops and abandonment of farmland. According to the

Food and Agriculture Organisation (2022), about 19.4 million Nigerians were food insecure in

2022, largely due to conflict-induced displacement and reduced agricultural output. Insecurity

increases the cost of food production and transportation, thereby inflating market prices. This

raises inflationary pressures and deepens poverty, particularly in rural communities that rely

heavily on subsistence farming. The World Bank (2022) reported that Nigeria’s agricultural

GDP growth declined during periods of heightened insecurity between 2019 and 2024,

indicating a strong link between violence and economic regression.

Food insecurity leads to malnutrition, especially among children and pregnant women,

resulting in poor health outcomes and reduced cognitive development. This affects educational

attainment and workforce productivity in the long term. Insecurity further disrupts educational

systems, as many schools in conflict zones are closed or attacked. According to UNICEF

(2023), over 1,500 schools were closed in northern Nigeria due to security threats, depriving

millions of children of access to basic education. The fear of violence reduces people’s mobility

25
and access to health services, especially in rural and marginalised communities. The erosion of

human capital through malnutrition, lack of education and trauma significantly hinders the

country's socio-economic development and future competitiveness.

Security crises and food shortages exacerbate poverty and social inequality. Displaced

populations often lose their homes, livelihoods and access to land, which deepens their

vulnerability. Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) are heavily reliant on humanitarian aid,

which is often insufficient or irregular. The poverty rate in regions heavily affected by violence

is disproportionately higher than the national average (National Bureau of Statistics, 2022).

These disparities fuel further resentment and instability, creating a vicious cycle of exclusion

and violence.

Persistent insecurity deters both domestic and foreign investment. Investors are

reluctant to commit resources in unstable environments where returns are uncertain and

infrastructure is vulnerable to attack. This results in lower job creation, stagnated industrial

growth and declining foreign direct investment (FDI). For instance, the Nigeria Investment

Promotion Commission (2023) reported a 30% decline in FDI inflow to Nigeria between 2020

and 2023, largely due to heightened security concerns.

The government’s inability to ensure basic security and food access erodes public trust

in institutions. Insecurity challenges the legitimacy of the state, especially when non-state

actors, such as bandits or insurgents, appear to exercise control over territories. This weakens

democratic governance and the rule of law. As the state redirects its resources to security and

emergency food aid, other development sectors like infrastructure, education and health suffer

budgetary neglect (Adewale, 2018).

Security threats and hunger are major drivers of internal displacement and rural-urban

migration. People fleeing conflict zones often settle in urban areas where they contribute to the

growth of informal settlements and increase the demand for already limited resources. This

26
uncontrolled urban expansion puts pressure on urban infrastructure, services and employment,

straining municipal governments and worsening urban poverty (IOM, 2021).

The dual crises of insecurity and food shortages undermine Nigeria’s ability to achieve

several SDGs, particularly Goal 1 (No Poverty), Goal 2 (Zero Hunger), Goal 3 (Good Health

and Well-being), Goal 4 (Quality Education) and Goal 16 (Peace, Justice and Strong

Institutions). According to the UNDP (2023), Nigeria’s progress toward these goals has slowed

significantly due to recurring conflicts, forced displacement and food system disruptions.

The impact of security crises and food insecurity on development in Nigeria is profound

and multifaceted. These twin challenges disrupt economic activity, weaken human capital,

discourage investment and strain governance structures. Without urgent, holistic and sustained

interventions that address the root causes of both insecurity and hunger, Nigeria’s prospects for

sustainable development will remain precarious. Policies aimed at strengthening rural

livelihoods, restoring peace, improving food systems and enhancing state capacity are essential

to reversing this trend and promoting inclusive national development.

2.8 Government and Stakeholders’ Responses to Insecurity and Food Insecurity in

Nigeria
The Nigerian government and various stakeholders, including international

organisations, civil society groups and community-based actors, have adopted a range of

strategies to address the growing threats of insecurity and food insecurity. These efforts reflect

a multidimensional approach that combines military interventions, policy frameworks,

agricultural development programmes, humanitarian assistance and regional cooperation.

However, the effectiveness of these responses remains a subject of debate due to persistent

challenges in implementation, coordination and sustainability.

The Nigerian government has prioritised military responses in its efforts to curb

insecurity, particularly in regions affected by insurgency, banditry and herder–farmer conflicts.

Operations such as Lafiya Dole (now Operation Hadin Kai) in the North-East and Operation

Safe Haven in the North-Central are aimed at dismantling terrorist groups like Boko Haram and
27
ISWAP and reducing inter-communal violence (International Crisis Group, 2021).

Additionally, the establishment of the Nigeria Security and Civil Defence Corps (NSCDC) and

the deployment of joint task forces are efforts to augment internal security However, despite

heavy investment in military solutions, security threats remain widespread due to limited

intelligence capacity, corruption, human rights concerns and insufficient collaboration with

local communities (Akinola, 2022).

To combat food insecurity, the government has implemented several agricultural

development and food production programs. Key among these is the Agricultural Promotion

Policy (APP) 2016–2020, also known as the Green Alternative, which aimed to increase

domestic food production and reduce reliance on imports. The Anchor Borrowers’ Programme

(ABP) initiated by the Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) provided credit support to smallholder

farmers to boost the cultivation of staple crops like rice, maise and wheat (CBN, 2022). Despite

recorded successes in increased production in some regions, insecurity has limited the impact of

these programmes, as many beneficiaries are unable to access their farmlands due to violence

or displacement.

To address the immediate consequences of hunger and displacement, the government

initiated social protection programs such as the National Home-Grown School Feeding

Programme, Conditional Cash Transfer (CCT) and the Government Enterprise and

Empowerment Programme (GEEP). These are designed to cushion vulnerable populations,

particularly in conflict-affected and poor areas. Additionally, institutions like the National

Emergency Management Agency (NEMA), in partnership with international humanitarian

agencies such as the World Food Programme (WFP) and UNICEF, have been delivering food

assistance and relief materials to internally displaced persons (IDPs). These efforts are vital, but

logistical challenges, funding shortfalls and insecurity in transit zones often limit their reach

and impact (UN OCHA, 2023).

28
 The Nigerian government has adopted several policies aimed at institutionalizing

responses to food insecurity and conflict. These include the National Policy on Food and

Nutrition, the National Agricultural Resilience Framework and the National Livestock

Transformation Plan (NLTP). The NLTP, in particular, was launched to address the herder–

farmer conflict by promoting ranching and modern livestock practices. Furthermore,

the National Security Strategy (NSS) provides a framework for a coordinated response to

national threats, emphasizing human security, conflict prevention and peacebuilding (Office of

the National Security Adviser, 2019). However, implementation remains uneven due to weak

institutional capacity and political will.

Non-governmental organisations (NGOs), faith-based groups and community

associations have played an essential role in bridging the gaps left by government efforts. These

stakeholders often engage in early warning systems, peacebuilding initiatives, food distribution

and advocacy for vulnerable populations. For instance, organisations like the International

Rescue Committee (IRC), Action Against Hunger and Centre for Democracy and Development

(CDD) have contributed significantly to addressing food insecurity and promoting community

resilience in affected regions. Traditional rulers and religious leaders are also increasingly

involved in dialogue and mediation efforts to resolve communal disputes and foster coexistence

in divided communities (Kukah, 2021).

Nigeria collaborates with international bodies such as the African Union

(AU), ECOWAS, United Nations and World Bank to address the interconnected challenges of

insecurity and food shortages. Regional frameworks like the ECOWAS Conflict Prevention

Framework (ECPF) provide platforms for shared intelligence, peacekeeping and development

initiatives. Donor funding and technical support from international partners help scale

humanitarian and developmental programs. However, coordination challenges between

domestic and external actors often reduce effectiveness and lead to duplication of efforts

(ECOWAS, 2021; World Bank, 2022; United Nations, 2023).

29
 While Nigeria has made commendable efforts in addressing insecurity and food

insecurity through a mix of military, economic, social and policy strategies, the results remain

limited by implementation gaps, corruption, weak governance and persistent violence. A more

integrated and community-based approach that emphasises prevention, resilience building and

equitable development is necessary to make sustained progress. Strengthening institutions,

enhancing accountability and improving synergy among stakeholders are crucial for ensuring

the success of these initiatives and promoting lasting peace and food security in Nigeria.

30
 CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODS

This chapter will outline the methods and procedures that were used to conduct this

study. The key components in this chapter include research design, the population of the

study, the sample size and sampling technique, the research instrument, the validity and

reliability of the instrument, instrument administration and the methods of data analysis. Each

of these components was discussed in detail.

3.1 Research Design

According to Ahuja (2010), a research design is the arrangement of conditions for the

collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research

purpose with economy in procedure. This study adopted a descriptive survey research

method. This design was selected because descriptive research is suitable when the research

aim is to identify characteristics, frequencies, trends and categories, all of which are integral

to this study.

3.2 Population of the Study

The population of this study comprises residents of Ogun State who have been

affected directly or indirectly by security crisis and food insecurity between 2019 and 2024.

Ogun State, located in the South-West geopolitical zone of Nigeria, has an estimated

population of about 6.4 million people based on projections from the National Population

Commission (NPC, 2022). The state is divided into 20 local government areas, with both

urban and rural settlements that are heavily dependent on agriculture, trade and small-scale

industries for livelihood. The study focused on selected individuals across various

demographics, including farmers, traders, youths, local leaders, security personnel and

government officials who have insights into the effects of food scarcity, rising insecurity

(such as banditry, kidnapping and herder-farmer conflicts) and how these factors have
31
 influenced development efforts in the state. By targeting respondents from both conflict-

prone and food-vulnerable areas of the state, particularly in local governments such as Yewa

North, Abeokuta North, Odeda and Ifo, the research aims to provide a balanced and

representative understanding of the situation. The population thus includes a wide range of

actors, both victims and stakeholders, whose experiences and perspectives are vital to

analysing the complex links between food insecurity, security challenges and socio-economic

development in Ogun State during the study period.

3.3 Sample Size and Sampling Technique

Sampling is the process of selecting a representative subset of individuals from a

larger population to gain insights about the whole (Kamangar & Islami, 2013). For this study,

the sample size for this study consists of four hundred (400) respondents. A random sampling

technique was employed to ensure an unbiased selection process that accurately represents

the broader population. The random sampling technique involves randomly selecting

respondents from various areas in the state, thus enhancing the study's validity and reliability

by capturing diverse perspectives.

By utilising random sampling, the study aims to obtain a comprehensive

understanding of security crisis, food insecurity and development in Nigeria, considering the

perspectives and experiences of the Ogun state respondents. This approach allows for the

collection of rich and varied data, which is essential for drawing meaningful conclusions and

making informed recommendations based on the study's findings.

3.4 Research Instrument

For this study, a self structured questionnaire was used as the instrument for data

collection. The instrument was structured into two main sections. The first section focused on

collecting demographic information from the respondents, including gender, age, occupation

and level of education. The second section contained items designed to elicit detailed

information about the subject under investigation.

32
 3.5 Validity of the Instrument

Validity refers to the appropriateness and accuracy of the research process (Kumar,

2011). In order to test the validity of this research instrument, a table of specification was

made to ensure that items that will test for the hypotheses were adequately included. This

process will involve a thorough review by the researchers’ supervisor, who will evaluate

whether the items are relevant and align with the objectives and aims of the research.

3.6 Reliability of the Instrument

To ascertain the reliability of the questionnaire used in this study, the researchers

employed the test-retest reliability technique. This method involves administering the

questionnaire to a sample of respondents on two separate occasions to measure the

consistency of their responses.

3.7 Method of Data Collection

Data collection involved administering questionnaires to respondents in the selected

local government area. All questionnaires filled were securely stored in both hard and soft

copies for subsequent analysis.

3.8 Method of Data Analysis

The data collected through the questionnaire were analysed using descriptive statistics. The

personal data of the respondents were analysed using simple percentage statistical analysis and

the stated research questions were analysed using simple percentage while chi square was used

to test the hypothesis.

The statistical tool that was used in the research to test hypothesis is chi-square (X2).

Chi-squares is used to test relationship between hypothesised variables. The result of statistical

analysis of data was used either to reject or accept the stated hypothesis. The hypotheses were

tested at 0.5 level of significance. The sample of chi-square formula is

33
 Observed Frequency-Expected Frequency
Expected frequency
χ2 =  (o – e)2
e
Where O= observed frequency, E= expected frequency, ∑= summation.

34
 CHAPTER FOUR
DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS
In this chapter, the data collected through questionnaires for the research are presented
and analysed. A total of 400 questionnaires were prepared and administered to the selected
residents of the Ogun State. The data were analysed using the statistical instruments outlined in
Chapter Three. The analysis and presentation are shown in tabular form, with each table headed
by options, the number of respondents and the percentage. A discussion follows each table to
interpret the findings.
4.1 Data Presentation
Table 4.1.1: Distribution by Gender
Gender Frequency Percentage (%)
Male 226 56.5%
Female 174 43.5%
Total 400 100%
Source: Field Survey, 2025
Table 4.1.1 shows that 226 of the respondents are male, constituting 56.5% of the total
sample, while 174 respondents are female, making up 43.5%. This distribution suggests that the
research sample includes more males than females.
Table 4.1.2: Distribution by Age
Age Range Frequency Percentage (%)
18-30 years 180 45%
31-40 years 150 37.5%
41-50 years 50 12.5%
51 years and above 20 5%
Total 400 100%
Source: Field Survey, 2025
From Table 4.1.2, it is evident that the majority of respondents fall within the
economically active and agriculturally productive age range. Specifically, 180 respondents,
representing 45%, are aged between 18 and 30 years, while 150 respondents, accounting for
37.5%, fall between the ages of 31 and 40. These two age categories comprising 82.5% of the
total respondents represent the segment of the population most directly engaged in farming,
trade and other livelihood activities affected by security crises and food system disruptions.
Furthermore, 50 respondents making 12.5% are aged between 41 and 50, while 20 respondents
which is 5% are in the 51 and above age bracket. This distribution underscores that the study’s
findings reflect the perspectives of those most impacted by security challenges and food
insecurity in Ogun State, particularly in rural and semi-urban areas where agricultural and
economic activities are concentrated.
Table 4.1.3: Distribution by Marital Status
Marital Status Frequency Percentage (%)
Single 316 79%
Married 84 21%
Divorced 0 0
Widowed 0 0
Total 400 100%
Source: Field Survey, 2025
From Table 4.1.3, 316 respondents, representing 79% of the total sample, are single,
while 84 respondents (21%) are married. No respondents reported being divorced. This
indicates that the majority of the respondents in the study are single.

35
Table 4.1.4: Distribution by Occupation
Occupation Frequency Percentage (%)
Civil Servants 114 28.5%
Traders 64 16.0%
Students 106 26.5%
Artisans 80 20.0%
Farmers 36 9.0%
Others 0 0
Total 400 100%
Source: Field Survey, 2025
Table 4.1.4 reveals the occupational breakdown of respondents in the study. The highest
proportion of respondents are civil servants, totaling 114 individuals, which accounts for 28.5%
of the total sample. Students follow closely with 106 respondents, representing 26.5%. Artisans
also form a significant part of the sample, comprising 80 respondents or 20% of the population.
Traders account for 16% of respondents (64 individuals), while farmers represent the smallest
occupational group with 36 respondents, making up 9% of the sample. Notably, no respondents
selected Others category, which confirms the concentration of the sample within the five main
occupational categories listed. The prominence of civil servants and students also reflects a
demographic likely to be informed and directly affected by state policies and regional
challenges such as insecurity and food scarcity.
Table 4.1.5: Distribution by Religion
Religion Frequency Percentage (%)
Christianity 226 56.5%
Muslims 174 43.5%
Traditional 0 0.0%
Total 400 100%
Source: Field Survey, 2025
Table 4.1.5 shows the religious distribution of the respondents in the study. A majority
of the respondents, 226 individuals representing 56.5%, identified as Christians. Muslims
account for 174 respondents, which makes up 43.5% of the sample. Notably, none of the
participants identified with traditional religious beliefs, resulting in 0% for that category. This
religious composition reflects the dominant religious groups in Ogun State, where Christianity
and Islam are the major religions. The absence of respondents adhering to traditional religions
could indicate either a very small population of such adherents in the area or reluctance to
publicly identify with traditional beliefs.
Table 4.1.6: Distribution by Highest Level of Education
Highest Level of Frequency Percentage (%)
Education
1. O’level 92 23.0%
NCE/OND 104 26.0%
B.Sc/HND/B.A/B.Ed 160 40.0%
M.Sc and above 44 11.0%
Total 400 100%
Source: Field Survey, 2025
Table 4.1.6 presents the educational qualifications of the respondents. It shows that the
majority of participants, 160 respondents representing 40.0%, hold a bachelor’s degree or its
equivalent (B.Sc, HND, B.A, or B.Ed). This is followed by those with NCE or OND
qualifications, comprising 26.0% (104 respondents) and those with only O’Level qualifications
at 23.0% (92 respondents). A smaller portion of the sample, 44 respondents (11.0%), reported
having attained a postgraduate degree such as M.Sc or higher. This distribution indicates that a
significant number of respondents are relatively well-educated, which is essential in a study that
36
seeks to explore issues around development, food insecurity and security crises. Higher levels
of education often correlate with increased awareness of socio-political issues, better
articulation of experiences and more informed responses regarding the impacts of insecurity on
livelihoods and community development
4.2 Analyses of Research Questions
RQ1: What is the nature and trend of security crisis in Ogun State?
Table 4.2.1: Response on the nature and trend of security crisis in Ogun State?
S/N Items SA A D SD TOTAL
(%)
1 Insecurity in Ogun State has 164 180 40 16 100%
increased significantly between 41% 45% 10% 4%
2019 and 2024.
2 Incidents of kidnapping for ransom 180 156 40 24 100%
are common in many communities 45% 39% 10% 6%
in Ogun State.
3 The level of insecurity varies 156 180 36 28 100%
across different local government 39% 45% 9% 7%
areas in Ogun State.
4 Banditry is one of the prevalent 200 140 40 20 100%
security crisis in Ogun State 50% 35% 10% 5%
5 Herder-Farmer conflicts are 140 164 60 36 100%
common security crisis in Ogun 35% 41% 15% 9%
State
Source: Field Survey, 2025
Table 4.2.1 reveals that 86% of respondents agreed that insecurity in Ogun State has
increased significantly between 2019 and 2024, with 41% strongly agreeing and 45% agreeing.
Only 14% disagreed, comprising 10% who disagreed and 4% who strongly disagreed.
Regarding the prevalence of kidnapping for ransom, 84% of respondents affirmed its
commonality in many communities, with 45% strongly agreeing and 39% agreeing, while 16%
disagreed. On the distribution of insecurity, 84% of respondents also agreed that the level of
insecurity varies across different local government areas, with 39% strongly agreeing and 45%
agreeing. In terms of the forms of security crisis, 85% of respondents agreed that banditry is
one of the prevalent issues in Ogun State, with 50% strongly agreeing and 35% agreeing, while
15% disagreed. Lastly, 76% of respondents agreed that herder-farmer conflicts are common in
Ogun State, with 35% strongly agreeing and 41% agreeing, while 24% disagreed. These
responses collectively highlight the widespread recognition of multiple and increasing forms of
insecurity in Ogun State during the period under review.
RQ2: To what extent do security crises affect agricultural activities
and food systems in Ogun State?
Table 4.2.2: Response on the extent which security crises affect
agricultural activities and food systems in Ogun State?
S/N Items SA A D SD TOTAL
(%)
1 Insecurity has prevented farmers 180 144 52 24 100%
from accessing their farmlands in 45% 36% 13% 6%
Ogun State.
2 Agricultural productivity has 164 156 48 32 100%
declined due to security 41% 39% 12% 8%
challengesin Ogun State.
3 Food prices have increased as a 188 136 40 36 100%
37
 result of disrupted farming 47% 34% 10% 9%
activities induced by herder-farmer
conflicts in Ogun State.
4 Transportation of agricultural 140 176 52 32 100%
produce is hindered by insecurity in 35% 44% 13% 8%
Ogun State.
5 There is a shortage of agricultural 152 168 44 36 100%
labor due to displacement caused 38% 42% 11% 9%
by insecurity in Ogun State.
Source: Field Survey, 2025
Table 4.2.2 reveals that 81% of respondents agreed that insecurity has prevented
farmers from accessing their farmlands in Ogun State, with 45% strongly agreeing and 36%
agreeing, while 19% disagreed. Regarding the impact of insecurity on agricultural productivity,
80% of respondents confirmed a decline, as 41% strongly agreed and 39% agreed, compared to
20% who disagreed. On the issue of food prices, 81% of respondents agreed that prices have
risen due to disrupted farming activities induced by herder-farmer conflicts, with 47% strongly
agreeing and 34% agreeing, while 19% disagreed. Furthermore, 79% of respondents agreed that
insecurity has hindered the transportation of agricultural produce, with 35% strongly agreeing
and 44% agreeing, while 21% disagreed. Lastly, 80% of respondents agreed that there is a
shortage of agricultural labor due to displacement caused by insecurity, with 38% strongly
agreeing and 42% agreeing, while 20% disagreed. Overall, the data highlights the strong
perception that insecurity has significantly disrupted agricultural systems in Ogun State,
contributing to reduced productivity, food inflation and labor shortages.

RQ3: What are the major factors promoting security crises and food insecurity in Ogun
State?
Table 4.2.3: Response on the major factors promoting security crises and food insecurity
in Ogun State?
S/N Items SA A D SD TOTAL
(%)
1 Poverty and unemployment 192 152 36 20 100%
contribute to the rise in security 48% 38% 9% 5%
crisis and food insecurity in Ogun
State.
2 Weak governance and institutional 184 140 52 24 100%
failures encourages security crisis 46% 35% 13% 6%
and food insecurity in Ogun State.
3 Clash of interest over limited 160 168 44 28 100%
resources promotes security crisis 40% 42% 11% 7%
and food insecurity in Ogun state.
4 Climate change and environmental 188 156 36 20 100%
degradation promotes security 47% 39% 9% 5%
crisis and food insecurity in Ogun
State.
5 In consistency agricultural policies 176 160 36 28 100%
and weak security capacity 44% 40% 9% 7%
enhances security crisis and food
insecurity in Ogun State.
Source: Field Survey, 2025
Table 4.2.3 reveals that a significant majority of respondents (86%) agreed that poverty
and unemployment contribute to the rise in security crisis and food insecurity in Ogun State,
38
with 48% strongly agreeing and 38% agreeing, while only 14% disagreed. Similarly, 81% of
respondents agreed that weak governance and institutional failures encourage security crisis
and food insecurity, with 46% strongly agreeing and 35% agreeing, compared to 19% who
disagreed. Regarding the role of resource conflict, 82% of respondents agreed that a clash of
interest over limited resources promotes security and food insecurity, while 18% disagreed. On
the issue of climate change and environmental degradation, 86% of respondents agreed that
these environmental challenges fuel insecurity and food shortages, while 14% disagreed.
Lastly, 84% of respondents agreed that inconsistency in agricultural policies and weak security
capacity enhance security crises and food insecurity, with only 16% expressing disagreement.
These findings suggest that multiple structural and environmental factors are widely perceived
as root causes of the ongoing security and food challenges in Ogun State.
RQ4: How have security crises and food insecurity impacted key development indicators
such as health, education and income levels in Ogun State?
Table 4.2.4: Response on How have security crises and food insecurity impacted key
development indicators such as health, education and income levels in Ogun State?
S/N Items SA A D SD TOTAL
(%)
1 Security crisis and food 204 140 36 20 100%
insecurity worsen poverty and (51%) (35%) (9%) (5%)
social inequality in Ogun State.
2 Security crisis and food 180 148 48 24 100%
insecurity decline the level of (45%) (37%) (12%) (6%)
investment and economic
confidence in Ogun State.
3 Household incomes and 168 160 48 24 100%
purchasing power have (42%) (40%) (12%) (6%)
decreased as a result of
security crisis and food
insecurity in Ogun State.
4 Malnutrition rates have 192 148 44 16 100%
increased due to security crisis (48%) (37%) (11%) (4%)
limited food availability in Ogun
State.
5 Migration from rural to urban 184 156 36 24 100%
areas has increased due to (46%) (39%) (9%) (6%)
insecurity and food scarcity in
Ogun State.
Source: Field Survey, 2025
Table 4.2.4 presents respondents’ perceptions of the impact of security crisis and food
insecurity on development in Ogun State. A significant majority (86%) agreed that these issues
worsen poverty and social inequality, with 51% strongly agreeing and 35% agreeing, while
only 14% disagreed. Similarly, 82% of respondents believed that security crisis and food
insecurity have led to a decline in investment and economic confidence in the state, while 18%
disagreed. On the impact on household income, 82% of respondents agreed that insecurity and
food shortages have reduced household incomes and purchasing power, compared to 18% who
disagreed. Further, 85% of respondents agreed that malnutrition rates have increased due to
limited food availability caused by security crises, while only 15% disagreed. Lastly, 85% also
agreed that there has been an increase in rural-to-urban migration due to insecurity and food
scarcity, with 46% strongly agreeing and 39% agreeing. This suggests a strong consensus
among respondents that the dual burden of insecurity and food insecurity significantly

39
undermines development by reducing economic opportunities, deepening inequality, worsening
health outcomes and accelerating rural displacement in Ogun State.

RQ5: WWhat efforts have been made by governmental and non-

governmental stakeholders to address security crises and food
insecurity in Ogun State?
Table 4.2.5: Response on What efforts have been made by governmental
and non-governmental stakeholders to address security crises and
food insecurity in Ogun State?
S/N Items SA A D SD TOTAL
(%)
1 The government has 216 128 36 20 100%
implemented effective policies (54%) (32%) (9%) (5%)
to combat security crisis and
food insecurity in Ogun State..
2 Non-governmental organisations 196 144 36 24 100%
have provided significant (49%) (36%) (9%) (6%)
support to affected communities
in Ogun State.
3 Community-based initiatives 204 140 36 20 100%
have been successful in (51%) (35%) (9%) (5%)
enhancing food security.
4 Collaborative efforts between 188 148 36 28 100%
stakeholders have reduced the (47%) (37%) (9%) (7%)
impact of insecurity on
agriculture in Ogun State.
5 Strengthening networks and 180 156 40 24 100%
collaboration among youth organisations (45%) (39%) (10%) (6%)
reduces security crisis and food
insecurity in Ogun State.
Source: Field Survey, 2025
Table 4.2.5 highlights respondents’ views on the responses of government and other
stakeholders to the challenges of security crisis and food insecurity in Ogun State. A total of
86% of respondents agreed that the government has implemented effective policies to combat
these issues, with 54% strongly agreeing and 32% agreeing, while 14% disagreed. Similarly,
85% affirmed that non-governmental organisations have provided significant support to
affected communities, whereas 15% disagreed. Regarding community-based initiatives, 86% of
the respondents believed such grassroots efforts have enhanced food security, with only 14%
dissenting. When asked about stakeholder collaboration, 84% agreed that joint efforts have
reduced the impact of insecurity on agriculture in Ogun State, while 16% disagreed. Lastly,
84% of the participants also supported the view that strengthening networks and collaboration
among youth organisations can help reduce security crises and food insecurity, compared to
16% who disagreed. These findings indicate that the majority of respondents recognize and
40
appreciate the multi-sectoral approaches being applied to address the twin problems of
insecurity and food insecurity. However, the notable percentage of disagreement suggests there
is still room for improvement in coordination, effectiveness and inclusiveness of the response
efforts.
4.3 Testing of Hypotheses
The statistical tool that is used to test the stated hypothesis is chi-square (X 2) statistical
test. Chi-square is a statistical sample distribution that is used to test the significant difference
between observed and expected values.
Chi – square X2 statistical; test is composed using the formula below:
∑(O-E)2
E
Defining the above parameters, we have;
O – Observed frequency
E – Expected frequency
∑ - Summation of all the quadrants
X2 – Chi – square
To find X2 the difference between the observed and expected value of each item in the
series, divide by the expected value and then add up all the quotients. Since the research study
is verifying a null hypothesis assuming that null hypothesis formulated is correct and then
expect that an equal number would respond to each question or hypothesis raised.

Degree of Freedom is Obtained by Using

Df = (r-1) (c-1)
This is not appropriate for the data which a single study.
Thus, Owen and Jones explained that the degrees of freedom can be obtained by (n-1)
which is number of responses i.e. (5-1) given (4) four as degree of freedom df=4 critical value
of 5% or 0.05 level of significance with df=4 is 9.48
Decision rule: Accept Ho and reject Hi
X2c < 9.48
Reject Ho and Accept Hi f X2 c
Df – Degree of freedom
X2 – Chi-square calculated
X2t – Chi-square tabulated
Research Hypothesis I:
Security crisis does not significantly contribute to food insecurity in Ogun State.

Table 4.3.1. : respondents

Variables Frequency Percentage

Strongly Agree (SA) 180 45%
Agree (A) 130 32.5%
Disagree (D) 60 15%
Strongly Disagree (SD) 30 7.5%
Total 400 100%
To get expected
E= RT CT
GT
Table 4.3.2 : Using Gender distribution of the respondents
Response SA A D SD Total
Male 110 80 24 12 226
41
 (101. (73.4 (33. (16.
7) 5) 9) 9)
Female 70 50 36 18
(78.3 (56.5 (26. (13. 174
) 5) 1) 1)
Total 180 130 60 30 400
Chi-square computation
Chi- square (X2) = ∑∑( 0- E)2
E
Where ∑∑ = Summation
O = Observed Frequency
E = Expected frequency
Table 4.3.2
O E O-E (O-E)2 ∑(O-E)2
E
110 101.7 8.3 68.89 0.678
80 73.45 6.55 42.90 0.584
24 33.9 -9.9 98.01 2.892
12 16.9 -4.9 24.01 1.420
70 78.3 -8.3 68.89 0.880
50 56.55 -6.55 42.90 0.759
36 26.1 9.9 98.01 3.756
18 13.1 4.9 24.01 1.832
12.801
X2cal = 12.801
df. = (c- 1) (r- 1)
df. = (2−1)(4−1)
df. = 1 x 3
df. = 3
Level of significant = 0.05
Therefore table value of X2= 7.815
Chi – square calculated = 12.801
Interpretation
Since chi-square calculated is lesser than the chi-square table X 2cal 12.801 > X2 tab
7.815. We reject the null hypothesis. Security crisis significantly contribute to food insecurity
in Ogun State.
Hypothesis II
Security crisis and food insecurity have no significant impact on development in Ogun State.

Table 4.3.3. : respondents

Variables Frequency Percentage

Strongly Agree (SA) 180 40%
Agree (A) 148 30%
Disagree (D) 48 20%
Strongly Disagree (SD) 24 10%
Total 400 100%
To get expected

42
E= RT CT
GT
Table 4.3.2 : Using Sex distribution of the respondents
Response SA A D SD Total
Single 122 137 42 15
(142 (116. (37. (18. 316
.2) 92) 92) 96)
Married 58 11 6 9
(37. (31.0 (10. (5.0 84
8) 8) 08) 4)
Divorc
0 0 0 0 0
ed
Widowe
0 0 0 0 0
d
Total 180 148 48 24 400
Chi-square computation
Chi- square (X2) = ∑∑( 0- E)2
E
Where ∑∑ = Summation
O = Observed Frequency
E = Expected frequency

Table 4.3.4
O E O-E (O-E)2 ∑(O-E)2
E
122 142.2 -20.2 408.04 2.87
137 116.92 20.08 403.21 3.45
42 37.92 4.08 16.64 0.44
15 18.96 -3.96 15.68 0.008
58 37.8 20.2 408.04 10.79
11 31.08 -20.08 403.21 12.97
6 10.08 -4.08 16.64 1.65
9 5.04 3.96 15.68 3.11
35.30
X2cal = 35.30
df. = (c- 1) (r- 1)
df. = (4−1)(4−1)
df. = 3 x 3
df. = 9
Level of significant = 0.05
Therefore table value of X2= 16.919
Chi – square calculated = 35.30
Interpretation

43
 Since chi-square calculated is lesser than the chi-square table X 2cal 36.11 > X2 tab
16.919. We reject the null hypothesis. There is significant relationship between security crisis,
food insecurity and development in Ogun State
4.4 Discussion of Findings
The findings of this study provide critical insights into the interconnectedness of
security crisis, food insecurity and development in Ogun State between 2019 and 2024. The
first finding revealed that insecurity in Ogun State has risen sharply from 2019 to 2024, with
86% of respondents agreeing that incidents of banditry, herder–farmer clashes, kidnapping, and
cultist violence have become more frequent. This accords with Akinola (2021), who documents
a shift from episodic criminality to entrenched, multi-dimensional threats in Nigeria’s
Southwest. Nwosu (2023) similarly notes that porous borders and weak rural policing have
allowed non-state actors to proliferate in border and farming communities, creating a
patchwork of high-risk zones across the state.
The second research question showed that over 80% of respondents agreed insecurity
has directly disrupted agricultural activities: 45% strongly agreed that farmers are often
prevented from accessing their fields, while 41% strongly agreed that productivity has declined.
FAO (2022) attributes a 15% drop in national harvests to conflict-induced displacement, and
World Bank (2022) emphasizes how damaged roads and storage facilities amplify post-harvest
losses. Our data confirm that insecurity has not only reduced output but also driven up food
prices by constricting market access.
The third research question identified poverty, youth unemployment, governance
failures, and resource competition as the main drivers of both violence and hunger. Nearly 90%
of respondents agreed that high unemployment fuels recruitment into armed groups a link also
highlighted by the International Crisis Group (2021). Additionally, 86% agreed that climate
change and environmental degradation exacerbate farmer–herder conflicts, echoing IPCC
(2022) findings on how erratic rainfall and desertification intensify resource competition in
Nigeria’s Middle Belt and Southwest.
The fourth research question showed that 82% of participants agreed insecurity and
food scarcity have stalled development: schools are closed, clinics suspend outreach, and roads
remain unrepaired in volatile areas. This mirrors Ojo (2021), who argues that security
emergencies divert public funds from long-term projects into emergency relief. Moreover, FAO
(2020) and UNDP (2021) link food insecurity to rising malnutrition and unemployment
outcomes our survey also recorded, with 80% of respondents noting reduced household
incomes and 76% reporting increased rural-to-urban migration.

44
 The fifth finding revealed that while government programmes (e.g., joint task forces,
Anchor Borrowers’ Programme) and NGO initiatives (e.g., IRC, Action Against Hunger) are
widely known, over 70% of respondents judged these efforts as poorly coordinated or
undermined by security constraints. UN OCHA (2023) and ECOWAS (2021) likewise report
that donor-funded interventions often falter in insecure zones, and Kukah (2021) highlights the
superior community trust enjoyed by local faith-based and traditional actors. Our data thus
underscore the need for stronger multi-stakeholder coordination and security-sensitive
programming. These findings confirm that insecurity and food insecurity are deeply intertwined
in Ogun State, each reinforcing the other and jointly impeding development. They validate the
global literature on conflict-driven food crises and highlight the urgent need for integrated,
locally grounded strategies that combine security reform, rural infrastructure investment, and
resilient food-system interventions.

45
 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This chapter presented the summary of the study which included the whole work,

conclusion of the research findings and recommendations based on the findings.

5.1 Summary

This study investigated the relationship between security crisis, food insecurity and

development in Nigeria between 2019 and 2024, with Ogun State serving as the case study. The

research aimed to examine how persistent security challenges and rising levels of food

insecurity have impacted socioeconomic and developmental outcomes in the state. The study

explored the prevalence and dimensions of insecurity, the effects of food scarcity on the

livelihoods and well-being of residents and how these two factors collectively affect

development indicators such as economic stability, education, healthcare and infrastructure.

Findings from the study revealed that Ogun State, though relatively more stable than

some other parts of Nigeria, has nonetheless experienced various forms of security threats,

including farmer-herder conflicts, kidnappings, armed robbery and community clashes. These

crises have disrupted agricultural activities and caused displacement, significantly contributing

to food insecurity in rural and peri-urban areas. Respondents overwhelmingly agreed that

insecurity and food insecurity are interlinked and jointly hinder development in the state. The

insecurity has not only discouraged investment in agriculture and businesses but has also

resulted in the destruction of livelihoods, forced migration and deterioration of infrastructure

and public services. The study also established that food insecurity in Ogun State is not solely

due to lack of production, but also due to disrupted supply chains, rising costs of inputs and

insecurity that affects transportation and distribution. Youth unemployment and poverty have

worsened as a result of both insecurity and food scarcity, creating a feedback loop that further

fuels instability.

46
5.2 Conclusion
This study has effectively established that the security crisis and food insecurity have a

profound and statistically significant impact on development in Ogun State. The research

findings demonstrated that persistent insecurity manifesting through incidents such as armed

banditry, kidnappings, herder-farmer conflicts and communal clashes has disrupted agricultural

activities, displaced populations and discouraged both local and foreign investments.

Simultaneously, food insecurity, exacerbated by these security challenges, has resulted in

increased hunger, malnutrition, inflation of food prices and reduced productivity among

affected communities. The findings also revealed that these twin challenges have hindered

social and economic development in Ogun State, affecting critical sectors such as education,

healthcare, commerce and rural development. Residents are left vulnerable, with limited access

to essential services and sustainable livelihoods. The impact on development is therefore not

only economic but also deeply social, as insecurity and food scarcity strain community

relations, weaken governance structures and erode public trust.

Based on these findings, the study concludes that the security crisis and food insecurity

significantly undermine the state's development efforts. The hypothesis that these two factors

have no significant impact on development in Ogun State was statistically rejected, affirming

their considerable negative influence. Consequently, strategic policy recommendations were

offered to mitigate insecurity and improve food security, thereby enhancing development

outcomes in Ogun State and Nigeria at large.

5.3 Recommendations
Arising from the findings and conclusions of this study, the following
recommendations are put forward to address the security crisis, food
insecurity and their adverse impact on development in Ogun State:
i. The Ogun State government, in collaboration with federal security
agencies, should invest in modern surveillance technologies, community
policing and intelligence networks to proactively detect and prevent

47
security threats. Enhanced border security and rapid response units should
be deployed in vulnerable rural areas to protect farmers and residents.
ii. Government and development partners should support local farmers
with improved access to farm inputs, irrigation systems, storage facilities
and extension services. Targeted subsidies and training programs on
climate-smart agriculture and risk mitigation should be intensified to
increase productivity and reduce the impact of disruptions.
iii. Traditional institutions, local leaders and civil society Organisations
should be empowered to mediate conflicts before they escalate into
violence. Grassroots peacebuilding initiatives and inter-community dialogue
forums should be promoted to foster mutual trust, particularly in flashpoint
areas affected by herder-farmer disputes.
iv. There should be a deliberate integration of security considerations into
development and agricultural policies. Development planning should factor
in risk assessment and allocate resources for conflict-sensitive programs
that support displaced farmers and rebuild local economies.
v. To stem rural-urban migration and reduce pressure on urban
infrastructure, the government must enhance access to healthcare,
education, potable water and transport networks in rural communities. Well-
serviced rural areas are more resilient to insecurity and more likely to
sustain food production.
vi. Collaboration between government ministries, NGOs, private sector
actors and international agencies is essential to developing and
implementing comprehensive responses. Monitoring and evaluation
frameworks should be established to ensure accountability, measure
progress and adapt interventions to emerging challenges.
5.4 Suggestion on further Studies
i. A Comparative Study on the Impact of Security Crisis on Agricultural Output Across
Nigerian State.
ii. The Role of Government Intervention in Alleviating Food Insecurity in Conflict-Prone
Communities
iii. An Assessment of the Long-Term Developmental Impact of Displacement Caused by
Security Crises in Nigeria

48
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 TAI SOLARIN UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION
P.M.B 2118, IJAGUN, IJEBU ODE, OGUN STATE
DEPARTMENT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE
RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRE ON SECURITY CRISIS, FOOD INSECURITY AND
DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA (2019-2024): A CASE STUDY OF OGUN STATE.

Dear Respondent,

We are researchers conducting a study on the topic “Security Crisis, Food Insecurity and
Development an Nigeria (2019-2024): A Case Study of Ogun State.” This questionnaire is
designed to collect valuable information on the trends, causes, impacts and responses related to
security challenges and food insecurity, as well as their influence on development indicators in
Ogun State. Your participation and honest responses are highly important and will contribute
significantly to a better understanding of the complex relationship between insecurity, food
scarcity and development.

Thank you for participating in this questionnaire. Your responses will remain confidential.

Instructions

 This questionnaire will take approximately 10 minutes to complete.

 Read each question carefully and answer to the best of your knowledge and experience.
 There are no right or wrong answers.
 Your answers will be kept completely confidential.
 Please refer your friends, neighbours and others who could contribute to this research.
SECTION A: DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION
2. Gender Male [ ] Female [ ]
3. What is your age? 18-30yrs [ ] 31-40yrs [ ] 41-50 yrs [ ] 50 and above [ ]
4. Marital Status: Single [ ] Married [ ] Divorced [ ] Widowed [ ]
5. Occupation: Civil Servants [ ] Traders [ ] Students [ ] Artisans[ ] Farmers [ ] Others [ ]
6. Religion: Christianity [ ] Muslim [ ] Traditional [ ]
7. Highest Level of Education: O’level [ ] NCE/OND [ ] B.Sc/HND/B.A/B.Ed [ ] M.Sc and
above [ ]

SECTION B: Please thick the appropriate options of SA-(STRONGLY AGREE), A-

(AGREE), D-(DISAGREE) and SD-(STRONGLY DISAGREE) as follows (a) and not as (x).

Q1 What is the nature and trend of security crisis in Ogun State? SA A D SD

1. Insecurity in Ogun State has increased significantly
between 2019 and 2024.
2. Incidents of kidnapping for ransom are common in
many communities in Ogun State.
3. The level of insecurity varies across different local
government areas in Ogun State.
4. Banditry is one of the prevalent security crisis in
Ogun State
5. Herder-Farmer conflicts are common security crisis
in Ogun State

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Q2 To what extent do security crises affect agricultural activities
and food systems in Ogun State?
1. Insecurity has prevented farmers from accessing
their farmlands in Ogun State.
2. Agricultural productivity has declined due to
security challengesin Ogun State.
3. Food prices have increased as a result of disrupted
farming activities induced by herder-farmer conflicts
in Ogun State.
4. Transportation of agricultural produce is hindered
by insecurity in Ogun State.
5 There is a shortage of agricultural labor due to
displacement caused by insecurity in Ogun State.
Q3 What are the major factors promoting security crises and food insecurity in Ogun
State?
1. Poverty and unemployment contribute to the rise in
security crisis and food insecurity in Ogun State.
2. Weak governance and institutional failures
encourages security crisis and food insecurity in
Ogun State.
3. Clash of interest over limited resources promotes
security crisis and food insecurity in Ogun state.
4. Climate change and environmental degradation
promotes security crisis and food insecurity in Ogun
State.
5. In consistency agricultural policies and weak
security capacity enhances security crisis and food
insecurity in Ogun State.
Q4 How have security crises and food insecurity impacted key development indicators
such as health, education and income levels in Ogun State?
1. Security crisis and food insecurity worsen poverty
and social inequality in Ogun State.
2. Security crisis and food insecurity decline the level
of investment and economic confidence in Ogun
State.
3. Household incomes and purchasing power have
decreased as a result of security crisis and food
insecurity in Ogun State.
4. Malnutrition rates have increased due to security
crisis limited food availability in Ogun State.
5. Migration from rural to urban areas has increased
due to insecurity and food scarcity in Ogun State.
Q5 What efforts have been made by governmental and non-
governmental stakeholders to address security crises and food
insecurity in Ogun State?
1. The government has implemented effective policies
to combat security crisis and food insecurity in
Ogun State..
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2. Non-governmental organisations have provided
significant support to affected communities in Ogun
State.
3. Community-based initiatives have been successful
in enhancing food security.
4. Collaborative efforts between stakeholders have
reduced the impact of insecurity on agriculture in
Ogun State.
5. Strengthening networks and collaboration among youth
organisations reduces security crisis and food insecurity in Ogun
State.

63